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THE
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
FIRST
edition, published in three volumes,
1768— X77I.
SECOND
»!
• >
ten „
1777— X7&I.
THIRD
„
II
eighteen „
1788— 1797.
FOURTH
II
II
twenty „
i8ox— 1810.
FIFTH
II
II
twenty „
1815—18x7.
SIXTH
•1
II
twenty t »
X823— 18*4.
SEVENTH
1*
II
twenty-one lt
X830— 1842.
EIGHTH
>l
II
twenty-two „
X853— 1860.
NINTH
II
II
twenty-five „
X87S— 1889.
TENTH
>t
ninth edition and eleven
supplementary volumes,
xooa— xooj.
ELEVENTH
l>
published!
in twenty-nine volumes,
19x0— 191 X,
▼i INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
A. W. W. Adolphus William Ward. Litt.D., LL.D. /*.— us, n— u a- +-u%
See the biographical article. Ward, A. W. \ «!»* «»▼>■ u» W-
B. A. W. R. Hon. Bertrand Arthur William Russell, M.A., F.R.S. f _ ,. ^
Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge. Author of Foundations of\ Geometry: VL (m fori).
Geometry; Principles of Mathematics; &c. t
B.8.P. Bertha Surtees Phujotts, M.A. (Dublin), -f CwmiHf: iirdfcottto*.
Formerly Librarian of Girton College, Cambridge. ^uwtodj. iirowwrj.
C. B.* Charles Bemont, LITT.D. (Oxon.). S Fnrtil Da (tallages;
See the biographical article. Bbmomt. C. .If
CI
See the biographical article, Bbmomt, C
r. Carroll Davidson Wright.
Sea the biographical article, Wrioht, Hon. Carroll Daviosom, \ United States.
Charles Everxtt, M.A- F.C.S., F.G.S., FJLA.S. I timmmoitom> m***
Sometime Scholar of Magdalen College, Oaford. \ W""*"! • flMtor 7-
C.D.W. Hon. Carroll Davidson Wright. _ _ / ******& . So 5 tott8,s
C F. A. Charles Francis Atkinson.
Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain. 1st City of London '
(Royal Fusiliers). Author ol The Wilderness and CoU Harbour.
Franco-German War
(mp*rt\;
Franca Revolutionary
Wan: Military
Operations;
Germany: Army;
Gibraltar. History,
C H. Hn. Carlton Huntley Hayes. A.M., Ph.D. f
Assistant Professor of History in Columbia University, New York City. Member < GtUsfUS 1L
of the American Historical Association. . [
G. K. 8. Clement Kino Shorter, f
Editor of The Sphere. Author of Sixty Years of Victorian Literature', Immortal*
Memories; The Brontes, Life and Letters; Ac. I
C. ML Cheoomxllr Mijatovich. . r
Senator of the Kingdom of Servia. Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotea- J
tiary of the King of Servia to the Court of St James's, 1895-1900 and 1902-1903. [
C. M. K. Sir Charles Malcolm Kennedy, K.C.M.G.. C.B. (1831-1908).
Head, of Commercial Department, Foreign Office, 1872-1893. Lecturer on Inter-
national Law, University College, BaktoL Commissioner ia the Levant, 1 870-1 87 1 ,
at Paris, 1 872- 1 886. Plenipotentiary, Treaty of the Hague, 1882. Editor'
of Kennedy's Ethnological and Linguistic Essays; Diplomacy and International
rTM Ports*
C. PL Christian Ptister, D.-fcs.-L. I
Professor at the Sorboane, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author J
of Etudes surleregmtde Robert le Pienx; Le Duchi merovtngien d"Alsau et la le§ende\
de Soiuio-Odile. IGeimftDie LftWS, Baity.
C. B. B. Charles Raymond Beazley, M.A.. D.Lrrr., F.R.G.S., FJLHBT.S. f
Professor of Modern History In the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow 1
of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography. < Gertrd Of Clement*
Lothian Priteman, Oxford, 1889. Lowell Lecturer, Boston, 1908. Author of I
Henry the Navigator; The Damn of Modern Geography; Ac. [
C. R. C. Claude Recnier Conder, LL.D. f «.•„.. #. Mutw/i ,
Colonel, Royal Engineers. Formerly in command of Survey of Palestine. Author i ^^ l f" r af1 l\ ^
of The City of Jerusalem; The Bible and the East; The HUtites and their Language; Ac. L Galilee, 8et> Of (m pari).
G. T.* Rev. Charles Taylor, M.A., D.D., LL.D. (1840-1008). f
Formerly Master of St John's College, Cambridge. Vice-Chancellor, Cambridge -j Geometrieftl Continuity.
University, 1887-1888. Author of Geometrical Conies; Sec. \
G. We. Cecil Weatherly.
Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Barrister-at-Law.
C. W. W, fin Charles William Wilson, K.C.B., K.C.M.G., F.R.S. (1836-1907).
Major-General, Royal Engineers. Secretary to the North American Boundary
Commission, 1858-1862. British Commissioner on the Servian Boundary Com-
mission. Director-General of the Ordnance Survey, 1886-1894. Director-General
of Military Education, 1895-1898. Author of From.Korti to Khartoum; Life of
Lord Gm, a\c
D. C. Dooald> Clerk, M.Inst.C.E., F.R.S. f
Director of the National Gas Engine Co., Ltd. Inventor of the Clerk Cycle Ga*«( Gas
Engine. [
D. F. T. Donald Francis Tovey. r
BaUlol College, Oxford. Author of Essay* in Musical Analysis, comprising The} •„(«•
C lass i ca l Concerto, The Goldberg Variations, and analyses of many other classical 1 '
works. I
D. fl. David Hannay. f French Rerohittonftry W*
Formerly British Vice-cons*! at Barcelona. Author of Short History of Royal « Nasal Ooeratums.
Navy, 1217-1688; Life of EmMo CosUtar; Ac. \ wyfrowaw*.
fltft Of (in part).
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES tf
B. Br. Einist Barker. M.A.
mist Barker, M.A. f
Fdbwof, and Lecturer ia Modern History at.St John's College, Oxford. Formerly i Folk, King of
Fellow aod Tutor of Mcrton College. Craven Scholar, 1895. I
win Bailey Elliott, M.A.. F.R.S., F.R.A.S. f
Waynflete Professor of Pure Mathematics, and Fellow of Magdalen College. Oxford. J
Formerly Fellow of Queen's College, Oxford. President of London Mathematical ]
Society. 1896-1898. Author of Algebra of Quantks; Ac. I
B. B. BL Edwin Bailey Elliott, M.A. t F.R.S., F.R.A.S^
_ ~ f _ _" _ J_~ _ "__"_ _" " -"——'-" "" ' ^
Society, '1896-189& "Author of Afgebra of Quantks; etc."
B. 0. B. Right Rev. Edward Cuthbebt Butler, O.S.B., D.Lm. (Dublin). f
Abbot of Etownside Abbey, Bath. Author of " The Lauaiac History of Pkliadius w 4 VtSMlssam; Friar.
ia Cambridge Texts and Studies.
M EaSTLAEE.
See the biographical article, Eastlakb, Sir C L.
B. B. Lady Bastlake. ______ _ _ . S
B. 0. Edmund GOSSE, LL.D. Svmmlk. n»**»* J___.
Sec the biographical article, Gosse, Edmund. ^"j*-^ _. •*■-»
B. J. D. Edward Joseph Dent. M.A., Mus.Bac /
Formerly Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. \
E. a* Edmund Owen, M.B., F.R.C.S., LL.D., tf.Sc. f
Consulting Surgeon to St Mary's Hospital. London, and to the Children's Hospital, J ________ n__»
great Ormond Street; late Examiner in Surgery at the Universities of Cambridge,
urham and London. Author of A Manual of Anatomy for Senior Students.
of Thrift;
F. C. G. Frederick Cornwalus Conybeare, M.A.
Fellow of the British
Author of The Ancient
F. C. M. Francis Charles Montague, M.A.
Astor Professor of European History, university lonege, London. Formerly 1 ■______.
Fellow of Oriel College/Oxford. -■■•■— ~» »--•'• -* '-*-"—* ''"--• --.— -i i KlOmi
in Cambridge Modem History; Ac.
B.Pr. Edoar Pbestage. f « _,»_.
Special Lecturer in Portuguese Literature in the University of Manchester. J G**po»
Conu-endador Portuguese Order of S. Thiago. Corresponding Member of Lisbon 1 Garrett.
Royal Academy of Sciences and Lisbon Geographical Society ; Ac I
E. W. B. Sir Edward William Brabrook, CB-, F.S.A. f
Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln** Inn. Chief Registrar of Friendly Societies, 1891-1904. J -_._-- _ ____!■_____
Author of Building Societies; Pro vid en t Societies and Industrial Welfare', Institutions ] RHMV lOssWslfc
0/ TartyK; Ac I
Conybeare. M.A., D.Tk. (Geissen). f
Academy. Formerly Fellow of University College, Oxford. 4
t Armenian Texts of Aristotle; Myth, Magic and Borah; etc. I
Montague, M.A. f
of European History, University Cothwe, London. Formerly J
College, Oxford. Author of Limits of Individual Liberty; chapters |
odern History; Ac. I
F. F.* Sib James Fortescue-Flannery, Bart., M.P., M.Inst.CE. f
Ex>Piesidcnt of the Institute of Marine Engineers. M.P. for the MaHoa Division-. Fost Xlnaf.
of Essex, 1910. M.P. for the Shipley Division of Yorkshire, 1 895-1906. I
F. G. K. B. Frederick George Meeson Beck, M.A. ffcenna-y: Ethnography and
Fetfow and Lecturer in Classics, Clare College, Cambridge. \ Early History.
F. H. B. Francis Henry Butler, M.A. Jw«_in«««fi«- o_o_.
Worcestcr College, Oxford. Associate of Royal School of Mines. ^aiaawMoma-f, una*.
F. J. H. Francis John Haverfield, M.A., LL.D., F.S.A. r
Camden Professor of Ancient History in the University of Oxford. Fellow of I
Bresenosc College. Fellow of the British Academy. Formerly Censor, Student, \ GmL
Tutor and Librarian of Christ Church, Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, 1906-1907. 1
Author of Monographs on Roman History, especially Roman Britain; Ac L
F. H. H. Colonel Fbederic Natuscr Maude, C.B. f lYsaen-Garmsji War
Lecturer in Military History, Manchester University. Author of War and thai ^T~7^T^
World's Policy; The Leiptig Campaign; The Jena Campaign. I "* *"">•
fFwueh Congo;
F. R. C. Frank R. Can*. J GarmaD But Africa;
Author of South Africa from the Great Trek to the Union. | Gtmsn Sooth-Watt
{
F. R. H. Fbiedrich Robert Helmebt, Ph.D., D.Ino. f __„ /_» . A
Professor of Geodesy, University of Berlin. \ G**«J W» **<>•
{«
( c
l«
G. B. Rev. George Edmundson, M.A., F.R.Hist.S. / #
Formerly Fellow and Tutor of Brasenose College, Oxford. Ford's Lecturer, 1909. ^ *
F. S. Francis Storr.
Editor of the Journal of Education, London. Officer d'Academie (Paris).
F. W. B.« Fredcbicx Wiluam Rudlkr, LS.O., F.G.S.
Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London. 1879-1903.
President of the Geologists' Association, 1887-1889. I Gem: L
G. L. Geobo Lumge.
See the biographical article, Lunge, G.
G. 8a. George Saintsbury, D.C.L., LL.D.
See the biographical artkla. Saintsbury, Gt
Wl
BHXZA2& AND HEADINGS OP ARTICLES
G.W.T.
H.B.
H.B.W.
ILCa,
H.CL.
H.F.BB,
H.L.C.
H.B.*
H.B.W.
H.K.
H.R.M.
H.W.C.D.
H.W.S.
LA.
J.A.P.
J.A.H.
J.B.B.
J.B.M0M.
J.Ga.
J.G.C.A.
1.0.L
Rev. Gufrths Wheeler Thatcher, M.A..B.D.
Warden of Camden Gotten; Sydney. N.S.AV. Formerly Tutor la Hebrew and
Old Testamcdt History at Mansfield College, Oxford.
Hilary Bauermann, F.G.S. (d. 1909).
Formeriy Lecturer 00 Metallurgy at the Ordnance College, Woolwich. Author of
A Treatise on the Metallurgy of Iron.
Horace Bolingbroke Woodward. F.R.S., F.CLS*
Late Assistant Director, Geological Survey of England and Wales. WoHaston
Medallikt. GeologfcaTSociety. Author of The History of the Geological Society of
London; &c
Hugh Chxshdlm, M.A.
Formerly Scholar of Corpui Christ! College. Oxford. Editor of the tlth edition
of the Encyclopaedia Britannica; Co-editor of the 10th edition.
Hon. Henry Cabot Lodge.
See the biographical article. Lodge, Henry Cabot.
Henry Frederick Baker, M.A.. D.Sc., F.ILS.
Fellow and Lecturer of St John's College, Cambridge. Cayfey Lecturer in
Mathematics in the University. Author of AbsFs Theorem and the AUted Theory; &c.
Hugh Lonobourne Cali
Professor of Physics, Royal
"" " " 1 MacGill ~ " '
Physics ia 1
F.R.S.,LLD.
, allege of Science, London. Formerly Profd
College, Montreal, and in University College, London.
Hugh, Mitchell.
Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple.
H. Marshall Ward, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. (d. 1
_ Pmdent of the British Mycologies!
Us Diseases; The Oak; Sach's Lecture* on
Ac
Gk
tamhSaUL
Gantry.
Garnet!, Rkhard; .
IV. {in parti*
Function: Functions ef
(in pari).
Henry Nicol.
Robert Mill, D.S&, LLJ>.
of British Rainfall
(in parti.
French Lafiguag* (m park
Director of British Rainfall Organisation. Editor of British Rainfall Formerly
President of the Royal Meteorological Society. Hon. Member of Vienna Geographi-
cal Society. Hon. Corresponding Member of Geographical Societies of Paris,"
. Berlin. Budapest. St Petersburg, Amsterdam. Ac Author of The Boalm of Nature;
• The International Geography; Ac.
Geography.
Henry William Cables* Davis, M.A.
Fellow and Tutor of Balliol College, Oxford. Fellow of All Souls CoUege, Oxford,
1895-1902. Author of England under the Normans and Angeoins; Charlemagne.
r Geoffrey* Archbishop of
York;
Geoffrey of 1
GervRaa of Cantafoory;
of"
H. Wickhah Steed.
Ceneapondcnt of The Times at Rome (1897-1902) and Vienna.
Israel Abrahams, M .A.
Reader m Tatmudic and Rabbinic Literature in the University of Cambridge. j
Formerly President. Jewish Historical Society of England. Author of A Short '
History of Jewish Uteramre; Jewish Life in the Middle Ages; Judaism; Ac
Frank, Jakob;
Fraakel, Zeohartas;
Frank!, Lndwig A.;
rMedmann, Melr;
Gaon; Gefgor (in pari);
John Ambrose Fuemwo. M.A., D.Sc, F.R.S. r
Pender Professor of Electrical Engineering in the University of London. Fellow I
oi University College. London. Formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge, J
and Lecturer on Applied Mechanics in the University. Author of Magnets and
Electric Currents. '
John Allen Howe, B.Sc.
Curator and Librarian of the Museum of Practical Geology, London. Author of
The Geology of Building Stones.
John Bagnall Bury, LL.D., D.C.L.
. See the biographical article, Bury, J. B.
John Bach McMaster, LL.D.
Professor of American History in the University ef
AB^eflUPeopUoftheUuuUStakv;&c.
James Gaxrdner, LL.D., C.B.
. Sea the bwgraphical article, Gajrdksr, J.
Josh Geqroe Clark Anderson, M.A.
Censor and Tutor of Christ Church, Oxford. Formeriy Fellow of Lincoln College;
Craven Fellow, Oxford, 1896. Cooington Prizeman, 1893.
' Jont Georoe Robertson, M.A., Ph.D.
Piufim i J i of German, University of London. Author of History ef German totera-
tun; Schiller after a Century; Ac
Peonsylvaaia. Author el
FaDar's.EBrttL
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
J
T.Bt
J.
T.C.
J.
V. B.
J.
Ws.
J. W. Ho
J. Hn. Justus Hashagen, Ph.D J Frederick Augustas i.
Privat-dorcnt in Medieval and Modern History, University of Bono. Author of 1 In II.;
Das Rkeinland und die franxosische HerrschafL [ Frederick WQUam L
J H. Or. John Hilton Grace, M.A., F.R.S. f
Lecturer in Mathematics at Petcrhotue and Pembroke College, Cambridge. Fellow < Geometry, V.
of Petcrhouse I.
1. H. H.
John Henry Hessels, M A. J p-..
Author of Gutenbcrt : an Historical Investigation \ ' *****
J. H. R. John Horace Round, M.A., LL.D. (Edin.)
Author of Feudal England; Studies in Peerage and Family History; Peerage and] Geoffrey De Monthf*!
Pedigree, &c.
J. HI. R. John Holland Rose, M.A., Litt.D.
Christ's College, Cambridge. Lcct _
University Local Lectures Syndicate. Author of Life of Napoleon /.; Napoleonic
Studies; The Development oj the European Nations: The Life of Pitt; &c
{-
Christ's College, Cambridge. Lecturer on Modern HUtory to the Cambridge! ,
~ * " " "" ' Napoleon I.; Napoleonic} *
J Mt. James Moffatt, M.A., D.D / r.i.M.n. *ni«tu «* «**
Jowctt Lecturer. London. 1907 Author of Historical New Testament; to. \ G*»w«»i *P»» «> »••
J. P.-R James George Joseph Penderel-Brodhurst. -T Furniture.
Editor of the Guardian (London). \
J, SI. James Sime, M.A. (1843-1805). ("Frederick the Great
Author of A History of Germany; &c I (in pari).
J. S. Bl John Sutherland Black, M.A., LL.D. f ftee Churan of Scotland
Assistant Editor 9th edition Encyclopaedia Britanntca. Joint-editor of the i (,„ part).
Encyclopaedia Biblica, I r- *•
J. S. F. Johs Smith Flett. D.Sc. F.G.S f
Petrographer to the Geological Survey Formerly Lecturer on Petrology in Edin- J Fulgurite;
burgh University. Neil! Medallist of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. Bigsby | Gabbro,
Medallist of the Geological Society of London. I
John T. Bealby. f __^_ *_,.,. _^
Joint-author of Stanford's Europe. Formerly Editor of the Scottish Geographical < Georgia (Russia), If* part}.
Magazine. Translator of Sven Hedin's Through Asia. Central Asia and Tibet; &c I
Joseph Thomas Cunningham, M.A., F.Z.S.
Lecturer oh Zoology jp\ n the South- Western Polytechnic, London. _ m Formerly J Gastropoda.
Fellow of University College, Oxford. Assistant Professor of Natural History
the University of Edinburgh. Naturalist to the Marine Biological Association.
James Vernon Bartlet, M.A., D.D. (St. Andrews).
Professor of Church History, Mansfield College, Oxford. Author of The Apastoli
Age; &c.
John Weathers, F.R.H.S. i -_, # mwtA -i--^, wm»i*»
Lecturer on Horticulture to the Middlesex County CounciL Author of Practical! ™? *»« ™*W finni**
Guide to Garden Plants ; French Market Gardening ;&c [ VM . Part).
/Fruit i
James Wyclitte Headlam, M.A.
Staff Inspector of Secondary Schools under the Board of Education. Formerly
Fellow of King's College, Cambridge. Professor of Greek and Ancient History at
Queen's College, London. Author of Bismarck and the Foundation of the German
Empire; Sue.
Frederick HL of Prussia;
Germany: History (in p*tt)^
K. S. Kathleen Schlestngeh. i -, ,»__,. •»««.*-..
Author of The Instruments of the Orchestra; Ac. Editor of the Portfolio of Musical \ ™ **•* VWraior
Archaeology. *~~
{:
L. D. Louis Duchesne. f /^i-.i„. »
See the biographical article, Duchesne, L. M. O. \ wtlauoi L
L. H.* Louis Halphen, D.-is.-L. f Fulk Herra;
Principal of the course of the Faculty of Letters in the University of Bordeaux, \ Geoffrey, Count of AaJOQ
Author of Le Comti a" A njou au XI' Steele ; Recueil des acta angevines ', &c I Geoffrey Plantaganet
L. 1. 8. Leonard James Spencer, M.A. 1
Assistant in Department of Mineralogy, British Museum. Formerly Scholar J Galana.
of Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, and Harknesa Scholar. Editor of the 1 vmmum
Mineralogical Magazine \
L. V. Linda Mary Villari. J Frederick BL King of
See the biographical article, Villari. Pasqualb. \ Sicily.
H. G. Moses Caster, Ph.D.
Chief Rabbi of the Sephardic communities of England. Vice- P res id ent. Zionist
Congress, 1898, 1899, 1900. Uchester Lecturer at Oxford on Slavonic and Byxan-
tine Literature. 1886 and 1891. President. Folk-lore Society of England. Vice-
President, Anglo-Jewish Association. Author of History of Rumanian Popular
Literature; A New Hebrew Fragment of Ben-Sira; The Hebrew Version of the
Sccrctum Secrttorum of Aristotle.
H. K. T. Marcus Nxebuh* Tod, M.A. f
Fellow and Tutor of Oriel College, Oxford. University Lecturer in Epigraphy. < Gerousm.
Jotitt-Mthor of Catalogue of the Sparta Museum. I
Ghiea.
ff.IL
R.A&
R.A.8.H.
R.Ofc
R.H.Q.
R.L.*
INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES
j> Barron, F.S.A.
iitor of The Ancestor, 1909-190$. Ho
Honourable Society of the Baronetage.
0. Bl» Oswald Barbon, F.S.A. f
Editor of^rk Ancestor, J9^i90$- Hon. Genealogist to Standing Council of the "j Genealogy: Modem.
O. H. Olaus Maqnus Fueduch Henrici, Ph.D., LL.D„ F.R.S. r
Profenor of Mechanics and Mathematics tn the Central Technical College of the J u^-.i- . „ mwtA m
City and Guilds of London Institute. Author of Vectors and Rotors; Congruent | «MBMtiy f L, IL, and m.
Figures; Ac. t
P. A. Paul Daniel Alphandery. f
Professor of the History of Dogma, Ecole pratique dee hautes elides, Sorbonne, J mwtlMlll
Paris. Author of Les Idles morales cka Us Mttrodoxes latinos on dibut du XUP\ nsn0Mil *
sQde. t
P. A* A* Philip A. Askwobth, M.A., Doc. Juris, f
New College, Oxford. Barristerat-Law. Translator of H. R. von Gneist's History! Germany: Geography,
of the En/fish Constitution. I
P. GL Peter Gttia, M.A., LL.D., Lm.D. f
Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and University J «
Reader In Comparative Philology. Formerly Secretary of the Cambridge Philo- | **
logical Society. Author of Manual of Comparative Philology; &c L
P. Lt. Philip Lake, M.A., F.G.S. f
Lecturer on Physical and Regional Geography in Cambridge University. Formerly J tiMmmmmmm9 /* , _
of the Geological Survey oflndia. Author of Monograph of British Cambrian 1 G«™*W Geology.
TrilobiUs. Translator and editor of Kayser's Comparative Geology. I
PA ^Ae^phfcal article, Meyer. M. P. H. { Rinch *"***• fe Port).
Robert Adamson, LL.D. /r.M«*iMii r;. MW i
See the biographical article. Adamsow. Robert. \ ******* w» *>">•
Robert Alexander Stewaet Macaliste*. M.A., F.S.A. f £■*"?* S^S^r • ( "^* , ? ,
St John's College, Cambridge. Director of Excavations for the Palestine Explore- J Q * w *h *** •» v»* Atfrfl;
tkm Fund. 1 Genua; Geriilm;
I Gaier; Gibeon.
Robert Cabjluthrrs, LL.D.
«1T UABJLUTHERS, LL..V. IX7GO-X878). f
Editor of the Inverness Courier, 1828-1878. Part-editor of Chambers's Cyclopaedia I „._,_,„ «... ,. A A
0/ £ng/isA Literature', Lecturer at the Philosophical Institution, Edinburgh. 1 Game*, Davia Un pari),
Author of History of Huntingdon ; Lift of Pope. \
Rev. Robert Hebert Quick, M~A., (1831-1891). f
Trinity College, Cambridge. Formerly Lecturer on Education, University of \ FtoebtL
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ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
ELEVENTH EDITION
VOLUME XI
RANCISCANS (otherwise called Friars Minor, or Minorites;
the Seraphic Order ; and in England Grey Friars, from the
ur of the habit, which, however, is now brown rather than grey),
ligious order founded by St Francis of Assisi (q.v.). It was
206 that St Francis left his father's house and devoted himself
life of poverty and to the service of the ooor, the sick and the
rs; and in 1209 that he felt the call to add preaching to his
sr ministrations, and to lead a life in the closest imitation of
ist's life. Within a few weeks disciples began to join them-
es to him; the condition was that they should dispose of
heir possessions. When their number was twelve Francis
ihe little flock to Rome to obtain the pope's sanction for their
ertaking. Innocent III. received them kindly, but with
e misgivings as to the feasibility of the proposed manner of
these difficulties were overcome, and the pope accorded a
visional approval by word of mouth: they were to become
cs and to elect a superior. Francis was elected and made
-omise of obedience to the pope, and the others promised
lience to Francis.
his formal inauguration of the institute was in 1209 or (as
is more probable) 12 10. Francis and his associates were
known as " Penitents of Assisi," and then Francis chose the
of " Minors." On their return to Assisi they obtained from
Benedictine abbey on Mount Subasio the use of the little
>el of St Mary of the Angels, called the Portiuncula, in the
a below Assisi, which became the cradle and headquarters of
order. Around the Portiuncula they built themselves huts
>ranches and twigs, but they had no fixed abode; they
dcred in pairs over the country, dressed in the ordinary
lies of the peasants, working in the fields to earn their daily
d, sleeping in barns or in the hedgerows or in the porches of
churches, mixing with the labourers and the poor, with the
rs and the outcasts, ever joyous— the " joculatores " or
lgleurs " of God— ever carrying out their mission of preaching
be lowly and to the wretched religion and repentance and
kingdom of God. The key-note of the movement was the
ation of the public life of Christ, especially the poverty of
1st. Francis and his disciples were to aim at possessing
ling, absolutely nothing, so far as was compatible with life;
r were to earn their bread from day to day by the work of their
ds, and only when they could not do so were they lo.begj
XI. 1
they were to make no provision for the morrow, lay by no store,
accumulate no capital, possess no land; their clothes should be
the poorest and their dwellings the meanest; they were forbidden
to receive or to handle money. On the other hand they were
bound only to the fast observed in those days by pious Christians,
and were allowed to eat meat— the rule said they should eat
whatever was set before them; no austerities were imposed,
beyond those inseparable from the manner of life they lived.
Thus the institute in its original conception was quite different
from the monastic institute, Benedictine or Canon Regular.
It was a confraternity rather than an order, and there was no
formal novitiate, no organisation. But the number of brothers
increased with extraordinary rapidity, and the field of work
soon extended itself beyond the neighbourhood of Assisi and even
beyond Umbria— within three or four years there were settle-
ments in Perugia, Cortona, Pisa, Florence and elsewhere, and
missions to the Saracens and Moors were attempted by Francis
himself. About 1217 Franciscan missions set out for Germany,
France, Spain, Hungary and the Holy Land; and in 1219 a
number of provinces were formed, each governed by a provincial
minister. These developments, whereby the little band of
Umbrian apostles had grown into an institute spread all over
Europe and even penetrating to the East, and numbering
thousands of members, rendered impossible the continuance of
the original free organization whereby Francis's word and ex*
ample were the sufficient practical rule of life for all: it was
necessary as a condition of efficiency and even of existence and
permanence that some kind of organization should be provided.
From an early date yearly meetings or chapters had been held
at the Portiuncula, at first attended by the whole body of friars;
but as the institute extended this became unworkable, and after
1 2 19 the chapter consisted only of the officials, provincial
ministers and others. During Francis's absence in the East
(1219-1220) a deliberate movement was initiated by the two
vicars whom he had left in charge of the order, towards assimilat-
ing it to the monastic orders. Francis hurried back, bringing
with him Elias of Cortona, the provincial minister of Syria,
and immediately summoned an extraordinary general chapter
(September 1220). Before it met he had an interview on the
situation with Cardinal Hugolino of Ostia (afterwards Gregory
IX.), the great friend and supporter of both Francisand Dominic*
2a
FRANCISCANS
and he went to Honorius III. at Orvieto and begged thatHugoIino
should be appointed the official protector of the order. The
request was granted, and a bull was issued formally approving
the order of Friars Minor, and decreeing that before admission
every one -must pass a year's novitiate, and that after profession
it was.not lawful to leave the order. By this bull the Friars Minor
were constituted an order in the technical sense of the word.
When the chapter assembled, Francis, no doubt from a genuine
feeling that he was not able to govern a great world-wide order,
practically abdicated the post of minister-general by appointing
a vicar, and the policy of turning the Friars Minor into a great
religious order was consistently pursued, especially by Elias,
who a year later became Francis's vicar.
St Francis's attitude towards this change is of primary importance
for the interpretation of Franciscan history. There can be little
doubt that his affections never altered from his first love, and that
be looked back regretfully on the " Umbrian idyll " that bad passed
away; on the other hand, there seems to be no reason for doubting
that he saw that the methods of the early days were now no longer
possible, and that he acquiesced in tho inevitable. This seems to
be Professor Goetz's view, who holds that Sabatier's picture of
Francis's agonize<
creation going on
rejects tfc view
his better judgmc
at end of article
Goctz holds that
an unrealizable id
But there docs set
towards a depart i
strict observance
of his institute.
in his Testament
on these subjects,
forbids any glossc
it is to be taken «
ence between th«
Sneral. theory, ai
ubt the First R
picture of St Frar
formed from the (
texts and the cdif
almost verbally ii
On Francis's death in 1226 the government of the order rested
in the hands of Elias until the chapter of 1227. At this chapter
Elias was not elected minister-general; the building of the great
basilica and monastery at Assisi was so manifest a violation of
St Francis's ideas and precepts that it produced a reaction, and
John Parenti became St Francis's first successor. He held fast
to "St Francis's ideas, but was not a strong man. At the chapter
of 1230 a discussion arose concerning the binding force of St
Francis's Testament, and the interpretation of certain portions
of the Rule, especially concerning poverty, and it was determined
to submit the questions to Pope Gregory IX., who had been St
Francis's friend and had helped in the final redaction of the Rule.
He issued a bull, Quo elongati, which declared that as the Testa-
ment had not received the sanction of the general chapter it
was not binding on the order, and also allowed trustees to hold
and administer money for the order. John Parenti and those
who wished to maintain St Francis's institute intact were greatly
disturbed by these relaxations; but a majority of the chapter of
1232, by a sort of coup d'ttat, proclaimed Elias minister-general,
and John retired, though in those days the office was for life.
Under Elias the order entered on a period of extraordinary
extension and prosperity: the number of friars in all parts of the
world increased wonderfully, new provinces were formed, new
missions to the heathen organized, the Franciscans entered the
universities and vied with the Dominicans as teachers of theology
and canon law, and as a body they became influential in church
and state. With all this side of Elias's policy the great bulk of
the order sympathized; but his rule was despotic and tyrannical
and his private life was lax — at least according to any Franciscan
standard, for no charge of grave irregularity was ever brought
against him. And so a widespread movement against his govern-
ment arose, the backbone of which was the university element
at Paris and Oxford, and at a dramatic scene in a chapter held
iff the presence of Gregory IX. Elias was deposed ( 1 239).
The story of these first years after St Francis's death is best told
by Ed. Lempp, Frire Elie de Cortone (1901) (but see the warning
at the end of the article Elias of Coxtona).
At this time the Franciscans were divided into three parties:
there were the Zealots, or Spirituals, who called for a literal
observance of St Francis's Rule and Testament; they deplored
all the developments since 1219, and protested against turning
the institute into an order, the frequentation of the universities
and the pursuit of learning; in a word, they wished to restore,
the life to what it had been during the first few years— the
hermitages and the huts of twigs, and the care of the lepers and
the nomadic preaching. The Zealots were few in number but of
great consequence from the fact that to them belonged most of
the first disciples and the most intimate companions of St Franck
They had been grievously persecuted under Elias — Br. Leo and
others bad been scourged, several had been imprisoned, one
while trying to escape was accidentally killed, and Br. Bernard,
the " first disciple," passed a year in hiding in the forests and
mountains hunted like a wild beast. At the other extreme was
a party of relaxation, that abandoned any serious effort to practise
Franciscan poverty and simplicity of life. Between these two
stood the great middle party of moderates, who desired indeed
that the Franciscans should be really poor and simple in their
manner of life, and really pious, but on the other hand approved
of the development of the Order on the lines of other orders,
of the acquisition of influence, of the cultivation of theology and
other sciences, and of the frequenting of the universities.
The questions of principle at issue in these controversies is reason*
ably and clearly stated, from the modern Capuchin standpoint, m
the " Introductory Essay " to The Friars and how they came h
England, by Fr. Cuthbert (1903).
The moderate party was by far the largest, and embraced
nearly all the friars of France, England and Germany. It was
the Moderates and not the Zealots that brought about Elias's
deposition, and the next general ministers belonged to this party.
Further relaxations of the law of poverty, however, caused &
reaction, and John of Parma, one of the Zealots, became rninister-
gcncral, 1 247-1*357. Under him the more extreme of the Zealots
look up and exaggerated the theories of the Eternal Gospel of
the Calabrian Cistercian abbot Joachim of Fiore (Floris) ; some of
their writings were condemned as heretical, and John of Parma,
who was implicated in these apocalyptic tendencies, had toresign,
He was succeeded by St Bonaventura (1257-1274), one of the
best type of the middle party. . He was a man of high character,
a theologian, a mystic, a holy man and a strong ruler. He set
himself with determination to effect a working compromise;
and proceeded with firmness against the extremists on beta
sides. But controversy and recrimination and persecution had
stiffened the more ardent among the Zealots into obstinate
fanatics — some of them threw themselves into a movement
that may best be briefly described as a recrudescence of Man*
tanism (see £milc Gebhart's Italic mystique, 1809, cc v.
and vi.), and developed into a number of sects, some on the
fringe of Catholic Christianity and others beyond its pale*. But
the majority of the Zealot party, or Spirituals, did not go so far,
and adopted as the principle of Franciscan poverty the formula
" a poor and scanty use " (usus pauper et tenuis) of earthly goods,
as opposed to the " moderate use " advocated by the less strict
party. The question thus posed came before the Council of
Vienne, 1312, and was determined, on the whole, decidedly is
favour of the stricter view. Some of the French Zealots were not
satisfied and formed a scmi-schismatical body in Provence;
twenty-five of them were tried before the Inquisition, and km
were burned alive at Marseilles as obstinate heretics, 1318, After
this the schism in the Order subsided. But the disintegrarjof
forces produced by the Great Schism and by the other disorden
of the 14th century caused among the 'Franciscans the sane
relaxations and corruptions, and also the same reactions an)
reform movements, as among the other orders.
The chief of these reforms was that of the Observants, which
began at Foligno about 1370. The Observant reform was a
the basis of the " poor and scanty use " of worldly noon*
but it was organized as an order and its members freely punta)
FRANCK— FRANCK, C
theological studies; thus it did not represent the position of the
original Zealot party, nor was it the continuation of it. The
Observant reform spread widely throughout Italy and into
France, Spain and Germany. The great promoters of the move-
ment were St Bernardine of Siena and St John Capistran. The
council of Constance, 1415, allowed the French Observant
friaries to be ruled by a vicar of their own, under the minister-
general, and the same privilege was soon accorded to other
countries. By the end of the middle ages the Observants had
some 1400 houses divided into 50 provinces. This movement
produced a "half -reform" among the Conventuals or friars of
the mitigated observance; it also called forth a number of lesser
imitations or congregations of strict observance.
After many attempts had been made to bring about a working
union among the many observances, in 1517 Leo X. divided the
Franciscan order into two distinct and independent bodies,
each with its own minister-general, it* own provinces and
provincials and its own general chapter: (1) The Conventuals,
who were authorized to use the various papal dispensation* in
regard to the observance of poverty, and were allowed to possess
property and fixed income, corporately, like the monastic orders:
(2) The Observants, who were bound to as dose an observance
of St Francis's Rule in regard to poverty and all else as was
practically possible.
At this time a great number of the Conventuals went over to
the Observants, who have ever since been by far the more
numerous and Influential branch of the order. Among the
Observants in the course of the sixteenth century arose various
reforms, each striving to approach more and more nearly to St
Francis's ideal; the chief of these reforms were the Alcantarines
in Spain (St Peter of Alcantara, St Teresa's friend, d. 1562),
the Riformati in Italy and the Recollects in France: all of these
were semi-independent congregations. The Capuchins (?.».),
established c. 1525, who claim to be the reform which approaches
nearest in its conception to the original type, became a distinct
order of Franciscans in 1610. Finally Leo XIII. grouped the
Franciscans into three bodies or orders— the Conventuals; the
Observants, embracing all branches of the strict observance,
except the Capuchins; and the Capuchins— which together
constitute the " First Order." For the u Second Order," or the
nuns, see Clara, St, and Clares, Poor; and for the " Third
Order " see Tertiaries. Many of the Tertiarics live a fully
monastic life in community under the usual vows, and are formed
into Congregations of Regular Tertiaries, both men and women.
They have been and are still very numerous, and give themselves
up to education, to the care of the sick and of orphans and to
good works of all kinds.
No order has had so stormy an internal history as the Francis-
cans; yet in spite of all the troubles and dissensions and strivings
that have marred Franciscan history, the Friars Minor of every
kind have in each age faithfully and zealously carried on St
Francis's great woik of ministering to the spiritual needs of the
poor. Always recruited in large measure fronramong the poor,
they have ever been the order of the poor, and in their preaching
ind missions and ministrations they have ever laid themselves
>ut to meet the needs of the poor. Another great work of the
Franciscans throughout the whole course of their history has
jeen their missions to the Mahomrocdans, both in western Asia
ind in North Africa, and to the heathens in China, Japan and
India, and North and South America; a great number of the
riars were martyred. The news of the martyrdom of five of
lis friars in Morocco was one of the joys of St Francis's closing
rears. Many of these missions exist to this day. In t he Uni ver-
ities, too, the Franciscans made themselves felt alongside of
he Dominicans, and created a rival school of theology, wherein,'
is contrasted with the Aristotclianism of the Dominican school,
he Platonism of the early Christian doctors has been perpetuated.
The Franciscans came to England in 1224 and immediately
nade foundations in Canterbury, London and Oxford; by the
niddle of the century there were fifty friaries and over 1200
riars in England; at the Dissolution there were some 66 Fran-
ascan friaries, whereof some six belonged to the Observants
(for list see Catholic Dictionary and F. A. Gasquct's English
Monastic Life, 1004). Though nearly all the English houses
belonged to what has been called the " middle party," as a
matter of fact they practised great poverty, and the com-
missioners of Henry VIII. often remark that the Franciscan
Friary was the poorest of the religious houses of a town. The
English province was one of the most remarkable in the order,
especially in intellectual achievement; it produced Friar
Roger Bacon, and, with the single exception of St Bona venture,
all the greatest doctors of the Franciscan theological school-
Alexander Hales, Duns Scotus and Occam.
The Franciscans have always been the most numerous by.
far of the religious orders; it is estimated that about the period
of the Reformation the Friars Minor must have numbered
nearly 100,000. At the present day the statistics arc roughly
(including lay-brothers): Observants, 15,000, Conventuals,
1500; to these should be added 9500 Capuchins, making the
total number of Franciscan friars about 26,000. There are various
houses of Observants and Capuchins in England and Ireland; and
the old Irish Conventuals survived the penal times and still exist.
There have been four Franciscan popes: Nicholas IV. (1288-
1292), Sixtus IV. (1471-1484), Sixtus V. (1585-1500), Clement
XIV. (1760-1774); the three last were Conventuals.
The great source for Franciscan history is Wadding's Annates;
id, and now extends in 25 vols. fol.
ilso told by Helyot, Hist, des ordres
foments, with references to recent
Heimbucher, Orden und Kongrega-
Wetzer und Weltc. Kirchenlexicon
1.),° " Franciscancr orden " '(this
of the inner history and the polity
lenog, ReoJeneyklopddio (3rd ed.J,
ilkst references to literature up to
era critical studies on Franciscan
es Minoritenordens und der Buss-
is articles by F. Ehrle in Archie fir
des Mittelalters and Zeilschrift fir
ccial mention. Eccleston's cnarrn-
>i the Friars Minor into England r
who has prefixed an Introductory
h bythc Capuchin Fr. Cuthbcrt,
. - ory Essay giving by far the best
account in English of " the Spirit and Genius of the Franciscan
Friars " (The Friars and how they fame to England, 1903). Fuller in-
formation on the English Franciscans will be found in A. G. Little's
Grey Friars in Oxford (Oxford Hist. Soc., 1892). (E. C. B.)
FRANCK. The name of Franck has been given indiscriminately
but improperly to painters of the school of Antwerp who belong
to the families of Francken (q.v.) and Vrancx (q.v.). One artist
truly entitled to be called Franck is Gabriel, who entered the
gild of Antwerp in 1605, became its president in 1636 and died
in 1639. But his works cannot now be traced.
FRANCK, CftSAR (1822-1800), French musical composer, a
Belgian by birth, who came of German stock, was born at
Liege on the 10th of December 1822. Though one of the most
remarkable of modern composers, Cesar Franck laboured for
many years in comparative obscurity. After some preliminary
studies at Liege he came to Paris in 1837 and entered the con-
servatoire. He at once obtained the first prize for piano, trans-
posing a fugue at sight to the astonishment of the professors,
for he was only fifteen. He won the prize for the organ in 184 1 ,
after which he settled down in the French capital as teacher
of the piano. His earliest compositions date from this period,
and include four trios for piano and strings, besides several
piano pieces. Ruth, a biblical cantata was produced with
success at the Conservatoire in 1846. An opera entitled Le
Volet defcrme was written about this time, but has never been
performed. For many years Franck led a retired life, devoting
himself to teaching and to his duties as organist, first at Saint-
Jean-Saint-Francois, then at Ste Clotilde, where he acquired
s great reputation as an improviser. He also wrote a mass,
heard in x 861, and a quantity of motets, organ pieces and other
works of a religious character.
Franck was appointed professor of the organ at the Paris
conservatoire, in succession to Benoist, his old master, in 1872,
and the following year he was naturalized a Frenchman. Until
then he was esteemed as a clever and conscientious 1
FRANCK, S.— FRANCKE
Vat be was now about to prove his title to something more.
A revival of bis early oratorio, Ruth, had brought his name
•gain before the public, and this was followed by the production
of Redemption, a- work for solo, chorus and orchestra, given
under the direction of M. Colonne on the ioth of April 1873.
The unconventionality of the music rather disconcerted the
general public, but the work nevertheless made its mark, and
Franck became the central figure of an enthusiastic circle of
pupils and adherents whose devotion atoned for the comparative
Indifference of the masses. His creative power now manifested
itself in a series of works of varied kinds, and the name of Franck
began gradually to emerge from its obscurity. The following
is an enumeration of his subsequent compositions: Rebecca
(1881), a biblical idyll for solo, chorus and orchestra; Let
Beatitudes, an oratorio composed between 1870 and 1880,
perhaps his greatest work; the symphonic poems, Les £olidts
(1876), Le Chasseur maudit (1883), Les Djinns (1884), for piano
and orchestra; Psyche (1888), for orchestra and chorus;
symphonic variations for piano and orchestra (1885); symphony
in D (1889); quintet for piano and strings (1880); sonata for
piano and violin (1886); string quartet (1889); prelude, choral
end fugue for piano (1884); prelude, aria and finale for piano
(1880); various songs, notably "La Procession" and "Les
Cloches du Soir." Franck also composed two four-act operas,
Eulda and ChiseUe, both of which were produced at Monte
Carlo after his death, which took place in Paris on the 8th of
November 1800. The second of these was left by the master
in an unfinished state, and the instrumentation was completed
by several of his pupils.
Cesar Franck's influence on younger French composers has
•been very great. Yet his musk is German in character rather
than French. A more sincere, modest, self-respecting composer
probably never existed. In the centre of the brilliant French
capital he was able to lead a laborious existence consecrated
to his threefold career of organist, teacher and composer. He
never sought to gain the suffrages of the public by unworthy
concessions, but kept straight on his path, ever mindful of an
ideal to be reached and never swerving therefrom. A statue
was erected to the memory of Cesar Franck in Paris on the
22nd of October 1004, the occasion producing a panegyric from
Alfred Bruneau, in which he speaks of the composer's works as
"cathedrals in sound."
FRANCK, or Frank [latinized Francus], SEBASTIAN (c.
1490-c. 1543)1 German freethinker, was born about 1409 at
DonauwSrth, whence he constantly styled himself Franck von
Word. He entered the university of Ingoldstadt (March 26,
1515), and proceeded thence to the Dominican College, incor-
porated with the university, at Heidelberg. Here he met his
subsequent antagonists, Buccr and Freeh t, with whom he seems
to have attended the Augsburg conference (October is 18) at
which Luther declared himself a true son of the Church. He
afterwards reckoned the Leipzig disputation (June- July 1519)
and the burning of the papal bull (December 1520) as the begin-
ning of the Reformation. . Having taken priest's orders, he held in
1524 a cure in the neighbourhood of Augsburg, but soon (1525).
went over to the Reformed party at Nuremberg and became
preacher at Gustenfelden. His first work (finished September
1527) was a German translation with additions (1528) of the first
part of the Diailage, or Conciliate locorum Scripiurae, directed
against Sacramentarians and Anabaptists by Andrew Althamcr,
then deacon of St Sebald's at Nuremberg. On the 1 7th of March
1528 he married Ottilie Beham, a gifted lady, whose brothers,
pupils of Albrecht Diirer, had got into trouble through Anabaptist
leanings. In the same year he wrote a very popular treatise
against drunkenness. In 1529 he produced a free version
•{Klagbriefder arnten DUrftigen in England) of the famous Supply-
cacyon of the Bcggers, written abroad (1528?) by Simon Fish.
Franck, in his preface, says the original was in English; else-
where he says it was in Latin, the theory that his German was
really the original is unwarrantable. Advance in his religious
ideas led him to seek the freer atmosphere of Strassburg in the
muttimn of 1529. To his translation (1530) of a Latin Chronicle
and Description of Turkey, by a Transytvanian captive, which
had been prefaced by Luther, he added an appendix holding up
the Turks as in many respects an example to Christians, and
presenting, in lieu of the restrictions of Lutheran, Zwingliu
and Anabaptist sects, the vision of an invisible spiritual church,
universal in its scope. To this ideal he remained faithful At
Strassburg began his intimacy with Caspar Schwenkfeld, a con.
genial spirit. Here, too, he published, in 1531, his most im-
portant work, the Chronica, Zeitbuch und Geschichtsbibd, largely
a compilation on the basis of the Nuremberg Chronicle (1403),
and in its treatment of social and religious questions connected
with the Reformation, exhibiting a strong sympathy with
heretics, and an unexampled fairness to all kinds of freedom in
opinion. It is too much to call him " the first of German
historians "; he is a forerunner of Gottfried Arnold, with more
vigour and directness of purpose. Driven from Strassburg by
the authorities, after a short imprisonment in December 1531,
he tried to make a living in 1532 as a soapboiler at EasKngen,
removing in 1533 for a better market to Ulna, where (October 28.
1534) he was admitted as a burgess.
His Wdtbuch, a supplement to his Chronica, was printed 'it
Ttibingen in 1534; the publication, in the same year, of ha
Paradoxa at Ulm brought him into trouble with the authorities.
An order for his banishment was withdrawn on his promise to
submit future works for censure. Not interpreting this as apply-
ing to works printed outside Ulm, he published in 1538 at Augs-
burg his Guldin Arch (with pagan parallels to Christian sentiments)
and at Frankfort his Ccrmaniae cftronuon, with the result that be
had to leave Ulm in January 1 539. He seems henceforth to have
had no settled abode. At Basel he found work as a printer, and
here, probably, it was that he died in the winter of 1542-1543*
He had published in 1539 his KriegbUchlein des Priedens (pseu-
donymous), his Schrifftiiche und gam grUndlkhe Auslegung des
64 Psalms, and his Das verbUtschierle mil sieben Siegeln aer»
schlossene Buch (a biblical index, exhibiting the dissonance of
Scripture); in 1541 his Spruchwdrter (a collection of proverbs,
several times reprinted with variations); in 154s a new editioa
of his Paradox*; and some smaller works.
Franck combined the humanist's passion for freedom with the
mystic's devotion to the religion of the spirit. His breadth oi
human sympathy led him to positions which the comparative
study of religions has made familiar, but for which his age
was unprepared. Luther contemptuously dismissed him as t
44 devil's mouth." Pastor Frecht of Nuremberg pursued him
with bitter zeal. But his courage did not fail him, and in bis
last year, in a public Latin letter, he exhorted his friend Jobs
Campanus to maintain freedom of thought in face of the charge
of heresy.
See Hegler, in Hauck's Realencyldopadie (1899); C. A. Haae,
Sebastian Franck von Word (1869); J. F. Smith, in Thoohgud
Renew (April 1874) ; E. Tausch, Sebastian Franck von Donauuvrtk
und seine Lehrer (1893). (A. Ga # )
FRANCKB, AUGUST HERMANN (1663-1727), German Pro-
testant divine, was born on the 22nd of March 1663 at Lubeck.
He was educated at the gymnasium in Gotha, and afterwards at
the universities of Erfurt, Kiel, where he came under the influence
of the pietist Christian Kortholt (1633-1604), and Leipzig.
During his student career he made a special study of Hebrew and
Greek; and in order to learn Hebrew more thoroughly, be for
some time put himself under the instructions of Rabbi Em
Edzardi at Hamburg. He graduated at Leipzig, where in 1685 .
he became a Privatdozent. A year later, by the help of his friend
P. Anton, and with the approval and encouragement of P. J.
Spener, he founded the Collegium Philobibiicum, at which a
number of graduates were accustomed to meet for the systemaifc
study of the Bible, philologicadJy and practically. He next paori
some months at Ltincburg as assistant or curate to the leaned
superintendent, C. H. Sandhagen (1630-1697), and there ha
religious life was remarkably quickened and deepened. Oh
leaving LQneburg he spent some time in Hamburg, where be
became a teacher in a private school, and made the acquaintance
of Nikoiaus Lange (1650-17 20) After a long visit to Speaa,
FRANCKEN
who was at that time a court preacher in Dresden, he returned
to Leipzig in the spring of 1689, and began to give Bible lectures
of an exegetical and practical kind, at the same time resuming
the Collegium Philobiblicum of earlier days. He soon became
popular as a lecturer; but the peculiarities of his teaching almost
immediately aroused a violent opposition on the part of the
university authorities; and before the end of the year he was
interdicted from lecturing on the ground of his alleged pietism.
Thus it was that Francke's name first came to be publicly
associated with that of Spener, and with pietism. Prohibited
from lecturing in Leipzig, Francke in 1600 found work at Erfurt
as " deacon " of one of the city churches. Here his evangelistic
fervour attracted multitudes to his preaching, including Roman
Cat holies, but at the same time excited the anger of his opponents;
and the result of their opposition was that after a ministry of
fifteen months he was commanded by the civil authorities
(27th of September 1691) to leave Erfurt within forty-eight
hours. The same year witnessed the expulsion of Spener from
Dresden.
In December, through Spener's influence, Francke accepted
an invitation to fill the chair of Greek and oriental languages
in the new university of Halle, which was at that time being
organized by the elector Frederick HI. of Brandenburg; and at
the same time, the chair having no salary attached to it, he was
appointed pastor of Glaucha in the immediate neighbourhood
of the town. He afterwards became professor of theology. Here,
for the next thirty-six years, until his death on the 8th of June
1727, he continued to discharge the twofold office of pastor and
professor with rare energy and success. At the very outset of
his labours he had been profoundly impressed with a sense of his
responsibility towards the numerous outcast children who were
growing up around him in ignorance and crime. After a number
of tentative plans, he resolved in 1695 to institute what is often
called a " ragged school," supported by public charity. A single
room was at first sufficient, but within a year it was found
necessary to purchase a house, to which another was added in
1697. In 1698 there were 100 orphans under his charge to be
clothed and fed, besides 500 children who were taught as day
scholars. The schools grew in importance and are still known as
the Francke' sche Stijtungen. The education given was strictly
religious. Hebrew was included, while the Greek and Latin
classics were neglected; the Homilies of Macarius took the place
of Thucydides. The same principle was consistently applied in
his university teaching. Even as professor of Greek he had given
great prominence in his lectures to the study of the Scriptures;
but he found a much more congenial sphere when in 1698, he
was appointed to the chair of theology. Yet his first courses
of lectures in that department were readings and expositions of
the Old and New Testament; and to this, as also to hermeneutics,
he always attached special importance, believing that for theology
a sound exegesis was the one indispensable requisite. " Thco-
logus nascitur in scripturis," he used to say; but during his
occupancy of the theological chair he lectured at various times
upon other branches of theology also. Amongst his colleagues
were Paul Anton (1661-1 730), Joachim J. Brcithaupt ( 1658-1 732)
and Joachim Lange (1670-1744), — men like-minded with him-
self. Through their influence upon the students, Halle became
a centre from which pietism (q.v.) became very widely diffused
over Germany.
rere: Manu-
tones herme-
rris et Novi
1736). m The
r the title A
An account
1709). which
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Providence:
ses of Faith.
sheen
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): article
th. Die
PRANCKEV. Eleven painters of this family cultivated their
art in Antwerp during the 16th and 17th centuries. Several
of these were related to each other, whilst many bore the same
Christian name in succession. Hence unavoidable confusion in
the subsequent classification of paintings not widely differing
in style or execution. When Franz Francken the first found a
rival in Franz Francken the second, he described himself as the
"elder," in contradistinction to his son, who signed himself
the " younger." But when Franz the second was threatened
with competition from Franz the third, he took the name of
" the elder/' whilst Franz the third adopted that of Franc " the
younger."
It is possible, though not by any means easy, to sift the works
of these artists. The eldest of the Franckens, Nicholas of
Herenthals, died at Antwerp in 1596, with nothing but the
reputation of having been a painter. None of his works remain.
He bequeathed his art to three children. Jerom Francken, the
eldest son, after leaving his father's house, studied under Franz
Floris, whom he afterwards served as an assistant, and wandered,
about x 560, to Paris. In 1 566' he was one of the masters employed
to decorate the palace of Fontainebleau, and in 1574 he obtained
the appointment of court painter from Henry III., who had just
returned from Poland and visited Titian at Venice. In 1603,
when Van Mander wrote his biography of Flemish artists, Jerom
Francken was still in Paris living in the then aristocratic
Faubourg St Germain. Among his earliest works we should
distinguish a " Nativity " in the Dresden museum, executed in co-
operation with Franz Floris. Another of his important pieces
is the " Abdication of Charles V." in the Amsterdam museum.
Equally interesting is a "Portrait of a Falconer," dated 1558, in
the Brunswick gallery. In style these pieces all recall Franz
Floris. Franz,, the second son of Nicholas of Herenthals, is to
be kept in memory, as Franz Francken the first. He was born
about 1544, matriculated at Antwerp in 1567, and died there in
1616. He, too, studied under Floris, and never settled abroad,
or lost the hard and 'gaudy style which he inherited from his
master. Several of his pictures are in the museum of Antwerp;
one dated 1597 in the Dresden museum represents " Christ on
the Road to Golgotha," and is signed by him as D. (Den ouden)
F. Franck. Ambrose, the third son of Nicholas of Herenthals,
has bequeathed to us more specimens of his skill than Jerom or
Franz the first. He first started as a partner with Jerom at
Fontainebleau, then he returned to Antwerp, where he passed
for his gild in 1573, 'and he lived at Antwerp till 161 8. His
best works axe the " Miracle of the Loaves and Fishes " and the
" Martyrdom of St Crispin," both large and ambitious com-
positions in the Antwerp museum. In both these pieces a fair
amount of power is displayed, but marred by want of atmosphere
and shadow or by hardness of line and gaudiness of tone. There
is not a trace in the three painters named of the influence of the
revival which took place under the lead of Rubens. Franz
Francken the first trained three sons to his profession, the eldest
of whom, though be practised as a master of gild at Antwerp
from 1600 to 1610, left no visible trace of his labours behind.
Jerom the second took service with his uncle Ambrose. He
was born in 1578, passed for his gild in 1607, and in 1620
produced that curious picture of " Horatius Codes defending
the Sublician Bridge " which still hangs in the Antwerp museum.
The third son of Franz Francken the first is Franz Francken
the second, who signed himself in pictures till 16x6" the younger,"
from 1630 till his death " the elder " F. Francken. These
pictures are usually of a small size, and arc found in considerable
numbers in continental collections. Franz Francken the second
was born in 1581. In 1605 he entered the gild, of which be
subsequently became the president, and in 1642 he died. His
earliest composition is the " Crucifixion " in the Belvedere at
Vienna, dated 1606. His latest compositions as " the younger "
F. Francken are the " Adoration of the Virgin " (161 6) in the
gallery of Amsterdam, and the " Woman taken in Adulter" "
(1628) in Dresden. From 1616 to 1630 many of his piecei
signed F. Francken; then come the " Seven Works of Chari
(1630) at Munich, signed " the elder F. F.," the " Prodigal J3
FRANCOuGERMAN WAR
(1633) at the Louvre, and other almost countless examples.
It is in F. Francken the second's style that we first have evidence
of the straggle which necessarily arose when the old customs,
hardened by Van Orley and Floris, or Breughel and De Vos,
were swept away by Rubens. But F. Francken the second, as
before observed, always clung to small surfaces; and though
he gained some of the freedom of the moderns, he lost but little
of the dryness or gaudiness of the earlier Italo- Flemish revivalists.
F. Francken the third, the last of his name who deserves to be
recorded, passed in the Antwerp gild in 1639 an( * died at Antwerp
in 1667. His practice was chiefly confined to adding figures to
the architectural or landscape pieces of other artists. As Franz
Pourbus sometimes put in the portrait figures for Franz Francken
the second, so Franz Francken the third often introduced the
necessary personages into the works of Pieter Neefs the younger
(museums of St Petersburg, Dresden and the Hague). In a
" Moses striking the Rock," dated 1654, of the Augsburg gallery,
this last of the Franckens signs D. 6 (Den ouden) F. Franck.
In the pictures of this artist' we most clearly discern the effects of
Rubens's example.
FRANCO-GERMAN WAR (1870-1871). The victories of
Prussia in 1866 over the Austrians and their German allies (see
Seven Weeks' Was) rendered it evident to the statesmen and
soldiers of France that a struggle between the two nations could
only be a question of time. Army reforms were at once under-
taken, and measures were initiated in France to place the
armament and equipment of the troops on a level with the
requirements of the times. The chassepot, a new breech-
loading rifle, immensely superior to the Prussian needle-gun,
was issued; the artillery trains were thoroughly overhauled,
and a new machine-gun, the mitrailleuse, from which much was
expected, introduced. Wide schemes of reorganization (due
mainly to Marshal Niel) were- set in motion, and, since these
required time to mature, recourse was had to foreign alliances
In the hope of delaying the impending rupture. In the first
week of June 1870, General Lebrun, as a confidential agent of
the emperor Napoleon III., was sent to Vienna to concert a
plan of joint operations with Austria against Prussia. Italy
was also to be included in the alliance, and it was agreed that
in case of hostilities the French armies should concentrate in
northern Bavaria, where the Austrians and Italians were to
join them, and the whole immense army thus formed should
march via Jena on Berlin. To what extent Austria and Italy
committed themselves to this scheme remains uncertain, but
that the emperor Napoleon believed in their b^tta fides is beyond
doubt.
Whether the plan was betrayed to Prussia is also uncertain,
and almost immaterial, for Moltke's plans were based on an
accurate estimate of the time it would take Austria to mobilize
and on the effect of a series of victories on French soil. At any
rate .Moltke was not taken into Bismarck's confidence in the
affair of Ems in July 1870, and it is to be presumed that the
chancellor had already satisfied himself that the schemes of
operations prepared by the chief of the General Staff fully
provided against all eventualities. These schemes were founded
on Clausewitz's view of the objects to be pursued in a war against
France— in the first place the defeat of the French field armies
and in the second the occupation of Paris. On these lines plans
for the strategic deployment of the Prussian army were prepared
by the General Staff and kept up to date year by year as fresh
circumstances (e.g. the co-operation of the minor German armies)
arose and new means of communication came into existence.
The campaign was actually opened on a revise of 1868-1860,
to which was added, on the 6th of May 1870, a secret memo-
randum for the General Staff.
Under the German organization then existing the preliminary
to all active operations was of necessity full and complete
mobilization. Then followed transport by road and rail to the
line selected for the " strategic deployment," and it was essential
that no part of these operations should be disturbed by action
on the part of the enemy. But no such delay imposed itself of
necessity upon the French, and a vigorous offensive was so much
in harmony with their traditions that the German plan had to
be framed so as to meet such emergencies. On the whole,
Moltke concluded that the enemy could not undertake
this offensive before the eighth day after mobilization.
At that date about five French army corps (150,000
men) could be collected near Metz, and two corps
(70,000) near Strassburg; and as it was six days' march
from Metz to the Rhine, no serious attack could be
delivered before the fourteenth day, by which day it could be met
by superior forces near Kirchheirobolanden. Since, however, the
transport of the bulk of the Prussian forces could not begin till the
ninth day, their ultimate line of deirainment need not be fixed
until the French plans were disclosed, and, as it was important
to strike at the earliest moment possible, the deployment was
provisionally fixed to be beyond the Rhine on the line Wittlich-
Neunkirchen-Landau. Of the thirteen North German corps three
had to be left behind to guard the eastern frontier and the
coast, one other, the VIII., was practically on the ground already
and could concentrate by road, and the remaining nine were
distributed to the nine through railway lines available. These
ten corps were grouped in three armies, and as the French might
violate Belgian neutrality or endeavour to break into southern
Germany, two corps (Prussian Guard and Saxon XII. corps)
were temporarily held back at a central position around Mainz,
whence they could move rapidly up or down the Rhine valley.
If Belgian neutrality remained unmolested, the reserve would join
the III. army on the left wing, giving it a two to one superiority
over its adversary; all three armies would then wheel to the
right and combine in an effort to force the French army into a
decisive battle on the Saar on or about the twenty-third day.
As in this wheel the army on the right formed the pivot and was
required only to stand fast, two corps only were allotted to it;
two corps for the present formed the III. army, and the remaining
five were assigned to the II. army in the centre.
When (i6th-i7tb July) the South German states decided to
throw in their lot with the rest, their three corps were allotted to
the III. army, the Guards and Saxons to the II. army, whilst
the three corps originally left behind were finally distributed
one to each army, so that up to the investment of Metz the order
of battle was as follows:
Headquarters :
The king of Prussia (General v. Moltke. chief of staff).
' " (I. corps, v. Maateuffd)
VII. „ v. Zastrow
I VIII. „ v. Goeben
. (1st) and 3rd cavalry divisions
Total . . 85,000
' Guard Pr. August of WOrttem-
berg
(II. corps, v. Fransecky)
The king of Prussia (
I. Army: f
General v. Stcinmetz J
(C. of S., v. Sperling) j ^
II. Army.
Prince Frederick Charles
(C. of S., v. Stichle)
III. Army:
crown prince of Prussia'
(C. of S. t v. Blumenthal)
III. ..' v. Alvcnsleben II.
IV. „ v. Alvensleben I.
IX. „ v. Manstein
X. „ v. Voigts-Rhetz
XII. „ (Saxons) crown prince
of Saxony
5th and 6th cavalry divisions
Total « ■ . aio,o»
V. corps, v. Ktrchbadi
(VI.) ,, v. Tumpling
XI. .. v. Bose
I. Bavarian, v. der Tann
II. „ v. Hartmann
Wurttemberg div. > „ w~»t—
Baden div. J v * Wcnler
(2nd) and 4th cavalry divisions
Total , . 180,000
Grand Total . . 475*«»
(The units within brackets were those at first retained in Germany.)
On the French side no such plan of operations was in existence
when on the night of the x 5th of July Krieg mobil was telegraphed
all over Prussia. An outline scheme had indeed been rirTV-
prepared as a basis for agreement with Austria and o/t*»
Italy, but practically no details were fixed, and the J***
troops were without transport and supplies. Never- ***■*
theless, since speed was the essence of the con t ract , the troops
FRANCO-GERMAN WAR
were hurried up without waiting for their reserves, and delivered,
as Moltke had foreseen, just where the lie of the railways and
convenience of temporary supply dictated, and the Prussian
Intelligence Department was able to inform Moltke on the 22nd
of July (seventh day of mobilization) that the French stood
from right to left in the following order, on or near the frontier:
1st corps . .
5U1 corps . .
2nd corps • .
4th corps
3rd coi
Guard
6th corps « .
7th corps . .
If therefore they began a forward movement on the 93rd
(eighth day) the case foreseen by Moltke had arisen, and it became
necessary to detrain the II. army upon the Rhine. Without
waiting for further confirmation of this intelligence, Moltke, with
the consent of the king, altered the arrangements accordingly,
a decision which, though foreseen, exercised the gravest influence
an the course of events. As it happened this decision was pre-
mature, for the French could not yet move. Supply trains had
to be organized by requisition from the inhabitants, and even
arms and ammunition procured for such reserves as had succeeded
in joining. Nevertheless, by almost superhuman exertions
on the part of the railways and administrative services, all
essential deficiencies were made good, and by the 28th of July
(13th day) the troops had received all that was absolutely indis-
pensable and might well have been led against the enemy, who,
thanks* to Moltke's premature action, were for the moment at
a very serious disadvantage. But the French generals were
unequal to their responsibilities. It is now dear that, had the
great Napoleon and his marshals been in command, they would
have made light of the want of cooking pots, cholera belts, &c,
and, by a series of rapid marches, would have concentrated
odds of at least three to one upon the heads of the Prussian
columns as they struggled through the defiles of the Hardt, and
non a victory whose political results might well have proved
decisive.
To meet this pressing danger, which came to his knowledge
during the course of the 29th, Moltke sent a confidential staff
officer, Colonel v. Verdy du Vernois, to the III. army, to impress
upon the crown prince the necessity of an immediate advance to
distract the enemy's attention from the I. and II. armies; but,
Ike the French generals, the crown prince pleaded that he could
sot move until his trains were complete. Fortunately for the
Germans, the French, intelligence service not only failed to
inform the staff of this extraordinary opportunity, but it allowed
itself to be hypnotized by the most amazing rumours. In
imagination they saw armies of 100,000 men behind every forest,
and, to guard against these dangers, the French troops were
marched and counter-marched along the frontiers in the vain
hope of discovering an ideal defensive position which should
afford full scope to the power of their new weapons.
As these delays were exerting a most unfavourable effect on
public opinion not only in France but throughout Europe, the
emperor decided on the xst of August to initiate a movement
towards the Saar, chiefly as a guarantee of good faith to the
Austrian* and Italians..
On this day the French corps held the following positions from
right to left:
N 1st corps . . Haecnau
and corps . . Forbach
3rd corps . . St Avoid
4th corps . . Bouronville
5th corps . . Bitcbe
6th corps . . Chalons
7th corps . . Bclfort and Colraar
Guard . . . near Metz
The French and corps was directed to advance on the following
morning direct on Saarbrucken, supported on the flanks by two
divisions from the 5th and 3rd corps. The order was duly carried
ml, and the Prussians (one battalion, two squadrons and a
battery), seeing the overwhelming numbers opposed to them,
fell back fighting and vanished to the northward, having
given a very excellent example of steadiness and dis- .^^
dpline to their enemy.* The latter contented them- JJJJ •*
selves, by occupying Saarbrucken and its suburb St MkUu
Johann, and here, as far as the troops were concerned,
the incident closed. Its effect, however, proved far-reaching.
The Prussian staff could not conceive that nothing lay behind
tips display of five whole divisions, and immediately took steps
to meet the expected danger. In their excitement, although they
had announced the beginning of the action to the king's head-
quarters at Mainz, they forgot to notify the close and its results,
so that Moltke was not in possession of the facts till noon on the
3rd of August. Meanwhile, Steinmetz, left without instructions
and fearing for the safety of the II. army, the beads of whose
columns were still in the defiles of the Hardt, moved the I. army
from the neighbourhood of Merzig obliquely to his left front, so
as to strike the flank of the French army if it continued its
march towards Kaiserslautern, in which direction it appeared to
be heading.
Whilst this order was in process of execution, Moltke, aware
that the II. army was behind time in its march, issued instructions
to Steinmetz for the 4th of August which entailed MmUtBt
a withdrawal to the rear, the idea being that both p^^
armies should, if the French advanced, fight a defensive Pndtrkk
battle in a selected position farther back. Steinmetz gy**
obeyed, though bitterly resenting the idea of retreat. .^
This movement, further, drew his left across the roads
reserved for the right column of the II. army, and on receipt
of a peremptory order from Prince Frederick Charles to evacuate
the road, Steinmetz telegraphed for instructions direct to the
king, over Moltke's head. In reply he received a telegram from
Moltke, ordering him to clear the road at once, and couched
in terms which he considered as a severe reprimand. An ex-
planatory letter, meant to soften the rebuke, was delayed in
transmission and did not reach him till too late to modify the
orders he had already issued. It must be remembered that
Steinmetz at the front was in a better position to judge the
apparent situation than was Moltke at Mainz, and that all
through the day of the 5th of August he had received intelli-
gence indicating a change of attitude in the French army.
The news of the German victory at Weissenburg on the 4th'
(see below) had in fact completely paralysed the French head-]
quarters, and orders were issued by them during the
course of the 5th to concentrate the whole army of the BmtUt ■*
Rhine on the selected position of Cadcnbronn. As a
preliminary, Frossard's corps withdrew from Saar-
brucken and began to entrench a position on the Spicheren
heights, 3000 yds. to the southward. Steinmetz, therefore, being
quite unaware of the scheme for a great battle on the Saar about
the 1 2th of August, felt that the situation would best be met,
and the letter of his instructions strictly obeyed, by moving hit
whole command forward' to the line of the Saar, and orders to
this effect were issued on the evening of the 5th. In pursuance
of these orders, the advance guard of the 14th division (Lieutenant
General von Kameke) reached Saarbrucken about 9 a.m. on
the 6th, where the Germans found to their amazement that the
bridges were intact. To secure this advantage was the obvious
duty of the commander on the spot, and he at once ordered his
troops to occupy a line of low heights beyond the town' to
serve as a bridge-head. As the leading troops deployed on the
heights Frossard's guns on the Spicheren Plateau opened fire,
and the advanced guard battery replied. The sound of these
guns unchained the whole fighting instinct carefully developed
by a long course of Prussian manoeuvre training. Everywhere,
generals and troops hurried towards the cannon thunder.
Kameke, even more in the dark than Steinmetz as to Moltke's
intentions and the strength of his adversaries, attacked at once,'
precisely as he would have done at manoeuvres, and in half an
hour his men were committed beyond recall. As each fresh unit
reached the field it was hurried into action where its services
1 This was the celebrated M bapteme de feu " of the prince imperial
8
FRANCO-GERMAN WAR
were most needed, and each fresh general as he arrived took a
new view of the combat and issued new orders. On the other
side, Frossard, knowing the strength of his position, called on
his neighbours for support, and determined to hold his ground.
Victory seemed certain. There were sufficient troops within
easy reach to have ensured a crushing numerical superiority.
But the other generals had not been trained to mutual support,
and thought only of their own immediate security, and their
staffs were too inexperienced to act upon even good intentions;
and, finding himself in the course of the afternoon left to his own
devices, Frossard began gradually to withdraw, even before the
pressure of the 13th German division on his left flank (about
8 p.m.) compelled his retirement. When darkness ended the
battle the Prussians were scarcely aware of their victory. Stein-
metz, who had reached the field about 6 p.m., rode back to his
headquarters without issuing any orders, while the troops
bivouacked where they stood, the units of three army corps
being mixed up in almost inextricable confusion. But whereas
out of 42,000 Prussians with 120 guns, who in the morning lay
within striking distance of the enemy, no fewer than 27,000,
with 78 guns were actually engaged; of the French, out of 64,000
with 210 guns only 24,000 with 00 guns took part in the action.
Meanwhile on the German left wing the III. army had begun
its advance. Early on the 4th of August it crossed the frontier
and fell upon a French detachment under Abel Douay,
^jjjjj^jf which had been placed near Weissenburg, partly to
taqi cover the Pigeonnier pass, but principally to consume
the supplies accumulated in the little dismantled
fortress, as these could not easily be moved. Against this force
of under 4000 men of all arms, the Germans brought into action
successively portions of three corps, in all over 35,000 men with
00 guns. After six hours' fighting, in which the Germans lost
some 1500 men, the gallant remnant of the French withdrew
deliberately and in good order, notwithstanding the death of
their leader at the critical moment. The Germans were so elated
by their victory over the enemy, whose strength they naturally
overestimated, that they forgot to send cavalry in pursuit, and
thus entirely lost touch with the enemy.
Next day the advance was resumed, the two Bavarian corps
moving via Mattstall through the foothills of the Vosges, the
V. corps on their left towards Preuschdorf, and the XL farther
to the left again, through the wooded plain of the Rhine valley.
The 4th cavalry division scouted in advance, and army head-
quarters moved to Sulx. About noon the advanced patrols
discovered MacMahon's corps in position on the left bank of the
Sauer (see W6rth: Battle of). As his army was dispersed over
a wide area, the crown prince determined to devote the 6th to
concentrating the troops, and, probably to avoid alarming the
enemy, ordered the cavalry to stand fast.
At night the outposts of the I. Bavarians and V. corps on the
Sauer saw the fires of the French encampment and heard the
noise of railway traffic, and rightly conjectured the approach
of reinforcements. MacMahon had in fact determined to stand
in the very formidable position he had selected, and he counted
on receiving support both from the 7th corps (two divisions of
which were being railed up from Colnuir) and from the 5th corps,
which lay around Bitche. It was also quite possible, and the
soundest strategy, to withdraw the bulk of the troops then
facing the German I. and II. armies to his support, and these
would reach him by the 8th. He was therefore justified in
accepting battle, though it was to his interest to delay it as long
as possible.
At dawn on the 6th of August the commander of the V. corps
outposts noticed certain movements in the French lines, and to
^^ clear up the situation brought his guns into action.
fjJjJJi. As at Spichcren, the sound of the guns set the whole
machinery of battle in motion. The French artillery
immediately accepted the Prussian challenge. The I. Bavarians,
having been ordered to be ready to move if they beard artillery
fire, immediately advanced against the French left, encountering
presently such a stubborn resistance that parts of their line
began to give way. The Prussians of pic V. corps felt that they
could not abandon their allies, and von Kirchbach, calling on the
XI. corps for support, attacked with the troops at hand. When
the crown prince tried to break off the fight it was too late.
Both sides were feeding troops into the firing line, as and where
they could lay hands on them. Up to 2 p.m. the French fairly
held their own, but shortly afterwards their right yielded to the
overwhelming pressure of the XI. corps, and by 3.30 it was
in full retreat. The centre held on for another hour, but in
its turn was compelled to yield, and by 4.30 all organized
resistance was at an end. The de'bris of the French army was
hotly pursued by the German divisional squadrons towards
Reichshofen, where serious panic showed itself. When at this
stage the supports sent by de Failly from Bitche came on the
ground they saw the hopelessness of intervention, and retired
whence they had come. Fortunately for the French, the German
4th cavalry division, on which the pursuit should have devolved,
had been forgotten by tfie German staff, and did not reach the
front before darkness fell. Out of a total of 82,000 within reach
of the battlefield, the Germans succeeded in bringing into action
77,500. The French, who might have had 50,000 on the field,
deployed only 37,000, and these suffered a collective loss of
no less than 20,100; some regiments losing up to 90% and still
retaining some semblance of discipline and order.
Under cover of darkness the remnants of the French army
escaped. When at length the 4th cavalry division had succeeded
in forcing a way through the confusion of the battlefield,
all -touch with the enemy had been lost, and being without
firearms the troopers were checked by the French stragglers
in the woods and the villages, and thus failed to establish the
true line of retreat of the French. Ultimately the latter, having
gained the railway near Luneville, disappeared from the German
front altogether, and all trace of them was lost until they were
discovered, about the 26th of August, forming part of the army
of Chalons, whither they had been conveyed by rail via Paris.
This is a remarkable example of the strategical value of railways
to an army operating in its own country.
In the absence of all resistance, the III. army now proceeded
to carry out the original programme of marches laid down in
Moltkc's memorandum of the 6th of May, and marching on a
broad front through a fertile district it reached the line of the
Moselle in excellent order about the 17th of August, where it
halted to await the result of the great battle of Gravelotte-
StPrivat
We return now to the L army at SaarbrCcken. Its position
on the morning of the 7th of August gave cause for the gravest
anxiety. At daylight a dense fog lay over the country,
and through the mist sounds of heavy firing came JJjJJJJ**
from the direction of Forbach, where French stragglers tkm Smn
had rallied during the night. The confusion on the
battlefield was appalling, and the troops in no condition to go
forward. Except the 3rd, 5th and 6th cavalry divisions no
closed troops were within, a day's march; hence Stehunets
decided to spend the day in reorganizing his infantry, under
cover of his available cavalry. But the German cavalry and
staff were quite new to their task. The 6th cavalry division,
which had bivouacked on the battlefield, sent on only ose
brigade towards Forbach, retaining the remainder in re se rv e
The 5th, thinking that the 6th had already undertaken sH
that was necessary, withdrew behind the Saar, and the 3rd,
also behind the Saar, reported that the country fin its front wis
unsuited to cavalry movements, and only sent out a few offices'
patrols. These were well led, but were too few in number, and
their reports were consequently unconvincing.
In the course of the day Steinmctz became very uneasy, and
ultimately he decided to concentrate his army by retiring the
VII. and. VIII. corps behind the river on to the I. (which had
arrived. near Saarlouis), thus clearing the Saarbrucken-MeU
road for the use of the II. army. But at this moment Prince
Frederick Charles suddenly modified his views. During the 6th
of August his scours had reported considerable French forces
hear Bitche (these were the 5th, de FaiDy's corps), and early
in the morning of the 7th he received a telegram from Moitkc
FRANCO-GERMAN WAR
informing him that MacMahon's beaten army was retreating
on the tame place (the troops observed were in fact those which
had marched to MacMahon's assistance). The prince forthwith
deflected the march of the Guards, IV. and X. corps, towards
Rohrhach, whilst the IX. and XII. closed up to supporting
distance behind them. Thus, as Steinmetz moved away to the
west and north, Frederick Charles was diverging to the south
and east, and a great gap was opening in the very centre of the
German front. This was closed only by the III. corps, still on
the battle-field, and by portions of the X. near Saargemttnd, 1
whilst within striking distance lay 130,000 French troops,
prevented only by the incapacity of their chiefs from delivering
a decisive counter-stroke.
Fortunately for the Prussians, Moltke at Mainz took a different
view. Receiving absolutely no intelligence from the front
during the 7th, he telegraphed orders to the I. and II. armies
(10.35 p.m.) to halt on the 8th, and impressed on Steinmetz
the necessity of employing his cavalry to clear up the situation.
The I. army had already begun the marches ordered by Stein-
nets. It was now led back practically to its old bivouacs
amongst the unburied dead. Prince Frederick Charles only
conformed to Moltke's order with the IfL and X. corps; the
remainder executed their concentration towards the south and
east.
During the night of the 7th of August Moltke decided that
the French army must be in retreat towards the Moselle and
forthwith busied himself with the preparation of fresh tables of
march for the two armies, his object being to swing up the left
wing to outflank the enemy from the south. This work, and
the transfer of headquarters to Homburg, needed time, hence no
fresh orders were issued to cither army, and neither commander
would incur the responsibility of moving without any. The
I. army therefore spent a fourth night in bivouac on the bat tie-
field. But Constantin von Alvensleben, commanding the III.
corps, a man of very different stamp from his colleagues, hearing
at first hand that the French had evacuated St Avoid, set his
corps in motion early in the morning of the 10th August down
the St Avold-Metz road, reached St Avoid and obtained con-
clusive evidence that the French were retreating.
During the 9th the orders for the advance to the Moselle were
issued. These were based, not on an exact knowledge of where
the French army actually stood, but on the opinion
JJ^J^"* Moltke had formed as to where it ought to have been
B nl rift on military grounds solely, overlooking the fact that
the French staff were not free to form military decisions
but were compelled to bow to political expediency.
Actually on the 7th of August the emperor had decided to
attack the Germans on the 8th with the whole Rhine Army,
bat this decision was upset by alarmist reports from the beaten
army of MacMahon. He then decided to retreat to the Moselle,
as Moltke had foreseen, and there to draw to himself the remnants
of MacMahon's army (now near Luneville). At the same time
he assigned the executive command over the whole Rhine Army
to Marshal Bazaine. This retreat was begun during the course of
the 8th and 9th of August; but on the night of the 9th urgent
telegrams from Paris induced the emperor to suspend the move-
neat, and during the xoth the whole army took up a strong
position on the French Nied.
Meanwhile the II. German army had received its orders to
march in a line of army corps on a broad front in the general
direction of Pont-a-Mousson, well to the south of Metz. The
I. army was to follow by short marches in echelon on the right;
oaly the III. corps was directed on Falkenberg, a day's march
hrtber towards Met* along the St Avold-Metz road. The
movement was begun on the xoth, and towards evening the
French army was located on the right front of the III. corps.
Tins entirely upset Moltke's hypothesis, and called for a complete
aodification of his plans, as the III. corps alone could not be
expected to resist the impact of Bazaine's five corps. The III.
corps therefore received orders to stand fast for the moment,
and the remainder of the II. army was instructed to wheel to the
* The II. corps b*d not yet arrived from Germany.
right and concentrate for a great battle to the east of Metz on
the i6thor 17th.
Before, however, these orders had been received the sudden
retreat of the French completely changed the situation. The
Germans therefore continued their movement towards the
Moselle. On the 13th the French took up a fresh position 5 m.
to the east of Metz, where they were located by the cavalry
and the advanced guards of the I- army.
Again Moltke ordered the I. army to observe and hold the
enemy, whilst the II. was to swing round to the north. The
cavalry was to scout beyond the Moselle and intercept -
all communication with the heart of France (see Metz). *^j*^*
By this time the whole German army had imbibed the Bww^
idea that the French were in full retreat and endeavour-
ing to evade a decisive struggle. When therefore during the
morning of the 14th their outposts observed signs of retreat
in the French position, their impatience could no longer be
restrained; as at Worth and Spicbcren, an outpost commander
brought up his guns, and at the sound of their fire, every unit
within reach spontaneously got under arms (battle of CoJorabey-
Borny). In a short time, with or without orders, the I.,. VII.,
VIII. and IX. corps were in full march to the battle-field. But
the French too turned back to fight, and an obstinate engage-
ment ensued, at the close of which the Germans barely held
the ground and the French withdrew under cover of the Metz
forts.
Still, though the fighting had been indecisive, the conviction
of victory remained with the Germans, and the idea of a French
retreat became an obsession. To this idea Moltke gave expression
in his orders issued early on the 15th, in which he laid down
that the " fruits of the victory " of the previous evening could
only be reaped by a vigorous pursuit towards the passages of the
Meuse, where it was hoped the French might yet be overtaken.
This order, however, did not allow for the hopeless inability of
the French staff to regulate the movement of congested masses
of men, horses and vehicles, such as were now accumulated in the
streets and environs of Metz. Whilst Bazaine.had come to no
definite decision whether to stand and fight or continue to retreat,
and was merely drifting under the impressions of the moment,
the .Prussian leaders, in particular Prince Frederick Charles,
saw in imagination the French columns in rapid orderly move-
ment towards the west, and calculated that at best they could
not be overtaken short of Verdun.
In this order of ideas the whole of the II. army, followed on
its right rear by two-thirds of the I. army (the I. corps being
detached to observe the eastern side of the fortress), were pushed
on towards the Moselle, the cavalry far in advance towards the
Meuse, whilst only the 5th cavalry division was ordered to scout
towards the Metz- Verdun road, and even that was disseminated
over far too wide an area.
Later in the day (15th) Frederick Charles sent orders to the
III. corps, which was on the right flank of his long line of columns
and approaching the Moselle at Corny and Noveant, to march
via Gorze to Mars-la-Tour on the Metz- Verdun road; to the
X. corps, strung out along the road from Thiaucourt to Pont-
a-Mousson, to move to Jarny; and for the remainder to push on
westward to seize the Meuse crossings. No definite information
as to the French army reached him in time to modify these
instructions.
Meanwhile the 5th (Rhcinbaben's) cavalry division, at about
3 P.M. in the afternoon, had come into contact with the French
cavalry in trie vicinity of Mars-la-Tour, and gleaned intelligence
enough to show that no French infantry had as yet reached
Rezonville. The commander of the X. corps at Thiaucourt,
informed of this, became anxious for the security of his flank
during the next day's march and decided to push out a strong
flanking detachment under von Caprivi, to support von Rhein-
baben and maintain touch with the III. corps marching on his
right rear.
Von Alvensleben, to whom the 6th cavalry division had mean-
while been assigned, seems to have received no local intelligence
whatsoever; and at daybreak on the 16th be began his march
10
FRANCO-GERMAN WAR
in two columns, the 6th division on Mars-la-Tour, the 5th
towards the Rczonvillc-Vionville plateau. And shortly after
9.15 a.m. he suddenly discovered the truth. The entire French
BsttMo/ armv lay on n ^ right flank » and h* 5 nearest supports
VtonKflfe. were almost a day's march distant. In this crisis he
Mu%-u» made* up his mind at once to attack with every
Toar ' available man, and to continue to attack, in the con-
viction that his audacity would serve to conceal his weakness.
All day long, therefore, the Brandenburgers of the III. corps,
supported ultimately by the X. corps and part of the IX.,
attacked again and again. The enemy was thrice their strength,
but very differently led, and made no adequate use. of bis
superiority (battle of VionviJle-Mars-la Tour).
Meanwhile Prince Frederick Charles, at Pont-a-Mousson,
was still confident in the French retreat to the Meuse, and had
even issued orders for the 17th on that assumption. Firing had
been heard since 9.15 a.m., and about noon Alvenslcben's first
report had reached him, but it was not till after 2 that he
realized the situation. Then, mounting his horse, be covered
the 15 m. to Flavigny over crowded and difficult roads within
the hour, and on his arrival abundantly atoned for his strategic
errors by his unconquerable determination and tactical skill.
When darkness put a stop to the fighting, he considered the
position. Cancelling all previous orders, he called all troops
within reach to the battle-field and resigned himself to wait for
them. The situation was indeed critical. The whole French
army of five corps, only half of which had been engaged, lay in
front of him. His own army by scattered over an area of 30 m.
by ao, and only some 20,000 fresh troops— of the IX. corps—
could reach the field during the forenoon of the 17th.
JfJ^JjJf **e did not then know that Moltke had already inter-
vened and had ordered the VU.,VIII. and II. corps 1
to his assistance. Daylight revealed the extreme exhaustion of
both men and horses. The men lay around in hopeless confusion
amongst the killed and wounded, each where sleep had over-
taken him, and thus the extent of the actual losses, heavy
enough, could not be estimated. Across the valley, bugle
sounds revealed the French already alert, and presently a long
line of skirmishers approached the Prussian position. But they
halted just beyond rifle range, and it was soon evident that they
Were only intended to cover a further withdrawal. Presently
came the welcome intelligence that the reinforcements were well
on their way.
About noon the king and Moltke drove up to the ground,
and there was an animated discussion as to what the French
would do next. Aware of their withdrawal from his immediate
front, Prince Frederick Charles reverted to his previous idea
and insisted that they were in full retreat towards the north,
and that their entrenchments near Point du Jour and St Hubert
(see map in article Metz) were at most a rearguard position.
Moltke was inclined to the same view, but considered the alterna-
tive possibility of a withdrawal towards Metz, and about 2 p.m.
orders were issued to meet these divergent opinions. The
whole army was to be drawn up at 6 a.m. on the 18th in an
echelon facing north, so as to be ready for action in either
direction. The king and Moltke then drove to Pont-a-Mousson,
and the troops bivouacked in a state of readiness. The rest
of the 17th was spent in restoring order in the shattered III.
and X. corps, and by nightfall both corps were reported fit for
action. Strangely enough, there were no organized cavalry
reconnaissances, and no intelligence of importance was collected
during the night of the X7th-i8th.
Early on the 18th the troops began to move into position in
the following order from left to right: XII. (Saxons), Guards,
IX., VIII. and VII. The X. and III. were retained in reserve.
The idea of the French retreat was still uppermost in the
prince's mind, and the whole army therefore moved north.
But between 10 and ix a.m. part of the truth— viz. that the
French had their backs to Metz and stood in battle order
1 Of the I. army the I. corps was retained on the east side of Metz.
The II. corps belonged to the II. army, but had not yet reached the
front.
from St Hubert northwards— became evident, and the IL
army, pivoting on the I., wheeled to the right and moved
eastward. Suddenly the IX. corps fell right on the ffaWfc rf
centre of the French line (Amanvillers), and a most ftudtrti
desperate encounter began, superior control, as before, gff"*.
ceasing after the guns had opened fire. Prince Frederick A/lJjt
Charles, however, a little farther north, again asserted his tactical
ability, and about 7 P.M. he brought into position no less than five
army corps for the final attack. The sudden collapse of French
resistance, due to the frontal attack of the Guards (St Privat) and
the turning movement of the Saxons (Roncourt), rendered the
use of this mass unnecessary, but the resolution to use it was
there. On the German right (I. army), about Gravelotte, all
superior leading ceased quite early in the afternoon, and at
night the French still showed an unbroken front. Until midnight,
when the prince's victory was reported, the suspense at bead-
quarters was terrible. The I. army was exhausted, no steps
had been taken to ensure support from the III. army, and the
IV. corps (II. army) lay inactive 30 m. away.
This seems a fitting place to discuss the much-disputed point
of Bazaine's conduct in allowing himself to be driven back into
Metz when fortune had thrown into his hands the great * iMh-
opportunity of the 161b and 17th of August. He feJMli
had been appointed to command on the 10th, but the
presence of the emperor, who only left the front early on the
16th, and their dislike of Bazaine, exercised a disturbing influence
on the headquarters staff officers. During the retreat to Metz
the marshal had satisfied himself as to the inability of his corps
commanders to handle their troops, and also as to the ill-will
of the staff. In the circumstances he felt that a battle in the
open field could only end in disaster; and, since it was proved
that the Germans could outmarch him, his army was sure to be
overtaken and annihilated if he ventured beyond the shelter
of the fortress. But near Metz he could at least inflict very
severe punishment on his assailants, and in any case his presence
in Metz would neutralize a far superior force of the enemy for
weeks or months. What use the French government might
choose to make of the breathing space thus secured was their
business, not his; and subsequent events showed that, had they
not forced MacMahon's hand, the existence of the latter 's
nucleus army of trained troops might have prevented the
investment of Paris. Bazaine was condemned by court-martial
after the war, but if the case were reheard to-day it is certain
that no charge of treachery could be sustained.
On the German side the victory at St Privat was at once
followed up by the headquarters. Early on the 19th the invest*
ment of Bazaine's army in Metz was commenced. A new army,
the Army of the Meuse (often called the IV.), was as soon as
possible formed of all troops not required for the maintenance
of the investment, and marched off under the command of the
crown prince of Saxony to discover and destroy the remainder
of the French field army, which at this moment was known to
be at Chalons.
The operations which led to the capture of MacMahon's array
in Sedan call for little explanation. Given seven corps, each
capable of averaging 15 m. a day for a week in succes-
sion, opposed to four corps only, shaken by defeat JJJ
and unable as a whole to cover more than 5 m. a day,
the result could hardly be doubtful. But Moltke's method of J
conducting operations left his opponent many openings which ^
could only be closed by excessive demands on the rnarduag a
power of the men. Trusting only to his cavalry screen to
secure information, he was always without any definite fixed
point about which to manoeuvre, for whilst the reports of the y
screen and orders based thereon were being transmitted, the ;" :
enemy was free to move, and generally their movements were : "
dictated by political expediency, not by calculable military *'-
motives. ^
Thus whilst the German army, on a front of nearly 50 m., - —
was marching due west on Paris, MacMahon, under political .^_
pressure, was moving parallel to them, but on a northerly route, I-
to attempt the relief of Metz.
FRANCO-GERMAN WAR
ii
So unexpected was this move and so uncertain the information
which called attention to it, that Moltke did not venture to
change at once the direction of march of the whole army, but
he directed the Army of the Meuse northward on Damvillers
and ordered Prince Frederick Charles to detach two corps from
the forces investing Met* to reinforce it. For the moment,
therefore, MacMabon's move had succeeded, and the opportunity
existed for Bazaine to break out. But at the critical moment
the hopeless want of real efficiency in MacMahon's army com-
pelled the latter so to delay his advance that it became evident
to the Germans that there was no longer any necessity for the
m. army to maintain the direction towards Paris, and that
the probable point of contact between the Meuse army and the
French lay nearer to the right wing of the III. army than to
Prince Frederick Charles's investing force before Metz.
The detachment from the II. army was therefore counter-
manded, and the whole III. army changed front to the north,
while the Meuse army headed the French off from the east.
The latter came Into contact with the head of the French columns,
during the 29th, about Nouart, and on the 30th at Buzancy
(battle of Beaumont); and the French, yielding to the force
of numbers combined with superior moral, were driven north-
westward upon Sedan (q.v.), right across the front of the III.
army, which was now rapidly coming up from the south.
During the 31st the retreat practically became a rout, and
the morning of the 1st of September found the French crowded
around the little fortress of Sedan, with only one line of retreat
to the north-west still open. By n a.m. the XI. corps (HI.
army) had already closed that line, and about noon the Saxons
(Army of the Meuse) moving round between the town and the
Belgian frontier joined hands with, the XI., and the circle of
investment was complete. The battle of Sedan was closed
about 4- 1 5 P.M. by the hoisting of the white flag. Terms were
agreed upon during the night, and the whole French army,
with the emperor, passed into captivity. (F. N. M.)
Thus in five weeks one of the French field armies was im-
prisoned in Metz, the other destroyed, and the Germans were free
to march upon Paris. This seemed easy. There could
jjjj^ be no organized opposition to their progress, 1 and Paris,
»r~ if not so defenceless as in 18x4, was more populous.
Starvation was the best method of attacking an over-
crowded fortress, and the Parisians were not thought to be proof
against the deprivation of their accustomed luxuries. Even
Moltke hoped that by the end of October he would be " shooting
hares at Creisau," and with this confidence the German III. and
IV. armies left the vicinity of Sedan on the 4th of September.
The march called for no more than good staff arrangements, and
the two armies arrived before Paris a fortnight later and gradually
encircled the place— the III. army on the south, the IV. on
the north side— in the last days of September. Headquarters
■ere established at Versailles. Meanwhile the Third Empire
had fallen, giving place on the 4th of September to a republican
Gevernmeht of National Defence, which made its appeal to,
andevoked, the spirit of 1792. Henceforward the French nation,
which had left the conduct of the war to the regular army and
bd been little more than an excited spectator, took the burden
spaa itself.
The regular army, indeed, still contained more than 500,000
men (chiefly recruits and reservists), and 50,000 sailors, marines,
draaniera, &c, were also available. But the Garde Mobile,
fanned by Marshal Niel in x86S, doubled this figure, and the
addition of the Garde Nationale, called into existence on the 15th
of September, and including all able-bodied men of from 31 to
fo years of age, more than trebled it. The German staff had of
coarse to reckon on the Garde Mobile, and did so beforehand,
bat they wholly underestimated both its effective members and
its willingness, while, possessing themselves a system in which
iQ the military elements of the German nation stood close behind
1 The 13th corps (Vinoy), which had followed MacMahon's army
at some distance, was not involved in the catastrophe of Sedan,
and by good luck as well as good management evaded the German
purMut and returned safely to Paris.
the troops of the active army, they ignored the potentialities
of the Garde Nationale.
Meanwhile, both as a contrast to the events that centred on
Paris and because in point of time they were decided for the
most part in the weeks immediately following Sedan, we must
briefly allude to the sieges conducted by the Germans — Paris
(q.v.), Metz (q.v.) and Belfort (q.v.) excepted. Old and ruined
as many of them were, the French fortresses possessed consider-
able importance in the eyes of the Germans. Strassburg, in
particular, the key of Alsace, the standing menace to South
Germany and the most conspicuous of the spoils of Louis XIV. 's
Raubkritgc, was an obvious target. Operations were begun
on the 9th of August, three days after Wdrth, General v. Werder's
corps (Baden troops and Prussian Landwchr) making the siege.
The French commandant, General Uhrich, surrendered after
a stubborn resistance on the 28th of September. Of the smaller
fortresses many, being practically unarmed and without garrisons,
capitulated at once. Toul, defended by Major Huck with 2000
mobiles, resisted for forty days, and drew upon itself the efforts
of 13,000 men and 100 guns. Verdun, commanded by General
Guerin de Waldcrsbach, held out till after the fall of Metz. Some
of the fortresses lying to the north of the Prussian line of advance
on Paris, e.g. Mezieres, resisted up to January 1872, though of
course this was very largely due to the diminution of pressure
caused by the appearance of new French field armies in October.
On the 9th of September a strange incident took place at the
surrender of Laon. A powder magazine was blown up by the
soldiers in charge and 300 French and a few German soldiers were
killed by the explosion. But as the Germans advanced, their
lines of communication were thoroughly organized, and the belt
of country between Paris and the Prussian frontier subdued and
garrisoned. Most of these fortresses were small town enceintes,
dating from Vauban's time, and open, under the new conditions
of warfare, to concentric bombardment from positions formerly
out of range, upon which the besieger could place as many guns
as he chose to employ. In addition they were usually deficient
in armament and stores and garrisoned by newly-raised troops.
Belfort, where the defenders strained every nerve to keep the
besiegers out of bombarding range, and Paris formed the only
exceptions to this general rule.
The policy of the new French government was defined by
Jules Favre on the 6th of September. " It is for the king of
Prussia, who has declared that he b making war on 7^
the Empire and not on France, to stay his hand; we "£•*■■*•
shall not cede an inch of our territory or a stone of our ^JJJJ""
fortresses." These proud words, so often ridiculed '
as empty bombast, were the prelude of a national effort which
re-established France in the eyes of Europe as a great power, even
though provinces and fortresses were ceded in the peace that that
effort proved unable to avert. They were translated into action
by Leon Gambctta, who escaped from Paris in a balloon' on the
7th of October, and established the headquarters of the defence
at Tours, where already the i4 Delegation " of the central govern-
ment — which had decided to remain in Paris— had concentrated
the machinery of government. Thenceforward Gambetta and
his principal assistant de Frcycinet directed the whole war in
the open country, co-ordinating it, as best they could with the
precarious means of communication at their disposal, with
Trochu's military operations in and round the capital. Hit
critics — Gambctta's personality was such as to ensure him
numerous enemies among the higher civil and military officials,
over whom, in the interests of La Palru, he rode rough-shod—
have acknowledged the fact, which is patent enough in any case,
that nothing but Gambctta's driving energy enabled France
in a few weeks to create and to equip twelve army corps, repre-
senting thirty-six divisions (600,000 rifles and 1400 guns), after
all her organized regular field troops had been destroyed or
neutralized. But it is claimed that by undue interference with
the generals at the front, by presuming to dictate their plans
of campaign, and by forcing them to act when the troops were
unready, Gambctta and de Freycinet nullified the efforts of
themselves and the rest of the nation and subjected France
12
FRANCO-GERMAN WAR
to a humiliating treaty of peace. Wc cannot here discuss the
justice or injustice of such a general condemnation, or even
whether in individual instances Gambetta trespassed too far into
the special domain of the soldier. But even the brief narrative
given below must at least suggest to the reader the existence
amongst the generals and higher officials of a dead weight of
passive resistance to the Delegation's orders, of unnecessary
distrust of the qualities of the improvised troops, and above
all of the utter fear of responsibility that twenty years of literal
obedience had bred. The closest study of the war cannot lead
to any other conclusion than this, that whether or not
Gambetta as a strategist took the right course in general or
in particular cases, no one else would have taken any course
whatever.
On the approach of the enemy Paris hastened its preparations
for defence to the utmost, while in the provinces, out of reach
of the German cavalry, new army corps were rapidly organized
out of the few constituted regular units not involved in the
previous catastrophes, the depot troops and the mobile national
guard. The first-fruits of these efforts were seen in Beaucc,
where early in October important masses of French troops
prepared not only to bar the further progress of the invader
but actually to relieve Paris. The so-called " fog of war " —
the armed inhabitants, francs-tireurs, sedentary national guard
and volunteers — prevented the German cavalry from venturing
far out from the infantry camps around Paris, and behind this
screen the new 25th army corps assembled on the Loire. But
an untimely demonstration of force alarmed the Germans,
all of whom, from Moltke downwards, had hitherto disbelieved
in the existence of the French new formations, and the still
unready 15th corps found itself the target of an expedition of
the I. Bavarian corps, which drove the defenders out of Orleans
after a sharp struggle, while at the same time another expedition
■wept the western part of Beauce, sacked Chateaudun as a
punishment for its brave defence, and returned via Chartres,
which was occupied.
. After these events the French forces disappeared from German
eyes for some weeks. D'Aurclle de Paladincs, the commander
of the " Army of the Loire " (15th and 16th corps), improvised
a camp of instruction at Salbris in Sologne, several marches out
of reach, and subjected his raw troops to a stern regime of drill
and discipline. At the same time an " Army of the West " began
to gather on the side of Le Mans. This army was almost
imaginary, yet rumours of its existence and numbers led the
German commanders into the gravest errors, for they soon came
to suspect that the main army lay on that side and not on the
Loire, and this mistaken impression governed the German
dispositions up to the very eve of the decisive events around
Orleans in December. Thus when at last D'Aurclle took the
offensive from lours (whither he had transported his forces,
now 100,000 strong) against the position of the I. Bavarian corps
near Orleans, he found his task easy. The Bavarians, out-
numbered and unsupported, were defeated with heavy losses in
the battle of Coulmicrs (November 9), and, had it not been for
the inexperience, want of combination, and other technical
weaknesses of the French, they would have been annihilated.
What the results of such a victory as Coulmiers might have been,
had it been won by a fully organized, smoothly working army
of the same strength, it is difficult to overestimate. As it was,
the retirement of the Bavarians rang the alarm bell all along the
line of the German positions, and lliat was all.
Then once again, instead of following up its success, the French
army disappeared from view. The victory had emboldened
the " fog of war " to make renewed efforts, and resistance to
the pressure of the German cavalry grew day by day. The
Bavarians were reinforced by two Prussian divisions and by all
available cavalry commands, and constituted as an " army
detachment " under the grand-duke Fricdrich Franz of Mecklcn-
barg-Schwerin to deal with the Army of the Loire, the strength
of which was far from being accurately known. Meantime the
capitulation of Mctz on the 28th of October had set free the
veterans of Prince Frederick Charles, the best troops in the
German army, for field operations. The latter were at first
misdirected to the upper Seine, and yet another opportunity
arose for the French to raise the siege of Paris. But D'Aurelle
utilized the time he had gained in strengthening the army and
in imparting drill and discipline to the new units which gathered
round the original nucleus of the 15th and x6th corps. All this
was, however, unknown and even unsuspected at the German
headquarters, and the invaders, feeling the approaching crisis,
became more than uneasy as to their prospects of maintaining
the siege of Paris.
At this moment, in the middle of November, the genera)
situation was as follows: the German III. and hfeuse armies,
investing Paris, had bad to throw off important
detachments to protect the enterprise, which they had JuJ mM
undertaken on the assumption that no further field fiijifci
armies of the enemy were to be encountered. The
maintenance of their communications with Germany, relatively
unimportant when the struggle took place in the circumstances
of field warfare, had become supremely necessary, now that the
army had come to a standstill and undertaken a great siege,
which required heavy guns and constant replenishment of
ammunition and stores. The rapidity of the German invasion
had left no time for the proper organization and full garrisoning
of these communications, which were now threatened, not merely
by the Army of the Loire, but by other forces assembling on the
area protected by Langres and Belfort. The latter, under
General Cambriels, were held in check and no more by the Baden
troops and reserve units (XIV. German corps) under General
Wcrder, and eventually without arousing attention they were
able to send 40,000 men to the Army of the Loire. This army,
still around Orleans, thus came to number perhaps 150,000
men, and opposed to it, about the 14th of November, the Ger-
mans had only the Army Detachment of about 40,000, the II.
army being still distant. It was under these conditions that the
famous Orleans campaign took place. After many vicissitudes
of fortune, and with many misunderstandings between Prince
Frederick Charles, Moltke and the grand-duke, the Germans
were ultimately victorious, thanks principally to the brilliant
fighting of the X. corps at Beaune-la~Rolande(*8th of November),
which was followed by the battle of Loigny-Poupry on the 2nd
of December and the second capture of Orleans after heavy
fighting on the 4th of December.
The result of the capture of Orleans was the severance of the
two wings of the French army, henceforward commanded
respectively by Chanzy and Bourbaki. The latter fell back at
once and hastily, though not closely pursued, to Bourges.
But Chanzy, opposing the Detachment between Beaugency and
the Forest of Marchenoir, was of sterner metal, and in the five
days' general engagement around Beaugency (December 7-11)
the Germans gained little or no real advantage. ' Indeed their
solitary material success, the capture of Beaugency, was due
chiefly to the fact that the French there were subjected to
conflicting orders from the military and the governmental
authorities. Chanzy then abandoned little but the field of
battle, and on the grand-duke's representations Prince Frederick
Charles, leaving a mere screen to impose upon Bourbaki (who
allowed himself to be deceived and remained inactive), burned
thither with the II. army. After that Chanzy was rapidly
driven north-westward, though always presenting a stubborn
front. The Delegation left Tours and betook itself to Bordeaux,
whence it directed the government for the rest of the war. But
all this continuous marching and fighting, and the growing
severity of the weather, compelled Prince Frederick Charles
to call a halt for a few days. About the 19th of December,
therefore, the Germans (II. army and Detachment) were doted
up in the region of Chartres, Orleans, Auxerre and Fontaine-
bleau, Chanzy along the river Sarthe about Le Mans and Bourbaki
still passive towards Bourges.
During this, as during other halts, the French government
and its generals occupied themselves with fresh plans of cam-
paign, the former with an eager desire for results, the latter
(Chanzy ex c ep t ed) with many misgivings. Ultimately, sad
FRANCO-GERMAN WAR
«3
fatally, it wu decided that Bourbaki, whom nothing could move
towards Orleans, should depart for the south-east, with a view
to relieving Belfort and striking perpendicularly against the long
line of the Germans' communications. This movement, bold
to the point of extreme rashness judged by any theoretical rules
of strategy, seems to have been suggested by de Freycinet.
As the execution of it fell actually into incapable hands, it is
difficult to judge what would have been the result had a Chanzy
or a Faidherbe been in command of the French. At any rate
it was vicious in so far as immediate advantages were sacrificed
to hopes of ultimate success which Gambetta and de Freycinet
did wrong to base on Bourbaki 's powers of generalship Late
in December, for good or evil, Bourbaki marched off into Franche-
Comt€ and ceased to be a factor in the Loire campaign. A
mere calculation of time and space sufficed to show the German
headquarters that the moment had arrived to demolish the
stubborn Chanzy
Prince Frederick Charles resumed the Interrupted offensive,
pushing westward with four corps and four cavalry divisions
I f Kamt which converged on Le Mans. There on the 10th,
nth and 12th of January 1871 a stubbornly contested
battle ended with the retreat of the French, who owed their
defeat solely to the misbehaviour of the Breton mobiles. These,
after deserting their post on the battlefield at a mere threat of
the enemy's infantry, fled in disorder and infected with their
terrors the men in the reserve camps of instruction, which broke
op in turn. But Chanzy, resolute as ever, drew off his field army
intact towards Laval, where a freshly raised corps joined him.
The prince's army was far too exhausted to deliver another
effective blow, and the main body of it gradually drew back into
better quarters, while the grand duke departed for the north
to aid in opposing Faidherbe Some idea of the strain to which
the invaders had been subjected may be gathered from the fact
that army corps, originally 30,000 strong, were in some cases
reduced to 10,000 and even fewer bayonets. And at this moment
Bourbaki was at the head of 120,000 men! Indeed, so threaten-
iag seemed the situation on the Loire, though the French south
of that river between Cien and Blois were mere isolated brigades,
that the prince hurried back from Le Mans to Orleans to take
personal command. A fresh French corps, bearing the number
z>, and being the twenty-first actually raised during the war,
appeared in the field towards Blois. Chanzy was again at the
lead of 156,000 men He was about to take the offensive
against the 40.000 Germans left near Le Mans when to his bitter
disappointment he received the news of the armistice " We
have still France," he had said to his staff, undeterred by the
news of the capitulation of Pans, but now he had to submit,
for even if his improvised army was still cheerful, there were
many significant tokens that the people at large had sunk into
apathy and hoped to avoid worse terms of peace by discontinuing
the contest at once.
' So ended the critical period of the " Defense rationale " It
may be taken to have lasted from the day of Coulrruers to the
last day of Le Alans, and its central point was the battle of
Beaune-la-Rolande Its characteristics were, on the German
side, inadequacy 0/ the system of strategy practised, which
became palpable as soon as the organs of reconnaissance met
with serious resistance, misjudgment of and indeed contempt
far the fighting powers of " new formations," and the rise of a
mint of ferocity in the man in the ranks, born of his resentment
it the continuance of the war and the ceaseless sniping of the
haac-tireur's rifle and the peasant's shot-gun. On the French
wk the continual efforts of the statesmen to stimulate the
grocrals to decisive efforts, coupled with actual suggestions as to
tac plans of the campaign to be followed (in default, be it said, of
u* generals themselves producing such plans), and the pro-
icuonal soldiers* distrust of half-trained troops, acted and
Kicted upon one another in such a way as to neutralize the
powerful, if disconnected and erratic, forces that the war and
the Republic had unchained As for the soldiers themselves,
r ikar most conspicuous qualities were their uncomplaining
T advance of fatigues and wet bivouacs, and in action their
capacity for a single great effort and no more. But they were
unreliable in the hands of the veteran regular general, because
they were heterogeneous in recruiting, and unequal in experience
and military qualities, and the French staff in those days was
wholly incapable of moving masses of troops with the rapidity
demanded by the enemy's methods of war, so that on the whole
it is difficult to know whether to wonder more at their missing
success or at their so nearly achieving it.
The decision, as we have said, was fought out on the Loire
and the Sarthe. Nevertheless the glorious story of the " Defense
nationale " includes two other important campaigns— that of
Faidherbe in the north and that of Bourbaki in the east.
In the north the organization of the new formations was
begun by Dr Testelin and General Farre. Bourbaki held the
command for a short time in November before pro- p .^
ceeding to Tours, but the active command in field &*>**
operations came into the hands of Faidherbe, a general *•■ i"f
whose natural powers, so far from being cramped by
years of peace routine and court repression, had been developed
by a career of pioneer warfare and colonial administration.
General Farre was his capable chief of staff. Troops were raised
from fugitives from MeU and Sedan, as well as from depot troops
and the Garde Mobile, and several minor successes were won by
the national troops in the Seine valley, for here, as on the side
of the Loire, mere detachments of the investing army round
Paris were almost powerless. But the capitulation of Met*
came too soon for the full development of these sources of
military strength, and the German L army under Manteuffel,
released from duty at Met*, marched north-eastward, capturing
the minor fortresses on its way. Before Faidherbe assumed
command, Farre had fought several severe actions near Amiens;
but, greatly outnumbered, had been defeated and forced to
retire behind the Somrae. Another French general, Briand,
had also engaged the enemy without success near Rouen,
Faidherbe assumed the command on the 3rd of December, and
promptly moved forward. A general engagement on the little
river Hallue (December 23), east-north-east of Amiens, was
fought with no decisive results, but Faidherbe, feeling that his
troops were only capable of winning victories in the first rush,
drew them off on the 24th. His next effort, at Bapaume
(January 2-3, 187 1), was more successful, but its effects were
counterbalanced by the surrender of the fortress of Peronne
(January 9) and the consequent establishment of the Germans
on the line of the Somme. Meanwhile the Rouen troops had
been contained by a strong German detachment, and there was
no further chance of succouring Paris from the north. But
Faidherbe, like Chanzy, was far from despair, and in spite of the
deficiencies of his troops in equipment (50,000 pairs of shoes,
supplied by English contractors, proved to have paper soles),
be risked a third great battle at St Qucntin (January 19). This
time he was severely defeated, though his loss in killed and
wounded was about equal to that of the Germans, who were
commanded by Gocben. Still the attempt of the Germans to
surround him failed and he drew off his forces with his artillery
and trains unharmed. The Germans, who had been greatly
impressed by the solidity of his army, did not pursue him far,
and Faidherbe was preparing for a fresh effort when he received
orders to suspend hostilities.
The last episode is Bourbaki's campaign in the east, with its
mournful dose at Pontarlier Before the crisis of the last week
of November, the French forces under General Crcmer, Cambricls'
successor, had been so far successful in minor enterprises that,
as mentioned above, the right wing of the Loire army, severed
from the left by the battle of Orleans and subsequently held
inactive at Bourges and Ncvers, was ordered to Franche Comte
to take the offensive against the XIV corps and other German
troops there, to relieve Belfort and to strike a blow across the
invaders' h'nc of communications. But there were many delays
in execution. The staff work, which was at no time satisfactory
in the French armies of 1S70, was complicated by the snow,
the bad state of the roads, and the mountainous nature of the
country, and Bourbaki, a brave general of division in action,
FRANCOIS DE NEUFCHATEAU
but irresolute and pretentious as a commander in chief, was not
the man to cope with the situation. Only the furious courage and
patient endurance of hardships of the rank and file, and the good
qualities of some of the generals, such as Clinchant, Cremer and
Billot, and junior staff officers such as Major Brug&re (afterwards
generalissimo of the French army), secured what success was
attained.
Werder, the German commander, warned of the imposing
concentration of the French, evacuated Dijon and Dole just in
m time to avoid the blow and rapidly drew together his
nmma^n forces behind the Ognon above Vesoul. A furious
*■ to* attack on one of his divisions at Villersexel (January 9)
BasL cost him 2000 prisoners as well as his killed and
wounded, and Bourbaki, heading for Bclfort, was actually nearer
to the fortress than the Germans. But at the crisis more time
was wasted, Werder (who had almost lost hope of maintaining
himself and had received both encouragement and stringent
instructions to do so) slipped in front of the French, and took up
a long weak line of defence on the river Lisaine, almost within
cannon shot of Belfort. The cumbrous French army moved up
and attacked him there with 150,000 against 60,000 (January
!5-i7i i&7t). It wasatlast repulsed, thanks chiefly to Bourbaki's
inability to handle his forces, and, to the bitter disappointment
of officers and men alike, he ordered a rotreat, leaving Belfort
to its fate.
Ere this, so urgent was the necessity of assisting Werder,
Manteuffel had been placed at the head of a new Army of the
South. Bringing two corps from the I army opposing Faidherbe
and calling up a third from the armies around Paris, and a fourth
from the II. army, Manteuffel hurried southward by Langres
to the Saone. Then, hearing of Werde'r's victory on the Lisaine,
he deflected the march so as to cut off Bourbaki's retreat,
drawing off the left flank guard of the latter (commanded with
much idol and little real effect by Garibaldi) by a sharp feint
attack on Dijon. The pressure of Werder in front and Manteuffel
in flank gradually forced the now thoroughly disheartened
French forces towards the Swiss frontier, and Bourbaki, realizing
at once the ruin of his army and his own incapacity to re-establish
its efficiency, shot himself, though not fatally, on the 26th of
January. Clinchant, his successor, acted promptly enough to
remove the immediate danger, but on the 29th he was informed
of the armistice without at the same time being told that Belfort
and the eastern theatre of war had been on Jules Favre's demand
expressly excepted from its operation. 1 Thus the French, the
leaders distracted by doubts and the worn-out soldiers fully
aware that the war was practically over, stood still, while
Manteuffel completed his preparations for hemming them in.
On the 1 st of February General Clinchant led his troops into
Switzerland, where they were disarmed, interned and well cared
for by the authorities of the neutral state The rearguard fought
a last action with the advancing Germans before passing the
frontier On the 16th, by order of the French government,
Belfort capitulated, but it was not until the nth of March that
the Germans took possession of Bitche, the little fortress on the
Vosges, where in the early days of the war de Failly had illus-
trated so signally the want of concerted action and the neglect
of opportunities which had throughout proved the bane of the
French armies.
The losses of the Germans during the whole war were 28.000
dead and 101,000 wounded and disabled, those of the French,
156,000 dead (17,000 of whom died, of sickness and wounds, as
prisoners in German hands) and 143,000 wounded and disabled.
720,000 men surrendered to the Germans or to the authorities
of neutral states, and at the close of the war there were still
250,000 troops on foot, with further resources not immediately
available to the number of 280,000 more. In this connexion,
and as evidence of the respective numerical yields of the German
system working normally and of the French improvised for
the emergency, we quote from Berndt (Zohl in Kriege) the
following comparative figures. —
1 Jules Favre, it appears, neglected to inform Gambetta of the
exception. ^ . .
End of July French 250,000, (jermans 384.000 under
Middle of November „ 600,000 M 425,000 „
After the surrender
of Paris and the
disarmament of
Bourbaki's army . „ 534«0Ot» » 835,000
The date of the armistice was the 28th of January, and that
of the ratification of the treaty of Frankfurt the 23rd of May
1871
Bibliography.— -The literature of the war it ever increasing In
volume, and the following list only includes a very short selection
made amongst the most important works.
General.— German official history, Der denlsck-jrane4s\uhe Krieg
(Berlin, 1872-1881 , English and French translations) , monographs
of the German general staff (Krtegsgesch. Etntelschrtpen) ; Moltke,
Cesch. des dtutsch-franzds. Kneges (Berlin, 1891 English translation)
and GesammelU Schrtften des G F M Grafen v. Moltke (Berlin,
1900- ) , French official history, La Guerre de 1870-1871 (Paris,
1902- ) (the fullest and most accurate account);; P Lehautcourt
(General Palat), IlisL de la guerre de 1870-18/1 (Paris, 1 901-1907);
v. Vcrdy du Vernois, Studten uber den Krteg anf Grundlagt
1870-1871 (Berlin, 1892-1896); G. Cardinal von Widdern, Krtttxkt
Tage 1870-1871 (French translation. Joumees critique*}. Events
preceding the war are dealt with in v Bernhardi. Zunscken mm
Krwten, Baron StofTcl. Rapports milttatres 1860-1870 (Paris, 1871;
English translation); G. Lehmann, Die Mobilmackung 1870-1871
(Berlin, 1905).
For the war in Lorraine Prince Kraft of Hohenlohe-Ii
Briefe uber Strategic (English translation, Letters an Strategy); F.
Foch, Conduit* de la guerre, pt ii., H. Bonnal, Manoeuvre de Saint
Pnvat (Paris, 1904-1906); Maistre, Spiekeren (Paris, 1908), v.
Schell, Die Operations der I. Arme* unlet Gen. wen Stetnmets (Berlin,
1872; English translation); F. Hoorug, Taktik der ZnkwnU (English
translation), and 24 Stunden Moltke scken Strategte (Berlin, 1892;
English and French translations).
For the war in Alsace and Champagne* H Kunx, StUadU wen
Worth (Berlin, 1891), and later works by the same author; H.
FrdickwtiUr (Paris, 1899) , Hahnke, Die Opemttonen des
nee bis Sedan (Berlin, 1873; French translation).
the war in the Provinces: v. der Goltz, Leon Gambetta uni
irmeen (Berlin, 1877), Die Operations der II. Armee an die
(Berlin, 1875); Dte sieben Tage von Le Mans (Berlin, 1873);
ng der fransds Provinmalkeereni en
wince (Paris, 1871), L A. Hale, The
04); Hoenig, Volkskrieg an He Loire
rationen v. Sedan bis sum End* d. Knees
Jation), v Schell, Dee Ope rnh on en der J.
» (Berlin, 1873; English translation);
f der Nordarmee unter Gem. v. Mautemjfa
der Sudarmee (Berlin, 1872, English
— * * , (Pariari872).
Festungsknegs
1899-1900), Goetxe, Tmiigkeit
mpagne de I 'armee dn nord
, Krtegsgesch. Betsptele d Ft
[Berlin, 1 899-1900), Goets _
Berlin, 1871, English translation).
The most useful bibliography is that of General Palat C P.
Lehautcourt "). (C. F. A.)
FRANCOIS DB NEUFCHATEAU, NICOLAS LOUIS, Comer
(1750-1828), French statesman and poet, was born at Saffais
near Roxiercsirj Lorraine on the 17th of April 1750, the son of a
school-teacher. He studied at the Jesuit college of Neufchateau
in the Vosges, and at the age of fourteen published a volume
of poetry which obtained the approbation of Rousseau and of
Voltaire. Neufchateau conferred on him its name, and he was
elected member of some of the principal academies of France.
In 1783 he was named procureur-gintral to the council of Santo
Domingo. He had previously been engaged on a translation
of Ariosto, which he finished before his return to France five
years afterwards, but it perished during the shipwreck winch
occurred during his voyage home. After the Revolution he
was elected deputy suppliant to the National Assembly, was
charged with the organization of the Department of the Vosges,
and was elected later to the Legislative Assembly, of which he
first became secretary and then president In 1793 he was
imprisoned on account of the political sentiments, in reality
very innocent, of his drama Pamela ou la wertu rtcampensk
(Theatre de la Nation, 1st August 1793), but was set free a few
days afterwards at the revolution of the oth ThermMor la
1797 he became minister of the interior, in which office he
distinguished himself by the thoroughness of his administration
in all departments. It is to him that France owes its system
of inland navigation. lie inaugurated the museum of the Louvre,
FRANCONIA— FRANCS-TIREURS
»5
and mi one of the promoter* of the first universal exhibition
of industrial products. From 1804 to 1806 he was president
of the Senate, and in that capacity the duty devolved upon
him of soliciting Napoleon to assume the title of emperor In
1808 he received the dignity of count. Retiring from public
life in 1814, be occupied himself chiefly in the study of agriculture,
until his death on the 10th of January 1828.
Francois de Neufchateau had very multifarious accomplish-
ments, and interested himself in a great variety of subjects, but
his fame rests chiefly on what he did as a statesman for the
encouragement and development of the industries of France.
His mature* poetical productions did not fulfil the promise of
those of his early years, for though some of his verses have a
superficial elegance, his poetry generally lacks force and originalit y.
He had considerable qualifications as a grammarian and critic,
as is witnessed by his editions of the Provinciates and Patsies
of Pascal (Paris, 1822 and 1826) and Gil Bias (Paris, 1820) His
principal poetical works are Potsies divcrscs (1765), Ode sur Us
parUments (1771); Nouteaux Contes moraux (1781); Us Vosges
(1796); Fables et conies (1S14), and Les Tropes, ou Us figures de
mots (1817). He was also the author of a large number of
works on agriculture
See RecweU its Uttres, circulates, discours et autre* actes publics
immuis dn Q* Francois pendant ses deux excrctces du mtntslere de
Tinnrienr (Paris, An vii.-viii n 2 vols ) , tfoticc btjgrapktque sur M
k com* Francois de SeufchAteau (1828). by A F dc Sillery; H
Boaaelier, Ithnoires sur Francois de Ncufchdltau (Paris, 1829),
J. Larooureux. Notice historique et ItUeraire sur la vie ti Us cents de
Francois d* Neufchdtca* (Paris, 1843). E Mcaumc, Etude htstorique
d b io grap ki qu* sur Us Lorrains rtvolutionnaires- Palitsot, Oregoire.
Francois de NeufcMteau (Nancy, 1882). Ch Simian. Francois de
Neujehdiomn at Us expositions (Paris, 1889)
FRAMOOOTA (Ger Franken), the name of one of the stcm-
duchies of medieval Germany It stretched along the valley of
the Main from the Rhine to Bohemia, and was bounded on the
north by Saxony and Thuringia, and on the south by Swabia
and Bavaria It also included a district around Mainz, Spires
and Worms, on the left bank of the Rhine The word Franconia,
first used in a Latin charter of 1053, was applied like the words
Francs, Francia and Franken, to a portion of the land occupied
by the Franks.
About the dose of the 5th century this territory was conquered
by Oovis, king of the Salian Franks, was afterwards incorporated
with the h* w g Aww of Austrasia, and at a later period came under
the rule of Charlemagne. After the treaty of Verdun in 843
it became the centre of the East Frankish or German kingdom,
and in theory remained so for a long period, and was for a time
the moat important of the duchies which arose on the ruins of the
CtrwJiwtp mn empire. The land was divided into counties, or
gaum, which were ruled by counts, prominent among whom
were members of the families of Conradine and Babenberg, by
whose feuds it was frequently devastated. Conrad, a member
of the former family, who took the title of " duke in Franconia "
about the year 000, was chosen German king in 9x1 as the
representative of the foremost of the German races. Conrad
handed over the chief authority in Franconia to his brother
Eberhard, who remained on good terms with Conrad's successor
Henry I the Fowler,, but rose against the succeeding king, Otto
the Great, and was killed in battle in 939, when his territories
were divided. The influence of Franconia began to decline
under the kings of the Saxon house It lacked political unity,
had no opportunities for extension, and soon became divided
into Rhenish Franconia (Francia rhenenris, Gcr Rkeinfranien)
tad Eastern Franconia (Francia oriental is, Ger Ost franken).
The most influential family in Rhenish Franconia was that of
the Saltans, the head of which early in the 10th century was
Conrad the Red, duke of Lorraine, and son-in-law of Otto tbe
Great. This Conrad, his son Otto and his grandson Conrad
are sometimes called dukes of Franconia. and in 1024 his great-
grandson Conrad, also duke of Franconia. was elected German
king as Conrad II and founded the line of Francoman 01 Salian
emperors, Rhenish Franconia gradually became a land of
tree towns and lesser nobles, and under the earlier Franconian
emperors sections passed to the count palatine of the Rhine,
the archbishop of Mainz, the bishops of Worms and Spires
and other clerical and lay nobles; and the name Franconia,
or Francia orientalis as it was then called, was confined to the
eastern portion of the duchy. Clerical authority was becoming
predominant in this region, A series of charters dating from
82a to 1025 had granted considerable powers to the bishops of
Wiirxburg, who, by the time of the emperor Henry II., possessed
judicial authority over the whole of eastern Franconia. The
duchy was nominally retained by the emperors in their own
hands until 11 15, when the emperor Henry V., wishing to curb
the episcopal influence in this neighbourhood, appointed his
nephew Conrad of Hohenstaufen as duke of Franconia. Conrad's
son Frederick took the title of duke of Rothenburg instead of
duke of Franconia, but in xio6, on the death of Conrad of
Hohenstaufen, son of the emperor Frederick I., the title fell
into disuse. Meanwhile the bishop of Wilrzburg had regained
his former power in the duchy, and this was confirmed in 1168
by the emperor Frederick I.
Tbe title remained in abeyance until the early years of the
15th century, when It was assumed by John II., bishop of Wurx-
burg, and retained by his successors until the bishopric was
secularized in 1802. The greater part of the lands were united
with Bavaria, and the name Franconia again fell into abeyance
It was revived in 1837, when Louis I., king of Bavaria, gave to
three northern portions of bis kingdom the names of Upper,
Middle and Lower Franconia. In 1633 Bcrnhard, duke of Saxe»
Weimar, hoping to create a principality for himself out of tbe
ecclesiastical lands, had taken the title of duke of Franconia,
but his hopes were destroyed by his defeat at Ndrdlingen in 1634.
When Germany was divided into circles by the emperor Maxi-
milian I. in 1500, the name Franconia was given to that circle
which included the eastern part of the old duchy. The lands
formerly comprised in the duchy of Franconia are now divided
between the kingdoms of Bavaria and Wurttemberg, the grand-
duchies of Baden and Hesse, and the Prussian province of
Hesse-Nassau.
B8 V* 1 88
Gewalt der "Bischofe von WUrdurg (WUrzburg, 1874).
FRANCS-ARCHERS. The institution of the francs-archert
was tbe first attempt at the formation of regular infantry in
France. They were created by the ordinance of Mont ils-les-Tours
on the 28th of August 1448, which prescribed that in each parish
an archer should be chosen from among the most apt in the use
of arms; this archer to be exempt from the tatile and certain
obligations, to practise shooting with the bow on Sundays and
feast-days, and to hold himself ready to march fully equipped
at the first signal. Under Charles VII. the francs-archers dis-
tinguished themselves in numerous battles with the English,
and assisted the king to drive them from France. During the
succeeding reigns the institution languished, and finally dis-
appeared in the middle of the x6th century The francs-archers
were also called francs-taupins.
See Daniel, Histoire de la milice francaise (1721) ; and E. Boutaric,
Institutions militaires de la France avant Usarmies permanentes (1 863)
FRANCS-TIREURS ("Free-Shooters"), irregular troops,
almost exclusively infantry, employed by the French in the war of
1870-1871 They were originally rifle clubs or unofficial military
societies formed in the east of France at the time of the Luxem-
burg crisis of 1867. The members were chiefly concerned with
the practice of rifle-shooting, and were expected in war to act
as light troops. As under the then system of conscription the
greater part of the nation's military energy was allowed to run
to waste, the francs-tireurs were not only popular, but efficient
workers in their sphere of action. As they wore no uniforms,
were armed with the best existing rifles and elected their own
officers, the government made repeated attempts to bring the
societies, which were at once a valuable asset to the armed
strength of France and a possible menace to internal order,
under military discipline This was strenuously resisted by the
societies, to their sorrow as it turned out, for tbe Germans treated
i6
FRANEKER— FRANKENTHAL
captured francs-tireurs as irresponsible non-combatants found
with arms in their hands and usually exacted the death penalty.
In July 1870, at the outbreak of the war, the societies were brought
under the control of the minister of war and organized for field
service, but it was not until the 4th of November — by which
time the levie en masse was in force — that they were placed under
the orders of the generals in the field. After that they were
sometimes organized in large bodies and incorporated in the mass
of the armies, but more usually they continued to work in small
bands, blowing up culverts on the invaders' lines of communica-
tion, cutting off small reconnoitring parties, surprising small
posts, &c It is now acknowledged, even by the Germans, that
though the francs-tireurs did relatively little active mischief,
they paralysed large detachments of the enemy, contested every
step of his advance (as in the Loire campaign), and prevented
him from gaining information, and that their soldierly qualities
inproved with experience Their most celebrated feats were the
blowing up of the Moselle railway bridge at Fontenoy on the 22nd
of January 1871 (see Lcs Chasseurs des Vosges by Lieut.- Colonel
St fttienne, Toul, 1006), and the heroic defence of Chateaudun
by Lipowski's Paris corps and the francs-tireurs of Cannes and
Nantes (October 18, 1870) It cannot be denied that the original
members of the rifle clubs were joined by many bad characters,
but the patriotism of the majority was unquestionable, for little
mercy was shown by the Germans to those francs-tireurs who fell
into their hands. The seventy ot the German reprisals is itself
the best testimony to the fear and anxiety inspired by the presence
of active bands of francs-tireurs on the flanks and in rear of the
invaders.
FRANEKER, a town in the province of Friesland, Holland,
5 m E of Harlingcn on the railway and canal to Leeu warden
Pop (1000) 7 187 It was at one time a favourite residence of the
Frisian nobility, many of whom had their castles here, and it
possessed a celebrated university, founded by the Frisian estates
in 1585. This was suppressed by Napoleon I in 18x1, and the
endowments were diverted four years later to the support of an
athenaeum, and afterwards of a gymnasium, with which a
physiological cabinet and a botanical garden are connected.
Franckcr also possesses a town hall (1591), which contains a
planetarium, made by one Eisc Eisinga in 1 774-1881 The
fine observatory was founded about 1780. The church of St
Martin (1420) contains several fine tombs of the 15th- 17th
centuries. The industries of the town include silk-weaving,
woollen-spinning, shipbuilding and pottery-making. It is also
a considerable market for agricultural produce.
FRANK, JAKOB (1726-1791), a Jewish theologian, who
founded in Poland, in the middle of the 18th century, a sect
which emanated from Judaism but ended by merging with
Christianity The sect was the outcome of the Messianic
mysticism of Sabbetai Zebi. It was an antinomian movement
in which the authority of the Jewish law was held to be super-
seded by personal freedom. The Jewish authorities, alarmed
at the moral laxity which resulted from the emotional rites of
the Frankists, did their utmost to suppress the sect. But the
latter, posing as an anti-Talmudic protest in behalf of a spiritual
religion, won a certain amount of public sympathy. There was,
however, no deep sincerity in the tenets of the Frankists, for
though in 1759 they were baptized en masse, amid much pomp,
the Church soon became convinced that Frank was not a genuine
convert. He was imprisoned on a charge of heresy, but on his
release in 1763 the empress Maria Theresa patronized him,
regarding him as a propagandist of Christianity among the Jews
He thenceforth lived in state as baron of Offenbach, and on his
death (1791) his daughter Eva succeeded him as head of the sect
The Frankists gradually merged in the general Christian body, the
movement leaving no permanent trace in the synagogue (I A.)
FRANK-ALMOIGN (libera ekemosyna, free alms); in the English
law of real property, a species of spiritual tenure, whereby a
religious corporation, aggregate or sole, holds lands of the donor
to them and their successors for ever. It was a tenure dating
from Saxon times, held not on the ordinary feudal conditions,
but discharged of all services except the trinoda necessilas
But " they which hold in frank-almoign are bound of right before
God to make orisons, prayers, masses and other divine services
for the souls of their grantor or feoffor, and for the souls of their
heirs which are dead, and for the prosperity and good life and
good health of their heirs which are alive. And therefore they
shall do no fealty to their lord, because that this divine service
is better for them before God than any doing of fealty " (Lilt
s. 135) . It was the tenure by which the greater number of the
monasteries and religious houses held their lands, k was ex-
pressly exempted from the statute 1 2 Car. II c 24 (1660) , by which
the other ancient tenures were abolished, and it is the tenure by
which the parochial clergy and many ecclesiastical and eleemosy-
nary foundations hold their lands at the present day. As a form
of donation, however, it came to an end by the passing of the
statute Quia Emptores, for by that statute no new tenure of
frank-almoign could be created, except by the crown.
Sec Pollock and Maitland, History of English Law, where the history
of frank-almoign is given at length
FRANKEL, ZECHARIAS (1801-1875), Jewish theologian, one
of the founders of the Breslau school of " historical Judaism."
This school attempts to harmonize critical treatment of the docu-
ments of religion with fidelity to traditional beliefs and observ-
ances. For a time at least, the compromise succeeded in staying
the disintegrating effects of the liberal movement in Judaism.
Frankcl was the author of several valuable works, among then
Sepluagtnt Studies, an Introduction to the Mishnah (1859), aad
a similar work on the Palestinian Talmud ( 1 870) He also edited
the Monatsschrtft, devoted to Jewish learning on modern lines.
But his chief claim to fame rests on his headship of the Breslau
Seminary This was founded in 1854 for the training of rabbis
who should combine their rabbinic studies with secular courses
at the university The whole character of the rabbinate has been
modified under the influence of this, the first seminary of the
kind. (I A.)
FRANKENBERO, a manufacturing town of Germany, in the
kingdom of Saxony, on the Zschopau, 7 m N E of Chemnitz,
on the railway Niederwiesa-Rosswein. Pop ( 1905) 13,303. The
principal buildings are the large Evangelical parish church,
restored in 1874-1875, and the town-hall. Its industries include
extensive woollen, cotton and silk weaving, dyeing, the manu-
facture of brushes, furniture and cigars, iron-founding and
machine building It is well provided with schools, including
one of weaving.
FRANKENHAUSEN, a town of Germany, in the principality
of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, on an artificial arm of the Wipper,
a tributary of the Saale. 36 m NNE of Gotha, Pop (1905)
6534. It consists of an old and a new town, the latter mostl>
rebuilt since a destructive fire in 1833, and has an old chateau
of the princes of Schwarzburg, three Protestant churches, a
seminary for teachers, a hospital and a modem town-hall.
Its industries include the manufacture of sugar, cigars and
buttons, and there are- brine springs, with baths, m the vicinity
At Frankenhausen a battle was fought on the 15th of May 1525,
in which the insurgent peasants under Thomas MUnxer were
defeated by the a llied princes of Saxony and Hesse
FRANKENSTEIN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province
of Silesia, on the Paiisebach, 35 m. S. by W of Breslau Pop.
(1905) 7800- It is still surrounded by its medieval walls, has two
Evangelical and three Roman Catholic churches, among the
latter the parish church with a cunous overhanging tower, and
a monastery The industries include the manufacture of
artificial manures, bricks, beer and straw hats. There are also
mills for grinding the magnesite found in the neighbourhood.
FRANKENTHAL, a town of Germany, in the Bavarian
Palatinate, on the Isenach, connected with the Rhine by a
canal 3 m in length, 6 m N W from Mannheim, and on the
railways Ncunkirchen-Worms and Frankenthal-Grosskarlbach.
Pop (1905) 18,191. It has two Evangelical and a Roman
Catholic church, a fine medieval town-hall, two interesting old
gates, remains of its former environing walls, several public
monuments, including one to the veterans of the Napoleonic
wars, and a museum. Its industries include the manufacture
FRANKENWALD— FRANKFORT-ON-MAIN
«7
of machinery, casks, corks, soap, dolls and furniture, iron-
founding and bell-founding— the famous " Kaiserglocke " of
the Cologne cathedral was cast here. Frankenthal was formerly
famous for its porcelain factory, established here in 1755 by Paul
Anton Hannong of Strassburg, who sold it in 176a to the elector
palatine Charles Theodore. Its fame is mainly due to the
modellers Konrad Link (1732-1802) and Johann Peter Mckhior
(d. 1706) (who worked at Frankenthal between 1779 and 1703).
The best products of this factory are figures and groups repre-
senting contemporary life, or allegorical subjects in the rococo
taste of the period, and they are surpassed only by those of the
more famous factory at Meissen. In 1795 the factory was sold
to Peter von Reccum, who removed it to Grunstadt.
Frankenthal (Franconodal) is mentioned as a village in the
8th century. A house of Augustinian canons established here
in 1 1 19 by Erkenbert, chamberlain of Worms, was suppressed
in 156a by the elector palatine Frederick III., who gave its
possessions) to Protestant refugees from the Netherlands. In
1577 this colony received town rights from the elector John
Casimir, whose successor fortified the place. From 1623 until
1652, save for two years, it was occupied by the Spaniards, and
in 1688-1689 it was stormed and burned by the French, the
fortifications being raxed. In 1697 it was reconstituted as a town,
and under the elector Charles Theodore it became the capital
of the Palatinate. From 1 79S to 1814 it was incorporated in the
French department of Mont Tonnerre.
See Wille, Stadl u. Feslung Frankentkai wdkrend des dreissit-
jakrimm Krugtx (Heidelberg, 1877); Hildcnbrand, Cesch. ia Stadt
Fnmhemkal (1893). For the porcelain see Hcuscr, Frankenthakr
Cnppem suss* Figure* (Spires, 1899).
FRANKENWALD, a mountainous district of Germany,
forming the geological connexion between the Fichtclgebirge
and the Thuringian Forest. It is a broad well-wooded plateau,
running for about 30 m. in a north-westerly direction, descending
gently on the north and eastern sides towards the Saalc, but more
precipitously to the Bavarian plain in the west, and attaining its
highest elevation in the Kieferle near Steinheid (2900 ft.). Along
the centre lies the watershed between the basins of the Main and
the Saale, belonging to the systems of the Rhine and Elbe
respectively. The principal tributaries of the Main from the
Frankenwald are the Rodach and Hasslach, and of the Saale,
theSdbits.
See H. Schmid, Fuhrer dutch dm Franktnwald (Bamberg, 1 894);
Meyer, Thurimgn und drr Franhcwwcld (15th ed. a Leipzig, 1900),
and Gfirabel, Gevgnostisckc Besckrcibung da Fuhtetgtbirgcs mil dem
Fnmk tnwald (Gotha, 1879).
FRANKFORT, a dty and the county-seat of Clinton county,
Indiana, U.S.A., 40 m. N.W. of Indianapolis. Pop. (1800)
5919; (1900) 7x00 (144 foreign-born); (1910) 8634. Frankfort
is served by the Chicago, Indianapolis & Louisville, the Lake Erie
k Western, the Vandalia, and the Toledo, St Louis ft Western
railways, and by the Indianapolis ft North -Western Traction
Interurban railway (electric). The city is a division point on
the Toledo, St Louis ft Western railway, which has large shops
here. Frankfort is a trade centre for an agricultural and lumber-
ing region; among its manufactures are handles, agricultural
implements and foundry products. The first settlement in the
neighbourhood was made in 1826; in 1830 the town was founded,
and in 1875 it was chartered as a city. The city limits were
considerably extended immediately after 1900.
FRANKFORT, the capital city of Kentucky, U.S.A., and the
county-seat of Franklin county, on the Kentucky river, about
55 m. E. of Louisville. Pop. (1800) 7892; (1900) 9487, of whom
3316 were negroes; (1910 census) 10,465. The city is served
by the Chesapeake ft Ohio, the Louisville ft Nashville, and the
Frankfort ft Cincinnati railways, by the Central Kentucky
Traction Co. (electric), and by steamboat lines to Cincinnati,
Louisville and other river ports. It is built among picturesque
hills on both sides of the river, and is in the midst of the famous
Kentucky "blue grass region" and of a rich lumber-producing
region. The most prominent building is the Capitol, about 400 ft.
long and 185 ft. wide, built of granite and white limestone in the
Italian Renaissance style, with 70 large Ionic columns, and a
dome 205 ft. above the terrace line, supported by 14 other
columns. The Capitol was built in 1905-1907 at a cost of more
than $2,000,000; in it are housed the state library and the
library of the Kentucky State Historical Society. At Frankfort,
also, are the state arsenal, the state penitentiary and the state
home for feeble-minded children, and just outside the city
limits is the state coloured normal school. The old capitol (first
occupied in 1829) is still standing. In Franklin cemetery rest
the remains of Daniel Boone and of Theodore O'Hara (1820-
1867), a lawyer, soldier, Journalist and peel, who served in the
U.S. army in 1846-1848 during the Mexican War, took part in
filibustering expeditions to Cuba, served in the Confederate army,
and is best known as the author of " The Bivouac of the Dead,"
a poem written for the burial in Frankfort of some soldiers
who had lost their lives at Buena Vista. Here also are the
graves of Richard M. Johnson, vice-president of the United
States in 1837-1841, and the sculptor Joel T Hart (1810-1877).
The city has a considerable trade with the surrounding country,,'
in which large quantities of tobacco and hemp are produced;
its manufactures include lumber, brooms, chairs, shoes, hemp
twine, canned vegetables and glass bottles. The total value of
the city's factory product in 1905 was $1,747,338, being 31*6%
more than in 190a Frankfort (said to have been named after
Stephen Frank, one of an early pioneer party ambushed here by
Indians) was founded in 1786 by General James Wilkinson, then
deeply interested in trade with the Spanish at New Orleans, and
in the midst of his Spanish intrigues. In 179a the city was made
the capital of the state. In 1862, during the famous campaign in
Kentucky of General Braxton Bragg (Confederate) and General
D. C. Buell (Federal), Frankfort was occupied for a short time
by Bragg, who, just before being forced out by Buell, took part ia
the inauguration of Richard J Hawes, chosen governor by the
Confederates of the state. Hawes, however, never discharged
the duties of his office. During the bitter contest for the governor-
ship in 1000 between William Goebel (Democrat) and William S.
Taylor (Republican), each of whom claimed the election, Goebel
was assassinated at Frankfort. (See also Kentucky.) Frankfort
received a city charter in 1839.
FRANKFORT-ON-MAIN (Gcr. Frankfurt cm Main), a city
of Germany, in the Prussian province of Hesse-Nassau, prin-
cipally on the right bank of the Main, 24 m. above its confluence
with the Rhine at Mains, and i6m.N. from Darmstadt. Always
a place of great trading importance, long the place of election
for the German kings, and until 1866, together with Hamburg,
Bremen and Lubeck, one of the four free cities of Germany, it
still retains its position as one of the leading commercial centres
of the German empire. Its si tuition in the broad and fertile
valley of the Main, the northern horizon formed by the soft
outlines of the Taunus range, is one of great natural beauty,
the surrounding country being richly dad with orchard and
forest.
Frankfort is one of the most interesting, as it is also one of
the wealthiest, of German cities. Apart from its commercial
importance, its position, close to the fashionable watering-places
of Homburg,. Nauhcim and Wiesbaden, has rendered it " cos-
mopolitan " in the best sense of the term. The various stages in
the development of the city are clearly indicated in its general
plan and the surviving names of many of its streets. The line
of the original 12th century walls and moat is marked by the
streets of which the names end in -graben, from the Hirschgrabcn
on the W. to the Wollgrabcn on the E. The space enclosed by
these and by the river on the S. is known as the " old town "
(Allsiadt). The so-called " new town " {Ncttstcdt), added in 1333,
extends to the Aitlegen, the beautiful gardens and promenades
laid out (1S06-1 812) on the site of the 17th century fortifications,
of which they faithfully preserve the general ground plan. Of
the medieval fortifications the picturesque Eschenhcimer Tor, a
round tower 15s ft. high, dating from 1400 to 1428, the Renten-
turm (1456) on the Main and the Kuhhirtenturm (c. 1490) in
Sachsenhausen, are the sole remains. Since the demolition of
the fortifications the city has greatly expanded. Sachsenhausen
on the south bank of the river, formerly the seat of a commandery
i8
FRANKFORT-ON-MAIN
of the Teutonic Order (by treaty with Austria in 184s all pro-
perty and right* of the order in Frankfort territory were sold
to the city, except the church and house), is now a quarter of
the chy. In other directions also the expansion has been rapid;
the village of Bornheim was incorporated in Frankfort in 1877,
the former Hessian town of Bockenheim in 1895, and the suburbs
of Niederrad, Oberrad and Seckbach in 1900.
The main development of the city has been to the north of the
river, which b crossed by numerous bridges and flanked by fine
quays and promenades. The Altstadt, though several broad
streets have been opened through it, still preserves many of its
narrow alleys and other medieval features. The Judengasse
(Ghetto), down to 1806 the sole Jews' quarter, has been pulled
down, with the exception of the ancestral house of the Rothschild
family — No. 148 — which has been restored and retains its
ancient facade. As the Altstadt is mainly occupied by artisans
and petty tradesmen, so the Neustadt is the principal business
quarter of the city, containing the chief public buildings and the
principal hotels. The main arteries of the city are the Zeil, a
broad street running from the Friedberger Anlage to the Ross-
markt and thence continued, by the Kaiserstrasse, through the
fine new quarter built after 1872, to the magnificent principal
railway station; and the Steinweg and Goethestrasse, which
lead by the Bockenheimer Tor to the Bockenheimer Landstrasse,
a broad boulevard intersecting the fashionable residential suburb
to the N.W.
Churches.— The principal ecclesiastical building in Frankfort
is the cathedral (Dom). Built of red sandstone, with a massive
tower terminating in a richly ornamented cupola and 300 ft. in
height, it is the most conspictiousobject in the city. Thisbuilding,
in which the Roman emperors were formerly elected and, since
1 56 a, crowned, was founded in 85 2 by King Louis the German, and
was later known as the Salvator Kirche. After its reconstruction
(1 235-1239), it was dedicated to St Bartholomew. From this
period date the nave and the side aisles; the choir was completed
in 131 5-1338 and the long transepts in 1346-1354. The cloisters
were rebuilt in 1348-1447, and the electoral chapel, on the south
of the choir, was completed in 1355. The tower was begun in
1415, but remained unfinished. On the 15th of August 1867
the tower and roof were destroyed by fire and considerable
damage was done to the rest of the edifice. The restoration
was immediately taken in hand, and the whole work was finished
in 1881, including the completion of the tower, according to the
plans of the 15th century architect, Hans von Ingelbeim. In
the interior is the tomb of the German king Gttnther of Schwarz-
burg, who died in Frankfort in 1349, and that of Rudolph, the
last knight of Sachsenhausetk, who died in 1371. Among the
other Roman Catholic churches are the Leonhardskirche, the
Ltebfrauenkirche (church of Our Lady) and the Deutschordens-
kirche (14th century) in Sachsenhausen. The Leonhardskirche
(restored in 1882) was begun in 1219, it is said on the site of the
palace of Charlemagne. It was originally a three-aisled basilica,
but is now a five-aisled Halltnkircke; the choir was added in
1314. It has two Romanesque towers. The Liebfrauenkirche
is first mentioned in 13x4 as a collegiate church; the nave was
consecrated in 134a The choir was added in 1 506-1 509 and the
whole church thoroughly restored in the second half of the 18th
century, when the tower was built (1770). Of the Protestant
churches the oldest is the Nikolaikirche, which dates from the
13th century, the fine cast-iron spire erected in 1843 had to be
taken down in 1001. The Paulskirche, the principal Evangelical
(Lutheran) church, built between 1786 and 1833, is a red sand-
stone edifice of no architectural pretensions, but interesting
as the seat of the national parliament of 1848-1849. The
Katharinenkirche, built 1678-1681 on the site of an older build-
ing, is famous in Frankfort history as the place where the first
Protestant sermon was preached in 1522. Among the more
noteworthy of the newer Protestant churches are the Peterskirche
(1892-1895) in the North German Renaissance style, with a
tower 256 ft. high, standing north from the Zeil, the Cbristus-
kirche (1883) and the Lutherkirche (1889-1893). An English
church-,- in Early English Gothic style, situated adjacent to the *
Bockenheimer Landstrasse, was completed and consecrated
in 1906.
Of the five synagogues, the chief (or Hauptsynagoge), lying
in the Bdrnestrasse, is an attractive building of red sandstone
in the Moorish-Byzantine style.
Public Buildtngs.—Oi the secular buildings in Frankfort, the
Roraer, for almost five hundred years the Rathaus (town hall)
of the city, is of prime historical interest. It lies on the Rdmer-
berg, a square flanked by curious medieval houses. It is first
mentioned in 1322, was bought with the adjacent hostelry in
1405 by the city and rearranged as a town ball, and has since,
from time to time, been enlarged by the purchase of adjoining
patrician houses, forming a complex oT buildings of various
styles and dates surmounted by a clock tower. The facade was
rebuilt (1896-1898) in late Gothic style. It was here, in the
Wahlaimmer (or election-chamber) that the electors or their
plenipotentiaries chose the German kings, and here in the
Kaisersaal (emperors' hall) that the coronation festival was held,
at which the new king or emperor dined with the electors after
having shown himself from the balcony to the people. The
Kaisersaal retained its antique appearance until 1843, when,
as also again in 1004, it was restored and redecorated; it is now
furnished with a series of modern paintings representing the
German kings and Roman emperors from Charlemagne to
Francis II., in all fifty-two, and a statue of the first German
emperor, William I. New municipal buildings adjoining the
" Rfimer " on the north side were erected in 1000-1903 in German
Renaissance style, with a handsome tower 220 ft. high; beneath
it is a public wine-cellar, and on the first storey a grand municipal
hall. The palace of the princes of Thorn and Taxis in the
Eschenhejmer Gasse was built (1732-1741) from the designs of
Robert de Cotte, chief architect to Louis XIV. of France. From
1806 to 1810 it was the residence of Karl von Dalbcrg, prince-
primate of the Confederation of the Rhine, with whose dominions
Frankfort had been incorporated by Napoleon. From 1816 to
1866 it was the seat of the German federal diet. It is now
annexed to the principal post office (built 1892-1894), which lies
close to it on the Zeil. The Saalhof , built on the site of the palace
erected by Louis the Pious in 822, overlooking the Main, has
a chapel of the 12th century, the substructure dating from
Carolingian times. This is the oldest building in Frankfort.
The facade of the Saalhof in the Saalgasse dates from 1604, the
southern wing with the two gables from 1715101717. Of numer-
ous other medieval buildings may be mentioned theLeinwandhaus
(linendrapers* hall), a 15th century building reconstructed in
1892 as a municipal museum. In the Grosser Hrrschgraben is
the Goethehaus, a 16th century building which came into the
possession of the Goethe family in 1733. Here Goethe lived
from his birth in 1749 until 1 775. In 1863 the house was acquired
by the FreiesdeutscheHochstift and was opened to the public It
has been restored, from Goethe's account of it in Dichtumg und
Wahrheit, as nearly as possible to its condition in the poet's day,
and is now connected with a Gocthemuseum (1897), with archives
and a library of 25,000 volumes representative of the Goethe
period of German literature.
t Literary and Scientific Institutions.— Tew cities of the same
size as Frankfort are so richly endowed with literary, scientific
and artistic institutions, or possess so many handsome buildinp
appropriated to their service. The opera-bouse, erected near the
Bockenheimer Tor in 1873-1880, is a magnificent edifice in the
style of the Italian Renaissance and ranks among the finest
theatres in Europe. There are also a theatre (Schauspielkaus)
in modern Renaissance style (1800-100 a), devoted especially
to drama, a splendid concert hall (SaaJbau), opened in 1861,
and numerous minor places of theatrical entertainment. The
public picture gallery in the Saalhof possesses works by Haw
Holbein, Grunewald, Van Dyck, Teniers, Van der Neer, Hats
von Kulmbach, Lucas Cranach and other masters. The Slldd
Art Institute (StMdel'sches Kunstinstitut) in Sachsenhausen,
founded by the banker J. F. Stidd in 2816, contain* a picture
gallery and a cabinet of engravings extremely rich in works of
German art. The municipal library, with 300,000
FRANKFORT-ON-MAIN
*9
boasts among its rarer treasures a Gutenberg Bible printed at
Mains between 1450 and 1455, another on parchment dated
1462, the InstihUiones Justiniani (Mains, 1468), the Tkcucrdank,
with woodcuts by Hans Schaufelein, and numerous valuable
autographs. It also contains a fine collection of coins. The
Bethmann Museum owes its celebrity principally to Dannecker's
" Ariadne/' but it also possesses the original plaster model of
Tborwaldseo'B " Entrance of Alexander the Great into Babylon."
There may also be mentioned the Industrial Art Exhibition of
the Polytechnic Association and two conservatories of music
Among the scientific institutions the first place belongs to the
Sendtenbcrg'sckes naturkistoriscke Museum, containing valuable
collections of birds and shells. Next must be mentioned the
Kunstgewerbe (museum of arts and crafts) and the Musical
Museum, with valuable MSS. and portraits. Besides the
municipal library (Stadtbibliothek) mentioned above there are
three others of importance, the Rothschild, the Senckenberg
snd the Jewish library (with a well-appointed reading-room).
There are numerous high-grade schools, musical and other learned
societies and excellent hospitals. The last include the large
■unkspal infirmary and the Scnckcnberg'sches Stift, a hospital
and almshouses founded by a doctor, Johann C. Senckenberg
(d. 177a). The Royal Institute for experimental therapeutics
(KiuigiJnsitimtfUr erpcrimentdle Tlterapie), moved to Frankfort
hi 1809, attracts numerous foreign students, and is especially
concerned with the study of bacteriology and scrums.
Bridges. — Seven bridges (of which two are railway) cross the
Main. The most interesting of these is the Alte Mainbrucke,
a red sandstone structure of fourteen arches, 815 ft. long, dating
from the 14th century. On it arc a mill, a statue of Charlemagne
and an iron crucifix surmounted by a gilded cock. The latter
commemorates, according to tradition, the fowl which was the
first Irving being to cross the bridge and thus fell a prey to the
devil, who in hope of a nobler victim had sold his assistance
to the architect. Antiquaries, however, assert that it probably
marks the spot where criminals were in olden times flung into
the river. Other bridges are the Obermainbrucke of five iron
arches, opened in 1878; an iron foot (suspension) bridge, the
Umermainbrucke; the Wilhelrosbrucke, a fine structure, which
bom 1849 to 1890 served as a railway bridge and was then
opened as a road bridge; and two new iron bridges at Gutleuthof
and Niedemd (below the city), which carry the railway traffic
from the south to the north bank of the Main, where all lines
tou v er ge in a central station of the Prussian state railways.
This station, which was built in 1885-1888 and has replaced
thethree stations belonging to private companies, which formerly
stood in juxtaposition on the Anlagen (or promenades) near the
Mainxer Tor, bes some half-mile to the west. The intervening
ground upon which the railway lines and buildings stood was
arid for building sites, the sum obtained being more than sufficient
Is cover the cost of the majestic central terminus (the third
Ingest in the world), which, in addition to spacious and handsome
sifts for passenger accommodation, has three glass-covered spans
if 180 ft. width each. Yet the exigencies of traffic demand
farther extensions, and another large station was in 1909 in
process of construction at the east end of the city, devised to
receive the local traffic of lines running eastward, while a through
station for the north to south traffic was projected on a site
farther west of the central terminus.
Frankfort lies at the junction of lines of railway connecting
it directly with all the important cities of south and central
Germany. Here cross and unite the lines from Berlin to Basel,
from Cologne to Wtirzburg and Vienna, from Hamburg and
Casset, and from Dresden and Leipzig to France and Switzerland
The river Main has been dredged so as to afford heavy barge
lame with the towns of the upper Mam and with the Rhine,
and cargo boats load and unload alongside its busy quays
A well-devised. system of electric tramways provides for local
ocamumcation within the city and with the outlying suburbs.
Trade, Commerce and Industries — Frankfort has always
ben more of a commercial than an industrial town, and though
ef late years it has somewhat lost its pre-eminent position as
a banking centre it has counterbalanced the loss in increased
industrial development. The suburbs of Sachsenhausen and
Bockenhcim have particularly developed considerable industrial
activity, especially in publishing and printing, brewing and the
manufacture of quinine. Other sources of employment are the
cutting of hair for making hats, the production of fancy goods,
type, machinery, soap and perfumery, ready-made dothing,
chemicals, electro-technical apparatus, jewelry and metal wares.
Market gardening is extensively carried on in the neighbourhood
and cider largely manufactured. There are two great fairs held
in the town, — thcOstermessc, or spring fair, and the Herbstmcsse,
or autumn fair. The former, which was the original nucleus
of all the commercial prosperity of the city, begins on the second
Wednesday bcfore.Easter; and the latter on the second Wednes-
day before the 8th of September. They last three weeks, and the
last day save one, called the Nickdchestag, is distinguished by
the influx of people from the neighbouring country. The trade in
leather is of great and growing importance. A horse fair has
been held twice a year since 1862 under the patronage of the
agricultural society; and the wool market was reinstituted
in 1872 by the German Trade Society (Deutschcr Handelsverein)
Frankfort has long been famous as one of the principal banking
centres of Europe, and is now only second to Berlin, in this
respect, among German cities, and it is remarkable for the large
business that is*done in government stock. In the 17th century
the town was the seat of a great book-trade; but it has long
been distanced in this department by Leipzig. The Frankfurter
Journal was founded in 161 5, the Postseitung in 16x6, the Neue
Frankfurter Zeitung in 1859, and the Frankfurter Fresse in 1866.
Of memorial monuments the largest and most elaborate in
Frankfort is that erected in 1858 in honour of the early German
printers. It was modelled by Ed. von der Launitz and executed
by Herr von Krcis. The statues of Gutenberg, Fust and
Schoffer form a group on the top; an ornamented frieze presents
medallions of a number of famous printers; below these are
figures representing the towns of Mainz, Strassburg, Venice
and Frankfort; and on the corners of the pedestal are allegorical
statues of theology, poetry, science and industry. The statue
of Goethe (1844) in the Goetheplatz is by Ludwig von Schwan-
thaler. The Schiller statue, erected in 1863, is the work of a
Frankfort artist, Johann Diclmann. A monument in the
Bockcnheim Anlage, dated 1837, preserves the memory of
Guiollett, the burgomaster, to whom the town is mainly indebted
for the beautiful promenades which occupy the site of the old
fortifications; and similar monuments have been reared to
Senckenberg (1863), Schopenhauer, Klemens Brentano the poet
and Samuel Thomas SOmmerring (1 755-1830), the anatomist and
inventor of an electric telegraph. In the Opcrnplatz is an
equestrian statue of the emperor Wilhelm I. by B use her.
Cemeteries. — The new cemetery (opened in 1828) contains
the graves of Arthur Schopenhauer and Fcuerbach, of Passavant
the biographer of Raphael, Ballcnberger the artist, Hessemcr
the architect, Stimmerring, and Johann Fricdnch Bdhmer
the historian. The Bethmann vault attracts attention by
three bas-reliefs from the chisel of Thorwaldsen; and the
Rckhenbach mausoleum is a vast pile designed by Hessemer
at the command of William II. of Hesse, arid adorned with
sculptures by Zwcrger and von der Lausitz. In the Jewish
section, which is walled off from the rest of the burying-ground,
the most remarkable tombs are those of the Rothschild family.
Parks.— In addition to the park in the south-western district,
Frankfort possesses two delightful pleasure grounds, which
attract large numbers of visitors, the Palmengarten in the
west and the zoological garden in the cast of the city The
former is remarkable for the collection of palms purchased in
1868 from the deposed duke Adolph of Nassau.
Government. — The present municipal constitution of the
city dates from 1867 and presents some points of difference
from the ordinary Prussian system. Bismarck was desirous of
giving the city, in view of its former freedom, a more liberal
constitution than is usual in ordinary cases. Formerly fifty-four
representatives were elected, but provision was made (in the
20
FRANKFORT-ON-MAIN
constitution) for increasing the number, and they at present
number sixty -four, elected for six years. Every two years
a third of the number retire, but they are eligible for re-election.
These sixty-four representatives elect twenty town-councillors,
ten of whom receive a salary and ten do not. The chief burgo-
master (Oberburgcrmeister) is nominated by the emperor for
twelve years, and the second burgomaster must receive the
emperor's approval.
Since 1885 the city has been supplied with water of excellent
quality from the Stadtwald, Goldstein and Hinkebtein, and
the favourable sanitary condition of the town is seen in the low
death rate.
Population. — The population of Frankfort has steadily
increased since the beginning of the 19th century; it amounted
in 1817 to 41,458; ('840) 55,269, (1864) 77.372; (187 1)
59.^65, (1875) 103,136; (1890) 179.985, and (1905), including
the incorporated suburban districts, J3 4,951, of whom 175,909
were Protestants, 88,457 Roman Catholics and 21,974 Jews.
History. — Excavations around the cathedral have incontest-
ably proved that Fmnkfort-on-Main (Trajcctum ad Uocnum)
was a settlement in Roman times and was probably founded
in the 1st century of the Christian era. It may thus be accounted
one of the earliest German — the so-called " Roman " — towns.
Numerous places in the valley of the Main are mentioned in
chronicles anterior to the time that Frankfort is first noticed.
Disregarding popular tradition, which connects the origin of the
town with a legend that Charlemagne, when retreating before
the Saxons, was safely conducted across the river by a doe, it
may be asserted that the first genuine historical notice of the
town occurs in 793, when Einhard, Charlemagne's biographer,
tells us that he spent the winter in the villa Frankonovurd.
Next year there is mention more than once of a royal palace
here, and the early importance of the place is indicated by the
fact that in this year it was chosen as the seat of the ecclesiastical
council by which image-worship was condemned. The name
Frankfort is also found in several official documents of Charle-
magne's reign; and from the notices that occur in the early
chronicles and charters it would appear that the place was the
most populous at least of the numerous villages of the Main
district. During the Carolingian period it was the seat of no
fewer than 16 imperial councils or colloquies. The town was
probably at first built on an island in the river. It was originally
governed by the royal officer or actor dotniukus, and down even
to the close of the Empire it remained a purely imperial or
royal town. It gradually acquired various privileges, and by
the close of the 14th century the only mark of dependence was
the payment of a yearly tax. Louis the Pious dwelt more
frequently at Frankfort than his father Charlemagne had done,
and about 823 he built himself a new palace, the basis of the later
Saalhof In S22 and 823 two great diets were held in the palace,
and at the former there were present deputies from the eastern
Slavs, the Avars and the Normans. The place continued to
be a favourite residence with Louis the German, who died there
in .S76, and was the capital of the East Prankish kingdom.
By the rest of the Carolingian kings it was less frequently visited,
and this neglect was naturally greater during the period of the
Saxon and. Salic emperors from 919 to 1137. Diets, however,
were held in the town in 951, 1015, 1069 and 1109, and councils
in 1000 and 1006 From a privilege of Henry IV , in 2074,
granting the city of Worms freedom from tax in their trade
with several royal cities, it appears that Frankfort was even
then a place of some commercial importance.
Under the Hohenstaufcns many brilliant diets were held
within its walls. That of 1147 saw, also, the first election of a
German king at Frankfort, in the person of Henry, son of Conrad
HI. But as the father outlived the son, it was Frederick I ,
Barbarossa, who was actually the first reigning king to be
elected here (in 1153). With the beginning of the 13th century
the municipal constitution appears to have taken definite shape.
The chief official was the royal bailiff (SchultJteiss), who is first
mentioned in 1 193, and whose powers were subsequently enlarged
by the abolition, in 1219, of the office of the royal Vogt or advo-
catus. About this time a body of SchdJJen (»cabi*i, Jurats),
fourteen in number, was formed to assist in the control of
municipal affairs, and with their appointment the first step was
taken towards civic representative government. Soon, however,
the activity of the Schdffen became specifically confined to the
determination of legal disputes, and in their place a new body
(Collegium) of counsellors— Raltna*ntn—aho fourteen in number,
was appointed for the general administration of local matters.
In 1311, the two burgomasters, now chiefs of the municipality,
take the place of the royal SdtuilMeiss. In the 13th century,
the Frankfort Fair, which is first mentioned in 1x50, and the
origin of which must have been long anterior to that date, is
referred to as being largely frequented. No fewer than ro new
churches were erected in the years from is 20 to 1370. It was
about the same period, probably in 1240, that the Jews first
settled in the town. In the contest which Louis the Bavarian
maintained with the papacy Frankfort sided with the emperor,
and it was consequently placed under an interdict for 20 years
from 2329 to 1349. On Louis'.death it refused to accept the papal
conditions of pardon, and only yielded to Charles IV., the papal
nominee, when Gunlher of Schwarzburg thought it more prudent
to abdicate in his favour. Charles granted the city a full amnesty,
and confirmed its liberties and privileges.
By the famous Golden Bull of 2356 Frankfort was declared
the scat of the imperial elections, and it still preserves an official
contemporaneous copy of the original document as the most
precious of the eight imperial bulls in its possession. From the
date of the bull to the close of the Empire Frankfort retained the
position of " Wahlstadt," and only five of the two-and-lwenty
monarchs who ruled during that period were elected elsewhere.
In 1388-1389 Frankfort assisted the South German towns
in their wars with the princes and nobles (the SUdtckrieg),
and in a consequent battle with the troops of the Palatinate,
the town banner was lost and carried to Kronberg, where it was
long preserved as a trophy. On peace being concluded in 1391,
the town had to pay 12,562 florins, and this brought it into
great financial difficulties. In the course of the next 50 years
debt was contracted to the amount of 126,772 florins. The diet
at Worms in 1495 chose Frankfort as the seat of the newly
instituted imperial chamber, or " RekkskommergerUht" and
it was not till 1527 that the chamber was removed to Spires.
At the Reformation Frankfort heartily joined the Protestant
party, and in consequence it was hardly treated both by the
emperor Charles V. and by the archbishop of Mains. It refused
to subscribe the Augsburg Recess, but at the same time it was
not till 1536 that it was persuaded to join the League of Schmal-
kalden. On the failure of this confederation it opened its gates
to the imperial general BUren on the 29th of December 1546,
although he had passed by the city, which he considered too
strong for the forces under his command. The emperor was
merciful enough to leave it in possession of its privileges, but he
inflicted a fine of 80,000 gold gulden, and until October 1547
the citizens had to endure the presence of from 8000 to 10,000
soldiers. This resulted in a pestilence which not only lessened
the population, but threatened to give the death-blow to the great
annual fairs; and at the close of the war it was found that it
had cost the city no less than 228,931 gulden. In 1552 Frankfort
was invested for three weeks by Maurice of Saxony, who was
still in arms against the emperor Charles V., but it continued
to hold out till peace was concluded between the principal
combatants. Between 16 12 and 1616 occurred the great
Fettmilch insurrection, perhaps the most remarkable episode
in the internal history of Frankfort. The magistracy had beet
acquiring more and more the character of an oligarchy; ail
power was practically in the hands of a few closely-related
families; and the gravest peculation and malversation took
place without hindrance. The ordinary citizens were roused t»
assert their rights, and they found a leader in Vincenz Fettmilcfc,
who carried the contest, to dangerous excesses, but lacked
ability to bring it to a successful issue. An imperial cornmisfion
was ultimately appointed, and the three principal culprits and
several of their associates were executed in 1616. It was not UK
FRANKFORT-ON-ODER— FRANKINCENSE
21
1801 that the list mouldering head of the Fettmilch company
dropped unnoticed from the Rententurm, tlie old tower near
the bridge. In the words of Dr Kricgk, Gcsckkkte von Frankfurt,
(1871), the insurrection completely destroyed the political
power of the gilds, gave new strength to the supremacy of
the patriciate, and brought no further advantage to the rest of
the citizens than a few improvements in the organisation and
administration of the magistracy. The Jews, who had been
attacked by the popular party, were solemnly reinstated by
imperial command in all their previous privileges, 'and received
full compensation for their losses.
During the Thirty Years' War Frankfort did not escape.
In 163 1 Gustavus Adolphus garrisoned it with 600 men, who
remained in possession till they were expelled four years later
by the imperial general Lamboy. In 1792 the citizens had to
pay 2,000,000 gulden to the French general C us Line; and in
1796 KJeber exacted 8,000,000 francs. The independence of
Frankfort was brought to an end in 1806, on the formation of
the Confederation of the Rhine; and in 1810 it was made the
capital of the grand-duchy of Frankfort, which had an area of
3215 sq.m. with 302,100 inhabitants, and was divided into the
four districts of Frankfort, Aschaffcnburg, Fulda and Hanau.
Oa the rcconstitution of Germany in 181 5 it again became a free
city, and in the following year it was decbrcd the scat of the
German Confederation. In April 1S33 occurred what is known
as the Frankfort Insurrection (Frankfurter Attentat), in which
a number of insurgents led by Georg Bunscn attempted to break
sp the diet. The city joined the German Zollverein in 1836.
During the revolutionary period of 1848 the people of Frankfort,
where the united German parliament held its sessions, took a
chief part in political movements, and the streets of the town
were more than once the scene of conflict. In the war of 1866
they were on the Austrian side. On the 16th of July the Prussian
troops, under General Vogel von Falkcnstein. entered the town,
and on the 18th of October it was formally incorporated with
the Prussian state. A fine of 6,000,000 florins was exacted.
In 1871 the treaty which concluded the Franco-German War
wis signed in the Swan Hotel by Prince Bismarck and Jules
Favre, and it is consequently known as the peace of Frankfort.
FRANKFORT-ON-ODER, a town of Germany, in the Prussian
province of Brandenburg, 50 m. S.E. from Berlin on the main
be of railway to Breslau and at the junction of lines to Custrin,
rosea and Grossenhain. Pop. (1005) 64,943. The town proper
is on the left bank of the river Oder and is connected by a stone
lodge (replacing the old historical wooden structure) 900 ft.
l—g, with the suburb of Damm. The town is agreeably situated
tod has broad and handsome streets, among them the " Linden,"
1 spacious avenue. Above, on the western side, and partly lying
am the site of the old ramparts, is the residential quarter, consisting
nainly of villas and commanding a fine prosf>ect of the Oder
valley. Between this suburb and the town lies the park, in
wnkh is a monument to the poet Ew.ild Christian von Kleist,
who died here of wounds received in the battle of Kuncrsdorf.
DBg the more important public buildings must be noticed
the Evangelical Marienkirchc (Obcrkirchc), a handsome brick
edifice of the 13th century with five aisles, the Roman Catholic
church, the Rathhaus dating from 1607, and bearing on its
Sfuthem gable the device of a member of the Hanscatic League,
the government offices and the theatre. The university of
Frankfort, founded in 1506 by Joachim I., elector of Branden-
barg. was removed to Breslau in 181 1, and the academical
holdings are now occupied by a school. To compensate it for
the Ion of us university, Frankfort-op-Oder was long the seat
of the court of appeal for the province, but of this it was deprived
in 1879. There arc several handsome public monuments,
notably that to Duke Leopold of Brunswick, who was drowned
in the Oder while attempting to save life, on the 27th of April
17S5. The town has a large garrison, consisting of nearly all
arms. Its industries are considerable, including the manufacture
of machinery, metal ware, chemicals, paper, leather and sugar.
Situated on the high road from Berlin to Silesia, and having an
extensive system of water communication by means of the Oder
and its canals to the Vistula and the Elbe, and being an important
railway centre, it has a lively export trade, which is further
fostered by its three annual fairs, held respectively at Reminisccre
(the second Sunday in Lent), St Margaret's day and at Martin*
mas. In the neighbourhood are extensive coal fields.
Frankfort-on-the-Odcr owes its origin and name to a settle-
ment of Franconian merchants here, in the 13th century, on
land conquered by the margrave of Brandenburg from the Wends.
In 1253 it was raised to the rank of a town by the margrave
John I. and borrowed from Berlin the Magdeburg civic con-
stitution. In 1379 it received from Ring Sigismund, then
margrave of Brandenburg, the right to free navigation of the
Oder, and from 1368 to about 1450 it belonged to the Hanseatic
League. The university, which is referred to above, was
opened by the elector Joachim I. in 1506, was removed in 1516
to Kottbus and restored again to Frankfort in 1539, at which
date the Reformation was introduced. It was dispersed during
the Thirty Years' War and again restored by the Great Elector,
but finally transferred to Breslau in iSii.
Frankfort has suffered much from the vicissitudes of war
In the 1 $th century it successfully withstood sieges by the
Hussites (1429 and 1432), by the Poles (1450) and by the duke
of Sagan (1477)- In the Thirty Years' War it was successively
taken by Gustavus Adolphus (1631), by Wallenstcin (1633), by
the elector of Brandenburg (1634). and again by the Swedes,
who held it from 1640 to 1644. During the Seven Years' War
it was taken by the Russians (1759) In 1812 it was occupied
by the French, who remained till March 1813, when the Russians
marched in
See K. R Hausen, Gesckichte der Universitdt und Stadt Frankfurt
(1806), and Bicdcr und Gurnik. Bitder aus da Geschichte der Stadt
Frank) urt-an-der-Odcr (1898).
FRANKINCENSE, 1 or Oljba.wm* (Gr. \i0arw6s, later 9ixA\
Lat., Ins or thus; Hcb., lebonak;* Ar., lulJn;* Turk., ghyunluk;
Hind., ganda-birosa*), a gum-rosin obtained from certain species
of trees of the genus Bosuillia, and natural order Burscraccae.
The members of the genus are possessed of the following
characters: — Bark often papyraceous; leaves deciduous, com-
pound, alternate and imparipinnatc, with leaflets serrate or
entire; flowers in racemes or panicles, white, green, yellowish
or pink, having a small persistent, 5-dentatc calyx, 5 petals,
10 stamens, a sessile 3 to 5-chambcrcd ovary, a long style, and
a 3-lobcd stigma; fruit trigonal or pentagonal; and seed
compressed. Sir George Bird wood {Trans. Lin. Soc. xxviL,
1 Stephen Skinner, M.D {FAymologicon liiiguac Anglicanat, Lond.,
1671). pives the derivation : " h rankmccnse.Thus, q.d. Inccn?urn (i.e.
Thus Libcre seu Liberalitcr, ut in sacri* officiis par est, adolcndum."
■ " Sic olibanum dixerc pro thure ex Graeco 6 M0a*o! "(Salmasius,
C. 5. Plinianae excrci tat tones, t. ii. p. 926, b. F., Traj. ad Rhcn..
1689 fol. J. So also Fuchs (Op. dtdact. pars. ii. p. 43, 1604 fol.),
" Omcinis non sine risu cruditorum, Graeco articulo adjecto, Olibanus
vocatur." The term olibauo was used in ecclesiastical l,af in as early
as the pontificate of Benedict IX., in the nth century. (See Ferd.
Ughellus, Italia sacra, torn. i. 108, D., Vcn., 1717 fol.)
^So designated from its whiteness (J. G. Stuck! us, Saeror. ei
sacrifu. gent, descrip., p. 79, Lucd. Bat., 1695, fol.: Kitto, CycL
Bibl. Lit. ii. p. 806, 1870); cf. Lnben, the Somali name for cream
(R. F. Burton, First Footsteps in E. Africa, p. 178. 1856).
4 Written Launn by Garcwis da Horta (Aromat. et simpt. medica-
ment, hist., C. Cinsii Atrebatis Exoticorum lib. sept., p. 1*7, 1605,
fol.), and stated to have been derived by the Arabs from trie Greek
name, the term less commonly used by them being Conder: cf.
Sanskrit Kunda. According to Colcbrooke (in Asiatick Res. ix.
P- 379. i$07), the Hindu writers on Materia Mcdica use for the resin
of BosieeUia tkurifera the designation Cunduru.
■ A term applied also to the resinous exudation of Pinus hngifolia
(see Dr E- J. Waring, Pharmacopoeia of Iujiia, p. 52. Lond., 1868).
22
FRANKINCENSE
1871) distinguishes five species of Boswellia: (A) B. thurifera,
Colebr. (B. glabra and B. serrate, Roxb.), indigenous to the
mountainous tracts of central India and the Coromandel coast,
and B. papyri/era (Pldsslea ftoribunda, Endl.) of Abyssinia,
which, though both thuriferous, are not known to yield any
of the olibanura of commerce; and (6) B. Prereana (see
Eleih, vol. x. p. 259), B. Bhua-Dajiana, and B. Carlerii, the
" Yegaar," " Mohr Add," and " Mohr Madow " of the Somali
country, in East Africa, the last species including a variety, the
" Maghrayt d'Sheehaz " of Hadramaut, Arabia, all of which
are sources of true frankincense or olibanum. The trees on the
Somali coast are described by Captain G. 6. Kempthorne as
growing, without soil, out of polished marble rocks, to which they
are attached by a thick oval mass of substance resembling a
mixture of lime and mortar: the purer the marble the finer
appears to be the growth of the tree. The young trees, he
states, furnish the most valuable gum, the older yielding merely
a clear glutinous fluid resembling copal varnish. 1 To obtain
the frankincense a deep incision is made in the trunk of the tree,
and below it a narrow strip of bark 5 in. in length is peeled off.
When the milk-like juice ("spuma pinguis," Pliny) which
exudes has hardened by exposure to the atmosphere, the incision
is deepened. In about three months the resin has attained the
required degree of consistency. The season for gathering lasts
from May until the first rains in September. The large clear
globules are scriped off into baskets, and the inferior quality
that has run do *n the tree is collected separately. The coast
of south Arabia is yearly visited by parties of Somalis, who pay
the Arabs for the privilege of collecting frankincense. 1 In the
interior of the country about the plain of Dhofcr,* during the
south-west monsoon, frankincense and other gums are gathered
by the Beni Gurrah Bedouins, and might be obtained by them
in much larger quantities; their lawlessness, however, and the
lack of a safe place of exchange or sale are obstacles to the
development of trade. (See C. Y. Ward, The Gulf of 'Aden Pilot,
p. 117, 1863.) Much as formerly in the region of Sakhalites in
Arabia (the tract between Ras Makalla and Ras Agab), 4 described
by Arrian, so now on the sea-coast of the Somali country, the
frankincense when collected is stored in heaps at various stations.
Thence, packed in sheep- and goat-skins, in quantities of 20 to
40 lb, it is carried on camels to Berbera, for shipment eithex to
Aden, Makalla and other Arabian ports, or directly to Bombay. 1
At Bombay, like gum-acacia, it is assorted, and is then packed
for re-exportation to Europe, China and elsewhere.* Arrian re-
lates that it was an import of Barbarike on the Sinthus (Indus).
The idea held by several writers, including Niebuhr, that frank-
incense was a product of India, would seem to have originated
in a confusion of that drug with benzoin and other odoriferous
substances, and also in the sale of imported frankincense with
the native products of India. The gum resin of Boswellia
thurifera was described by Colebrooke (in Asiatick Researches,
ix. 381), and after him by Dr J. Fleming (lb. xL 158), as true
frankincense, or olibanum; from this, however, it differs in its
softness, and tendency to melt into a mass 7 (Birdwood, loc. cit. t
p. 146). It is sold in the village bazaars of Khandeish in India
under the name of Dup-Salai, ix. incense of the " Salai tree";
and according to Mr F. Porter Smith, M.B. (Contrib. towards
the Mat. Med. and Nat. Hist, of China, p. 162, Shanghai, 187 1),
is used as incense in China. The last authority also mentions
1 See " Appendix," vol. i. p. 419 of Sir W. C. Harris's Highland
of Aethiopia (2nd ed., Lond.. 1844) ; and Trans. Bombay Ceog. Soc.
olibanum as a reputed natural product of China. Bernhard
von Breydcnbach,' Ausonius, Floras and others, arguing, it
would seem, from its Hebrew and Greek names, concluded that
olibanum came from Mount Lebanon; and Chardin (Voyage
en Perse, &c, 1711) makes the statement that the frankincense
tree grows in the mountains of Persia, particularly Caramania.
Frankincense, or olibanum, occurs in commerce in semi-
opaque, round, ovate or oblong tears or irregular lumps, which
are covered externally with a white dust, the result of their
friction against one another. It has an amorphous internal
structure, a dull fracture; is of a yellow to yellowish-brown hue,
the purer varieties being almost colourless, or possessing a greenish
tinge, and has a somewhat bitter aromatic taste, and a balsamic
odour, which is developed by heating. Immersed in alcohol
it becomes opaque, and with water it yields an emulsion. It
contains about 72% of resin soluble in alcohol (Kurbatow);
a large proportion of gum soluble in water, and apparently
identical with gum arabie; and a small quantity of a colourless
inflammable essential oil, one of the constituents of which is
the body oliben, CioHi*. Frankincense burns with a bright
white flame, leaving an ash consisting mainly of calcium car-
bonate, the remainder being calcium phosphate, and the sulphate,
chloride and carbonate of potassium (Braconnot).' Good
frankincense, Pliny tells us, is recognized by its whiteness, size,
brittleness and ready inflammability. That which occurs in
globular drops is, he says, termed ' male frankincense " ; the
most esteemed, he further remarks, is in breast-shaped drops,
formed each by the union of two tears. 10 The best frankincense,
as we learn from Arrian, 11 was formerly exported from the neigh-
bourhood of Cape Elephant in Africa (the modern Ras Fiel); and
A. von Kremer, in his description of the commerce of the Red
Sea (Aegyptcn, &c, p. 185, ii. Theil, Leipzig, 1863), observes
that the African frankincense, called by the Arabs " asli," is of
twice the value of the Arabian " luban." Captain S. B. Miles
(loc. cit. t p. 64) states that the best kind of frankincense, known
to the Somali as " bedwi " or " sheheri," comes from the trees
14 Mohr Add " and " Mohr Madow " (vide supra), and from a
taller species of Boswellia, the " Boldo," and is sent to Bombay
for exportation to Europe; and that an inferior " mayeti," the
produce of the " Yegaar," is exported chiefly to Jeddah and
Yemen ports." The latter may possibly be what Niebuhr alludes
to as " Indian frankincense." M Gardaa da Horta, in asserting
the Arabian origin of the drug, remarks that the term " Indian "
is often applied by the Arabs to a dark-coloured variety. 14
According to Pliny (Nat. Hist. xiv. 1; d. Ovid, Fasti -i. 337
1 " Libanus igitur est mons redotattie ft sun me aromaticttatia>
nam ibi herbe odorifere crescunt. ibi etiam arbores thurifere coal*
scunt quarum gummi electum olibanum a medlds nuncupatur."—
Perigrinatio, p. 53 (1502, foL).
• See, on the chemistry of frankincense, Braconnot, A nm. da chimin ,
lxvui. (1808) pp. 60-69; Johnston, Phil. Trans. (1839), pp. 301-305; ,'
ar
erente
S). One
c-petfuiae," a
ex work, as being
dc Bretschnbdef,
Oi the Arabs, Ac,
;lacrvntt
neof tbt
*k=
xui. (1857), p. 136.
1 Cruttenden, Trans. Bombay Ceog. Soc. vii. (1846), p. 121 ; S. B.
Miles, J. Ceog. Soc. (1872).
' Or Dhafar. The incense of " Dofar " is alluded to by Camocns,
Os Lusiadas, x. 201.
• H. " ~
Arabtat
p. 296; and Mailer, Ceog. Craeci Minores, i. p. 278 (Paris, 1853V.
•J. Vaughan, Pharm. Journ. xii. (1853) pp. 227-229; and Ward,
op. cti. p. 97.
• Pereira, Elem. of Mat. Med. ii. pt. 2, p. 380 (4th ed., 1847).
' " Boswellia thurifera." . . . says Waring (Pharm. of India,
P- 5>)t " has been thought to yield East Indian olibanum, but there
is no reliable evidence of ill so doing."
r the Arabia *
Li n, as realising *■
hi; exported Aran &■
Ai % is roeaticmd 3
by Marco Polo, as also by Barbosa. (See Yule, op. ct/. ii. p. 377.) •»=
J. Raymond Wellstcd ( Travels to the City of the Caliphs, p. 173, Lond, "
4u r ^- ..>- . ^ , . „ . „ ~ ,8 4°) distinguishes two kinds of frankincense—" Afao/y," selling at ^"
S' J; P Br S e, i Comparative Geog. of the South-East Coast of $4 per cwt., and an inferior article fetching 20% leas. t
■ab», in J. Bombay Branch of R. Asiatic Soc. iii. {Jan. 1851). « " Es schcint, dass selbcr die Araber ihr eignes Rluehwerk aid* «_
**• «nH Mm!™- r.*». r.~,„. i#. MM . . « *.,a /n«— .o..\ hochschatzen;denndie Vomehraenin Jemen BrauchengemeioJrfitk .•_
indianisches Rauchwerk, ja eine grosse Menge Mastix von der ussl .^
Scio " (BcschreibuHg von Arabien, p. 143, Kopenh., 177a).
M " De Arabibus minus minim, qui nigricantem colorem, quo Una a=
Indicum praeditum esse vult Dioccoridea (lib. i. c 70], Iodaa ^_
plerumquc vocenf, ut ex Myrobalano nigro quern Indum ap
patet " (op. sup. cit. p, 157).
FRANKING— FRANKLAND
23
wtf, frankincense was not sacrifitiaUy employed in Trojan times.
It «■ used by the ancient Egyptians in their religious rites, but,
ss Herodotus teDs us (fi. 86), not in embalming. It constituted
a fourth part of the Jewish incense of the sanctuary (Ex. xxx.
54), and is frequently mentioned in the Pentateuch. With other
spices h was stored in a great chamber of the house of God at
Jerusalem (1 Chron. iz. 39, Neh. ziu. 5*9). On the sacrificial use
and import of frankincense and similar substances see Incekse.
In the Red Sea regions frankincense is valued not only for its
sweet odour when burnt, but as a masticatory; and blazing
lamps of it are not infrequently used for illumination instead of
ol lamps. Its fumes are an excellent insectifuge. As a medicine
it was in former times in high repute. Pliny (Nat. Hist. xxv. 82)
mentions it as an antidote to hemlock. Avicenna (ed.. Plempii,
fib. n. p. i6t, Lovanii, 1658, foL) recommends it for tumours,
nieces of the head and ears, affections of the breast, vomiting,
dysentery and fevers. In the East frankincense has been found
emeaciona aa an external application in carbuncles, blind boils
sad gangrenous sores, and as an internal agent is given in
Bonorrhoea. In China it was an old internal remedy for leprosy
and stroma, and is accredited with stimulant, tonic, sedative,
astringent and vulnerary properties. It is not used in modern
■wfirim, being destitute of any special virtues. (See Waring,
Pkarm. of India, p. 443, &c; and F. Porter Smith, op. cit. t p. 162.)
C o mmon frankincense or thus, Abictis resina, is the term
applied to a resin which exudes from fissures in the bark of the
Norway spruce fir, Abies aedsa, D.C.; when melted in hot
strained it constitutes " Burgundy pitch," Pix
The concreted turpentine obtained in the United States
~ risions in the trunk of a species of pine, Pinus
esasrolss, is also so designated. It is commercially known as
M scrape," and is similar to the French " galipot " or " barras."
f miwwi frtnMwr>n« i» *n ingredient in some ointments and
plasters, and on account of its pleasant odour when burned
has been used in incense as a substitute for olibanum. (See
Rnckiger and Hanbury, Pharmacvgraphia.) The " black frankin-
cense oil " of the Turks is staled by Hanbury (Science Papers,
0. 14s, 1876) to be liquid storax. (F. H. B.)
FBaWKIMO, a term used for the right of sending letters or
fostal packages free (Fr. franc) of charge. The privilege was
dtuned by the House of Commons in 1660 in " a Bill for erecting
lad rstaWtahfng a Post Office," their demand being that all
letters addressed to or sent by members during the session should
he carried free. The clause embodying this claim was struck
oat by the Lords, but with the proviso in the Act as passed
far the free carriage of all letters to and from the king and the
peat officers of state, and also the single inland letters of the
■embers of that present parliament during that session only.
It seems, however, that the practice was tolerated until 1764,
when by an act dealing with postage it was legalized, every peer
and each member of the House of Commons being allowed to
send free ten letters a day, not exceeding an ounce in weight,
to any part of the United Kingdom, and to receive fifteen. The
act did not restrict the privilege to letters either actually written
vy or to the member, and thus the right was very easily abused,
ssembers lending and receiving letters for friends, all that was
necessary being the signature of the peer or M.P. in the corner
of the envelope. Wholesale franking grew usual, and*M.P.'s
fTMTftirl their friends with envelopes already signed to be used
at any time. In 1837 the scandal had become so great that
stricter regulations came into force. The franker had to write
the fan address, to which he had to add his name, the post-town
•ad the day of the month; the letter had to be posted on the
day written or the following day at the latest, and in a post-town
net more than 20 m. from the place where the peer or M.P. was
then living. On the 1 oth of January z 840 parliamentary franking
wm abolished on the introduction of the uniform penny rate.
■ Lithe United States the franking privilege was first granted in
1 January 1776 to the soldiers engaged in the American War of
M Independence. The right was gradually extended till it included
3 assrly all officials and members of the public service. By special
2 ids the privilege was bestowed on presidents and their widows.
By an act of the 3rd of March 1845, franking was limited to the
president, vice-president, members and delegates in Congress and
postmasters, other officers being required to keep quarterly
accounts of postage and pay it from their contingent funds.
In 1 85 1 free exchange of newspapers was re-established. By an
act of the 3rd of March 1863 the privilege was granted the
president and his private secretary, the vice-president, chiefs of
executive departments, such heads of bureaus and chief clerks
as might be designated by the postmaster-general for official
letters only; senators and representatives in Congress for all
correspondence, senders of petitions to either branch of the
legislature, and to publishers of newspapers for their exchanges.
There was a limit as to weight. Members of Congress could also
frank, in matters concerning the federal department of agricul-
ture, " seeds, roots and cuttings," the weight to be fixed by the
postmaster-generaL This act remained in force till the 31st of
January 1873, when franking was abolished. Since 1875, by
sundry acts, franking for official correspondence, government
publications, seeds, &c, has been allowed to congressmen, ex-
congressmen (for 9 months after the close of their term) , congress-
men-elect and other government officials. By special acts of
1881, 1886, 190s, 1009, respectively, the franking privilege was
granted to the widows of Presidents Garfield, Grant, McKinley
and Cleveland.
FRAJTKL, LUDWIO AUGUST (1810-1804), Austrian poet.
He took part in the revolution of 1848, and his poems on liberty
had considerable vogue. His lyrics are among his best work.
He was secretary of the Jewish community in Vienna, and did a
lasting service to education by his visit to the Orient in 1856.
He founded the first modern Jewish school (the Von Ltmmel
Schule) in Jerusalem. His brilliant volumes Nock Jerusalem
describing his eastern tour have been translated into English,
as is the case with many of his poems. His collected poems
appeared in three volumes in 1880. (I. A.)
FRANKLAKD, SIR EDWARD (1825-1899), English chemist,
was born at Churchtown, near Lancaster, on the z8th of January
1825. After attending the grammar school at Lancaster he spent
six years as an apprentice to a druggist in that town. In 1845
he went to London and entered Lyon Playfair's laboratory,
subsequently working under R. W. Bunsen at Marburg. In
1847 he was appointed science-master at Queenwood school,
Hampshire, where he first met J. Tyndall, and in 1851 first
professor of chemistry at Owens College, Manchester. Return-
ing to London six years later he became lecturer in chemistry
at St Bartholomew's hospital, and in 1863 professor of chemistry
at the Royal Institution. From an early age he engaged in
original research with great success.
Analytical problems, such as the isolation of certain organic
radicals, attracted his attention to begin with, but he soon
turned to synthetical studies, and he was only about twenty-five
years of age when an investigation, doubtless suggested by the
work of his master, Bunsen, on cacodyl, yielded the interesting
discovery of the organo-metallic compounds. The theoretical
deductions which he drew from the consideration of these bodies
were even more interesting and important than the bodies
themselves. Perceiving a molecular isonomy between them and
the inorganic compounds of the metals from which they may be
formed, he saw their true molecular type in the oxygen, sulphur
or chlorine compounds of those metals, from which he held
them to be derived by the substitution of an organic group for
the oxygen, sulphur, &c. In this way they enabled him to over-
throw the theory of conjugate compounds, and they further led
him in 1852 to publish the conception that the atoms of each
elementary substance have a definite saturation capacity, so
that they can only combine with a certain limited number of
the atoms of other elements. The theory of valency thus founded
has dominated the subsequent development of chemical doctrine',
and forms the groundwork upon which the fabric of modem
structural chemistry reposes.
In applied chemistry Frankland's great work was in connexion
with water-supply. Appointed a member of the second royal
commission on the pollution of rivers in 1868, he was provided
24
by the government with a completely-equipped laboratory, in
which, for a period of six years, he carried on the inquiries
necessary for the purposes of that body, and was thus the means
of bringing to light an enormous amount of valuable information
respecting the contamination of rivers by sewage, trade-refuse,
&c, and the purification of water for domestic use. In 1865,
when he succeeded A. W. von Hofmann at the School of Mines,
he undertook the duty of making monthly reports to the registrar-
general on the character of the water supplied to London, and
these he continued down to the end of his life. At one time he
was an unsparing critic of its quality, but in later years he became
strongly convinced of its general excellence and wholesomeness.
His analyses were both chemical and bacteriological, and his
dissatisfaction with the processes in vogue for the former at
the time of his appointment caused him to spend two years in
devising new and more accurate methods. In 1859 he passed a
night on the very top of Mont Blanc in company with John
TyndalL One of the purposes of the expedition was to discover
whether the rate of combustion of a candle varies with the
density of the atmosphere in which it is burnt, a question which
was answered in the negative. Other observations made by
Frankland at the time formed the starting-point of a series of
experiments which yielded far-reaching results. ^'He noticed
that at the summit the candle gave a very poor light, and was
thereby led to investigate the effect produced on luminous
flames by varying the pressure of the atmosphere in which they
are burning. He found that pressure increases luminosity, so
that hydrogen, for example, the flame of which in normal
circumstances gives no light, burns with a luminous flame under
a pressure of ten or twenty atmospheres, and the inference he
drew was that the presence of solid particles is not the only
factor that determines the light-giving power of a flame.
Further, he showed that the spectrum of a dense ignited gas
resembles that of an incandescent liquid or solid, and he traced a
gradual change in the spectrum of an incandescent gas under
increasing pressure, the sharp lines observable when it is ex-
tremely attenuated broadening out to nebulous bands as the
pressure rises, till they merge in the continuous spectrum as the
gas approaches a density comparable with that of the liquid
state. An application of these results to solar physics in con-
junction with Sir Norman Lockyer led to the view that at least
the external layers of the sun cannot consist of matter in the
liquid or solid forms, but must be composed of gases or vapours.
Frankland and Lockyer were also the discoverers of helium.
In 1868 they noticed in the solar spectrum a bright yellow line
which did not correspond to any substance then known, and
which they therefore attributed to the then hypothetical element,
helium.
Sir Edward Frankland, who was made a K.C.B. in 1897, died
on the 9th of August 1809 while on a holiday at Golaa, Gud-
brandsdalen, Norway.
A memorial lecture delivered by Professor H. E. Armstrong before
the London Chemical Society on the 31st of October 1901 contained
many personal details of Frankland's life, together with a full
discussion of his scientific work; and a volume of Autobiographical
Sketches was printed for private circulation in 1902. His original
papers, down to 1877, were collected and published in that year as
Experimental Researches in Pure, Applied and Physical Chemistry.
FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN (1706-1790), American diplomat,
statesman and scientist, was born on the 17th of January 1706
in a house in Milk Street, opposite the Old South church, Boston,
Massachusetts. He was the tenth son of Josiah Franklin, and
the eighth child and youngest son of ten children borne by
Abiah Folgcr, his father's second wife. The elder Franklin was
born at Ecton in Northamptonshire, England, where the
strongly Protestant Franklin family may be traced back for
nearly four centuries. He had married young and had migrated
from Banbury to Boston, Massachusetts, in 1685. Benjamin
could not remember when he did not know how to read, and
when eight years old he was sent to the Boston grammar school,
being destined by his father for the church as a tithe of his sons.
He spent a year there and a year in a school for writing and
arithmetic, and then at the age of ten he was taken from school
FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN
to assist his father in the business of a tallow-chandler and soap-
boiler. In his thirteenth year he was apprenticed to his half-
brother James, who was establishing himself in the printing
business, and who in 1721 started the New England Courani,
one of the earliest newspapers in America.
Benjamin's tastes had at first been for the sea rather than the
pulpit; now they inclined rather to intellectual than to other
pleasures. At an early age he had made himself familiar with
The Pilgrim's Progress, with Locke, On the Human Understanding,
and with a volume of The Spectator. Thanks to his father's
excellent advice, he gave up writing doggerel verse (much of
which had been printed by his brother and sold on the streets)
and turned to prose composition. His success in reproducing
articles he had read in The Spectator led him to write an artidc 1
for his brother's paper, which he slipped under 1 the door of the
printing shop with no name attached, and which was printed and 1
attracted some attention. After repeated successes of the same 1
sort Benjamin threw off his disguise and contributed regularly i
to the Courani. When, after various journalistic indiscretions, 1
James Franklin in 1722 was forbidden to publish the Courani,
it appeared with Benjamin's name as that of the publisher and 1
was received with much favour, chiefly because of the cleverness
of his articles signed " Dr Janus," which, like those previously
signed "Mistress Silence Dogood," gave promise of "Poor
Richard." But Benjamin's management of the paper, and
particularly his free-thinking, displeased the authorities; the
relations of the two brothers gradually grew unfriendly, possibly,
as Benjamin thought, because of his brother's jealousy of his
superior ability; and Benjamin determined to quit his brother's
employ and to leave New England. He made his way first to
New York City, and then (October 1723) to Philadelphia, where
he got employment with a printer named Samuel Kramer. 1
A rapid composer and a workman full of resource, Franklin
was soon recognized as the master spirit of the shop. Sir William
Keith ( 1 680-1 749), governor of the province, urged him to start
in business for himself, and when Franklin had unsuccessfully
appealed to his father for the means to do so, Keith promised
to furnish him with what he needed for the equipment of a new
printing office and sent him to England to buy the materials.
Keith had repeatedly promised to send a letter of credit by the
ship on which Franklin sailed, but when the Channel was reached
and the ship's mails were examined no such letter was found.
Franklin reached London in December 1724, and found employ'
ment first at Palmer's, a famous printing house in Bartholomew
Close, and afterwards at Watts's Printing House. At Palmer's
he had set up a second edition of Wollaston's Religion of Nature
Delineated. To refute this book and to prove that there could,
be no such thing as religion, he wrote and printed a small pam-
phlet, A Dissertation on Liberty and Necessity, Pleasure and Pain,
which brought him some curious acquaintances, and of which
he soon became thoroughly ashamed. After a year and a half
in London, Franklin was persuaded by a friend named Deuham,
a Quaker merchant, to return with him to America and engage
in mercantile business; he accordingly gave up printing, but
a few days before sailing he received a tempting offer to remain
and give lessons in swimming— his feats as a swimmer having
given him considerable reputation — and he says that he might
have Consented " had the overtures been sooner made." He
reached Philadelphia in October 1726, but a few months later
Denham died, and Franklin was induced by large wages to
return to his old employer Keimer; with Keimer he quarrelled
repeatedly, thinking himself ill used and kept only to. train
apprentices until they could in some degree take his place.
of the
a new
diculed
hday.
romthe
Keimer
FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN
la 1738 Franklin and Hugh Meredith, a fellow-worker at
Earner's, set up in business for themselves; the capital being
famished by Meredith's father. In 1730 the partnership was
dissolved, and Franklin, through the financial assistance of two
friends, secured the sole management of the printing house.
In September 1729 he bought at a merely nominal price The
Penm iyh a nia G&ttte, a weekly newspaper which Keimer had
started nine months before to defeat a similar project of
Franklin's, and which Franklin conducted until 1 765. Franklin's
snperior management of the paper, his new type, " some spirited
remarks " on the controversy between the Massachusetts
assembly and Governor Burnet, brought his paper into immediate
notice, and his success both as a printer and as a journalist was
assved and complete. In 1731 he established in Philadelphia
one of the earliest circulating libraries in America (often said to
have been the earliest), and in 173a he published the first of his
Almanacks, under the pseudonym of Richard Saunders. These
" Poor Richard's Almanacks " were issued for the next twenty-five
years with remarkable success, the annual sale averaging 10,000
copies, and far exceeding the sale of any other publication in
the colonies.
Beginning in 1733 Franklin taught himself enough French,
Italian, Spanish and Latin to read these languages with some
ease. In 1736 he was chosen clerk of the General Assembly,
and served in this capacity until 1751. In 1737 be had been
appointed postmaster at Philadelphia, and about the same time
he organised the first police force and fire company in the colonics;
m 1749, after he bad written Proposals Relating to the Education
of Youth im Pensihania, be and twenty-three other citizens of
Philadelphia formed themselves into an association for the
purpose of establishing an academy, which was opened in 1751,
was chartered in 1753, and eventually became the University
of Pennsylvania; in 1727 he organized a debating club, the
M Junto," in Philadelphia, and later he was one of the founders of
the American Philosophical Society (1743; incorporated 1780);
he took the lead in the organization of a militia force, and in the
paving of the city streets, improved the method of street lighting,
and assisted in the founding of a city hospital (1751); in brief,
he gave the impulse to nearly every measure or project for the
welfare and prosperity of Philadelphia undertaken in his day.
Is 1751 be became a member of the General Assembly of Penn-
sylvania, in which he served for thirteen years. In 1753 he and
Wifiiaxn Hunter were put in charge of the post service of the
colonies, which he brought in the next ten years to a high
state of efficiency and made a financial success; this position
he held until 1774. He visited nearly every post office in the
colonies and increased the mail service between New York
and Philadelphia from once to three times a week in summer,
sad from twice a month to once a week in winter. When
ear with France appeared imminent in 1754, Franklin was
sent to the Albany Convention, where he submitted his plan for
colonial union (see Albany, N.Y.). When the home govern-
neat sent over General Edward Braddock 1 with two regiments
of British troops, Franklin undertook to secure the requisite
anmber of horses and waggons for the march against Ft.
Duquesae, and became personally responsible for payment to
the Pennsyivanians who furnished them. Notwithstanding the
alarm occasioned by Braddock's defeat, the old quarrel between
the proprietors of Pennsylvania and the assembly prevented
any adequate preparations for defence; " with incredible
Meanness " the proprietors had instructed their governors to
approve no act for levying the necessary taxes, unless the vast
estates of the proprietors were by the same act exempted. So
great was the confidence in Franklin in this emergency that early
in 1756 the g ov e rnor of Pennsylvania placed him in charge of the
north-western frontier of the province, with power to raise troops,
issue commissions and erect blockhouses; and Franklin remained
is the wilderness for over a month, superintending the building
t The meeting between Franklin, the type of the shrewd, cool
provincial, and Braddock, a blustering, blundering, drinking British
•ofcfier. it dramatically portrayed by Thackeray in the oth chapter
ef Hat Virginians.
25
of forts and watching the Indians. In February 1757 the
assembly, " finding the proprietary obstinately persisted in
manacling their deputies with instructions inconsistent not only
with the privileges of the people, but with the service of the crown,
resolvM to petition the king against them," and appointed
Franklin as their agent to present the petition. He arrived in .
London on the 97th of July 1757, and shortly afterwards, when,
at a conference with Earl Granville, president of the council,
the latter declared that " the King is the legislator of the colonies,"
Franklin in reply declared that the laws of the colonies were to be
made by their assemblies, to be passed upon by the king, and
when once approved were no longer subject to repeal or amend-
ment by the crown. As the assemblies, said be, could not make
permanent laws without the king's consent, " neither could he
make a law for them without theirs." This opposition of views
distinctly raised the issue between the home government and the
colonies. As to the proprietors Franklin succeeded in 1760 in
securing an understanding that the assembly should pass an
act exempting from taxation the unsurveyed waste lands of the
Penn estate, the surveyed waste lands being assessed at the usual
rate for other property of that description. Thus the proprietors
finally acknowledged the right of the assembly to tax their
estates.
The success of Franklin's first foreign mission was, therefore,
substantial and satisfactory. During this sojourn of five years in
England he had made many valuable friends outside of court
and political circles, among whom Hume, Robertson and Adam
Smith were conspicuous. In 1759, for his literary and more
particularly his scientific attainments, he received the freedom
of the city of Edinburgh and the degree of doctor of laws from
the university of St Andrews. He had been made a Master of
Arts at Harvard and at Yale in 1 7 53 , and at the college of William
and Mary in 1756; and in 1762 he received the degree of D.CX.
at Oxford. While in England he had made active use of his
remarkable talent for pamphleteering. In the clamour for peace
following the death of George II. (25th of October 1760), he was
for a vigorous prosecution of the war with France; he bad
written what purported to be a chapter from an old book written
by a Spanish Jesuit, On the M cants of Disposing the Euenrie to
Peace, which had a great effect; and in the spring of 1760 there
had been published a more elaborate paper written by Franklin
with the assistance of Richard Jackson, agent of Massachusetts
and Connecticut in London, entitled The Interest of Great Britain
Considered vrith Regard to Her Colonies, and the Acquisitions of
Canada and Guadeloupe (1760). This pamphlet answered the
argument that it would be unsafe to keep Canada because of the
added strength that would thus be given to any possible move-
ment for independence in the English colonies, by urging that
so long as Canada remained French there could be no safety
for the English colonies in North America, nor any permanent
peace in Europe. Tradition reports that this pamphlet had
considerable weight in determining the ministry to retain
Canada.
Franklin sailed again for America in August 1762, hoping to be
able to settle down in quiet and devote the remainder of his life
to experiments in physics. This quiet was interrupted, however,
by the " Paxton Massacre " (Dec. 14, 1763) — the slaughter of a
score of Indians (children, women and old men) at Lancaster,
Pennsylvania, by some young rowdies from the town of Paxton,
who then marched upon Philadelphia to kill a few Christian
Indians there. Franklin, appealed to by the governor, raised
a troop sufficient to frighten away the " Paxton boys," and for
the moment there seemed a possibility of an understanding
between Franklin and the proprietors. But the question of
taxing the estates of the proprietors came up in a new form,
and a petition from the assembly was drawn by Franklin,
requesting the king " to resume the government " of Penn-
sylvania. In the autumn election of 1764 the influence of the
proprietors was exerted against Franklin, and by an adverse
majority of 25 votes in 4000 he failed to be re-elected to the
assembly. The new assembly sent Franklin again to England as
its special agent to take charge of another petition for a change
a6
FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN
el government, which, however, came to nothing. Mattel*
el much greater consequence aoon demanded Franklin's
attention.
Early in 1764 Lord Grenville had informed the London agents
of the American colonies that he proposed to lay a portion of the
. burden left by the war with France upon the shoulders of the
colonists by means of a stamp duty, unless some other tax
equally productive and less inconvenient were proposed. The
natural objection of the colonies, as voiced, for example, by the
assembly of Pennsylvania, was that it was a cruel thing to tax
colonies already taxed beyond their strength, and surrounded
by enemies and exposed to constant expenditures for defence,
and that it was an indignity that they should be taxed by a
parliament in which they were not represented; at the same time
the Pennsylvania assembly recognized it as "their duty to
grant aid to the crown, according to their abilities, whenever
required of them in the usual manner." To prevent the intro-
duction of the Stamp Act, which he characterized as " the mother
of mischief," Franklin used every effort, but the bill was easily
passed, and it was thought that the colonists would soon be
reconciled to it. Because be, too, thought so, and because he
recommended John Hughes, a merchant of Philadelphia, for the
office of distributor of stamps, Franklin himself was denounced
— he was even accused of having planned the Stamp Act — and
his family in Philadelphia was in danger of being mobbed. Of
Franklin's examination, in February 1706, by the House in
Committee of the Whole, as to the effects of the Stamp Act,
Burke said that the scene reminded him of a master examined
by a parcel of schoolboys, and George Whitefield said: " Dr
Franklin has gained immortal honour by his behaviour at the
bar of the House. His answer was always found equal to the
questioner. He stood unappalled, gave pleasure to his friends
and did honour to his country." x Franklin compared the position
of the colonies to that of Scotland in the days before the union, and
in the same year (1766) audaciously urged a similar union with
the colonies before it was too late. The knowledge of colonial
affairs gained from Franklin's testimony, probably more than all
other causes combined, determined the immediate repeal of the
Stamp Act. For Franklin this was a great triumph, and the news
of it filled the colonists with delight and restored him to their
confidence and affection. Another bill (the Declaratory Act),
however, was almost immediately passed by the king's party,
asserting absolute supremacy of parliament over the colonies,
and in the succeeding parliament, by the Townshend Acts of
1767, duties were imposed on paper, paints and glass imported
by the colonists; a tax was imposed on tea also. The imposition
of these taxes was bitterly resented in the colonies, where it
quickly crystallized public opinion round the principle of " No
taxation without representation." In spite of the opposition
in the colonies to the Declaratory Act, the Townshend Acts
and the tea tax, Franklin continued to assure the British ministry
and the British public of the loyalty of the colonists. He tried
to find some middle ground of reconciliation, and kept up his
quiet work of informing England as to the opinions and conditions
of the colonies, and of moderating the attitude of the colonies
toward the home government; so that, as he said, he was accused
in America of being too much an Englishman, and in England
of being too much an American. He was agent now, not only of
Pennsylvania, but also of New Jersey, of Georgia and of Massa-
chusetts. Hillsborough, who became secretary of state for the
colonies in 1768, refused to recognize Franklin as agent of
Massachusetts, because the governor of Massachusetts had not
approved the appointment, which was by resolution of the
assembly. Franklin contended that the governor, as a mere
agent of the king, could have nothing to do with the assembly's
appointment of its agent to the king; that " the King, and not
the King, Lords, and Commons collectively, is their sovereign;
and that the King, with their respective Parliaments, is their only
legislator." Franklin's influence helped to oust Hillsborough,
and Dartmouth, whose name Franklin suggested, was made
1 Many questions (about 20 of the first 25) were put by his friends
to draw out what he wished to be known.
secretary in 1772 and promptly recognised Franklin as the agent
of Massachusetts.
In 1773 there appeared in the Puttie Advertiser one of Franklin's
cleverest hoaxes, " An Edict of the King of Prussia," proclaiming
that the island of Britain was a colony of Prussia, having been
settled by Angles and Saxons, having been protected by Prussia,
having been defended by Prussia against France in the war just
past, and never having been definitely freed from Prussia's
rule; and that, therefore, Great Britain should now submit to
certain taxes laid by Prussia— the taxes being identical with
those laid upon the American colonies by Great Britain. In
the same year occurred the famous episode of the Hutchinson
Letters. These were written by Thomas Hutchinson, Governor
of Massachusetts, Andrew Oliver (1706-1774), his lieutenant-
governor, and others to William Whately, a member of Parlia-
ment, and private secretary to George Grenville, suggesting an
increase of the power of the governor at the expense of the
assembly, " an abridgement of what are called English liberties,"
and other measures more extreme than those undertaken by the
government. The correspondence was shown to Franklin by
a mysterious " member of parliament " to back up the contention
that the quartering of troops in Boston was suggested, not by
the British ministry, but by Americans and Bostonians. Upon
his promise not to publish the letters Franklin received permission
to send them to Massachusetts, where they were much passed
about and were printed, and they were soon republished in English
newspapers. The Massachusetts assembly on receiving the
letters resolved to petition the crown for the removal of both
Hutchinson and Oliver. The petition was refused and was con-
demned as scandalous, and Franklin, who took upon himself
the responsibility for the publication of the letters, in the hearing
before the privy council at the Cockpit on the 20th of January
1774 was insulted and was called a thief by Alexander Wedder-
burn (the solicitor-general, who appeared for Hutchinson and
Oliver), and was removed from his position as head of the post
office in the American colonies.
Satisfied that his usefulness in England was at an end, Franklin
entrusted his agencies to the care of Arthur Lee, and on the
a 1 st of March 1775 again set sail for Philadelphia. During the
last years of his stay in England there had been repeated attempts
to win him (probably with an undcr-secretaryship) to the British
service, and in these same years be had done a great work for
the colonies by gaining friends for them among the opposition,
and by impressing France with his ability and the excellence of
his case. Upon reaching America, he heard of the fighting at
Lexington and Concord, and with the news of an actual outbreak
of hostilities his feeling toward England seems to have changed
completely. He was no longer a peacemaker, but an ardent war-
maker. On the 6th of May, the day after his arrival in Phila-
delphia, he was elected by the assembly of Pennsylvania a
delegate to the Continental Congress In Philadelphia. In October
he was elected a member of the Pennsylvania assembly, but, as
members of this body were still required to take an oath of
allegiance to the crown, he refused to serve. In the Congress
he served on as many as ten committees, and upon the organiza-
tion of a continental postal system, he was made postmaster-
general, a position he held for one year, when (in 1776) he was
succeeded by his son-in-law, Richard Bache, who had been his
deputy. With Benjamin Harrison, John Dickinson, Thomas
Johnson and John Jay he was appointed in November 177s
to a committee to carry on a secret correspondence with the
friends of America " in Great Britain, Ireland and other parts of
the world." He planned an appeal to the king of France for
aid, and wrote the instructions of Silas Deane who was to convey
it. In April 1776 he went to Montreal with Charles Carroll,
Samuel Chase and John Carroll, as a member of the commission
which conferred with General Arnold, and attempted without
success to gain the co-operation of Canada. Immediately after
his return from Montreal he was a member of the committee of
five appointed to draw up the Declaration of Independence,
but he took no actual part himself in drafting that instru-
ment, aside from suggesting the change or insertion of a few
FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN
word* im Jsfierson's draft. From July 16 to September s8. he
acted as president o! the Constitutional Convention of Penn-
sylvania.
With John Adams and Edward Rutkdge he was selected
by Congress to discuss with Admiral Howe (September 1776,
at Staten Island) the terms of peace proposed by Howe, who had
arrived in New York harbour in July 1776, and who had been
an intimate friend of Franklin; but the discussion was fruitless,
as the American commissioners refused to treat " back of this
step of independency." On the 36th of September in the same
year Franklin was chosen as commissioner to France to join
Arthur Lee, who was in London, and Silas Deane, who had
arrived in France in June 1776. He collected all the money he
could command, between £3000 and £4000, lent it to Congress
before he set sail, and arrived at Paris on the sand of December.
He found quarters at Fassy, 1 then a suburb of Paris, in a house
belonging to Le Ray de Chaumont, an active friend of the
American cause, who had influential relations with the court,
and through whom he was enabled to be in the fullest communica-
tion with the French government without compromising it in the
eyes of Great Britain.
At the time of Franklin's arrival in Paris he was already one
of the moat talked about men in the world. He was a member
of every important learned society in Europe; he was a member,
and one of the managers, of the Royal Society, and was one of
eight foreign members of the Royal Academy of Sciences in
Paris. Three editions of his scientific works had already appeared
m Paris, and a new edition had recently appeared in London.
TO all these advantages he added a political purpose — the
dismemberment of the British empire — which was entirely
congenial to every citizen of France. " Franklin's reputation,' 1
wrote John Adams with characteristic extravagance, " was more
universal than that of Leibnitz or Newton, Frederick or
Voltaire; and his character more esteemed and beloved than
aO of them. . . . If a collection could be made of all the gazettes
of Europe, for the latter half of the z8th century, a greater
Bomber of panegyrical paragraphs upon le grand Franklin
would appear, it is believed, than upon any other man that ever
lived." " Franklin's appearance in the French salons, even
before he began to negotiate," says FriedrichChristoph Schlosser,
" was an event of great importance to the whole of Europe. . . .
His dress, the simplicity of his external appearance, the friendly
meekness of the old man, and the apparent humility of the
Quaker, procured for Freedom a mass of votaries among the
court circles who used to be alarmed at its coarseness and un-
sophisticated truths. Such was the number of portraits, 1 busts
sad medallions of him in circulation before he left Paris that he
would have been recognised from them by any adult citizen
to any part of the civilized world. 1 '
Franklin's position in France was a difficult one from the
start, because of the delicacy of the task of getting French aid
at a time when France was unready openly to take sides against
Great Britain. But on the 6th of February 1778, after the
news of the defeat and surrender of Burgoyne had reached
Europe, a treaty of alliance and a treaty of amity and commerce
b e twe en France and the United States were signed at Paris by
Franklin, Deane and Lee. On the 28th of October this com-
mission was discharged and Franklin was appointed sole pleni-
potentiary to the French court. Lee, from the beginning of the
minion to Paris, seems to have been possessed of a mania of
jealousy toward Franklin, or of misunderstanding of his acts,
and he tried to undermine his influence with the Continental
Congress. John Adams, when he succeeded Deane (recalled
from Paris through Lee's machinations) joined in the chorus of
fault-finding against Franklin, dilated upon his social habits,
his p—r*"* 1 slothfumess and his complete lack of business-like
system; but Adams soon came to see that, although careless
of details, Franklin was doing what no other man could have
1 The bouse is famffiar from the drawing of It by Victor Hugo.
a Maay of these portraits bore i n sc ripti ons, the most famous
of which was Target's lme, " Eripuit fulmen coelo sceptrumque
tyranjus.
»7
done, and he ceased bis harsher criticism. Even greater' than
his diplomatic difficulties were Franklin's financial strait*,
Drafts were being drawn on him by all the American agents in
Europe, and by the Continental Congress at home. Acting as
American • naval agent for the many successful privateers
who harried the English Channel, and for whom he skilfully
got every bit of assistance possible, open and covert, from the
French government, he was continually called upon for funds
in these ventures. Of the vessels to be sent to Paris with
American cargoes which were to be sold for the liquidation of
French loans to the colonies made through Beaumarchais, few
arrived; those that did come did not cover Beaumarchais'a
advances, and hardly a vessel came from America without
word of fresh drafts on Franklin. After bold and repeated
overtures for an exchange of prisoners— an important matter,
both because the American frigates had no place in which to
stow away their prisoners, and because of the maltreatment
of American captives in such prisons as Dartmoor — exchanges
began at the end of March 1779, although there were annoying
delays, and immediately after November 1781 there was a long
break in the agreement; and the Americans discharged from
English prisons were constantly in need of money. Franklin,
besides, was constantly called upon to meet the indebtedness
of Lee and of Ralph Izard (1742-1804), and of John Jay, who
in Madrid was being drawn on by the American Congress. In
spite of the poor condition in Europe of the credit of the strugg-
ling colonies, and of the fact that France was almost bankrupt
(and in the later years was at war), and although Necker strenu-
ously resisted the making of any loans to the colonies, France,
largely because of Franklin's appeals, expended, by loan or gift
to the colonies, or in sustenance of the French arms in America,
a sum estimated at $60,000,000.
In 1 781 Franklin, with John Adams, John Jay, Jefferson,
who remained in America, and Henry Laurens, then a prisoner
in England, was appointed on a commission to make peace with
Great Britain. In the spring of 1782 Franklin had been inform-
ally negotiating with Shclburne, secretary of state for the home
department, through the medium, of Richard Oswald, a Scotch
merchant, and had suggested that England should cede Canada
to the United States in return for the recognition of loyalist
claims by the states. When the formal negotiations began
Franklin held closely to the instructions of Congress to its
commissioners, that they should maintain confidential relations
with the French ministers and that they were " to undertake
nothing in the negotiations for peace or truce without their
knowledge and concurrence," and were ultimately to be- governed
by " their advice and opinion." Jay and Adams disagreed with
him on this point, believing that France intended to curtail
the territorial aspirations of the Americans for her own benefit
and for that of her ally, Spain. At last, after the British govern-
ment had authorized its agents to treat with the commissioners
as representatives of an independent power, thus recognizing
American independence before the treaty was made, Frankhn
acquiesced ia the policy of Jay. The preliminary treaty was
signed by the commissioners on the 30th of November 1782,
the final treaty on the 3rd of September 1783. Franklin had
repeatedly petitioned Congress for his recall, but his letters
were unanswered or his appeals refused until the 7th of March
1785, when Congress resolved that he be allowed to return to
America; on the 10th of March Thomas Jefferson, who had
joined him in August of the year before, was appointed to his
place. Jefferson, when asked if be replaced Franklin, replied,
" No one can replace him, sir; I am only his successor." Before
Franklin left Paris on the 12th of July 1785 he had made
commercial treaties with Sweden (1783) and Prussia (1785;
signed after Franklin's departure by Jefferson and John Adams).
Franklin arrived in Philadelphia on the 13th of September,
disembarking at the same wharf as when he had first entered the
dty. He was immediately elected a member of the municipal
council of Philadelphia, becoming its chairman; and was chosen
president of the Supreme Executive Council (the chief executive
officer) of Pennsylvania, and was re-elected in 1786 and 1787,
28
serving from October 1785 to October 1788. In May 1787 he
was elected a delegate to the Convention which drew up the
Federal Constitution, this body thus having a member upon
whom all could agree as chairman, should Washington be absent.
He opposed over-centralisation of government and favoured the
Connecticut Compromise, and after the work of the Convention
was done used his influence to secure the adoption of the Con-
stitution. 1 As president of the Pennsylvania Society for
Promoting the Abolition of Slavery, Franklin signed a petition
to Congress (xath February 1700) for immediate abolition of
slavery, and six weeks later in his most brilliant manner parodied
the attack on the petition made by James Jackson (1757-1806)
Of Georgia, taking off Jackson's quotations of Scripture with
pretended texts from the Koran cited by a member of the Divan
of Algiers in opposition to a petition asking for the prohibition
of holding Christians in slavery. These were his last public
acts. His last days were marked by a fine serenity and calm;
he died in his own house in Philadelphia on the 17 th of April
1700, the immediate cause being an abscess in the lungs. He was
buried with his wife in the graveyard (Fifth and Axch Streets)
of Christ Church, Philadelphia.
Physically Franklin was large, about 5 ft. xo in. tall, with a
well-rounded, powerful figure; he inherited an excellent con-
stitution from his parents—" I never knew," says he, " either
my father or mother to have any sickness but that of which
they dy'd, he at 89, and she at 85 years of age "—but injured it
somewhat by excesses; in early life he had severe attacks of
pleurisy, from one of which, in 1727, it was not expected that he
would recover, and in his later years he was the victim of stone
and gout. When he was sixteen he became a vegetarian for a
time, rather to save money for books than for any other reason,
and he always preached moderation in eating, though he was
less consistent in his practice in this particular than as regards
moderate drinking. He was always enthusiastically fond of
swimming, and was a great believer in fresh air, taking a cold
air bath regularly in the morning, when he sat naked in his
bedroom beguiling himself with a book or with writing for a
half-hour or more. He insisted that fresh, cold air was not the
cause of colds, and preached zealously the " gospel of ventila-
tion." He was a charming talker, with a gay humour and a
quiet sarcasm and a telling use of anecdote for argument. Henri
Martin, the French historian, speaks of him as " of a mind
altogether French in its grace and elasticity." In 1730 he
married Deborah Read, in whose father's house he had lived
when he had first come to Philadelphia, to whom he had been
engaged before his first departure from Philadelphia for London,
and who in his absence had married a ne'er-do-well, one Rogers,
who had deserted her. The marriage to Franklin is presumed
to have been a common law marriage, for there was no proof
that Miss Read's former husband was dead, nor that, as was
suspected, a former wife, alive when Rogers married Miss Read,
was still alive, and that therefore his marriage to Deborah was
void. His " Debby," or his " dear child," as Franklin usually
addressed her in his letters, received into the family, soon after
her marriage, Franklin's illegitimate son, William Franklin
(1729-1813),* with whom she afterwards quarrelled, and whose
mother, tradition says, was Barbara, a servant in the Franklin
household. Another illegitimate child became the wife of John
Foxcroft of Philadelphia. Deborah, who was " as much dispos'd
to industry and frugality as " her husband, was illiterate and
shared none of her husband's tastes for literature and science;
'Notably in a pamphlet comparing the Jews and the Anti-
Federalists.
1 William Franklin served on the Canadian frontier with Pennsyl-
vania troops, becoming captain in 1750; was in the post-office in
1754-1756; went to England with his father in 1758; was admitted
to legal practice in 1758; in 1763, recommended by Lord Fairfax,
became governor of New Jeraey; he left the Whig for the Tory
party; and in the War of Independence was a faithful loyalist,
much to the pain and regret of his father, who, however, was recon-
ciled to him in part in 1784. He was held as a prisoner from 1776
until exchanged in 1778; and lived four years in New York, and
during the remainder of his life in England with an annual pension of
£800 from the crown.
FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN
her dread of an ocean voyage kept her in Philadelphia during
Franklin's missions to England, and she died in 1774, while
Franklin was in London. She bore him two children, one a son,
Francis Folger, " whom I have seldom since sees equal'd in
everything, and whom to this day [thirty-six years after the
child's death] I cannot think of without a sigh," who died (1736)
when four years old of small-pox, not having been inoculated;
the other was Sarah (1744-1808), who married Richard Bache
(1737-1811), Franklin's successor in 1776-1782 as postmaster-
general. Franklin's gallant relations with women alter his wife's
death were probably innocent enough. Best known of his French
amies were Mme Helvetius, widow of the philosopher, and the
young Mme Brillon, who corrected her " Papa's " French and
tried to bring him safely into the Roman Catholic Church.
With him in France were his grandsons, William Temple
Franklin, William Franklin's natural son, who acted as private
secretary to his grandfather, and Benjamin Franklin Bache
(1760-1798), Sarah's son, whom he sent to Geneva to be educated,
for whom he later asked public office of Washington, and who
became editor of the Aurora, one of the leading journals in the
Republican attacks on Washington.
Franklin early rebelled against New England Puritanism and
spent his Sundays in reading and in study instead of attending
church. His free-thinking ran its extreme course at the time of
his publication in London of A Dissertation on Liberty ami
Necessity, Pleasure and Pain (1725), which he recognised as one
of the great errata of his life. He later called himself a deist,
or theist, not discriminating between the terms. To bis favourite
sister he wrote: " There are some things in your New England
doctrine and worship which I do not agree with; but I do not
therefore condemn them, or desire to shake your belief 01
practice of them." Such was his general attitude. He did not
believe in the divinity of Christ, but thought " his system of
morals and his religion, as he left them to us, the best the world
ever saw, or is like to see." His intense practical-mindedness
drew him away from religion, but drove him to a morality of his
own (the " art of virtue," he called it), based on thirteen virtues
each accompanied by a short precept; the virtues were Temper-
ance, Silence, Order, Resolution, Frugality, Industry, Sincerity,
Justice, Moderation, Cleanliness, Tranquility, Chastity and
Humility, the precept accompanying the last-named virtue
being " Imitate Jesus and Socrates." He made a business-like
little notebook, ruled off spaces for the thirteen virtues and the
seven days of the week, " determined to give a week's strict
attention to each of the virtues successively . . . [going] thro'
a course compleate in thirteen weeks and four courses in a year,"
marking for each day a record of his adherence to each of the
precepts. " And conceiving God to be the fountain of wisdom,"
he " thought it right and necessary to solicit His assistance for
obtaining it," and drew up the following prayer for daily use:
" O powerful Goodness 1 bountiful Father I merciful Guide t
Increase in me that wisdom which discovers my truest interest
Strengthen my resolution to perform what that wisdom dictates.
Accept my kind offices to Thy other children, as the only return
in my power for Thy continual favours to me." He was by no
means prone to overmuch introspection, his great interest
in the conduct of others being shown in the wise maxims of Poor
Richard, which were possibly too utilitarian but were wonderfully
successful in instructing American morals. His Art of Virtm
on which he worked for years was never completed or published
in any form.
" Benjamin Franklin, Printer," was Franklin's own favourite
description of himself. He was an excellent compositor and
pressman; his workmanship, clear impressions, black ink and
comparative freedom from errata did much to get him the
public printing in Pennsylvania and New Jersey, and the printing
of the paper money* and other public matters in Delaware.
The first book with his imprint is The Psalms of David Imitated in
* For the prevention of counterfeiting continental paper money
Franklin long afterward* suggested the use oa the different de-
nominations of different leaves, having noted the infinite variety of
leaf venation.
FRANKLIN, BENJAMIN
Ik Language of the Ne* Testament and op ply' d to the Christian
State and Worship. By I. Watts . . ., Philadelphia: Printed
by B. P. and H. M. for Thomas Godfrey, and Sold at his Shop,
ifoa. The first novel printed in America was Franklin's reprint
is 1744 of Pamda; and the first American translation from
the classics which was printed in America was a version by
janes Logan (1674-1751) of Cato's Moral Dislicks (1735). In
1744 he published another translation of Logan's, Cicero On Old
Age, which Franklin thought typographically the finest book
he had ever printed. In 1733 he had established a press in
Charleston, South Carolina, and soon after did the same in
Lancaster, Pa., in New Haven, Conn., in New York, in Antigua,
ia Kingston, Jamaica, and in other places. Personally he had
Htik connexion' with the Philadelphia printing office after 1748,
when. David Hall became his partner and took charge of it.
Bit in 1753 he was eagerly engaged in having several of his
improvements incorporated in a new press, and more than
twenty years after was actively interested in John Walter's
scheme of " tocography." In France he had a private press in
us house in Passy, on which he printed " bagatelles." Franklin's
work as a publisher is for the most part closely connected with
his work in issuing the Gazette and Poor Richard's Almanack
(a summary of the proverbs from which appeared in the number
tar 1 7 58, and has often been reprinted — under such titles as
Father Abraham's Speech, and The Way to Wealth).*
Of much of Franklin's work as an author something has
already been said. Judged as literature, the first place belongs
to his Autobiography, which unquestionably ranks among the
lew great autobiographies ever written. His style in its sim-
plicity, facility and clearness owed something to De Foe,
something to Cotton Mather, something to Plutarch, more to
Banyan and to his early attempts to reproduce the manner of
the third volume of the Spectator; and not the least to his own
careful study of word usage. From Xenophon's Memorabilia
be learned when a boy the Socratic method of argument. Swift
be resembled in the occasional broadness of his humour, in his
briBiamly successful use of sarcasm and irony, 1 and in his
mastery of the hoax. Balzac said of him that he " invented
the lightning-rod, the hoax (' le canard ') and the republic."
Among his more famous hoaxes were the " Edict of the King of
Prussia " (1773), already described; the fictitious supplement
to the Boston Chronicle, printed on his private press at Passy in
176s, and containing a letter with an invoice of eight packs of
954 cured, dried, hooped and painted scalps of rebels, men,
women and children, taken by Indians in the British employ;
and another fictitious Letter from the Count de Schaumbcrg to the
Baron Hohtndorf commanding the Hessian Troops in America
0;77) — the count's only anxiety is that not enough men will
be killed to bring him in moneys he needs, and he urges his
officer in command in America " to prolong the war ... for
I have made arrangements for a grand Italian opera, and I
de not wish to be obliged to give it up."*
Closely related to Franklin's political pamphlets are his writ-
ings on economics, which, though undertaken with a political
1 " Seventy-five editions of it have been printed in English, fifty-
ax ia French, eleven in German and nine in Italian. It has been
tia— latrd into Spanish. Danish, Swedish, Welsh, Polish, Gaelic,
Russian. Bohemian, Dutch, Catalan, Chinese, modern Greek and
phonetic writing. It has been printed at least four hundred times,
and n to-day as popular aa ever." — P. L. Ford, in The Many-Sided
FnnHim (1890).
• Both Swift and Franklin made sport of the typical astrologer
aunanack-malcer.
"Another hoax was Franklin's parable a
eatm thrown into Scriptural form and quot
ant chapter of Genesis. In a paper on a "
of the Bible " be paraphrased a lew verses of
making them a satiric attack on royal cover
ssay well rank with these hoaxes, and evci
been taken in by it, regarding it as a serious p
md " version and decrying it as poor taste,
eutopic, declared this an instance in which 1
bis " imperturbable common sense "; and J.
devoting several pages to its discussion, very „
* ha^a*»k 11 ■■ill ■— ■ **
29
or practical purpose and not in a purely scientific spirit, rank him
as the first American economist. He wrote in 1720 A Modest
Enquiry into the Nature and Necessity of a Paper Currency, which
argued that a plentiful currency will make rates of interest low
and will promote immigration and home manufactures, and which
did much to secure the further issue of paper money in Penn-
sylvania. After the British Act of 1750 forbidding the erection
or the operating of iron or steel mills in the colonies, Franklin
wrote Observations concerning tlu Increase of Mankind and the
Peopling of Countries (1751); its thesis was that manufactures
come to be common only with a high degree of social development
and with great density of population, and that Great Britain
need not, therefore, fear the industrial competition of the
colonies, but it is better known for the estimate (adopted by
Adam Smith) that the population of the colonies would
double every quarter-century; and for the likeness to Mallhus's 4
" preventive check " of its statement: " The greater the common
fashionable expense of any rank of people the more cautious they
are of marriage." His Positions to be examined concerning
National Wealth (1769) shows that he was greatly influenced
by the French physiocrats after his visit to France in 1767.
His Wail of a Protected Manufacturer voices a protest against
protection as raising the cost of living; and he held that free
trade was based on a natural right. He knew Karnes, Hume
and Adam Smith, and corresponded with Mirabeau, " the friend
of Man." Some of the more important of his economic theses,
as summarized by W. A. Wetzel, are: that money as coin may
have more than its bullion value; that natural interest is
determined by the rent of land valued at the sum of money
loaned— an anticipation of Turgot; that high wages are not
inconsistent with a large foreign trade; that the value of an
article is determined by the amount of labour necessary to
produce the food consumed in making the article; that manu-
factures are advantageous but agriculture only is truly pro-
ductive; and that when practicable (as he did not think it
practicable at the end of the War of Independence) state revenue
should be raised by direct tax.
Franklin as a scientist 9 and as an inventor has been decried
by experts as an amateur and a dabbler; but it should be
remembered that it was always his hope to retire from public
life and devote himself to science. In the American Philo-
sophical Society (founded 1743) scientific subjects were much
discussed. Franklin wrote a paper on the causes of earthquakes
for his Gaulle of the 15th of December 1737; and he eagerly
collected material to uphold his theory that waterspouts and
whirlwinds resulted from the same causes. In 1743. from the
circumstance that an eclipse not visible in Philadelphia because
of a storm had been observed in Boston, where the storm although
north-easterly did not occur until an hour after the eclipse, he
surmised that storms move against the wind along the Atlantic
coast. In the year before (1742) he had planned the " Penn-
sylvania fire-place," better known as the " Franklin stove,"
which saved fuel, heated all the room, and had the same principle
as the hot-air furnace; the stove was never patented by Franklin,
but was described in his pamphlet dated 1744. He was much
engaged at the same time in remedying smoking chimneys, and
as late as 1785 wrote to Jan Ingcnhousz, physician to the emperor
of Austria, on chimneys and draughts; smoking street lamps
he remedied by a simple contrivance. The study of electricity
he took up in 1746 when he first saw a Leydcn jar, in the mani-
pulation of which he became expert and which he improved by
the use of granulated lead in the place of water for the interior
armatures; he recognized that condensation is due to the
dielectric and not to the metal coatings. A note in his diary,
dated the 7th of November 1749, shows that he had then
* Malthus quoted Franklin in his first edition, but it was not until
the second that he introduced the theory of the " preventive check.
Franklin noted the phenomenon with disapproval in his advocacy
of increased population; Malthus with approval in his search for
means to decrease population.
* The title of philosopher as used in Franklin s lifetime referred
neither in England nor in France to him as author of moral maxims,
but to him as a scientist—a " natural philosopher. "
30 FRANKLIN, SIR JOHN
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private chronicle v-
bringing the stoi ' "T
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urged him to coi " M
In 1788, when he r -
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Temple Franklin *
making over intc &—
So long was the t;
FRANKLIN, SIR JOHN
long interval, an object of national interest, and Lieutenant
I Franklin was given the command of the " Trent " in the Arctic
expedition, under the ordersof Captain Buchan in the " Dorot hea ".
Dunnf a heavy storm the " Dorothea " was so much damaged
by the pack-ice that her reaching England became doubtful,
tad, much to the chagrin of young Franklin, the " Trent "
m fomprilcd to convoy her home instead of being allowed
to prosecute the voyage alone. This voyage, however, had
brought Franklin into personal intercourse with the leading
scientific men of London, and they were not slow in ascertaining
fan peculiar fitness for the command of such an enterprise.
To calmness in danger, promptness and fertility of resource,
and excellent seamanship, he added an ardent desire to promote
science for its own sake, together with a love of truth that led
him to do full justice to the merits of his subordinate officers,
without wishing to claim their discoveries as a captain's right.
Furthermore, he possessed a cheerful buoyancy of mind, sustained
by deep religious principle, which was not depressed in the most
gloomy times. It was therefore with full confidence in his
ability and exertions that, in .1819, he was placed in command
of an expedition appointed to proceed overland from the Hudson
Bay to the shores of the Arctic Sea, and to determine the trendings
of that coast eastward of the Coppermine river. At this period
the northern coast of the American' continent was known at
two isolated points only,— this, the mouth of the Coppermine
river (which, as Franklin discovered, was erroneously placed
fear degress of latitude too much to the north), and the mouth
of the Mackenzie far to the west of it. Lieutenant Franklin
and his party, consisting of Dr Richardson, Midshipmen George
Back and Richard Hood, and a few ordinary boatmen, arrived
at the depot of the Hudson's Bay Company at the end of August
iSio, and making an autumnal journey of 700 m. spent the first
winter on the Saskatchewan. Owing to the supplies which
had been promised by the North -West and Hudson's Bay
Compa n ies not being forthcoming the following year, it was not
until the summer of 182 1 that the Coppermine was ascended
to its mouth, and a considerable extent of sea-coast to the
eastward surveyed. The return journey led over the region
known as the Barren Ground, and was marked by the most
terrible sufferings and privations and the tragic death of
Lieutenant Hood. The survivors of the expedition reached
York Factory in the month of June 1822, having accomplished
altogether 555° m. of travel. While engaged on this service
Franklin was promoted to the rank of commander (1st of January
ilai), and upon his return to England at the end of 1822 he
obtained the post rank of captain and was elected a fellow of
the Royal Society. The narrative of this expedition was pub-
" in the following year and became at once a classic of travel,
soon after he married Eleanor, the youngest daughter of
Pordcn, an eminent architect.
Early in 1825 he was entrusted with the command of a second
overland expedition, and upon the earnest entreaty of his dying
wife, who encouraged him to place his duty to his country before
ha love for her, he set sail without waiting to witness her end.
i Accompanied as before by Dr (afterwards Sir) John Richardson
and Lieutenant (afterwards Sir) George Back, he descended the
■firirmrir river in the season of 1826 and traced the North
American coast asiar as 149° 37' W. long., whilst Richardson
at the head of a separate party connected the mouths of the
Copper min e and Mackenzie rivers. Thus between the years 1819
sad 1827 he had added 1200 m. of coast-line to the American
continent, or one-third of the whole distance from the Atlantic
to the Pacific. These exertions were fully appreciated at home
sad abroad. He was knighted in 1820, received the honorary
degree of D.C.L. from the university of Oxford, was awarded the
|nld medal of the Geographical Society of Paris, and was elected
corresponding member of the Paris Academy of Sciences. The
results of these expeditions are described by Franklin and Dr
Richardson in two magnificent works published in 1824-1829.
In 1828 he married his second wife, Jane, second daughter of
John Griffin. His next official employment was on the Mediter-
■ cancan station, in command of the " Rainbow," and his ship
31
soon became proverbial in the squadron for the happiness and
comfort of her officers and crew. As an acknowledgment of
the essential service which he rendered off Patras in the Greek
War of Independence, he received the cross of the Redeemer of
Greece from King Otto, and after his return to England he was
created knight commander of the Guelphic order of Hanover.
In 1836 be accepted the lieutenant-governorship of Van
Diemen's Land (now Tasmania), and held that post till the
end of 1843. His government was marked by several events
of much interest, one of his most popular measures being the
opening of the doors of the legislative council to the public.
He also founded a college, endowing it largely from his private
funds, and in 1838 established a scientific society at Hobart
Town (now called the Royal Society of Tasmania), the meetings
of which were held in Government House and its papers printed
at his expense. In his time also the colony of Victoria was
founded by settlers from Tasmania; and towards its close,
transportation to New South Wales having been abolished,
the convicts from every part of the British empire were sent to
Tasmania. On an increase of the lieutenant-governor's salary
being voted by the colonial legislature, Sir John declined to
derive any advantage from it personally, while he secured the
augmentation to his successors. He welcomed eagerly the various
expeditions for exploration and surveying which visited Hobart
Town, conspicuous among these, and of especial interest to
himself, being the French and English Antarctic expeditions
of Dumont d'Urville and Sir James C. Ross— the latter com-
manding the " Erebus " and " Terror," with which Franklin's
own name was afterwards to be so pathetically connected. A
magnetic observatory fixed at Hobart Town, as a dependency
of the central establishment under Colonel Sabine, was also
an object of deep interest up to the moment of his leaving the
colony. That his unflinching efforts for the social and political
advancement of the colony were appreciated was abundantly
proved by the affection and respect shown him by every section
of the community on his departure; and several years after-
wards, the colonists showed their remembrance of his virtues
and services by sending Lady Franklin a subscription of £1700
in aid of her efforts for the search and relief of her husband,
and later still by a unanimous vote of the legislature for the
erection of a statue in lionour of him at Hobart Town.
Sir John found on reaching England that there was about to
be a renewal of polar research, and that the confidence of the
admiralty in him was undiminished, as was shown by his being
offered the command of an expedition for the discovery of a
North-West Passage to the Pacific. This offer he accepted.
The prestige of Arctic service and of his former experiences
attracted a crowd of volunteers of all classes, from whom were
selected a body of officers conspicuous for talent and energy.
Captain Crosier, who was second in command, had been three
voyages with Sir Edward Parry, and had commanded the
" Terror " in Ross's Antarctic expedition. Captain Fiujames,
who was commander on board the " Erebus," had been five times
gazetted for brilliant conduct in the operations of the first China
war, and in a letter which he wrotefrom Greenland has bequeathed
some good-natured but masterly sketches of his brother officers
and messmates on this expedition. Thus supported, with crews
carefully chosen (some of whom had been engaged in the whaling
service), victualled for three years, and furnished with every
appliance then known, Franklin's expedition, consisting of the
" En:bus" and " Terror " (129 officers and men), with a transport
ship to convey additional stores as far as Disco in Greenland,
sailed from Greenhithe on the 19th of May 1845. The let ten
which Franklin despatched from Greenland were couched in
language of cheerful anticipation of success, while those received
from his officers expressed their glowing hope, their admiration
of the seamanlike qualities of their commander, and the happi-
ness they had in serving under him. The ships were last seen
by a whaler near the entrance of Lancaster Sound, on the 20th
of July, and the deep gloom which settled down upon their
subsequent movements was not finally raised till fourteen yean
1 later.
32
Franklin's instructions were framed in conjunction with Sir
John Barrow and upon his own suggestions. The experience
of Parry had established the navigability of Lancaster Sound
(leading westwards out of Baffin Bay), whilst Franklin's own
surveys had long before satisfied him that a navigable passage
existed along the north coast of America from the Fish river
to Bering Strait. He was therefore directed to push through
Lancaster Sound and its continuation, Barrow Strait, without
loss of time, until he reached the portion of land on which
Cape Walker is situated, or about long. 98 W., and from that
point to pursue a course southward towards the American coast.
An explicit prohibition was given against a westerly course
beyond the longitude of 08° W., but he was allowed the single
alternative of previously examining Wellington Channel (which
leads out of Barrow Strait) for a northward route, if the naviga-
tion here were open.
In 1847, though there was no real public anxiety as to the fate
of the expedition, preparations began to be made for the possible
necessity of sending relief. As time passed, however, and no
tidings reached England, the search began in earnest, and from
1848 onwards expedition after expedition was despatched in
quest of the missing explorers. The work of these expeditions
forms a story of achievement which has no parallel in maritime
annals, and resulted in the discovery and exploration of thousands
of miles of new land within the grim Arctic regions, the develop-
ment of the system of sledge travelling, and the discovery of a
second North-West Passage in 1850 (see Polar Regions).
Here it is only necessary to mention the results so far as the
search for Franklin was concerned. In this great national under-
taking Lady Franklin's exertions were unwearied, and she
exhausted her private funds in sending out auxiliary vessels to
quarters not comprised in the public search, and by her pathetic
appeals roused the sympathy of the whole civilized world.
The first traces of the missing ships, consisting of a few scattered
articles, besides three graves, were discovered at Franklin's
winter quarters (1 845-1 846) on Becchcy Island, by Captain
(afterwards Sir) Era'smus Ommanncy of the " Assistance," in
August 1851, and were brought home by the " Prince Albert,"
which had been fitted out by Lady Franklin. No further tidings
were obtained until the spring of 1854, when Dr John Rae, then
conducting a sledging expedition of the Hudson's Bay Company
from Repulse Bay, was told by the Eskimo that (as was inferred)
in r850 white men, to the number of about forty, had been seen
dragging a boat southward along the west shore of King William's
Island, and that later in the same season the bodies of the whole
party were found by the natives at a point a short distance to the
north-west of Back's Great Fish river, where they had perished
from the united effects of cold and famine. The latter statement
was afterwards disproved by the discovery of skeletons upon the
presumed line of route; but indisputable proof was given that
the Eskimo had communicated with members of the missing
expedition, by the various articles obtained from them and
brought home by Dr Rae. In consequence of the information
obtained by Dr Rae, a party in canoes, under Messrs Anderson
and Stewart, was sent by government ciown the Great Fish river
in 1855, and succeeded in obtaining from the Eskimo at the mouth
of the river a considerable number of articles which had evidently
belonged to the Franklin expedition; while others were picked
up on Montreal Island a day's march to the northward. It was
dear, therefore, that a party from the " Erebus " and " Terror "
had endeavoured to reach the settlements of the Hudson's Bay
Company by the Fish river route, and that in making a southerly
course it had been arrested within the channel into which the
Great Fish river empties itself. The admiralty now decided to
take no further steps to determine the exact fate of the expedition,
and granted to Dr Rae the reward of £10,000 which had been
offered in 1849 to whosoever should first succeed in obtaining
authentic news of the missing men. It was therefore reserved
for the latest effort of Lady Franklin to develop, not only the
fate of her husband's expedition but also the steps of its progress
up to the very verge of success, mingled indeed with almost
unprecedented disaster. With all her available means, and
FRANKLIN, SIR JOHN
aided, as she had been before, by the subscriptions of sympathis-
ing friends, she purchased and fitted out the little yacht " Fox/'
which sailed from Aberdeen in July 1857. The command was
accepted by Captain (afterwards Sir) Leopold M'Clintock, whose
high reputation had been won in three of the government ex-
peditions sent out in search of Franklin. Having been com-
pelled to pass the first winter in Baffin Bay, it was not till the
autumn of 1858 that the " Fox " passed down Prince Regent's
Inlet, and put into winter quarters at Port Kennedy at the
eastern end of Beilot Strait, between North Somerset and
Boothia Felix. In the spring of 1859 three sledging parties went
out, Captain (afterwards Sir) Allen Young to examine Prince of
Wales Island, Lieutenant (afterwards Captain) Hobson the north
and west coasts of King William's Island, and M'Clintock the
cast and south coasts of the latter, the west coast of Boothia, and
the region about the mouth of Great Fish river. This splendid
and exhaustive search added 800 m. of new coast-line to the
knowledge of the Arctic regions, and brought to light the course
and fate of the expedition. From the Eskimo in Boothia many
relics were obtained, and reports as to the fate of the ships and
men; and on the west and south coast of King William's Island
were discovered skeletons and remains of articles that told a
terrible tale of disaster. Above all, in a cairn at Point Victory
a precious record was discovered by Lieutenant Hobson that
briefly told the history of the expedition up to April 25,
1848, three years after it set out full of hope. In 1845-1846
the " Erebus " and " Terror " wintered at Becchey Island on
the S.W. coast of North Devon, in lat. 74° 43' 38* N., long.
91° 39' 15* W., after having ascended Wellington Channel to
lat. 77° and returned by the west side of Corn wallis Island. This
statement was signed by Graham Gore, lieutenant, and Charles
F. des Voeux, mate, and bore date May 28, 1847. These
two officers and six men, it was further told, left the ships on
May 34, 1847 (no doubt for an exploring journey), at which
time all was well.
Such an amount of successful work has seldom been accom-
plished by an Arctic expedition within any one season. The
alternative course permitted Franklin by his int ructions had
been attempted but not pursued, and in the autumn of 1846
he had followed that route which was specially commended
to him. But after successfully navigating Peel and Franklin
Straits on his way southward, his progress had been suddenly
and finally arrested by the obstruction of heavy (" palaeocrystic ")
ice, which presses down from the north-west through M'Clintock
Channel (not then known to exist) upon King William's Island.
It must be remembered that in the chart which Franklin carried
King William's Island was laid down as a part of the mainland
of Boothia, and he therefore could pursue his way only down its
western coast. Upon the margin of the printed admiralty form
on which this brief record was written was an addendum dated
the 25th of April 1848, which extinguished all further hopes of a
successful termination of this grand enterprise. The facts are
best conveyed in the terse and expressive words in which they
were written, and are therefore given verbatim: " April 25th,
1848. H.M. Ships 'Terror' and 'Erebus' were deserted on
sand April, five leagues N.N.W. of this, having been beset
since 12th September 1846. The officers and crews, consisting
of 105 souls under the command of Captain F. R. M. Croaer,
landed in lat. 69 37' 42* N., long. 98° 41' W. This paper was
found by Lieut. Irving . . . where it had been 'deposited by
the late Commander Gore in June 1847. Sir John Franklin died
on the nth June 1847; and the total loss by deaths in the
expedition has been to this dale 9 officers and 15 men." The
handwriting is that of Captain Fiojames, to whose signature is
appended that of Captain Crozier, who also adds the words of
chief importance, namely, that they would '* start on to-morrow
26th April 1848 for Back's Fish river." A briefer record has
never been told of so tragic a story.
All the party had without doubt been greatly reduced through
want of sufficient food, and the injurious effects of three winters
in these regions. They had attempted to drag with them two
boats, besides heavily laden sledges, and doubtless had soon
FRANKLIN, W. B.— FRANKLIN
33
been compelled to abandon much of their burden, and leave one
boat on the shore of King William'* Island, where it was found
by M' Clin lock, near the middle of the west coast, containing
two skeletons. The route adopted was the shortest possible,
hot their strength and supplies had failed, and at that season
of the year the snow-covered land afforded no subsistence
An old Eskimo woman stated that these heroic men " fell down
and died as they walked," and, as Sir John Richardson has well
said, they " forged the last link of the North- West Passage with
their Hves." From all that can be gathered, one of the ships
must have been crushed in the ice and sunk in deep water, and
the other, stranded on the shore of King William's Island, lay
there for years, forming a mine of wealth for the neighbouring
Eskimo.
This is all we know of the fate of Franklin and his brave men.
His memory is cherished as one of the most conspicuous of the
naval heroes of Britain, and as one of the most successful and
daring of her explorers, lie is certainly entitled to the honour
of being the first discoverer of the North- West Passage; the
point reached by the ships having brought him to within a few
miles of the known waters of America, and on the monument
erected to him by his country, in Waterloo Place, London,
this honour b justly awarded to him and his companions, — a
fact which was also affirmed by the president of the Royal Geo-
graphical Society, when presenting their gold medal to Lady
Franklin in i860. On the 96th of October 1852 Franklin had
been promoted to the rank of rear-admiral. lie left an only
daughter by his first marriage. Lady Franklin died in 1875
at the age of eighty-three, and a fortnight after her death a fine
monument was .unveiled in Westminster Abbey, commemorating
the heroic deeds and fate of Sir John Franklin, and the insepar-
able connexion of Lady Franklin's name with the fame of her
husband. Most of the relics brought home by M'Clintock were
presented by Lady Franklin to the United Service Museum,
while those given by Dr Rac to the admiralty arc deposited in
Greenwich hospital. In 1864-1869 the American explorer
Captain Hall made two journeys in endeavouring to trace the
remnant of Franklin's party, bringing back a number of addi-
tional relics and some information confirmatory of that given
by M'Clintock, and in 1878 Lieutenant F. Schwatka of the
United States army and a companion made a final land search,
but although accomplishing a remarkable record of travel
discovered nothing which threw any fresh light on the history
«f the expedition.
See ILD. Traill, Life of Sir John Franklin (1896).
FRANKLIN, WILLIAM BUEL (1823-1003), Federal general
ia the American Civil War, was born at York, Pennsylvania,
an the *7th of February 1823. He graduated at West Point,
at the bead of his class, in 1843, was commissioned in the Engineer
Corps, U.S.A., and served with distinction in the Mexican War,
receiving the brevet of first lieutenant for his good conduct at
Baena Vista, in which action be was on the staff of General
Taylor. After the war he was engaged in miscellaneous engineer-
ing work, becoming a first lieutenant in 1853 and a captain in
1S57. Soon after the outbreak of the Civil War in 1S61 he was
made colonel of a regular infantry regiment, and a few days
later brigadier-general of volunteers. lie led a brigade in the
first battle of Bull Run, and on the organization by McClcllan
of the Army of the Potomac he received a divisional command.
He commanded first a division and then the VI. Corps in the
operations before Richmond in 1862, earning the brevet of
brigadier-general in the U.S. Army; was promoted major-
general. U.S.V., in July 1862; commanded the VI. corps at
South Mountain and Antietam; and at Fredericksburg com-
inded the " Left Grand Division " of two corps (I. and VI.).
His part in the last battle led to charges of disobedience and
gligence being preferred against him by the commanding
general, General A. E. Burnsidc, on which the congressional
committee on the conduct of the war reported unfavourably
to Franklin, largely, it seems, because BurnsioVs orders to
Franklin were not put in evidence. Burnside had issued on the
13rd of January 1863 an order relieving Franklin from duty,
and Franklin's only other service in the war was as commander
of the XIX. corps in the abortive Red River Expedition of 1864.
In this expedition he received a severe wound at the action of
Sabine Cross Roads (April 8, 1864), in consequence of which he
took no further active part in the war. He served for a time on
the retiring board, and was captured by the Confederates on
the nth of July 1864, but escaped the same night. In 1865 be
was brevet ted major-general in the regular army, and in 1866
he was retired. After the war General Franklin was vice-
president of the Colt's Patent Firearms Manufacturing Company,
was president of the commission to lay out Long Island City,
N.Y. (1871-1872), of the commission on the building of the
Connecticut state house (1872-1873), and, from 1880 to 1809, of
the board of managers of the national home for disabled volunteer
soldiers; as a commissioner of the United States to the Paris
Exposition of 1880 he was made a grand officer of the Legion
of Honour; and he was for a time a director of the Panama
railway. He died at Hartford, Connecticut, on the 8th of March
1003. He wrote a pamphlet, The Catling Gun for Service Ashore
and Afloat (1874).
See A Reply of Major-General William B. Franklin to Ike Report
of the Joint Committee of Congress on the Conduct of the War (New
York. 1863; 2nd cd., 1867). and Jacob L. Greene, Gen. W. B.
Franklin and Ike Operations of the Left Wing at the Battle of Fredericks-
burg (Hartford, 1900).
FRANKLIN, an organized district of Canada, extending from
the Arctic Circle to the North Pole. It was formed by order-in-
council on the and of October 1895, and includes numerous
islands and peninsulas, such as Banks, Prince Albert, Victoria*
Wollaston, King Edward and Baffin Land, Melville, Bat hurst,
Prince of Wales and Cockburn Islands. Of these, Baffin Land
alone extends south of the Arctic Circle. The area is estimated
at 500,000 sq. m., but the inhabitants consist of a few Indians,
Eskimo and fur-traders. Musk-oxen, polar bears, foxes and
other valuable fur-bearing animals are found in large numbers.
The district is named after Sir John Franklin.
FRANKLIN, a township of Norfolk county, Massachusetts,
U.S.A., with an area of 29 sq. m. of rolling surface. Pop. (1000)
50x7, of whom 1 250 were foreign-born; (1905, state census) 5244;
(19x0 census) 564 1 . The principal village, also named Franklin,
is about 27 m. S.W. of Boston, and is served by the New York,
New Haven & Hartford railway. Franklin has a public library
(housed in the Ray memorial building and containing 7700
volumes in 1910) and b the seat of Dean Academy (Universalis^
founded in 1865), a secondary school for boys and girls. Straw
goods, felt, cotton and woollen goods, pianos and printing presses
are manufactured here. The township was incorporated in
1778, previous to which it was a part of Wrentbam (1673).
It was the first of the many places in the United States named
in honour of Benjamin Franklin (who later contributed books
for the public library). Horace Mann was born here.
FRANKLIN, a city of Merrimack county, New Hampshire,
U.S.A., at the confluence of the Pemigewasset and Winnepe-
saukce rivers to form the Merrimac; about 95 m. N.N.W. of
Boston. Pop. (1800) 4085; (1900) 5846 (1323 foreign-born);
(19x0) 6132; area, about 14.4 sq. m. Franklin is served by
the Concord Division of the Boston & Maine railway, with a
branch to Bristol (13 m. N.W.) and another connecting at
Tilton (about 5 m. E.) with the White Mountains Division. It
contains the villages of Franklin, Franklin Falls, Webster Place
and Lake City, the last a summer resort. The rivers furnish
good water power, which is used in the manufacture of a variety
of commodities, including foundry products, paper and pulp,
woollen goods, hosiery, saws, needles and knitting machines,
The water-works are owned and operated by the municipality.
Here, in what was then a part of the town of Salisbury, Daniel
Webster was born, and on the Webster farm is the New Hamp-
shire orphans' home, established in 1 871 . The town of Franklin
was formed in 1828 by the union of portions of Salisbury,
Sanbornton, Andover and Northficld. The earliest settlement
within its limits was made in 1748 in the portion taken from
Salisbury. Franklin was incorporated as a city in 1895.
36
FRANZ
soldier*; SalU seniores and Salii juniorcs are mentioned in the
Notitie dignilaium, and Salii appear among the auxilia palaiina.
At the end of the 4th century and at the beginning of the 5th,
when the Roman legions withdrew from the banks of the Rhine,
the Salians installed themselves in the district as an independent
people. The place-names became entirely Germanic; the
Latin language disappeared; and the Christian religion suffered
a check, for the Franks were to a man pagans. The Salians
were subdivided into a certain number of tribes, each tribe
placing at its head a king, distinguished by his long hair and
chosen from the most noble family (Hisloria Francorum, ii. 9).
The most ancient of these kings, reigning over the principal
tribe, who is known to us is Chlodio. 1 According to Gregory
of Tours Chlodio dwelt at a place called Dispargum, which it is
impossible to identify. Towards 43 1 he crossed the great Roman
road from Bavay to Cologne, which was protected by numerous
forts and had long arrested the invasions of the barbarians. He
then invaded the territory of Arras, but was severely defeated at
Hesdin4e-Vieux by Aetius, the commander of the Roman army
in Gaul. Chlodio, however, soon took his revenge. He explored
the region of Cambrai, seized that town, and occupied all the
country as far as the Somme. At this time Tournai became the
capital of the Salian Franks.
After Chlodio a certain Meroveus (Merowech) was king of the
Salian Franks. We do not know if he was the son of Chlodio;
Gregory of Tours simply says that he belonged to Chlodio's stock
— " de hujus stirpe quidam Merovechum regem fuisse adserunt,"
— and then only gives the fact at second hand. Perhaps the
remarks of the Byzantine historian Priscus may refer to Meroveus.
A king of the Franks having died, his two sons disputed the
power. The elder journeyed into Pannonia to obtain support
from Attila; the younger betook himself to the imperial court
at Rome. "I have seen him," writes Priscus; "he was still
very young, and we all remarked his fair hair which fell upon
his shoulders." Aetius welcomed him warmly and sent him
back a friend and focderatus. In any case, eventually, Franks
fought (451) in the Roman ranks at the great battle of Mauriac
(the Catalaunian Fields), which arrested the progress of Attila
into Gaul; and in the Vita Lupi, which, though undoubtedly
of later date, is a recension of an earlier document, the name
of Meroveus appears among the combatants. Towards 457
Meroveus was succeeded by his son Childeric At first ChOderic
was a faithful focderatus of the Romans, fighting for them
against the Visigoths and the Saxons south of the Loire; but
he soon sought to make himself independent and to extend his
conquests. He died in 481 and was succeeded by his son Clovis, ]
who conquered the whole of Gaul with the exception of the '
kingdom of Burgundy and Provence. Clovis made his authority 5
recognized over the other Salian tribes (whose kings dwelt at 7
Cambrai and other cities), and put an end to the domination of *s
the Ripuarian Franks. *
These Ripuarians must have comprised a certain number of ftt
Frankish tribes, such as the Ampsivarii and the Bructeri. They c*
settled in the 5th century in compact masses on the left bank of j&
the Rhine, but their progress was slow. It was not until the *j:
Christian writer Salvian (who was born about 400) had already 2a
reached a fairly advanced age Chat they were able to seize *l«
Cologne. The town, however, was recaptured and was not •<%
definitely in their possession until 463. The Ripuarians sub- 91
sequently occupied all the country from Cologne to Trier. 2^
Aix'la-Chapelle, Bonn and Ziilpich were their principal centres, *$
and they even advanced southward as far asMetz, which appears u p
to have resisted their attacks. The Roman civilization and the *$,
Latin language disappeared from the countries which they ? s
occupied; indeed it seems that the actual boundaries of the ^
German and French languages nearly coincide with those of :g
their dominion. In their southward progress the Ripuarians : it _
1 The chronicler Fredegariut and the author of the Liber histcriae . t»
Francorum make Sunno and Marcomeres his predecessors, but in .£T
reality they were chiefs of other Frankish tribes. The author of the
liber also claims that Chlodio was the son of Pharamund, but this f—
personage is quite legendary. In the Ckronicon of Fredeaarias it is t—
already affirmed that the Franks are descended from the Trojans. ?•-
FRANZEN— FRANZ JOSEF LAND
His future was then provided for by Liszt, Dr Joachim,
Frau Magnus and others, who gave him the receipts of a concert
tour, amounting to some 100,000 marks. Franz died on the 24th
•f October 1892. On his seventieth birthday be published his
fist and only pianoforte piece. It is easy to find here and there
among his songs gems that are hardly less brilliant than the best
•f Schumann's. Certainly no musician was ever more thoughtful
tad more painstaking. In addition to songs he wrote a setting
far double choir of the 117th Psalm, and a four-part Kyrie;
at aho edit ed Astorga's Stabai Mater and Durante's Magnificat.
RAMZabf. FRANS MIKAEL (1772-1847), Swedish poet, was
bora at Uleaborg in Finland on the 9th of February 1772.
At thirteen he entered the university of Abo, where he attended
the lectures of H. G. Porthan ( 1 730-1804), a pioneer In the study
of Finnish history and legend. He graduated in 1780, and
became M doquentiae doceiis " in 1792. Three years later he
itarted on a tour through Denmark, Germany, France and
England, returning in 1796 to accept the office of university
fibrarian at Abo. In 1801 he became professor of history and
ethics, and In 1808 was elected a member of the Swedish Academy.
On the cession of Finland to Russia, Franzcn removed to Sweden,
where be was successively appointed parish priest of Kumla
in the diocese of Strengnas (1810), minister of the Clara Church
at Stockholm (1824) and bishop of Hcrnosand (1831). He died
at Slbri parsonage on the 14th of August 1847. From the
\ of 1793, when his Till en ung Flicka and Ifcnniskans
r were inserted by Kellgren in the Stockholm* post, Franzen
grew in popular favour by means of many minor poems of
singular simplicity and truth, as Till Sclma, Den gamlc k nek ten,
iiddar St Cdran, De Sm& blommorna, Modrcn vid vaggan,
Nj&nmergonen and Stjernhimmclcn. His songs Coda gosse
jkMl tfm, SSrj tj den gryendt da gen fdrut, Champagnctimi
sad Bcv&ringss&ng were widely sung, and in 1797 he won the prize
of the Swedish Academy by his Sing dfter grefvt Filip Creut:.
Henceforth his muse, touched with the academic spirit, grew
■ore reflective and didactic. His longer works, as Emit idler
a aftom i Lnpplcnd, and the epics Srante Sture dlcr motet vid
Ahasira, Koiumbus dlcr Amcrikas uppt&ckt and Gustaf Adolf i
Tysiland (the last two incomplete), though rich in beauties of
feau*, are far inferior to his shorter pieces.
The poetical works of Franzcn are collected under the title Skalde-
1 tfjclfli (7 vols.. X824-1861) ; nevtcd.,Samlade diklcr.w'uha. biography
ty A. A. GralstrSm (1867-1869); also a selection (Valda dikter)
a 2 vol*. (1871). His prose writings, Om stenska droit ningar (Abo,
1 Ml; Oiebro, 1823), SkrifUr i obunden stil, vol. i. (1835). Predik-
1 (5 vols., 1841-1845) and Minnestcckningar. nrcpaad for the
r (3 vols.. 1848-1860). arc marked by faithful | «>rtraiturv and
_J style. See B. E. Malmstrom, in the Handtingar of the
1 Academy (1852. new series 1887), vol. ii.; S. A. Hollander,
Kvme of F. Jl/. Franzcn (Orcbro. 1868); F. Cygnacus, Teckningar
wF. M. Fratahu lefnad (Hclsingfors, 1S72) ; and Gustaf Ljunggrcn,
Smukm vitUrkttau Mfdtr efler Gustaf ///.'« dod, vol. ii. (1*76).
FRAHZENSBAD, or Kaiser-Fra^zensbad, a town and
v1teriag-pL1.ce of Bohemia, Austria, 152 m. W.NWY. of Fr ague by
nJL Pop. (1900) 2330. It is situated at an altitude of about
ipso ft. between the spurs of the Fichtelgebirge, the Bohmerwald
sad the Erzgebirge, and lies 4 m. N.W. of Egcr. It possesses
a large kursaal, several bathing establishments, a hospital for
poor patients and several parks. There arc altogether 12
avacral springs with saline, alkaline and ferruginous waters,
ei which the oldest and most important is the Franzcnsquellc.
One of the springs gives of! carbonic acid gas and another contains
a considerable proportion of lilhia salts. The waters, which
hare an average temperature between 50*2° F. and 54-5 F-.
sst oaed both internally and externally, and are efficacious in
asts of anaemia, nervous disorders, sexual diseases, specially
and heart diseases. Franzensbad is frequently
to as an after-cure by patients from Carlsbad and
IMMudad. Another important part of the cure is the so-called
war or mud-baths, prepared from the peat of the Franzensbad
■ash, which is very rich in mineral substances, like sulphates
rftron, of soda and of potash, organic acids, salt, &c.
The first information about the springs dates from the i6lh
u>tnry 4 and an analysis of the waters-was made in 1565. They
37
were first used for bathing purposes In 1707. But the foundation
of Franzensbad as a watering-place really dates from 1793,
when Dr Adler built here the first Kurkaus, and the place
received its name after the emperor Francis I.
See Dr Loimann, Franzetubad (3rd ed., Vienna, 1900).
FRANZ JOSEF LAUD, an arctic archipelago lying E. of
Spitsbergen and N. of Kovaya Zemlya, extending northward
from about 8o° to 82 N., and between 42 and 64 E. It is
described as a lofty glacier-covered land, reaching an extreme
elevation of about 2400 ft. The glaciers front, with a per-
pendicular ice-wall, a shore of debris on which a few low plants
are found to grow— poppies, mosses and the like. The islands
are volcanic, the main geological formation being Tertiary or
Jurassic basalt, which occasionally protrudes through the
ice-cap in high isolated blocks near the shore. A connecting
island-chain between Franz Josef Land and Spitzbergen is
probable. The bear and fox are the only land mammals; insects
are rare; but the avifauna is of interest, and the Jackson
expedition distinguished several new species.
August Pctermann expressed the opinion that Baffin may
have sighted the west of Franz Josef Land in 1614, but the
first actual discovery is due to Julius Payer, a lieutenant in the
Austrian army, who was associated with Weyprecht in the
second polar expedition fitted out by Count Wilczck on the
ship "Tegctthof " in 1872. On the 13th of August 1873, the
" Tcgetthof " being then beset, high land was seen to the north-
west. Later in the season Payer led expeditions to Hochstclter
and Wilczck islands, and after a second winter in the ice-bound
ship, a difficult journey was made northward through Austria
Sound, which was reported to separate two large masses of land,
Wilczck Land on the east from Zichy Land on the west, to Cape
I'ligcly. in 82 5* N., where Rawlinson Sound branched away to
the north-east. Cape Fligcly was the highest latitude attained
by Payer, and remained the highest attained in the Old World
till 1895. Payer reported that from Cape Fligcly land (Rudolf
Land) stretched north-cast to a cape (Cape Sherard Osborn),
and mountain ranges were visible to the north, indicating lands
beyond the 83rd parallel, to which the names King Oscar Land
and Pctermann Land were given. In 1S79 De Bruyne sighted
high land in the Franz Josef Land region, but otherwise it
remained untouched until Leigh Smith, in the yacht " Eira,"
explored the whole southern coast from 42 to 54° E. in 1881
and iS$2, discovering many islands and sounds, and ascertaining
that the coast of Alexandra Land, in the extreme west, trended
to north- west and north.
After Leigh Smith came another pause, and no further mention
is made of Franz Josef Land till 1804. In that year Mr Alfred
Harms worth (afterwards Lord NorthclifTc) fitted out an expedi-
tion in the ship " Windward " under the leadership of Mr F.
G. Jackson, with the object of establishing a permanent base
from which systematic exploration should be carried on for
successive years and, if practicable, a journey should be made
to the Pole. Mr Jackson and his party landed at " Elmwood "
(which was named from Lord NorthcliftVs scat in the Isle of
Thanct), near Cape Flora, at the western extremity of Xorthbrook
Island, on the 7th of September. After a preliminary reconnais-
sance to the north, which afterwards turned out to be vitally
important, the summer of 1895 was spent in exploring the coast
to the north-west by a boating expedition. This expedition
visited many of the points seen by Leigh Smith, and discovered
land, which it has been suggested may be the Gillies Land
reported by the Dutch captain Gillies in 1707. In 1896 the
Jackson-Harmsworth expedition worked northwards through
an archipelago for about 70 m. and reached Cape Richlhofcn,
a promontory 700 ft. high, whence an expanse of open water
was seen to the northward, which received the name of Queen
Victoria Sea. To the west, on the opposite side of a wide opening
which was called the British Channel, appeared glacier-covered
land, and an island by to the northward. The island was
probably the King Oscar Land of Payer. To north and north-
cast was the land which had been visited in the reconnaissance
of the previous year, but beyond it a water-sky appeared in the
S*
FRANZOS— FRASER, A. C.
supposed position of Petermann Land. Thus Zichy Land
itself was resolved into a group of islands, and the outlying
land sighted by Payer was found to be islands also. Meanwhile
Nansen, on his southward journey, had approached Franz
Josef Land from the north-east, finding only sea at the north
end of Wilcxek Land, and seeing nothing of Payer's Rawiinson
Sound, or of the north end of Austria Sound. Nansen wintered
near Cape Norway, only a few miles from the spot reached by
Jackson in 1895. He had finally proved that a deep oceanic
basin lies to the north. On the 17 th of June 1806 the dramatic
meeting of Jackson and Nansen took place, and in the same
year the "Windward" revisited "Elmwood" and brought
Nansen home, the work of the Jackson-Harmsworth expedition
being continued for another year. As the non-existence of land
to the north had been proved, the attempt to penetrate north-
wards was abandoned, and the last season was devoted to a
survey and scientific examination of the archipelago, especially
to the west; this was carried out by Messrs Jackson, Armilage,
R. Koettlitz, H. Fisher and W. S. Bruce.
Further light wa% thrown on the relations of Franz Josef Land
and Spitsbergen during 1897 by the discoveries of Captain
Robertson of Dundee, and Wyche's Land was circumnavigated
by Mr Arnold Pike and Sir Savile Crossley. The latter voyage
was repeated in the following year by a German expedition
under Dr Th. Lerner and Captain Rttdiger. In August 1S9S an
expedition under Mr Walter Wellman, an American, landed at
Cape Tegetthof. Beginning a northward journey with sledges
at the end of the winter, Wellman met with an accident
which compelled him to return, but not before some exploration
had been accomplished, and the eastern extension of the archi-
pelago fairly well denned. In June 1809 H.R.U. the duke of
Abruzzi started from Christiania in his yacht, the " Stella
Polare," to make the first attempt to force a ship into the newly
discovered ocean north of Franz Josef Land. The " Stella
Polare" succeeded in making her way through the British
Channel to Crown Prince Rudolf Land, and wintered in Tcplitz
Bay, in 8x° 33' N. lat. The ship was nearly wrecked in the
autumn, and the party had to spend most of the winter on shore,
the duke of Abruzzi suffering severely from frost-bite. In March
1900 a sledge party of thirteen, under Captain Cagni, started
northwards. They found no trace of Petermann Land, but with
great difficulty crossed the ice to 86° 33' N. lat., 20 m. beyond
Nausea's farthest, and 240 m. from the Pole. The party, with
the exception of three, returned to the ship after an absence
of 104 days, and the "Stella Polare" returned to Tromso
in September 1900. In 1901-1902 the Baldwin-Zicgler expedi-
tion also attempted a northward journey from Franz Josef
Land.
See Geographical Journal, vol. xi., February 1898; F. G. Jackson,
A Thousand Pays in the Arctic (1899).
FRANZOS, KARL EMIL (1848-1904), German novelist, was
born of Jewish parentage on the 25th of October 1848 in Russian
Podolia, and spent his early years at Czorlk6w in Galicia. His
lather, a district physician, died early, and the boy, after attend-
ing the gymnasium of Czcrnowitz, was obliged to teach in order
to support himself and prepare for academic study. He studied
law at the universities of Vienna and Graz, but after passing the
examination for employment in the state judicial service
abandoned this career and, becoming a journalist, travelled
extensively in south-cast Europe, and visited Asia Minor and
Egypt. In 1877 he returned to Vienna, where from 1884 to
1886 he edited the Neue Ulustricrtc Zcitung. In 1887 he removed
to Berlin and founded the fortnightly review Deutsche Dichtmig.
Franzos died on the 28th of January 1904. His earliest collec-
tions of stories and sketches, A us Halb-Asien, Land und Leute
its dstlichen Euro pas (1876) and Die Judcn von Barium (1877)
depict graphically the life and manners of the races of south-
eastern Europe. Among other of his works may be mentioned
the short stories, Junge Licbe (1878), Stille Geschichten (1880),
and the novels Aloschko von Parma (1880), Ein Kampf urns
Rccki (1882), Dcr PrUsident (1884), Judith Trachtenberg (1890),
Dcr IVaJtrheitsucher (1894).
FRASCATt, a town and episcopal see of Italy, In tin
of Rome, 15 m. S.E. of Rome by rail, and also reached I
tramway via Grottaferrata. Pop. (190a) 8453. Tb
situated 1056 ft. above the sea-level, on the N. slopes of
crater ring of the Alban Hills, and commands a very
of the Campagna of Rome. The cathedral contains a
tablet to Charles Edward, the Young Pretender, wl
for some while rested here; his brother, Henry, Cardi
owned a villa at Frascati. The villas of the Roman
with their beautiful gardens and fountains, are the cU
tion of Frascati. The earliest in date is the Villa I
planned by Cardinal Rutnni before 1550; the most 1
of the rest are the Villa Torlonia (formerly Conti), 1
(formerly Piccolomini), Ruffinella (now belonging t
Lanccllotti), Aldobrandini, Borghese and Mondragoa
Jesuit school). The surrounding country, covered wit
of ancient villas, is fertile and noted for its wine,
seems to have arisen on the site of a very large ancj
which, under Domitian at any rate, belonged to tki
house about the 9th century, in which period we fii
Liber Ponlificalis the names of four churches s*
The medieval stronghold of the counts of Tuscuh
which occupied the site of the ancient city, was dism
the Romans in 1191, and the inhabitants put to the
mutilated. Many of the fugitives naturally took
Frascati The see of Tusculum had, however, alwaj
cathedral church in Frascati. For the greater part of t
ages Frascati belonged to the papacy.
See G. Tomassetti, La Via Laiina lul medio evo (Rot
170 seq.; T. Ashby in Papers of the British School at
(London, 1907)* 4
FRASER, ALEXANDER CAMPBELL (1819- ),
philosopher, was born at Ardchattan, Argyllshire, 01
of September 1819. He was educated at Glasgow and E<
where, from 1846 to 1856, he was professor of Logi<
College. He edited the North British Review from 1851
and in 1856, having previously been a Free Church
he succeeded Sir William Hamilton as professor of J
Metaphysics at Edinburgh University. In 1859 h<
dean of the faculty of arts. He devoted himself to 1
of English philosophers, especially Berkeley, and pu
Collected Edition of the Works of Bishop Berkeley mil
lions, (re. (187 1 ; enlarged 1001), a Biography of Berkel
an Annotated Edition of Locke's Essay (1894), the Phi
Theism (1896) and the Biography of Thomas Re id (if
contributed the article on John Locke to the £ncj
Britanniea. In 1904 he published an autobiography
Biographia philosophica, in which he sketched the prog:
intellectual development. From this work and from h
lectures we learn objectively what had previously beei
from his critical works. After a childhood spent in an
which stigmatized as unholy even the novels of Sir Wal
he began his college career at the age of fourteen at a t
Christopher North and Dr Ritchie were lecturing <
Philosophy and Logic. His first philosophical adv
stimulated by Thomas Brown's Cause and Eject, wh
duccd him to the problems which were 10 occupy his
From this point he fell into the scepticism of Hume.
Sir William Hamilton was appointed to the chair of I
Metaphysics, and Frascr became his pupil. He him
" I owe more to Hamilton than to any other in flue
was about this time also that he began his study of Ber
Coleridge, and deserted his early phenomenalism for
ccption of a spiritual will as the universal cause. In
grophid this " Theistic faith " appears in its full dev
(see the concluding chapter), and is especially imp
perhaps the nearest approach to Kantian ethics made b
English philosophy. Apart from the philosophical ii
the Biographia. the work contains valuable pictures of
of Lome and Argyllshire society in the early 19th ce
university life in Glasgow and Edinburgh, and a histo
North British Review.
FRASER, J.— FRASERBURGH
FRASnU JAMES (1818-188$), English bishop, was born at
Prestbury, in Gloucestershire, on the 18th of August 181$, and
was educated at Bridgnorth, Shrewsbury, and Lincoln College,
Oxford. In 1839 he was Ireland scholar, and took a first class.
In 1840 he gained an Oriel fellowship, and was for some lime
tutor of the college, but did not take orders until 1846. He was
successively vicar of Cholderton, in Wiltshire, and rector of
Ufton Nervet, in Berkshire; but his subsequent importance was
largely due to W. K. Hamilton, bishop of Salisbury, who recom-
aended him as an assistant commissioner of education. His
report on the educational condition of thirteen poor-law unions,
made in May 1859, was described by Thomas Hughes as " a
superb, almost a unique piece of work." In 1865 he was com-
missioned to report on the stale of education in the United Slates
and Canada, and his able performance of this task brought him
an offer of the bishopric of Calcutta, which he declined, but in
January 1870 he accepted the see of Manchester. The task
before him was an arduous one, for although his predecessor,
James Prince Lee, had consecrated no fewer than 130 churches,
the enormous population was still greatly in advance of the
machinery. Fraser worked with the utmost
r, and did even more for the church by the liberality and
geniality which earned him the title of " the bishop of all de-
nominations." He was prominent in secular as well as religious
works, interesting himself in every movement that promoted
health, morality, or education; and especially serviceable as
the friendly, nnomcious counsellor of all classes. His theology
was that of a liberal high-churchman, and his sympathies were
broad. In convocation he seconded a motion for the disuse of
the Athanasian Creed, and in the House of Lords he voted for
the abolition of university tests. He died suddenly on the 22nd
of October 1885.
A biography by Thomas Hughes was published in 1887, and an
account of hi* Lancashire life by J. W. Digglc (1889), who also edited
J vols, of Uusttrsity and Parochial Sermons (1887)*
IJUSIR. JAMES BAILLIE (1783-1856), Scottish traveller
and author, was born at Reelick in the county of Inverness on
the nth of June 1783. He.was the eldest of the four sons of
Edward Satchell Fraser of Reelick, all of whom found their way
ta the East, and gave proof of their ability. In early life he
west to the West Indies arid thence to India. In 181 5 he made
t tour of exploration in the Himalayas, accompanied by his
bother William (d. 1835). When Re*a Kuli Mirza and NcjcrT
KaK Mirza, the exiled Persian princes, visited England, he was
appointed to look after them during their stay, and on their
■tarn he accompanied them as far as Constantinople. He was
afterwards sent to Persia on a diplomatic mission by Lord
Gkaeig, and effected a 'most remarkable journey on horseback
through Asia Minor to Teheran. His health, however, was
fapeired by the exposure. In 1S23 he married a daughter
of Alexander Fraser Tytler, Lord Woodhouselce, a sister of the
historian Patrick Fraser Tytler. He died at Reelick in January
1856. Fraser is said to have displayed great skill in watcr-
— £»— * and several of his drawings have been engraved; and
the astronomical observations which he took during some of
his journeys did considerable service to the cartography of Asia.
The works by which he attained his literary reputation were
tts of his travels and fictitious tales illustrative of Eastern
In both he employed a vigorous and impassioned style,
on the whole wonderfully effective in spite of minor
bubs in taste and flaws in structure.
Fma*r"s earliest writings are: Journal of a Tour through Part of
J* Hwm&lA Mountains ana to the Sources oftlic Jumna and the Ganges
tlftao); A Narrative of a Journey into khorasan in the Years 1821
mmi jfor. including some Account of Ike Countries to the North-East
4 Persia (1825) : and Travels and Adventures in the Persian Provinces
m At Southern Banks of the Caspian Sea (1826). His romances
fiadade The Kumsilbash, a Tale of Khorasan (1828). and its sequel.
The Persian Adventurer (1830): Allee Nccmroo (1842): and The Dark
Mean (1844). He al«o wrote A n Historical and Descriptive Account
■J Persia (1834); A Winter's Journey {Tatar) from Constantinople
W Teheran (1838): Travels in Koordistan, Mesopotamia. &c (1840);
Kaopotamia and Assyria (1842); and Military Memoirs of Col.
Jama Skinner (1851).
39
FRASER, SIR WILLIAM AUGUSTUS, Bart. (1826-1808), Eng-
lish politician, author and collector, was born on the 10th of
February 1826, the son of Sir James John Fraser, 3rd baronet, a
colonel of the 7th Hussars, who had served on Wellington's staff
at Waterloo. He was educated at Eton and at Christ Church,
Oxford, entered the xst Life Guards in 1847, but retired with a
captain's rank in 1852. He then set about entering parliament,
and the ups and downs of his political career were rather remark-
able. He was returned for Barnstaple in 1S52, but the election
was declared void on account of bribery, and the constituency
was disfranchised for two years. At the election of 1857 Sir
William, who had meantime been defeated at Harwich, was
again returned at Barnstaple. He was, however, defeated in
1850, but was elected in 1863 at Ludlow. This seat he held for
only two years, when he was again defeated and did not re-enter
parliament until 1874, when be was returned for Kidderminster,
a constituency he represented for six years, when he retired. He
was a familiar figure at the Carlton Club, always ready with a
copious collection of anecdotes of Wellington, Disraeli and
Napoleon HI. He died on the 17th of August 1808. He was
an assiduous collector of relics; and his library was sold for
some £20,000. His own books comprise Words on Wellington
(1880), Disraeli and his Day (1801), Hie el Ubique (1803),
/fapoleon 111. (1806) and the Waterloo Ball (1807).
FRASER, the chief river of British Columbia, Canada, rising
in two branches among the Rocky Mountains near 52° 45' N.»
xiS° 30' W. Length 740 m. It first flows N.W. for about 160 m. f
then rounds the head of the Cariboo Mountains, and flows
directly S. for over 400 m. to Hope,-where it again turns abruptly
and flows W. for 80 m., falling into the Gulf of Georgia at New
Westminster. After the junction of the two forks near its
northern extremity, the first important tributary on its southern
course is the Stuart, draining Lakes Stuart, Fraser and Francois.
One hundred miles lower down the Quesnel, draining a large
lake of the same name, flows in from the east at a town also so
named. Farther on the Fraser receives from the west the
Chilcotin, and at Lytton, about 180 m. from the sea, the Thomp-
son, its largest tributary, flows in from the cast, draining 4 series
of mountain lakes, and receiving at Kamloops the North
Thompson, which flows through deep and impassable canyons.
Below Hope the Lillooet flows in from the north. The Fraser
is a typical mountain stream, rapid and impetuous through all
its length, and like most of its tributaries is in many parts not
navigable even by canoes. On its southern course between
Lytton and Yale, while bursting its way through the Coast
Range, it flows through majestic canyons, which, like those
of the Thompson, were the scene of many tragedies during the
days of the gold-rush to the Cariboo district. At Yale, about
80 m. from its mouth, it becomes navigable, though its course
is still very rapid. In the Cariboo district, comprised within the
great bend of the river, near Tcte Jaune Cache, are many valuable
gold deposits. With its tributaries the Fraser drains the whole
province from 54° to 49° N., except the extreme south-eastern
corner, which is within the basin of the Columbia and its tributary
the Kootcnay.
FRASERBURGH, a police burgh and seaport, on the N. coast
of Aberdeenshire, Scotland. Pop. (1801), 7466; (1001), 9105.
It is situated 47! m. by rail N. of Aberdeen, from which there
is a branch line, of which it is the terminus, of the Great North
of Scotland railway. It takes its name from Sir Alexander
Fraser, the ancestor of Lord Saltoun, whose scat, Philorth
House, lies 2 m. to the south. Sir Alexander obtained for it
in 1613 a charter as a burgh of royalty, and also in 1592 a charter
for the founding of a university. This latter project, however,
was not carried out, and all that remains of the building in-
tended for the college is a three-storeyed tower. The old castle
of the Frasers on Kinnaird Head now contains a lighthouse,
and close by is the Wine Tower, with a cave below. The
town cross is a fine structure standing upon a huge hexagon,
surmounted by a stone pillar 12 ft. high, ornamented by the
royal and Fraser arms. The port is one of the leading stations
of the herring fishery in the north of Scotland and the bead
40
FRASERVILLE— FRATERNITIES
of a fishery district. During the herring season (June to Sep-
tember) the population is increased by upwards of 10,000 per-
sons. The fleet numbers more than 700 boats, and the annual
value of the catch exceeds £200,000. The harbour, origin-
ally constructed as a refuge for British ships of war, is one
of the best on the east coast, and has been improved by the
widening of the piers and the extension of the breakwaters.
It has an area of upwards of eight acres, is easy of access, and
affords anchorage for vessels of every size.
FRASERVILLE (formerly Riviere du Loup en Bas),atown
and watering-place in Temiscouata county, Quebec, Canada,
207 m. (by water) north-east of Quebec, on the south shore of
the St Lawrence river, and at the mouth of the Riviere du Loup,
at the junction of the Intercolonial and Tcmiscouata railways.
It contains a convent, boys' college, hospital, several mills,
and is a favourite summer resort on account of the angling and
shooting, and the magnificent scenery. Pop. (1001) 4569.
FRATER, Frater House or Fratery, a term in architec-
ture for the hall where the members of a monastery or friary
met for meals or refreshment. The word is by origin the same as
" refectory." The older forms, such as frcitur, fraylor and the
like, show the word to be an adaptation of the O.Fr. fraiiour,
a shortened form of refrailour, from the Med. Lat. refectorittm.
The word has been confused with frater, a brother or friar,
and hence sometimes confined in meaning to the dining-hall
of a friary, while " refectory " is used of a monastery.
FRATERNITIES, COLLEGE, a class of student societies
peculiar to the colleges and universities of the United States and
Canada, with certain common characteristics, and mostly
named from two or three letters of the Greek alphabet; hence
they arc frequently called " Greek Letter Societies." They are
Organized on the lodge system, and each fraternity comprises
a number of affiliated lodges of which only one of any one
fraternity is connected with the same institution. The lodges,
called " chapters," in memory of the convocations of monks of
medieval times, are usually designated by Greek letters also.
They are nominally secret, with one exception (Delia Upsilon).
Each chapter admits members from the lowest or freshman
dass, and of course loses its members as the students depart
from college, consequently each chapter has in it at the same
time members of all the four college classes and frequently those
pursuing postgraduate studies. Where the attendance at a
college is large the material from which fraternity members
may be drawn is correspondingly abundant, and in some of the
large colleges {e.g. at Cornell University and the University of
.Michigan) there arc chapters of over twenty fraternities. All
the fraternities aim to be select and to pick their members from
the mass of incoming students. Where, however, the material
to select from is not abundant and the rival fraternities are
numerous, care in selection is impossible, and the chapters at any
one college are apt to secure much the same general type of men.
Many of the fraternities have, however, on account of a persistent
selection of men of about the same tastes at different colleges,
acquired a distinct character and individuality; for instance,
Alpha Delta Phi is literary.
The first of these fraternities was the Phi Beta Kappa, founded
at the College of William and Mary at Williamsburg, Virginia,
in 1776. It was a little 6ocial club of five students: John
Heath, Richard Booker, Thomas Smith, Armistcad Smith and
John Jones- Its badge was a square silver medal displaying
the Greek letters of its name and a few symbols. In 1779 it
authorized Elisha Parmelce, one of its members, to establish
" meetings" or chapters at Yale and Harvard, these chapters being
authorized to establish subordinate branches in their respective
states. In 1 781 the College of William and Mary was closed, its
buildings being occupied in turn by the British, French and
American troops, and the society ceased to exist. The two
branches, however, were established— that at Yale in 1780 and
that at Harvard in 1781. Chapters were established at Dartmouth
in 1 787. at Union in 1817, at Bowdoin in 1824 and at Brown in 1830.
This society changed its character in 1826 and became non-sccrct
and purely honorary in character, admitting to membership a
certain proportion of the scholars of highest standing in each
class (only in classical courses, usually and with few exceptions
only in graduating classes). More recent honorary societies
of similar character among schools of science and engineering
arc Sigma Xi and Tau Beta Pi.
In 1825, at Union College, Kappa Alpha was organized,
copying in style of badge, membership restrictions and the like,
its predecessor. In 1827 two other similar societies, Sigma Pki
and Delta Phi, were founded at the same place. In 183 1 Sigma
Phi placed a branch at Hamilton College and in 1832 Alpha
Delta Phi originated there. In 1833 Psi Upsilon, a fourth
society, was organized at Union. In 1835 Alpha Delta Phi
placed a chapter at Miami University, and in 1839 Beta Theta Pi
originated there, and so the system spread. These fraternities,
it will be observed, were all undergraduate societies among the
male students. In 1910 the total number of men's general
fraternities was 32, with 1068 living chapters, and owning
property worth many millions of dollars. In 1864 Theta Xi,
the first professional fraternity restricting its membership to
students intending to engage in the same profession, was organ-
ized. There were in 1910 about 50 of these organizations
with some 400 chapters. In addition there are about 100
local societies or chapters acting as independent units. Some
of the older of these, such as Kappa Kappa Kappa at Dartmouth,
IKA at Trinity, Phi Nu Thcla at Wesleyan and Delta Psi at ,
Vermont, are permanent in character, but the majority of them
are purely temporary, designed to maintain an organization j
until the society becomes a chapter of one of the genera] fra-
ternities. In 1870 the first women's society or " sorority," ,
the Kappa Alpha Thcla, was organized at De Pauw University. ,
There were in 1910, 17 general sororities with some 500 active
chapters. ,
It is no exaggeration to say that these apparently insignificant
organizations of irresponsible students have modified the college \
life of America and have had a wide influence. Members join
in the impressionable years of their youth; they retain for their '
organizations a peculiar loyalty and affection, and freely contri- ,
bute with money and influence to ihcir advancement.
Almost universally the members of any particular chapter '
(or part of them) live together in a lodge or chapter house.
The men's fraternities own hundreds of houses and rent as many .
more. The fraternities form a little aristocracy within the
college community. Sometimes the line of separation is invisible, *
sometimes sharply marked. Sometimes this condition militates
against the college discipline and sometimes it assists it. Con- *
fficls not infrequently occur between the fraternity and non- J
fraternity element in a college. '
It can readily be understood how young men living together in *
the intimate relationship of daily contact in the same house, *
having much the same tastes, culture and aspirations would form *
among themselves enduring friendships. In addition each 3e
fraternity has a reputation to maintain, and this engenders an ' s
esprit du corps which at times places loyalty to fraternity lsn
interests above loyalty to college interest or the real advantage *'*
of the individual. At commencements and upon other occasions ***
the former members of the chapters return to their chapter **
houses and help to foster the pride and loyalty of the under- ^
graduates. The chapter houses are commonly owned by corpora- 77
lions made up of the alumni. This brings the undergraduates fP.
into contact with men of mature age and often of national fame, *'
who treat their membership as a serious privilege. ^ ';
The development of this collegiate aristocracy has led to '*&?
jealousy and bitter animosity among those not selected for$$
membership. Some of the states, notably South Carolina and ^a
Arkansas, have by legislation, cither abolished the fraternities it *»
state-controlled institutions or seriously limited the privilege***^
of their members. The constitutionality of such legislation ha* *
never been tested. Litigation has occasionally arisen out of l *t
attempts on the part of college authorities to prohibit tte*ta
fraternities at their several institutions. This, it has been held^ 1 '^
may lawfully be done at a college maintained by private endow- ^j
menl but not at an institution supported by public funds. !■*■
I
FRATICELLI
4*
the btter case all classes of the public are equally entitled to
the same educational privileges and members of the fraternities
Bay not be discriminated against.
The fraternities are admirably organized. The usual system
comprises a legislative body made up of delegates from the
(Efferent chapters and an executive or administrative body
elected by the delegates. Few of the fraternities have any
judiciary. None is needed. The financial systems are sound,
and the conventions of delegates meet in various parts of the
United Slates, several hundred in number, spend thousands of
dollars in travel and entertainment, and attract much public
attention. Most of the fraternities have an inspection system
by which chapters are periodically visited and kept up to a certain
level of excellence.
The leading fraternities publish journals usually from four to
eight times during the college year. The earliest of these was
the Beta Theta Pi, first issued in 1872. All publish catalogues
of their members and the most prosperous have issued histories.
They also publish song books, music and many ephemeral and
local publications.
The alumni of the fraternities are organized into clubs or associa-
tions having headquarters at centres of population. These
organizations are somewhat loose, but nevertheless are capable
of much exertion and influence should occasion arise.
The college fraternity system has no parallel among the students
of colleges outside of America. One of the curious things about
it, however, b that while it is practically uniform throughout
the United States, at the three prominent universities of Harvard,
Yale and Princeton it differs in many respects from its character
elsewhere. At Harvard, although there are chapters of a few
of the fraternities, their influence is insignificant, their place
being taken by a group of local societies, some of them class
organisations. At Yale, the regular system of fraternities
obtains in the engineering or technical department (the Sheffield
Scientific School), but in the classical department the fraternity
chapters are called " junior " societies, because they limit their
■emberahip to the three upper classes and allow the juniors
1e»ch year practically to control the chapter affairs. Certain
KBior societies, of which the oldest is the Skull and Bones,
which are inter-fraternity societies admitting freely members of
tk fraternities, are more prominent at Yale than the fraternities
tkmselves. -Princeton has two (secret) literary and fraternal
sneu'es, the American Whig and the Cliosophic, and various
kcsl social dubs, with no relationship to organizations in other
(Ages and not having Greek letter names.
At a few universities (for instance, Michigan, Cornell and Vir-
ginia), senior societiesorothcrintcr-fraternitysocietiesexert great
nfuence and have modified the strength of the fraternity system.
Of late years, numerous societies bearing Greek names and
inhaling the externals of the college fraternities have sprung
■p in the high schools and academics of the country, but have
tacked the earnest and apparently united opposition of the
aathorities of such schools. .
See William Raimond Baird, American College Fraternities (6th
Si. New York, 1905); Albert C. Stevens, Cyclopedia of Fraternities
fFatenon, N. J., 1899); Henry D. Sheldon, Student Life and Customs
(Xew York, 1901); Homer L. Patterson, Pattersons College and
5d*et Directory (Chicago, 1004); H. K. Kellogg, College Secret
Sixties (Chicago, 1874); Albert P. Jacobs, Creek Letter Societies
(Detroit, 1879). (W. R. B.»)
PBATICBLLI (plural diminutive of Ital. frate, brother), the
aarae given during the 13th, 14th and 15th centuries to a number
of religious groups in Italy, differing widely from each other, but
aD derived more or less directly from the Franciscan movement.
Ira Salimbene says in his Chronicle (Parma ed., p. 108): " All
> wished to found a new rule borrowed something from the
Franciscan order, the sandals or the habit." As early as 1238
Gregory IX., in his bull Quoniam abuttdavit iniquilas, condemned
and denounced as forgers {tanquam Jalsarhs) all who begged or
peached fn a habit resembling that of the mendicant orders,
1 this condemnation was repeated by him or his successors.
The term Fraticelli was used contemptuously to denote, not any
particular sect, but the members of orders formed on the fringe
of the church. Thus Giovanni Villani, speaking of the heretic
Dolcino, says in his Chronicle (bk. viii. ch. 84): " He is not a
brother of an ordered rule, but a JraticeUo without an order."
Similarly, John XXII., in his bull Santla Romana et Universalis
Ecclcsia (28th of December 1317)* condemns vaguely those
" projanae multitwiinis viri commonly called Fraticelli, or
Brethren of the Poor 'Life, or Bizocchi, or Beguincs, or by all
manner of other names."
Some historians, in their 'zeal for rigid classification, have
regarded the Fraticelli as a distinct sect, and have attempted
to discover its dogmas and its founder. Some of the con-
temporaries of these religious groups fell into the same error,
and in this way the vague term Fraticelli has sometimes been
applied to the disciples of Arraanno Pongilupo of Fcrrara (d. 1269),
who was undoubtedly a Calhar, and to the followers of Gerard
Segarclli and Dolcino, who were always known among them-
selves as Apostolic Brethren (Apostolici). Furthermore, it seems
absurd to classify both the Dolcinists and the Spiritual Franciscans
as Fraticelli, since, as has been pointed out by Ehrlc {Arch t -J.
Lit. u. Kirchengesch. des Mittclaltcrs, ii. 107, &c), Angclo of
Clarino, in his De sept em tribulalionibus, written to the glory of
the Spirituals, does not scruple to stigmatize the Dolcinists as
" disciples of the devil." It is equally absurd to include in the
same category the ignorant Bizocchi and Scgarcllists and such
learned disciples of Michael of Ccscna and Louis of Bavaria as
William of Occam and Bonagratia of Bergamo, who have often
been placed under this comprehensive rubric
The name Fraticelli may more justly be applied to the most
exalted fraction of Franciscanism. In 1322 some prisoners
declared to the inquisitor Bernard Gui at Toulouse that the
Franciscan order was divided into three sections — the Con-
ventuals, who were allowed to retain their real and personal
property; the Spirituals or Beguincs, who were at that time
the objects of persecution; and the Fraticelli of Sicily, whose
leader was Henry of Ccva (sec Gui's Prcctica Inquisitionis, v.).
It is this fraction of the order which John XXII. condemned
in his bull Cloriosam Erclcsiam (23rd of January 1318), but
without calling them Fraticelli. Henry of Ceva had taken refuge
in Sicily at the time of Pope Boniface VIII.'s persecution of the
Spirituals, and thanks to the good offices of Frederick of Sicily,
a little colony of Franciscans who rejected all property had soon
established itself in the island. Under Pope Clement V., and
more especially under Pope John XXII., fresh Spirituals joined
them; and this group of exalted and isolated ascetics soon
began to regard itself as the sole legitimate order of the Minorites
and then .as the sole Catholic Church. After being excommuni-
cated as "schismatics and rebels, founders of a superstitious
sect, and propagators of false and pestiferous doctrines," they
proceeded to elect a general (for Michael of Cescna had disavowed
them) and then a pope called Cclcstinc (L. Wadding, Annates,
at date 13 13). The rebels continued to carry on an active
propaganda. In Tuscany particularly the Inquisition made,
persistent efforts to suppress them; Florence afflicted them
with severe laws, but failed to rouse the populace against them.
The papacy dreaded their social even more than their dogmatic
influence. At first in Sicily and afterwards throughout Italy
the Ghibellines gave them a warm welcome; the rigorists and
the malcontents who had either left the church or were on the
point of leaving it, were attracted by these communities of
needy rebels; and the tribune Ricnzi was at one time disposed
to join them. To overcome these ascetics it was necessary to
have recourse to other ascetics, and from the outset the reformed
Franciscans, or Franciscans of the Strict Observance, under the
direction of their first leaders, Paoluccio da Trinci (d. 1300),
Giovanni Stronconi (d. 1405), and St Bcrnardinc of Siena, had
been at great pains to restore the Fraticelli to orthodoxy. These
early efforts, however, had little success. Alarmed by the
number of the sectaries and the extent of their influence, Pope
Martin V., who had encouraged the Observants, and particularly.
Bcrnardinc of Siena, fulminated two bulls (141& and 1421)
against the heretics, and entrusted different legates with the task
of hunting them down. These measures failing, he decided, in
4*
FRAUD— FRAUENLOB
1426, to appoint two Observants as inquisitors without territorial
limitation to make a special crusade against the heresy of the
Fraticelli. These two inquisitors, who pursued their duties
under three popes (Martin V., Eugenius IV. and Nicholas V.)
were Giovanni da Capistrano and Giacomo della Marca. The
latter's valuable Dialogus contra FratkeUos .(Baluze and Mansi,
Miscellanea, iv. 595-610) gives an account of the doctrines of
'these heretics and of the activity of the two inquisitors, and shows
that the Fraticelli not only constituted a distinct church but
a distinct society. They had a pope called Rinaldo, who was
elected in 1429 and was succeeded by a brother named Gabriel.
This supreme head of their church they styled "bishop of
Philadelphia/' Philadelphia being the mystic name of their
community; under him were bishops, e.g. the bishops of
Florence, Venice, &c; and, furthermore, a member of the
community named Guglielmo Majoretto bore the title of
" Emperor of the Christians." This organization, at least in
so far as concerns the heretical church, had already been observed
among the Fraticelli in Sicily, and in 1423 the general council
of Siena affirmed with horror that at Peniscola there was an
heretical pope surrounded with a college of cardinals who made
no attempt at concealment. From 1426 to 1449 the Fraticelli
were unremittingly pursued, imprisoned and burned. The sect
gradually died out after losing the protection of the common
people, whose sympathy was now transferred to the austere
Observants and their miracle-worker Capistrano From 1466
to 147 1 there were sporadic burnings of Fraticelli, and in 1471
Tommaso di Scarlino was sent to Piombino and the littoral of
Tuscany to track out some Fraticelli who had been discovered
in those parts. After that date the name disappears from history.
Sec F. Ehrlc, " Die Spiritualcn, ihr Verhaltnis zum Franzt«-
kancrorden und zu den Fraticcllcn " and " Zur Vorgcschichtc des
Concils von Vicnnc," in Archivfur LiUratur- und Kirckcngcschkhte
des Mittelallcrs, vols. i.,ii., Hi.; Wetzcr and Wclte, Kirchenlexikon,
s.v. " Fraticcllcn " ; H. C. Lea, History of the Inquisition of the Middle
Ages, iii. 129-180 (London, 1888). (P. A.)
FRAUD (Lat. frous, deceit), in its widest sense, a term which
has never been exhaustively defined by an English court of law,
and for legal purposes probably cannot usefully be defined. But
as denoting a cause of action for which damages can be recovered
in civil proceedings it now has a clear and settled meaning. In
actions in which damages are claimed for fraud, the difficulties
and obscurities which commonly arise are due rather to the
complexity of modern commerce and the ingenuity of modern
swindlers than to any uncertainty or technicality in the modern
law. To succeed in such an action, the person aggrieved must
first prove a representation of fact, made cither by words, by
writing or by conduct, which is in fact untrue. Mere conceal*
ment is not actionable unless it amounts not only to supprcssio
vcri, but to suggestio falsi. An expression of opinion or of
intention is not enough, unless it can be shown that the opinion
was not really held, or that the intention was not really enter-
tained, in which case it must be borne in mind, to use the phrase
of Lord Bowen, that the state of a man's mind is as much a matter
of fact as the state of his digestion. Next, h must be proved that
the representation was made without any honest belief in its
truth, that is, either with actual knowledge of its falsity or with
a reckless disregard whether it is true or false. It was finally
established, after much controversy, in the case of Deny v.
Peek m 1889, that a merely negligent misstatement is not action-
able. Further, the person aggrieved must prove that the
offender made the representation with the intention that he
should act on it, though not necessarily directly to him, and that
he did in fact act in reliance on it. Lastly, the complainant
must prove that, as the direct consequence, he has suffered
actual damage capable of pecuniary measurement.
As soon as the case of Perry v. Peek had established, as the
general rule of law, that a merely negligent misstatement is not
actionable, a statutory exception was made to the rule in the
case of directors and promoters of companies who publish
prospectuses and similar documents. By the Directors' Liability
Act 1890, such persons are liable for damage caused by untrue
statements in such documents, unless they can prove that they
had reasonable grounds for believing the statements to be true,
It is also to be observed that, though damages cannot be re*
covered in an action for a misrepresentation made with an honest
belief in its truth, still any person induce^ to enter into a con-
tract by a misrepresentation, whether fraudulent or innocent, is
entitled to avoid the contract and to obtain a declaration that
it is not binding upon him. This is in accordance with the rule
of equity, which since the Judicature Act prevails in all the
courts. Whether the representation is fraudulent or innocent,
the contract is not void, but voidable. The party misled must
exercise his option to avoid the contract without delay, and
before it has become impossible to restore the other party to the
position in which he stood before the contract was made. If he
is too late, he can only rely on his claim for damages, and in
order to assert this claim it is necessary to prove that the mis-
representation was fraudulent. Fraud, in its wider sense of
dishonest dealing, though not a distinct cause of action, is often
material as preventing the acquisition of a right, for which goocf
faith is a necessary condition. Also a combination or conspiracy
by two or more persons to defraud gives rise to liabilities not
very clearly or completely defined.
FRAUENBURG, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of
Prussia, on the Frische Haff, v at the mouth of the Bande, 41 m.
S.W. from Kdnigsberg on the railway to Elbing. Pop. 2500.
The cathedral (founded 1329), with six towers, stands on a
commanding eminence adjoining the town and surrounded by
castellated walls and bastions. This is known as Dom-Fraucn*
burg, and is the seat of the Roman Catholic bishop of Ermeland.
Within the cathedral is a monument to the astronomer Copernicus
bearing the inscription Astronomo celeberrimo, cujus nomen si ,
gloria utrumque impletit orbem. There is a small port with ,
inconsiderable trade. Frauenberg was founded in 1287 and
received the rights of a town in 1310. j
FRAUENFELDi the capital of the Swiss canton of Thurgau,
27 m. by rail N.E. of Zurich or 14 J m. W. of Romansborn, :
It is built on the Murg stream a little above its junction with the J
Thur. It is a prosperous commercial town, being situated at ,
the meeting point of. several routes, while it possesses several „
industrial establishments, chiefly concerned with different j
branches of the iron trade. In 1900 its population (including the M
neighbouring villages) was 7761, mainly German-speaking, m
while there iwere 5563 Protestants to 2188 Romanists. Frauen- a
fcld is the artillery depot for North-East Switzerland. The upper
town is the older part, and centres round the castle, of which the t
tower dates from the 10th century, though the rest is of a latec „
period. Both stood on land belonging to the abbot of Reichenau, ~
who, with the count of Kyburg, founded the town, which is first
mentioned in 1255. The abbot retained all manorial rights till **
1803, while the political powers of the Kyburgers (who were the JjJ
" protectors " of Reichenau) passed to the Habsburgs in 1273,' .^
and were seized by the Swiss in 1460 with the rest of tat *j-
Thurgau. In 1712 the town succeeded Baden in Aargau as the *?c
meeting-place of the Federal Diet, and continued to be the capital .,>
of the Confederation till its transformation in 1798. In 1709 it -fif
was successively occupied ( by the Austrians and the French; •«{"
The old Capuchin convent (1591-1848) is now occupied as a *fc
vicarage by the Romanist priest. (W. A. B. C.) H,
FRAUENLOB, the name by which Heinrxch von Meissen; i^"
a German poet of the 13th century, is generally known. Hi i|H
seems to have acquired the sobriquet because in a famtut^
Liederstreit with his rival Regenbogen he defended the use of tat 1 i L
word Frau (i.e. frovwe f =>fody) instead of Weib (trip** woman), tfc B
Frauenlob was born about 1250 of a humble burgher familj; 5^
His youth was spent in straitened circumstances, but he gnum* *^
ally acquired a -reputation as a singer at the various courts «f ^ .
the German princes. In 1278 we find him with Rudolph l^
in the Marchfeld, in 1286 he was at Prague at the knighting .tf*^
Wcnceslaus (Wenzel) II., and in 131 1 he was present at a knight^ t^
festival celebrated by Waldemar of Brandenburg before Rostockjt^
After this he settled in Mainz, and there according to the popuhV. ta .
account, founded the first school of Meistersingers (q.v.). Hh^
died in 13 18, and was buried in the cloisters of the cathedral 4^—
FRAUNCE— FRAYSSINOUS
+3
Mains. His grave fa still marked by a copy made in 1783 of the
original tombstone of 13x8; and in 1842 a monument by Schwan-
ihakr was erected in the cloisters. Frauenlob's poems make a
great display of learning; he delights in far-fetched metaphors,
and his versification abounds in tricks of form and rhyme.
Fmuenlob'a poetry was edited by L. Ettmtitler in 1843; a selection
will be found in K. Bartsch, Deutsche Liederdickter des 12. bis ia.
Jikrhumderts (3rd ed., 1893). " An English translation of Frauenlob s
Ctntiea canHcorum, by A. E. Kroeger, with notes, appeared in 1877
tt St Louis, VJSJi. See A. Boerkel, Frauenlob (2nd ed., 1881).
PIAUHCB. ABRAHAM (c. 1558-1633), English poet, a native
of Shropshire, was born between 1558 and 2560. His name was
registered as a pupil of Shrewsbury School in January i 571/2,
and he joined St John's College, Cambridge, in 1576, becoming a
fellow in 1580/81. His Latin comedy of Victoria, dedicated to
Sidney, was probably written at Cambridge, where he remained
until he bad taken his M. A. degree in z 583. He was called to the
bar at Gray's Inn in 1588, and then apparently practised as a
barrister in the court of the Welsh marches. After the death of
his patron Sir Philip Sidney, Fraunce was protected by Sidney's
lister Mary, countess of Pembroke. His last work was published
in 1591, and we have no further knowledge of him until 1633,
when he is said to have written an Epilhalamium in honour
of the marriage of Lady Magdalen Egcrton, 7th daughter of the
carl of Bridgwater, whose service he may possibly have entered.
His works are: The Lamentations of Amintas for the death
ef Phyllis (1587), a version in English hexameters of his friend's,
Thomas Watson's, Latin Amyntas; The Lawiers Logikc, exem-
fUfymg ike P razee pis of Logikt by the practise of ' the common
Lave (1588); Arcadian Rhetorike (1588); Abrahami Fransi
IusigmiMM, Armarium . . . explicatio (1588); The Countess of
Pembroke's Ttychurch (1591/2), containing- a translation of
Tamo's Aminta, a reprint of his earlier version of Watson,
11 The Lamentation of Corydon for the love of Alexis " (Virgil,
edogoe ii.), a short translation from Hcliodorus, and, in the third
part (1592) "Aminta's Dale," a collection of "conceited"
tales supposed to be related by the nymphs of Ivychurch;
lie Countess of Pembroke's Emanucll (1591); The Third Part
if the Countess of Pembroke's Ivychurch, cnlitulcd Aminta's Dale
(1592). His Arcadian Rhetorike owes much to earlier critical
treatises, but has a special interest from its references to Spenser,
ad Fraunce quotes from the Faerie Queene a year before the
pibtication of the first books. In " Colin Clout's come home
spin/* Spenser speaks of Fraunce as Corydon, on account of his
taadations of Virgil's* second eclogue. His poems are written in
(Btskal metres, and he was regarded by his contemporaries
a the best exponent of Gabriel Harvey's theory. Even Thomas
Xaihe had a good word for " sweete Master France."
71* Countess of Pembroke's Etnanuell, hexameters on the nativity
_jdpa.«sion of Christ, with versions of some psalms, were reprinted
k* Dr A. B. Groaart in the third volume of his Miscellanies of the
HMer Worthies Library (187a). Joseph Hunter in hit Chorus Vat urn
stated that five of Frauncc's songs were included in Sidney's A strophel
tni Stella, but it is probable that these should be attributed not to
Favoce, but to Thomas Campion. Sec a life prefixed to the tran-
nprson of a MS. Latin comedy by Fraunce, Victoria, by Professor
G.C Moore Smith, published in Bang's Materialieu sur Kunde des
attrrtn englischen Dramas, vol. xiv., 1906.
FRAUsTHOFER, JOSEPH VON (1787-1826), German optician
■ad physicist, was born at Straubing in Bavaria on the 6th ol
1787, the. son of a glazier who died in 1798. He was
" in 1 709 to Weichsclberger , a glass-polisher and looking-
r. On the aist of July 1801 he nearly lost his life
by the fall of the house in which he lodged, and the elector of
Maximilian Joseph, who was present at his extrication
ruins, gave him 18 ducats. With a portion of this sum
hi obtained release from the last six months of his apprenticeship,
ad with the rest he purchased a glass-polishing machine. He
sow esapkryed himself in making optical glasses, and in engraving
«i metal, devoting his spare time to the perusal of works on
Uica and optics. In 1806 he obtained the place o<
in the mathematical institute which in 1804 had been
handed at Munich by Joseph von Utzschncider, G. Refcbenbacl
ssd J. Iiebherr; and in 1807 arrangements were made b>
Utzschncider for his instruction by Pierre Louis Guinand, a
skilled optician, in the fabrication of flint and crown glass, ia
which he soon became an adept (see R. Wolf, Gesch. da Wisscnsek.
in Deutschl. bd. xvi. p. 586). With Reichenbach and Utz-
schncider, Fraunhofer established in 1800 an optical institute
at Benedictbeucrn, near Munich, of which he in 1818 became
sole manager. The institute was in 1819 removed to Munich,
and on Fraunhofcr's death came under the direction of G. Men.
Amongst the earliest mechanical contrivances of Fraunhofer
was a machine for polishing mathematically uniform spherical
surfaces. He was the inventor of the stage-micrometer, and of
a form of heliometer; and in 1816 he succeeded in constructing
for the microscope achromatic glasses of long focus, consisting of
a single lens, the constituent glasses of which were in juxta-
position, but not cemented • together. The great reflecting
telescope at Dorpat was manufactured by him, and so great was
the skilly he attained in the making of lenses for achromatic
telescopes that, in a letter to Sir David Brewster, he expressed
his willingness to furnish an achromatic glass of 18 in. diameter.
Fraunhofer is especially known for the. researches, published in
the Dcnkschriften der MUnehener Akadcmie for 1814-1815, by
which he laid the foundation of solar and stellar chemistry.
The dark lines of the spectrum of sunlight, earliest noted by
Dr W. H: Wollaston (Phil. Trans. t 1802, p. 378), were inde-
pendently discovered, and, by means of the telescope of a
theodolite, between which and a distant slit admitting the
light a prism was interposed, were for the first time carefully
observed by Fraunhofer, and have on that account been desig-
nated " Fraunhofcr's lines." He constructed a map of as many
as 576 of these lines, the principal of which he denoted by the
letters of the alphabet from A to G; and by ascertaining their
refractive indices he determined that their relative positions are
constant, whether in spectra produced by the direct rays of the
sun, or by the reflected light of the moon and planets. The
spectra of the stars he obtained by using, outside the object-glass
of his telescope, a large prism, through which the light passed
to be brought to a focus in front of the eye-piece. He showed that
in the spectra of the fixed stars many of the dark lines were
different from those of the solar spectrum, whilst other well-
known solar lines were wanting; and he concluded that it was
not by any action of the terrestrial atmosphere upon the light
passing through.it that the lines were produced. He further
expressed the belief that the dark lines D of the solar spectrum
coincide with the bright lines of the sodium flame. He was also
the inventor of the diffraction grating.
In 1823 he was appointed conservator of the physical cabinet
at Munich, and in the following year he received from the king
of Bavaria the civil order of merit. He died at Munich on the 7th
of June 1826, and was buried near Reichenbach, whose decease
had taken place eight years previously. On his tomb is the
inscription " Approximavit sidera."
See J. von Utzschneider, Kurwer Umriss der Lebensgesckichte des
Herrn Dr J. von Fraunhofer (Munich, 1826) ; and G. Mcrz, Das Leben
und Wirken Fraunhofer s (Landshut, 1865)
FRAUSTADT (Polish, WsMowa), a town of Germany, in the
Prussian province of Posen, in a flat sandy country dotted with
windmills, 50 m. S.S.W. of. Posen, on the railway Lissa-Sagan.
Pop. (including a garrison) 7500. It has three Evangelical
and two Roman Catholic churches, a classical school and a
teachers' seminary; the manufactures include woollen and
cotton goods, hats, morocco leather and gloves, and there is a
considerable trade in corn, cattle and wool. Fraustadt was
founded by Silcsians in 1348, and afterwards belonged to the
principality of Glogau. Near the town the Swedes under Charles
XII. defeated the Saxons on the 13th of February 1706.
FRAYSSINOUS, DENIS ANTOINE LUC, Coiite db (1765-
1841), French prelate and statesman, distinguished as an orator
and as a controversial .writer, was born of humble parentage
at Curieres, in the department of Ayeyron, on the 9th of May
1765. He owes his reputation mainly to the lectures on dog-
matic theology, known as the " conferences " of Saint Sulpice,
delivered in the church of Saint Sulpice, Paris,, from 1803 to
44
FRECHETTE— FREDERICIA
i8og, to which admiring crowds were attracted by his lucid
exposition and by his graceful oratory. The freedom of his lan-
guage in 1809, when Napoleon had arrested the pope and de-
clared the annexation of Rome to France, led to a prohibition
of his lectures; and the dispersion of the congregation of Saint
Sulpice in 181 x was followed by his temporary retirement from
the capital He returned with the Bourbons, and resumed his
lectures in 1814; but the events of the Hundred Days again
compelled him to withdraw into private life, from which he did
not emerge until February 18x6. As court preacher and almoner
to Louis XVIII., he now entered upon the period of his greatest
public activity and influence. In connexion with the con-
troversy raised by the signing of the reactionary concordat of
1817, he published in 1818 a treatise entitled Vrais Principes
de Vtglise GaUicane sur la puissance ecdisuutiquc, which though
unfavourably criticized by Lamennais, was received#with favour
by the civil and ecclesiastical authorities. The consecration of
Frayssinous as bishop of llermopolis " in partibus," his election
to the.French Academy, and his appointment to the grand- master-
ship of the university, followed in rapid succession. In 1824,
on the accession of Charles X., he became minister of public in-
struction and of ecclesiastical affairs under the administration
of Villcle; and about the same time he was created a peer of
France with the title of count. His term of office was chiefly
marked by the recall of the Jesuits. In 1825 he published his
lectures under the title Dlfcnse du ckrislianisme. The work
passed through 15 editions within x8 years, and was translated
into several European languages. In 1828 he, along with his
colleagues in the Villele ministry, was compelled to resign office,
and the subsequent revolution of July 1S30 led to his retire-
ment to Rome. Shortly afterwards he became tutor to the duke
of Bordeaux (Corate de Chambord) at Prague, where he con-
tinued to live until 1838. He died at St Geniez on the. 12th of
December 1841.
See Bcrtrand, Bibl. Sulpicienne (t. ii. I35'sq.; iii. «$j) for biblio-
graphy, and G. A. Henrion (Pari*, 2 vols., 1844) for biography.
FRlCHETTB, LOUIS HONOR* (1830-xooS), French-Cana-
dian poet, was born at Levis, Quebec, on the x6th of November
1839, the son of a contractor. He was educated in his native
province, and called to the Canadian bar in 1864. He started
the Journal de Litis, and his revolutionary doctrines compelled
him to leave Canada for the United States. After some years
spent in journalism at Chicago, he was in 1874 elected as the
Liberal candidate to represent Levis in the Canadian parliament.
At the elections of 1S78 and 1882 he was defeated, and there-
after confined himself to li terat ure. He edited La Patrie and other
French papers in the Dominion; and in 1889 was appointed
clerk of the Quebec legislative council. He was long a warm
advocate of the political union of Canada and the United States,
but in later life became less ardent, and in 1807 accepted the
honour of C.M.G. from Queen Victoria. He was president of the
Royal Society of Canada, and of the Canadian Society of Arts,
and received numerous honorary degrees. His works include:
Mes Loisirs (1863); La Voix d'un exili (1867), a satire against
the Canadian government; P He-mile (1877); Lcs Fleurs
boriales, and Lcs Oiseaux de nei'ge (1880), crowned by the French
academy; La Ligende d'un peuple (1887); two historical
dramas, Papineau (1880) and Felix Poulri (1880); La Noel au
Canada (1000), and several prose works and translations. * An
exponent of local French sentiment, be won the title of the
" Canadian Laureate." He died on the xst of June 1008.
FREDEGOND {Fredigundis) (d. 597), Frankish queen. Origin-
ally a serving-woman, she inspired the Frankish king, Chilperic
I., with a violent passion. At her instigation he repudiated his
first wife Audovera, and strangled his second, Gal&wintha,
Queen Brunhilda's sister. A few days after this murder Chilperic
married Fredegond (567). This woman exercised a most per-
nicious influence over him. She forced him into war against
Austrasia, in the course of which she procured the assassination
of the victorious king Sigebert (575); she carried on a malignant
struggle against Chilperic's sons by his first wife, Theodcbert,
Merwich and Clovis, who all died tragic deaths; and she per-
sistently endeavoured to secure the throne for her own children.
Her first son Thierry, however, to whom Bishop Ragnemod of
Paris stood godfather, died soon after birth, and Fredegond
tortured a number of women whom she accused of having
bewitched the child. Her second son also died in infancy. Finally,
she gave birth to a child who afterwards became king as Clotaire
II. Shortly after the birth of this third son, Chilperic himself
perished in mysterious circumstances (584). Fredegond has been
accused of complicity in his murder, but with little show of
probability, since in her husband she lost her principal supporter.
Henceforth Fredegond did all in her power to gain the king-
dom for her child. Taking refuge at the church of Notre Dame
at Paris, she appealed to King Guntram of Burgundy, who
took Clotaire under his protection and defended him against his
other nephew, Childebcrt II., king of Austrasia. From that
time until her death Fredegond governed the western kingdom.
She endeavoured to prevent the alliance between King Guntram
and Childebert, which was cemented by the pact of Andelot; ,
and made several attempts to assassinate Childebert by sending 1
against him hired bravocs armed with poisoned scramasaxa 1
(heavy single-edged knives). After the death of Childebert 1
in 595 she resolved to augment the kingdom of Neustria at the 1
expense of Austrasia,- and to this end seized some cities near 1
Paris and defeated Theodcbert at the battle of LaxTaux, near j
Soissons. Her triumph, however, was short-lived, as she died 1
quietly in her bed in 597 soon after her victory. 1
See V. N. Augustin Thierry, Ricits des temps mirovingiens (Brussels, 1
1840); Ulysse. Chevalier, Bio-bibliographie (2nd ed.), sjo.^' " ""
gonde."
•Frede-*
(C. PP.)
FREDERIC, HAROLD (1856-1898), Anglo-American novelist, ,
was born on the 19th of August 1856 at Utica, N.Y., was edu- 1
cated there, and look to journalism. He went to live in England -
as London correspondent of the' New York Times in 1884, and 2
was soon recognized for his ability both as a writer and as a p
talker. He wrote several clever early stories/ but it was not x
till he published Illumination (1896), followed by Gloria Mun& a
(1898), that his remarkable gifts as a novelist were fully realized. .;
He died in England on the 19th of October x8o3. r
FREDERICIA (Friederioa), a seaport of Denmark, near' the ;~
S.E. corner of Jutland, on the west shore of the Little Belt -
opposite the island of Filnen, Pop. (1001) 12,7x4. It has r
railway communication with both south and north, and a steam a
ferry connects with Middelfart, a seaside resort and railway j
station on FQnen. There is a considerable shipp(nff trade, and . -
the industries comprise the manufacture of tobacco, salt and ^
chicory, and of cotton goods and hats. A small fort was erected -
on the site of Fredcricia by Christian IV. of Denmark, and hjf .^
successor, Frederick III., determined about 1650 to make it a ^.
powerful fortress. Free exercise of religion was offered to all ^
who should settle in the new town, which- at first bore the namt^f
of Frederiksodde, and only received its present designation fc^l
1664. In 1657 it was taken by storm by the Swedish general^
Wrangel, and in 1659, after the fortress had been dismantled^
it was occupied by Frederick William of Brandenburg. It mC?!r
not till 1 700-1 7 10 that the works were again put in a state «C
defence. In 1848 no attempt was made by the Danes tpf 21
oppose the Prussians, who entered on the 2nd of May, and mthv^^
tained their position against the Danish gunboats. During uV\ J
armistice of 1848-1849 the fortress was strengthened, and srti^
afterwards it stood a siege of two months, which was bro*gkt5"
to a glorious dose by a successful sortie on the 6th of July ifldCt^
In memory of the victory several monuments have been erected ir -
the town and its vicinity, of which the roost noticeable are uV ^
bronze statue of the Danish Land Soldier by Btssen (one r* 7
Thorvaldsen's pupils), and the great barrow over 500 Danes Jr^
the cemetery of the Holy Trinity Church, with a bas-relief fc^ -
the same sculptor. On the outbreak of the war of 1864, tfc it=
fortress was again strengthened by new works and an entrenchtf'^-
carap; but the Danes suddenly evacuated it on the 28th of Apr W-
after a siege of six weeks. The Austro-Prussian army pnl£;"tL
destroyed the fortifications, and kept possessioa of the «W
till the conclusion of peace. ' — "
FREDERICK— FREDERICK I.
45
FBEDERICK (Mod. Ger. Friedruh; Ital. Fcdcrigo; Fr.
Frtdtric and Ftdirk; M.H.G. F rider Uh\ O.H.G. FriduHh,
" kins or lord of peace," from O.H.G. /iirf«, A.S. /ri///, " peace,"
and rik " rich," " a ruler," for derivation of which sec Henry),
a Christian name borne by many European sovereigns and
princes, the more important of whom are given below in the
following order: — (i) Roman emperors and German kings;
(a) other kings in the alphabetical order of their states; (3)
other reigning princes in the same order.
FREDERICK I. (c. 11 23-1 190), Roman emperor, sumamed
" Barbaras* " by the Italians, was the son of Frederick II. of
Hoaenstaufen, duke of Swabia, and Judith, daughter of Henry
DC the Black, duke of Bavaria. The precise date and place of
his birth, together with details of his early life, are wanting; but
m 1143 ^ assisted his maternal uncle, Count Welf VI., in his
attempts to conquer Bavaria, and by his conduct in several local
fcuds earned the reputation of a brave and skilful warrior. When
ha father died in 1x47 Frederick became duke of Swabia, and im-
mediately afterwards accompanied his uncle, the German king
Conrad III., on his disastrous crusade, during which he greatly
distinguished himself and won the complete confidence of the
king. Abandoning the cause of the Wclfs, he fought for Conrad
against them, and in 1 152 the dying king advised the princes to
choose Frederick as hi* successor to the exclusion of his own
young son. Energetically pressing his candidature, he* was
chosen German king at Frankfort on the 4th or 5th of March
1152, and crowned at Aix-la-Chapcllc on the oth of the same
month, owing his election partly to his personal qualities, and
partly to the fact that he united in himself the blood of the rival
families of Welf and Waiblingen.
The new king was anxious to restore the Empire to the position
it had occupied under Charlemagne and Otto the Great, and saw
dearly that the restoration of order in Germany was a necessary
preliminary to the enforcement of die imperial rights in Italy.
Issuing a general order for peace, he was prodigal in his concessions
to the nobles. Count Welf was made duke of Spolcto and mar-
grave of Tuscany; Berthold VI., duke of Ziihringcn, was en-
trashed with extensive rights in Burgundy; and the king's
stphew, Frederick, received the duchy of Swabia. Abroad
Frederick decided a quarrel for the Danish throne in favour of
Svesd, or Peter as he is sometimes called, who did homage for
in kingdom, and negotiations were begun with the East Roman
emperor, Manuel Comnenus. It was probably about this time
tkat the king obtained a divorce from his wife Adcla, daughter
sf Dietpoki, margrave of Vohburg and Cham, on the ground
•I consanguinity, and made a vain effort to obtain a bride
bom the court .of Constantinople. On his accession Frederick
had communicated the news of his election to Fope Eugcnius
DL, but neglected to ask for the papal confirmation. In spite
of this omission, however, and of some trouble arising from a
doable election to the archbishopric of Magdeburg, a treaty was
ojreroded between king and pope at Constance in March 1153,
hy which Frederick promised in return for his coronation to make
as peace with Roger I. king of Sicily, or with the rebellious
Romans, without the consent of Eugcnius, and generally to help
and defend the papacy.
The journey to Italy made by the king in 11 54 was the pre-
cnesor of five other expeditions which engaged his main energies
lor thirty years, during which the subjugation of the peninsula
was the central and abiding aim of his policy. Meeting the new
pope, Adrian IV., near Kepi, Frederick at first refused to hold
ah stirrup; but after some negotiations he consented and
szcehrcd the kiss of peace, which was followed by his coronation
ss emperor at Rome on the 18th of June 1155. As his slender
a were inadequate to encounter the fierce hostility which
he aroused, he left Italy in the autumn of 1155 to prepare for a
and more formidable campaign. Disorder was again rampant
is Germany, especially in Bavaria, but general peace was restored
•7 Frederick's vigorous measures. Bavaria was transferred
n Henry II. Jasomirgott, margrave of Austria, to Henry the
lion, duke of Saxony; and the former was pacified by the
ejection of his margraviate into a duchy, while Frederick's
step-brother Conrad was invested with the Palatinate of the Rhine.
On the oth of June 11 56 the king was married at Wurzburg
to Beatrix, daughter and heiress of the dead count of Upper'
Burgundy, Rcnaud III., when Upper Burgundy or Franche
Comtek as it is sometimes called, was added to his possessions.
An expedition into Poland reduced Duke Boleslaus IV. to an
abject submission, after which Frederick received the homage of
the Burgundian nobles at a diet held at Besancon in October
1 1 57, which was marked by a quarrel between pope and emperor.
A Swedish archbishop, returning from Rome, had been seized by
robbers, and as Frederick had not punished the offenders Adrian
sent two legates to remonstrate. The papal letter when trans-
lated referred to the imperial crown as a benefice conferred by
the pope, and its reading aroused great indignation. The
emperor had to protect the legates from the fury of the nobles;
and afterwards issued a manifesto to his subjects declaring that
he held the Empire from God alone, to which Adrian replied that
he had used the ambiguous word bencficia as meaning benefits,
and not in its feudal sense.
In June 1158 Frederick set out upon his second Italian ex-
pedition, which was signalized by the establishment of imperial
officers called poJcslas in the cities of northern Italy, the revolt
and capture of Milan, and the beginning of the long struggle with
pope Alexander HI., who excommunicated the emperor on the
and of March 1160. During this visit Frederick summoned the
doctors of Bologna to the diet held near Roncaglia in November
1158, and as a result of their inquiries into the rights belonging
to the kingdom of Italy he obtained a large amount of wealth.
Returning to Germany towards the close of 1162, Frederick
prevented a conllict between Henry the Lion, duke of Saxony,
and a number of neighbouring princes, and severely punished the
citizens of Mainz for their rebellion against Archbishop Arnold.
A further visit to Italy in 11 63 saw his plans for the conquest
of Sicily checked by the formation of a powerful league against
him, brought together mainly by the exactions of the podcslas
and the enforcement of the rights declared by the doctors of
Bologna. Frederick had supported an anti-pope Victor IV.
against Alexander, and on Victor's death in 11 63 a new anti-
pope called Paschal III. was chosen to succeed him. Having
tried in vain to secure the general recognition of Victor and
Paschal in Europe, the emperor held a diet at Wurzburg in May
1165; and by taking an oath, followed by many of the clergy
and nobles, to remain true to Paschal and his successors, brought
about a schism in the German church. A temporary alliance
with Henry II., king of England, the magnificent celebration
of the canonization of Charlemagne at Aix-la-Chapcllc, and the
restoration of peace in the Rhincland, occupied Frederick's
attention until October 1166, when he made his fourth journey
to Italy. Having captured Ancona, he marched to Rome, stormed
the Leonine city, and procured the enthronement of Paschal, and
the coronation of his wife Beatrix; but his victorious career
was stopped by the sudden outbreak of a pestilence which
destroyed the German army and drove the emperor as a fugitive
to Germany, where he remained for the ensuing six years.
Henry the Lion was again saved from a threatening combination;
conflicting claims to various bishoprics were decided; and the
imperial authority was asserted over Bohemia, Poland and
Hungary. Friendly relations were entered into with the emperor
Manuel, and attempts made to come to a better understanding
with Henry II., king of England, and Louis VII., king of France.
In 1 1 74, when Frederick made his fifth expedition to Italy,
the Lombard league had been formed, and the fortress of Ales-
sandria raised to check his progress. The campaign was a com-
plete failure. The refusal of Henry the Lion to bring help into
Italy was followed by the defeat of the emperor at Legnano on
the 29th of May 11 76, when he was wounded and believed to be
dead. Reaching Pavia, he began negotiations for peace with
Alexander, which ripened into the treaty of Venice in August
1 1 77, and at the same time a truce with the Lombard league
was arranged for six years. Frederick, loosed from the papal
ban, recognized Alexander as the rightful pope, and in July 1 177
knelt before him and kissed bis feet. The possession of the vast
+6
FREDERICK II.
estates left by Matilda, marchioness of Tuscany, and claimed
by both pope and emperor, was to be decided by arbitration, and
in October 1x78 the emperor was again in Germany. Various
small feuds were suppressed; Henry the Lion was deprived of his
duchy, which was dismembered, and sent into exile; a treaty was
made with the Lombard league at Constance in June 1183;
and most important of all, Frederick's son Henry was betrothed
in x 184 to Constance, daughter of Roger I., king of Sicily, and aunt
and heiress of the reigning king, William II. This betrothal,
which threatened to unite Sicily with the Empire, made it difficult
for Frederick, when during his last Italian expedition in 11 84
he met Pope Lucius III. at Verona, to establish friendly relations
with the papacy. Further causes of trouble arose, moreover,
and when the potentates separated the question of Matilda's
estates was undecided; and Lucius had refused to crown
Henry or to recognize the German clergy who had been ordained
during the schism. Frederick then formed an alliance with
Milan, where the citizens witnessed a great festival on the 27th
of January 11 86. The emperor, who had been crowned king of
Burgundy, or Aries, at Aries on the 30th of July 1178, had this
ceremony repeated; while his son Henry was crowned king of
Italy and married to Constance, who was crowned- queen of
Germany.
The quarrel with the papacy was continued with the new
pope Urban III., and open warfare was begun. But Frederick
was soon recalled to Germany by the news of a revolt raised by
Philip of Heinsberg, archbishop of Cologne, in alliance with the
pope. The German clergy remained loyal to the emperor, and
hostilities were checked by the death of Urban and the election of
a new pope as Gregory VIII. , who adopted a more friendly policy
towards the emperor. In x 1 88 Philip submitted, and immediately
afterwards Frederick took the cross in order to stop the victorious
career of Saladin, who had just taken Jerusalem. After extensive
preparations he left Regensburg in May 11 89 at the head of a
splendid army, and having overcome the hostility of the East
Roman emperor Isaac Angelus, marched into Asia Minor. On
the xoth of June 1x90 Frederick was either bathing or crossing
the river Calycadnus (Geuksu), near Seleucia (Selefke) in Cilida,
when he was carried away by the stream and drowned. The
place of his burial is unknown, and the legend which says he still
sits in a cavern in the Kyffhftuser mountain in Thuringia waiting
until the need of his country shall call him, is now thought to
refer, at least in its earlier form, to his grandson, the emperor
Frederick II. He left by his wife, Beatrix, five sons, of whom
the eldest afterwards became emperor as Henry VI.
Frederick's reign, on the whole, was a happy and prosperous
time for Germany. He encouraged the growth of towns, easily
suppressed the few risings against his authority, and took
strong and successful measures to establish order. Even after
the severe reverses which he experienced in Italy, his position in
Germany was never seriously weakened; and in 1181, when,
almost without striking a blow, he deprived Henry the Lion of
his duchy, he seemed stronger than ever. This power rested upon
his earnest and commanding personality, and also upon the sup-
port which he received from the German church, the possession of
a valuable private domain, and the care with which he exacted
feudal dues from his dependents.
Frederick I. is said to have taken Charlemagne as his model;
but the contest in which he engaged was entirely different both
in character and results from that in which his great predecessor
achieved such a wonderful temporary success. Though Frederick
failed to subdue the republics, the failure can scarcely be said to
reflect either on his prudence as a statesman or his skill as a
general, for his ascendancy was finally overthrown rather by the
ravages of pestilence than by the might of human arms. In
Germany his resolute will and sagacious administration subdued
or disarmed all discontent, and he not only succeeded in welding
the various rival interests into a unity of devotion to himself
against which papal intrigues were comparatively powerless,
but won for the empire a prestige such as it bad not possessed
since the time of Otto the Great. The wide contrast between his
German and Italian rule is strikingly exemplified in the fact that,
while he endeavoured to overthrow the republics in Italy, h
held in check the power of the nobles in Germany, by confemh
municipal franchises and independent rights on the prindpi
cities. Even in Italy, though his general course of action wa
warped by wrong prepossessions, he in many instances manifest*
exceptional practical sagacity in dealing with immediate diC
culties and emergencies. Possessing frank and open mannen
untiring and unresting energy, and a prowess which found it
native element in difficulty and danger, he seemed the embodi
ment of the chivalrous and warlike spirit of his age, and was
the model of all the qualities which then won highest admiration
Stern and ambitious he certainly was, but his aims can scarcer]
be said to have exceeded his prerogatives as emperor; and thougl
he had sometimes recourse when in straits to expedients alma*
diabolically ingenious in their cruelly, yet his general conduct
was marked by a clemency which in that age was exceptional
His quarrel with the papacy was an inherited conflict, not re-
flecting at all on his religious faith, but the inevitable con-
sequence of inconsistent theories of government, which bad bea
created and could be dissipated only by a long series of events.
His interference in the quarrels of the republics was not only quit!
justifiable from the relation in which he stood to them, but seemed
absolutely necessary. From the beginning, however, he treated
the Italians, as indeed was only natural, less as rebellious subjects
than as conquered aliens; and it must be admitted that in regard
to them the only effective portion of his procedure was, not Mi
energetic measures of repression nor his brilliant victories, but,
after the battle of Legnano, his quiet and cheerful acceptance of
the inevitable, and the consequent complete change in his policy,
by which if he did not obtain the great object of his ambition,
he at least did much to render innoxious for the Empire hk
previous mistakes.
In appearance Frederick was a man of well-proportioned,
medium stature, with flowing yellow hair and a reddish beard.
He delighted in hunting and the reading of history, was zealota
in his attention to public business, and his private life was un-
impeachable. Cariyle's tribute to him is interesting: " No king
so furnished out with apparatus and arena, with personal faculty
to rule and scene to do it in, has appeared elsewhere. A mag-
nificent, magnanimous man; holding the reins of the world, not
quite in the imaginary sense; scourging anarchy down, and
urging noble effort up, really on a grand scale. A terror to evil
doers and a praise to well-doers in this world, probably beyoad
what was ever seen since."
Rahewin* a canon of Freising, and from 1 160 to 1 170 by an anon*
mous author. The various annals and chronicles of the periaSf,
among which may be mentioned the Chronica regia CoionienA
and the Annates Magdeburgenses t are also important. Othei
authorities for the different periods in Frederick's reign are Tagtsu
of Passau, Descriptio expeditionis asiaticae Friierici /.; BurchaM
Historic Friierici imperatoris mapii; Godfrey of Viterbo, CarmW
de testis Friierici /., which are all found in the Monumenta German*
historic*. Scriptores (Hanover and Berlin, 1826-1802); Ott»
Morena of Lodi, Historic rerum Laudensium, continued by his tt%
Acerbus, also in the Monumenta; Ansbert, Historic de expeddmm
Friderict, 1187-1196, published in the Fontes rerum Austnacarmm
Scriptores (Vienna, 1855 fol.). Many valuable documents are fousi
in the Monumenta Germaniae-seiecta, Band iv., edited by M. Docbfjl
(Munich, 1889-1890).
The best modern authorities are J. Jastrow, Deutsche GesthkMi
im Zeitalter der Hokenstaufen (Berlin, 1893); W. von Giesebrecftfe
GeschichU der deutschen Kaiseneit % Band iv. (Brunswick, 187m
H. von BQnau, Leben und Thaten Friedrichs J. (Leipzig, 1872); &
Prutz, Kaiser Friedrich I. (Dantzig. 1871-1874); C. Peters, i
Wahl Kaiser Friedrichs J. in the Forschunten zur deutschen GtscI '
Band xx. (Gftttingen, 1862-1886); W. Gundlach, Barbara:
(Innsbruck, 1899). For a complete bibliography see Dal
Waitz, QueUeukunde der deutschen GeschichU (Gottineen, 1894), 1
U. Chevalier, Repertoire des sources historiques an moyen 1
tome iii (Paris, 1904).
FREDERICK II. (1 194-1250), Roman emperor, king of Sidfc
and Jerusalem, was the son of the emperor Henry VI. and Ca£,
stance, daughter of Roger I., king of Sicily, and therefore grasjfl
son of the emperor Frederick I. and a member of the Hohenstaaf&
FREDERICK II.
47
family. Born at Jcsi near Ancona on the 26th of December
H94f he was baptized by the name of Frederick Roger, chosen
German king at Frankfort in 1106, and after his father's death
crowned king of Sicily at Palermo on the 17th of May 1198.
Bis mother, who assumed the government, died in November
lioS, leaving Pope Innocent III. as regent of Sicily and guardian
of her son. The young king passed his early years amid the
terrible anarchy in his island kingdom, which Innocent was
powerless to check; but his education was not neglected, and
sfc character and habits were formed by contact with men of
fined nationalities and interests, while the darker traits of his
nature were developed in the atmosphere of lawlessness in which
at lived. In z 208 he was declared of age, and soon afterwards
Innocent arranged a marriage, which was celebrated the following
year, between him and Constance, daughter of Alphonso IL
king of Aragon, and widow of Emerich or Imre, king of Hungary.
The dissatisfaction felt in Germany with the emperor Otto IV.
came to a climax in September x ai x, when a number of influential
princes met at Nuremberg, declared Otto deposed, and invited
Frederick to come and occupy the vacant throne. In spite of
the reluctance of his wife, and the opposition of the Sicilian nobles,
he accepted the invitation; and having recognized the papal
supremacy over Sicily, and procured the coronation of his son
Henry as its king, reached Germany after an adventurous journey
in the autumn of 12x2. This step was taken with the approval
of the pope, who was anxious to strike a blow at Otto IV.
Frederick was welcomed in Swabia, and the renown of the
Bohenstaufen name and a liberal distribution of promises made
sis p r og r es s easy Having arranged a treaty against Otto with
Louis, son of Philip Augustus, king of France, whom he met at
Vaucoukurs, he was chosen German king a second time at Frank-
fort on the 5th of December 12x2, and crowned four days later
at Mainz. Anxious to retain the support of the pope, Frederick
pomulgated a bull at Egcr on the 12th of July 1213, by which
he renounced all lands claimed by the pope since the death of the
eaperor Henry VI in 1197, gave up the right of spoils and all
Btferierence in episcopal elections, and acknowledged the right
sf appeal to Rome. He again affirmed the papal supremacy
eier Sicily, and promised to root out heresy in Germany. The
lietory of his French allies at Bouvincs on the 27th of July 1214
tnstly strengthened his position, and a large part of the Rhine-
had having fallen into his power, he was crowned German king
M Axx-la-Chapellc on the 25th of July 1 2 1 5. His cause continued
to prosper, fresh supporters gathered round his standard, and in
kzy 1218 the death of Otto freed him from his rival and left him
■disputed ruler of Germany. A further attempt to allay the
fspe's apprehension lest Sicily should be united with the Empire
kd been made early in 1216, when Frederick, in a letter to Inno-
ftat, promised after his own coronation as emperor to recognize
ss son Henry as king of Sicily, and to place him under the
rafnty of Rome. Henry nevertheless was brought to Germany
chosen German king at Frankfort in April 1220, though
Frederick assured the new pope, Honorius III., that this step
led been taken without his consent. The truth, however, seems
£be that be had taken great trouble to secure this election, and
'the p ur pose had won the support of the spiritual princes by
ensm concessions. In August 1220 Frederick set out for
Italy, and was crowned emperor at Rome on the 2 2 nd of November
1, after which he repeated the undertaking he had entered
into at Aix-Ia-Chapelle in 1 21 5 to go on crusade, and made lavish
to the Church. The clergy were freed from taxation
lay jurisdiction, the ban of the Empire was to follow
of the Church, and heretics were to be severely punished.
KegSecting his promise to lead a crusade, Frederick was
" until 1225 in restoring order in Sicily. The island was
with disorder, but by stern and sometimes cruel
the emperor suppressed the anarchy of the barons,
le power of the cities, and subdued the rebellious
many of whom, transferred to the mainland and
at Nocera, afterwards rendered him valuable military
Meanwhile the crusade was postponed again and
; until under a threat of excommunication, after the fall of
Damietta in 1221, Frederick definitely undertook by a treaty
made at San Germano in 1225 to set out in August 1227 or to
submit to this penalty. His own interests turned more strongly
to the East, when on the 9th of November x 225, after having been
a widower since 1222, he married Iolande (Yolande or Isabella),
daughter of John, count of Bricnne, titular king of Jerusalem.
John appears to have expected that this alliance would restore
him to his kingdom, but his hopes were dashed to the ground
when Frederick himself assumed the title of king of Jerusalem.
The emperor's next step was an attempt to restore the imperial
authority in northern Italy, and for the purpose a diet was called
at Cremona. But the cities, watchful and suspicious, renewed the
Lombard league and took up a hostile attitude. Frederick's
reply was to annul the treaty of Constance and place the cities
under the imperial ban; but he was forced by lack of military
strength to accept the mediation of Pope Honorius and the
maintenance of the status quo.
After these events, which occurred early in 1227, preparations
for the crusade were pressed on, and the emperor sailed from
Brindisi on the 8th of September. A pestilence, however, which
attacked his forces compelled him to land in Italy three days
later, and on the 29th of the same month he was excommunicated
by the new pope, Gregory IX. The greater part of the succeeding
year was spent by pope and emperor in a violent quarreL
Alarmed at the increase in his opponent's power, Gregory de-
nounced him in a public letter, to which Frederick replied in a
clever document addressed to the princes of Europe. The reading
of this manifesto, drawing attention to the absolute power
claimed by the popes, was received in Rome with such evidences
of approval that Gregory was compelled to fly to Viterbo. Having
lost his wife Isabella on the 8th of May 1 228, Frederick again set
sail for Palestine; where he met with considerable success, the
result of diplomatic rather than of military skill. By a treaty
made in February 1229 he secured possession of Jerusalem,
Bethlehem, Nazareth and the surrounding neighbourhood.
Entering Jerusalem, he crowned himself king of that city on the
i8lh of March 1229. These successes had been won in spite of
the hostility of Gregory, which deprived Frederick Of the assist*
ance of many members of the military orders and of the clergy
of Palestine. But although the emperor's possessions on the
Italian mainland had been attacked in his absence by the papal
troops and their allies, Gregory's efforts had failed to arouse
serious opposition in Germany and Sicily; so that when Frederick
returned unexpectedly to Italy in June 1229 he had no difficulty
in driving back his enemies, and compelling the pope to sue for
peace. The result was the treaty of San Germano, arranged in
July 1230, by which the emperor, loosed from the ban, promised
to respect the papal territory, and to allow freedom of election
and other privileges to the Sicilian clergy. Frederick was next
engaged in completing the pacification of Sicily. In 1231 a
series of laws were published at Melfi which destroyed the
ascendancy of the feudal nobles. Royal officials were appointed
for administrative purposes, large estates were recovered for the
crown, and fortresses were destroyed, while the church was
placed under the royal jurisdiction and all gifts to it were pro-
hibited. At the same time certain privileges of self-government
were granted to the towns, representatives from which were
summoned to sit in the diet. In short, by means of a centralized
system of government, the king established an almost absolute
monarchical power.
In Germany, on the other hand, an entirely different policy was
pursued. The concessions granted by Frederick in 1220, together
with the Privilege of Worms, dated the 1st of May 1231, made
the German princes virtually independent. All jurisdiction over
their lands was vested in them, no new mints or toll-centres were
to be erected on their domains, and the imperial authority was
restricted to a small and dwindling area. A fierce attack was also
made on the rights of the cities. Compelled to restore all their
lands, their jurisdiction was bounded by their city-walls; they
were forbidden to receive the dependents of the princes; all
trade gilds were declared abolished; and all official appointments
made without the consent of the archbishop or bishop were
48
FREDERICK II.
annulled. A further attack on the Lombard cities at the diet of
Ravenna in 1231 was answered by a renewal of their league, and
was soon connected with unrest in Germany. About 1*31 a
breach took place between Frederick and his elder son Henry,
who appears to have opposed the Privilege of Worms and to have
favoured the towns against the princes. After refusing to travel
to Italy, Henry changed his mind and submitted to his father at
Aquilcia in 1933; and. a temporary peace was made with the
Lombard cities in June 1233. But on his return to Germany
Henry again raised the standard of revolt, and made a league
with the Lombards in December 1334. Frederick, meanwhile,
having helped Pope Gregory against the rebellious Romans and
having secured the friendship of France and England, appeared
in Germany early in 1235 and put down this rising without
difficulty. Henry was imprisoned, but his associates were treated
leniently. In August 1235 a splendid diet was held at Mainz,
during which the marriage of the emperor with Isabella (1214-
1241), daughter of John, king of England, was celebrated. A
general peace (Landfricden), which became the basis of all such
peaces in the future, was sworn to; a new office, that of imperial
justiciar, was created, and a permanent judicial record was first
instituted. Otto of Brunswick, grandson of Henry the Lion,
duke of Saxony, was made duke of Brunswick-Luneburg; and
war was declared against the Lombards.
Frederick was now at the height of his power. His second son,
Conrad, was invested with the duchy of Swabia, and the claim
of Wenceslaus, king of Bohemia, to some lands which had
belonged to the German king Philip was bought off. The attitude
of Frederick II. (the Quarrelsome), duke of Austria, had been
considered by the emperor so suspicious that during a visk paid
by Frederick to Italy a war against him was begun. Compelled
to Tcturn by the ill-fortune which attended this campaign, the
emperor took command of his troops, seized Austria, Styria
and Carinthia, and declared these territories to be immediately
dependent on the Empire. In January 1237 he secured the
election of his son Conrad as German king at Vienna; and in
September went to Italy to prosecute the war which had broken
out with the Lombards in the preceding year. Pope Gregory
attempted to mediate, but the cities refused to accept the insult-
ing terms offered by Frederick. The emperor gained a great
victory over their forces at Cortenuova in November 1237, but
though he met with some further successes, his failure to take
Brescia in October 1238, together with the changed attitude of
Gregory, turned the fortune of war. The pope had become
alarmed when the emperor brought about a marriage between the
heiress of Sardinia, Adelasia, and his natural son Enzio, who
afterwards assumed the title of king of Sardinia. But as his
warnings had been disregarded, he issued a document after the
emperor's retreat from Brescia, teeming with complaints against
Frederick, and followed it up by an open alliance with the
Lombards, and by the excommunication of the emperor on the
20th of March 1239. A violent war of words ensued. Frederick,
accused of heresy, blasphemy and other crimes, called upon all
kings and princes to unite against the pope, who on his side made
vigorous efforts to arouse opposition in Germany, where his
emissaries, a crowd of wandering friars, were actively preaching
rebellion. It was, however, impossible to find an anti-king.
In Italy, Spolcto and Ancona were declared part of the imperial
dominions, and Rome itself, faithful on this occasion to the
pope, was threatened. A number of ecclesiastics proceeding to a
council called by Gregory were captured by Enzio at the sea-
fight of Meloria, and the emperor was about to undertake the
siege of Rome, when the pope died (August x 241). Germany was
at this time menaced by the Mongols; but Frederick contented
himself with issuing directions for a campaign against them,
until in 1242 he was able to pay a short visit to Germany, where
he gained some support from the towns by grants of extensive
privileges.
The successor of Gregory was Pope Celestine IX. But this
pontiff died soon after his election; and after a delay of eighteen
mouths, during which Frederick marched against Rome on two
occasion* mnd devastated the lands 0/ his opponents, one of his
partisans, Sinibaldo Fiesco,was chosen pope, and took the name
of Innocent IV. Negotiations for peace were begun, but the
relations of the Lombard cities to the Empire could not be
adjusted, and when the emperor began again to ravage the
papal territories Innocent fled to Lyons. Hither he summoned a
general council, which met in June 1245; but although Frederick
sent his justiciar, Thaddeus of Suessa, to represent him, and
expressed his willingness to treat, sentence of excommunication
and deposition was pronounced against him. Once more an
interchange of recriminations began, charged with all the violent
hyperbole characteristic of the controversial style of the sge.
Accused of violating treaties, breaking oaths, persecuting the
church and abetting heresy, Frederick replied by an open letter
rebutting these charges, and in equally unmeasured terms
denounced the arrogance and want of faith of the clergy from
the pope downwards. The source of all the evil was, he declared,
the excessive wealth of the church, which, in retaliation for the
sentence of excommunication, he threatened to confiscate. In
vain the mediation of the saintly king of France, Louis IX., was
invoked. Innocent surpassed his predecessors in the ferocity and
unscrupulousness of his attacks on the emperor (see Innocent
IV.). War soon became general in Germany and Italy.
Henry Raspe, landgrave of Thuringia, was chosen German
king in opposition to Frederick in May 1246, but neither he nor
his successor, William II., count of Holland, was successful in
driving the Hohenstaufen from Germany. In Italy, during the
emperor's absence, his cause had been upheld by Enzio and
by the ferocious Eccelino da Romano. In 1246 a formidable
conspiracy of the discontented Apulian barons against the
emperor's power and life, fomented by papal emissaries, was
discovered and crushed with ruthless cruelty. The emperor's
power seemed more firmly established than ever, when suddenly
the news reached him that Parma, a stronghold of the imperial
authority in the north, had been surprised, while the garrison was
off its guard, by the Guelphs. To recover the city was a matter
of prime importance, and m 1247 Frederick concentrated his
forces round it, building over against it a wooden town which,
in anticipation of the success that astrologers had predicted,
he named Vittoria. The siege, however, was protracted, and
finally, in February 1248, during the absence of the emperor on a
hunting expedition, was brought to an end by a sudden sortie of
the men of Parma, who stormed the imperial camp. The disaster
was complete. The emperor's forces were destroyed or scattered;
the treasury, witb the imperial insignia, together with Frederick's
harem and some of the most trusted of bis ministers, fell into the
hands of the victors. Thaddeus of Suessa was hacked to pieces by
the mob; the imperial crown was placed in mockery on the head
of a hunch-backed beggar, who was carried back in triumph into
the city.
Frederick struggled hard to retrieve his fortunes, and for a
while with success. But his old confidence had left him, he had
grown moody and suspicious, and his temper gave a ready handle
to his enemies. Pier deila Vigna, accused of treasonable designs, "
was disgraced; and the once all-powerful favourite and minister, \ m
blinded now and in rags, was dragged in the emperor's train, as a ;"
warning to traitors, till in despair he dashed out his brains. J
Then, in May 1248, came the tidings of Enzio's capture by the ','
Bolognese, and of his hopeless imprisonment , the captors refusing '
all offers of ransom. This disaster to his favourite son broke the .'"
emperor's spirit. He retired to southern Italy, and after a short
illness died at Fiorentino on the 13th of December 1250, after
having been loosed from the ban by the archbishop of Palermo.
He was buried in the cathedral of that city, where his splendid
tomb may still be seen. By his will he appointed his son Conrad
to succeed him in Germany and Sicily, and Henry, his son by
Isabella of England, to be king of Jerusalem or Aries, neither of
which kingdoms, however, he obtained. Frederick left several
illegitimate children: Enzio has already been referred to;
Frederick, who was made the imperial vicar in Tuscany; and
Manfred, his son by the beloved Bianca Lancia or Lanzia, who
was legitimatized just before his father's death.and was appointed
by his will prince of Tarento and regent of Sicily.
FREDERICK. ID.
49
icier of Frederick Is one of extraordinary interest and
and contemporary opinion is expressed in the words
i el immutator mirabilis. Licentious and luxurious in
, cultured and catholic in his tastes, he united in his
lost diverse qualities. His Sicilian court was a centre
lal activity. Michael Scott, the translator of some
Aristotle and of the commentaries of Averroes,
Pisa, who introduced Arabic numerals and algebra to
id other scholars, Jewish and Mahommedan as well as
rere welcome at his court. Frederick himself had a
jf six languages, was acquainted with mathematics,
and natural history, and took an interest in medicine
:ture. In 1224 he founded the university of Naples,
. a liberal patron of the medical school at Salerno,
a menagerie of strange animals, and wrote a treatise
(De arte venandi cum avibus) which is remarkable for
: observation of the habits of birds. 1 It was at bis
that — as Dante points out— Italian poetry had its
della Vigna there wrote the first sonnet, and Italian
ederick himself are preserved to us. His wives were
cd in oriental fashion; a harem was maintained at
. eunuchs were a prominent feature of his household.
s ideas have been the subject of much controversy,
rf M. Huillard-Brehollcs that he wished to unite to the
emperor those of a spiritual pontiff, and aspired to be
: of a new religion, is insufficiently supported by
> be credible. Although at times he persecuted
i great cruelty, he tolerated Mahdmmcdans and Jews,
ts appear rather to have been the outcome of political
ins than of religious belief. His jests, which were used
ties as a charge against him, seem to have originated
indifference, or perhaps in a spirit of inquiry which
the ideas of a later age. Frederick's rule in Germany
as a failure, but this fact may be accounted for by the
f the time and the inevitable conflict with the papacy,
r the enactments of 1220 and 1231 contributed to the
m of the Empire and the fall of the Hohenstaufcn,
ting interests made the government of Italy a problem
tal difficulty. In Sicily Frederick was more successful,
ilsordcr, and under his rule the island was prosperous
ted. His ideas of government were those of an
march, and he probably wished to surround himself
f the pomp which had encircled the older emperors of
chief claim to fame, perhaps, is as a lawgiver. .The
1 which he gave to Sicily in 1231 bears the impress of
ity, and has been described as " the fullest and most
xly of legislation promulgated by any western ruler
emagne." Without being a great soldier, Frederick
kilf ul in warfare, but was better acquainted with the
>macy. In person he is said to have been " red, bald
righted," but with good features and a 1 pleasing
e. It was seriously believed in Germany for about a
;r his death that Frederick was still alive, and many
ittemptcd to personate him. A legend, afterwards
to Frederick Barbarossa, told how he sat in a cavern
bausscr before a stone table through which his beard
waiting for the time for him to awake and restore to
the golden age of peace.
mporary documents relating to the reign of Frederick II.
merous. Among the most important are: Richard of
o, Chronica regni Siciliae: Annates Placentini, (ribeUini;
ade, Annates; Matthew Paris, Historia major Angiiae;
hronicon Urspergense. AH these arc in the Monumenia
\istorica. Scriptores (Hanover and Berlin, 1826-1802).
Itaiicarum scriptores, edited by L. A. Muratori (Milan,
contains Annates Mcdiolanenses; Nicholas of Jamsilla,
ebus testis Friderici II., and Vita Gregorii IX. fontificis.
lso the Efiistolarum libri of Peter della Vigna, edited
;lin (Basel, 1740); and Salimbene of Parma s Chronik,
t Parma (1857). Many of the documents concerning
if the time arc found in the Historia diptomatiea Friderici
by M. Huillard-Brehollcs (Paris, 1852-1861); Acta
nted at Augsburg in 1596; a German edition was pub-
rlin in 1896.
Kaiser Friedrick II. (Leipzig, 1889); G. Blondcl, tludt snr la
politique de Vempereur FrctLrrie II, en AUemagne (Paris, 189a);
M. Halbc. Friedrick II. und der fdpstlicke Stuhl (Berlin, 1888);
R. Rohricht, Die Kreuxfakri let Kaisers Friedrick II. (Berlin, 1874);
C. Kohlcr, Das Vcrhaltnis Kaiser Friedrichs II. su den Papsten
seiner Zeit (Brcslau, 1888); J. Fclten, Pabst Gregor IX. (Freiburg,
(Turin, 1874); and K. Hampe, Kaiser Friedrick II. (Munich,
1899). ^ (A.W.H.*)
FREDERICK III. (1415-1493), Roman emperor,— as Frederick
IV., German king, and as Frederick V., archduke of Austria, —
son of Ernest of Habsburg, duke of Styria and Carinthia, was born
at Innsbruck on the sist of September 141 5. After his father's
death in 1424 he passed his time at the court of his uncle and
guardian, Frederick IV., count of Tirol. In 1435, together with
his brother, Albert the Prodigal, he undertook the government
of Styria and Carinthia, but the peace of these lands was disturbed
by constant feuds between the brothers, which lasted until,
Albert's death in 1463. In 1439 the deaths of the German
king Albert IL and of Frederick of Tirol left Frederick the
senior member of the Habsburg family, and guardian of Sigis-
mund, count of TiroL In the following year be also became
guardian of Ladislaus, the posthumous son of Albert II., and heir
to Bohemia, Hungary and Austria, but these responsibilities
brought only trouble and humiliation in their train. On the 2nd
of February 1440 Frederick was chosen German king at Frankfort,
but, owing to his absence from Germany, the coronation was
delayed until the 17th of June 1442, when it took place at Aix-la.-
Chapclle.
Disregarding the neutral- attitude of the German electors
towards the papal schism, and acting under the influence of
Aeneas Sylvius Piccolomini, afterwards Pope Pius II., Frederick
in 144 5 made a secret treaty with Pope Eugenius IV. This
developed into the Concordat of Vienna, signed in 1448 with the
succeeding pope, Nicholas V., by which the king, in return for a
sum of money and a promise of the imperial crown, pledged the
obedience of the German people to Rome, and so checked for a
time the rising tide of liberty in the German church. Taking up
the quarrel between the Habsburgs and the Swiss cantons,
Frederick invited the Armagnacs to attack his enemies, but
after meeting with a stubborn resistance at St Jacob on the 26th
of August 1444, these allies proved faithless, and the king soon
lost every vestige of authority in Switzerland. In 1451 Frederick,
disregarding the revolts in Austria and Hungary, travelled to
Rome, where, on the x6th of March 1452, his marriage with.
Leonora, daughter of Edward, king of Portugal, was celebrated,
and three days later he was crowned emperor by pope Nicholas.
On his return he found Germany seething with indignation.
His capitulation to the pope was not forgotten; his refusal to
attend the diets, and his apathy in the face of Turkish aggressions,
constituted a serious danger; and plans for his deposition failed
only because the electors could not unite upon a rival king. In
1457 Ladislaus, king of Hungary and Bohemia, and archduke of
Austria, died; Frederick failed to secure either kingdom, but
obtained lower Austria, from which, however, he was soon driven
by his brother Albert, who occupied Vienna. On Albert's death
in 1463 the emperor united upper and lower Austria under his
rule, but these poneasjoM were c/iusttadN xvtosj&V} Q*$kjs>
s°
FREDERICK III.— FREDERICK II.
Podtbrad, king of Bohemia, and by Matthias Corvinus, king of
Hungary. A visit lo Rome in 1468 to discuss measures against
the Turks with Pope Paul II. had no result, and in 1470 Frederick
began negotiations for a marriage between his son Maximilian
and Mary, daughter and heiress of Charles the Bold, duke of
Burgundy. The emperor met the duke at Treves in 1473, when
Frederick, disliking to bestow the title of king upon Charles, left
the city secretly, but brought about the marriage after the duke's
death in 1477. Again attacked by Matthias, the emperor was
driven from Vienna, and soon handed over the government of his
lands to Maximilian, whose election as king of the Romans he
vainly opposed in i486. Frederick then retired to Linx, where he
passed his time in the'study of botany, alchemy and astronomy,
until his death on the 19th of August 1:493.
Frederick was a listless and incapable ruler, lacking alike the
qualities of the soldier and of the diplomatist, but possessing a
certain cleverness in evading difficulties. With a fine presence,
he had many excellent personal qualities, is spoken of as mild and
just, and had a real love of learning. He had a great belief in the
future greatness of his family, to which he contributed largely by
arranging the marriage of Maximilian with Mary of Burgundy,
and delighted to inscribe his books and other articles of value
with the letters A.E.I.O.U. (Austriae est im per are orbi universo;
or in German, AUes Erdreick ist Oesterreick inter than). His
personality counts for very little in German history. One
chronicler says: "He was a useless emperor, and the nation
during his long reign forgot that she had a king/' His tomb, a
magnificent work in red and white marble, is in the cathedral of
St Stephen at Vienna.
See Aeneas Sylvius Piocolomini. De rebus et testis Friderici III.
J trans. Th. llgen, Leipzig, 1889); Jf. Chmel, GesckUhte Kaiser
7 riedriChs IV. und seines Soknes Maximilians 1. (Hamburg, 1840);
A. Bachmann, Deutsche Reichsgeschichte im Zeitalter Friedrichs III.
und Maximilians I. (Leipzig, 1884); A. Hubcr, GeschichU Oster~
reichs (Gotha, 1885-1892); and L. M. Furet von Lichnowsky,
Gesckickte des Hauses Habsburg (Vienna, 1836-1844)
FREDERICK HI. (c. x 186-1330), surnamed " the Fair,"
German king and duke of Austria, was the second son of the
German king, Albert I., and consequently a member of the
Habsburg family. In 1298, when his father was chosen German
king, Frederick was invested with some of the family lands, and
in 1306, when his elder brother Rudolph became king of Bohemia,
he succeeded to the duchy of Austria. In 1307 Rudolph died,
and Frederick sought to obtain the Bohemian throne; but an
expedition into that country was a failure, and his father's
murder in May 1308 deprived him of considerable support. He
was equally unsuccessful in his efforts to procure the German
crown at this time, and the relations between the new king,
Henry VIL, and the Habsburgs were far from friendly. Frederick
asked not only to be confirmed in the possession of Austria, but to
be invested with Moravia, a demand to which Henry refused to
accede; but an arrangement was subsequently made by which the
duke agreed to renounce Moravia in return for a payment of
50,000 marks. Frederick then became involved in a quarrel with
his cousin Louis IV., duke of Upper Bavaria (afterwards the
emperor Louis IV.), over the guardianship of Henry II., duke
of Lower Bavaria. Hostilities broke out, and on the 9th of
November 1313 he was defeated by Louis at the battle of Gam*
mclsdorf and compelled to renounce his claim.
Meanwhile the emperor Henry VII. had died in Italy, and a
stubborn contest ensued for the vacant throne. Alter a long
delay Frederick was chosen German king at Frankfort by a
minority of the electors on the 19th of October 1314, while a
majority elected Louis of Bavaria. Six days later Frederick
was crowned at Bonn by the archbishop of Cologne, and war
broke out at Once between the rivals. During this contest,
which was carried on in a desultory fashion, Frederick drew his
chief strength from southern and eastern Germany, and was
supported by the full power of the Habsburgs. The defeat of
his brother Leopold by the Swiss at Morgarten in November
X3 I 5 was a heavy blow to him, but he prolonged the struggle for
•even years. On the 28th of September 1322 a decisive battle
was fought at MUhldorf ; Frederick was defeated and sent as a
prisoner to TrausniU. Here he was retained until three yean
later a scries of events induced Louis to come to terms. By the
treaty of Trausnilx, signed on the 13th of March 1325, Frederick
acknowledged the kingship of Louis in return for freedom, and
promised to return to captivity unless he could induce his brother
Leopold to make a similar acknowledgment. As Leopold re-
fused to take this step, Frederick, although released from hisoatk
by Pope John XXII., travelled back to Bavaria, where he was
treated by Louis rather as a friend than as a prisoner. A
suggestion was then made that the kings should rule jointly, but
as this plan aroused some opposition it was agreed that Frederick
should govern Germany while Louis went to Italy for the imperial
crown. But this arrangement did not prove generally acceptable,
and the death of Leopold in 1326 deprived Frederick of a powerful
supporter. In these circumstances he returned to Austria broken
down in mind and body, and on the 13th of January 1330 he
died at Gutenstein, and was buried at Mauerbach, whence bis
remains were removed in 2783 to the cathedral of St Stephen at
Vienna. He married Elizabeth, daughter of James I., king of
Aragon, and left two daughters. His voluntary return into
captivity is used by Schiller in his poem Deutsche Treue, and by
son of Christian III., was born at Hadcrslcben on the xst of July
1534. His mother, Dorothea of Saxe-Laucnburg, was the elder
sister of Catherine, the first wife of Gustavus Vasa and the mother
of Eric XIV. The two little cousins, born the same year, were
destined to be lifelong rivals. At the age of two Frederick was
proclaimed successor to the throne at the Rigsdag of Copenhagen
(October 30th, 1536), and homage was done to him at Oslo for
Norway in 1548. The choice of his governor, the patriotic
historiographer Hans S vaning, was so far fortunate that it ensured
the devotion of the future king of Denmark to everything
Danish; but S vaning was a poor pedagogue, and the wild and
wayward lad suffered all his life from the defects of his early j
training. Frederick's youthful, innocent attachment to the
daughter of his former tutor, Anna Hardenberg, indisposed him
towards matrimony at the beginning of his reign (1558). After "
the hands of Elizabeth of England, Mary of Scotland and Rcn&U '
of Lorraine had successively been sought for him, the council of
State grew anxious about the succession, but he finally married
his cousin, Sophia of Mecklenburg, on the 20th of July 1572.
The reign of Frederick II. falls into two well-defined divisions:
(x) a period of war, 1550-1570; and (2) a period of peace, 1570-
1588. The period of war began with the Ditmarsh expedition,
when the independent peasant-republic of the Ditmarshers of
West Holstcin, which had stoutly maintained its independence
for centuries against the counts of Holstein and the Danish kings,
was subdued by a Dano-Holstein army of 20,000 men in 1559,
Frederic^ and his uncles John and Adolphus, dukes of Holstein,
dividing the land between them. Equally triumphant was
Frederick in his war with Sweden, though here the contest was
much more severe, lasting as it did for seven years; whence it a
generally described in northern history as the Scandinavian
Seven Years' War. The tension which had prevailed between
the two kingdoms during the last years of Gustavus Vasa reached
breaking point on the accession of Gustavus's eldest son Eric
XIV. There were many causes of quarrel between the t«o
ambitious young monarchs, but the detention at Copenhagen is
x 563 of a splendid matrimonial embassy on its way to Germany,
FREDERICK III.
5*
to negotiate a match between Eric and Christina of Hesse, which
King Frederick for political reasons was determined to prevent,
precipitated hostilities. During the war, which was marked by
extraordinary ferocity throughout, the Danes were generally
victorious on land owing to the genius of Daniel Rantzau, but
at sea the Swedes were almost uniformly triumphant. By 1570
the strife had degenerated into a barbarous devastation of border
provinces; and in July of the same year both countries accepted
the mediation of the Emperor, and peace was finally concluded
at Stettin on Dec. 13, 1570- During the course of this
Seven Years' War Frederick II. had narrowly escaped the fate
of his deposed cousin Eric XIV. The war was very unpopular
in Denmark, and the closing of the Sound against foreign shipping,
in order to starve out Sweden, had exasperated the maritime
powers and all the Baltic states. On New Year's Day 1570
Frederick's difficulties seemed so overwhelming that he
threatened to abdicate; but the peace of Stettin came in time
to reconcile all parties, and though Frederick had now to re-
linquish his ambitious dream of re-establishing the Union of
Kalmar, he had at least succeeded in maintaining the supremacy
of Denmark in the north. After the peace Frederick's policy
became still more imperial. He aspired to the dominion of all
the seas which washed the Scandinavian coasts, and before he
died he succeeded in suppressing the pirates who so long had
haunted the Baltic and the German Ocean. He also erected the
stately fortress of Kronborg, to guard the narrow channel of the
Sound. Frederick possessed the truly royal gift of discovering
and employing great men, irrespective of personal preferences
and even of personal injuries. With infinite tact and admirable
self-denial he gave free scope to ministers whose superiority
in their various departments he frankly recognized, rarely inter-
fering personally unless absolutely called upon to do so. His
influence, always great, was increased by his genial and unaffected
manners as a host. He is also remarkable as one of the few
kings of the house of Oldenburg who had no illicit liaison.
He died at Antvorskov on the 4th of April 1588. No other'
Danish king was ever so beloved by his people.
See Lund (TtodsU Danmarks og Norges Historie i Slutningen of
id XVI. Aark. (Copenhagen, i#7Q); Danmarks Rites llutorte
(Copenhagen, 1 897-1905), vol. 3; Robert Niabet Bain, Scandinavia,
cap. 4 (Cambridge, 1905). (R. N. B.)
FREDERICK III. (1600-1670), king of Denmark and Norway,
son of Christian IV. and Anne Catherine of Brandenburg, was
born on the 18th of March 1609 at Hadersleben. His position
as a younger son profoundly influenced his future career. In his
youth and early manhood there was no prospect of his ascending
the Danish throne, and he consequently became the instrument of
his father's schemes of aggrandizement in Germany. While still
a lad he became successively bishop of Bremen, bishop of Verden
and coadjutor of Halberstadt, while at the age of eighteen he
was the chief commandant of the fortress of Stade. Thus
from an early age he had considerable experience as an adminis-
trator, while his general education was very careful and thorough.
He had always a pronounced liking for literary and scientific
studies. On the isi of October 1643 Frederick wedded -Sophia
Amelia of Brunswick Liincburg, whose energetic, passionate
and ambitious character was profoundly to affect not "only
Frederick's destiny but the destiny of Denmark, During the
disastrous Swedish War of 1643-1645 Frederick was appointed
generalissimo of the duchies by his father, but the laurels he won
were scanty, chiefly owing to his quarrels with the Earl-Marshal
Anders Bille, who commanded the Danish forces. This was
Frederick's first collision with the Danish nobility, who ever
afterwards regarded him with extreme distrust. The death of his
elder brother Christian in June 1647 first opened to him the pros-
pect of succeeding to the Danish throne, but the question was
still unsettled when Christian IV. died on the 28th of February
1648- Not till the 6th of July in the same year did Frederick III.
receive the homage of his subjects, and only after he had signed
a Haandfaestiung or charter, by which the already diminished
royal prerogative was still further curtailed. It had been doubt-
ful at not whether he would be allowed to inherit his ancestral
throne at all; but Frederick removed the last scruples of the
Rigsraad by unhesitatingly accepting the conditions imposed
upon him.
The new monarch was a reserved; enigmatical prince, who
seldom laughed, spoke little and wrote less— a striking contrast
to Christian IV. But if he lacked the brilliant qualities of bis
impulsive, jovial father, he possessed in a high degree the com-
pensating virtues of moderation, sobriety and self-controL
But with all his good qualities Frederick was not the man to take
a clear view of the political horizon, or even to recognize his own
and his country's limitations. He rightly regarded the accession
of Charles X. of Sweden (June 6th, 1654) as a source of danger to
Denmark. He felt that temperament and policy would combine
to make Charles an aggressive warrior-king: the only uncertainty
was in which direction he would turn his arms first. Charles's
invasion of Poland (July 1654) came as a distinct relief to the
Danes, though even the Polish War was full of latent peril to
Denmark. Frederick was resolved upon a rupture with Sweden
at the first convenient opportunity. The Rigsdag which
assembled on the 23rd of February 1657 willingly granted
considerable subsidies for mobilization and other military
expenses; on the 15th of April Frederick III. desired, and on
the 23rd of April he received, the assent of the majority of the
Rigsraad to attack Sweden's German provinces; in the beginning
of May the still pending negotiations with that power were broken
off, and on the xst of June Frederick signed the manifesto justify-
ing a war which was never formally declared. The Swedish
king traversed all the plans of his enemies by his passage of the
frozen Belts, in January and February 1658 (see Ciuxles X.
of Sweden). The .effect of this unheard-of achievement on the
Danish government was crushing. Frederick III. at once sued
for peace; and, yielding to the persuasions of the English and
French ministers, Charles finally agreed to be content with
mutilating instead of annihilating the Danish monarchy (treaties
of Taastrup, February x8th, and of Roskilde, February 26th,
1658). The conclusion of peace was followed by a remarkable
episode. Frederick expressed the desire to make the personal
acquaintance of his conqueror; and Charles X. consented to be
his guest for three days (March 3-5) at the castle of Fredriksborg.
Splendid banquets lasting far into the night, private and intimate
conversations between the princes who had only just emerged
from a mortal struggle, seemed to point to nothing but peace and.
friendship in the future. But Charles's insatiable lust for con-
quest, and his ineradicable suspicion of Denmark, induced him,
on the 17th of July, without any reasonable cause, without a
declaration of war, in defiance of all international equity, to
endeavour to despatch an inconvenient neighbour.
Terror was the first feeling produced at Copenhagen by the
landing of the main Swedish army at Korsor in Zealand. None
had anticipated the possibility of suchasudden and brutal attack,
and every one knew that the Danish capital was very inadequately
fortified and garrisoned. Fortunately Frederick had never been
deficient in courage. " I will die in my nest " were the memor-
able words with which he rebuked those counsellors who advised
him to seek safety in flight. On the 8th of August representatives
irom every class in the capital urged the necessity of a vigorous
resistance; and the citizens of Copenhagen, headed by the great
burgomaster Hans Nanscn (?.&), protested their unshakable
loyalty to the king, and their determination to defend Copen-
hagen to the uttermost. The Danes had only three days' warning
of the approaching danger; and the vast and dilapidated line
of defence had at first but aooo regular defenders. But the
government and the people displayed a memorable and ex-
emplary energy, under the constant supervision .of the king,
the queen, and burgomaster Nansen. By the beginning of
September all the breaches were repaired, the walls bristled with
cannon, and 7000 men were under arms. So strong was the city
by this time that Charles X., abandoning his original intention
of carrying the place by assault, began a regular siege; but this
also he was forced to abandon when, on the 29th of October, an
auxiliary Dutch fleet, after reinforcing and reprovisioning the
garrison, defeated, in conjunction with the Danish fleet, the
5*
FREDERICK VIII.— FREDERICK II.
Swedish oavy of 44 liners in the Sound. Thus the Danish capital
had saved the Danish monarchy. But it was Frederick 1IL
who profited most by his spirited defence of the common interests
of the country and the dynasty. The traditional loyalty of the
Danish middle classes was transformed into a boundless enthusi-
asm for the king personally, and for a brief period Frederick found
himself the most popular man in his kingdom. He made use of
his popularity by realizing the dream of a lifetime and converting
an elective into an absolute monarchy by the Revolution of 1660
(see Denmark: History). Frederick III. died on the 6th of
February 1670 at the castle of Copenhagen.
See R. Nisbet Bain, Scandinavia, caps. ix. and x (Cambridge,
1905). (R- N. B.)
FREDERICK VIII. (1843- ), king of Denmark, eldest son
of King Christian DC, was born at Copenhagen on the 3rd of
June 1843. As crown prince of Denmark he took part in the war
of 1864 against Austria and Prussia, and subsequently assisted
his father in the duties of government, becoming king on
Christian's death in January 1906. In 1809 Frederick married
Louise (b. 1851), daughter of Charles XV., king of Sweden,
by whom he had a family of four sons and four daughters. His
eldest son Christian, crown prince of Denmark (b. 1870), was
married in 1808 to Alcxandrina (b. 1879), daughter of Frederick
Francis III., grand-duke of Mecklcnburg-Schwerin; and his
second son, Charles (b. 1872), who married his cousin. Maud,
daughter of Edward VII. of Great Britain, became king of
Norway as Haakon VII. in 1905.
FREDERICK I. (1657-1713), king of Prussia, and (as Frederick
III.) elector of Brandenburg, was the second son of the great
elector, Frederick William, by his first marriage with Louise
Henrictte, daughter of Frederick Henry of Orange. Born at
Kttnigsberg on the nth of July 1657, he was educated and greatly
influenced by Ebcrhard Danckelmann, and became heir to the
throne of Brandenburg through the death of his elder brother,
Charles Emil, in 1674. He appears to have taken some part in
public business before the death of his father; and the court
at Berlin was soon disturbed by quarrels between the young
prince and his stepmother, Dorothea of Holstein-Glucksburg.
In 1686 Dorothea persuaded her husband to bequeath outlying
portions of his lands to her four sons; and Frederick, fearing
he would be poisoned, left Brandenburg determined to prevent
any diminution of his inheritance. By promising to restore
Schwicbus to Silesia after his accession he won the support of the
emperor Leopold I.; but eventually he gained his end in a peace-
able fashion. Having become elector of Brandenburg in May
x688, he came to terms with his half-brothers and their mother.
In return for a sum of money these princes renounced their rights
under their father's will, and the new elector thus secured the
whole of Frederick William's territories. After much delay and
grumbling he fulfilled his bargain with Leopold and gave up
Schwiebus in 1695. At home and abroad Frederick continued
the policy of the great elector. He helped William of Orange
to make his descent on England; added various places, including
the principality of Neuchatel, to his lands; and exercised some
influence on the course of European politics by placing his large
and efficient army at the disposal of the emperor and his allies
(see Brandenburg). He was present in person at the siege of
Bonn in 1689, but was not often in command of his troops. The
elector was very fond of pomp, and, striving to model his court
upon that of Louis XIV., he directed his main energies towards
obtaining for himself the title of king. In spite of the assistance
he had given to the emperor his efforts met with no success for
some years; but towards 1700 Leopold, faced with the prospect
of a new struggle with France, was inclined to view the idea more
favourably. Having insisted upon various conditions, prominent
among them being military aid for the approaching war, he gave
the imperial sanction to Frederick's request in November 1700;
whereupon the elector, hurrying at once to K&nigsberg, crowned
himself with great ceremony king of Prussia on the 18th of
January 1701. According to his promise the king sent help to
the emperor; and during the War of the Spanish Succession the
troops of Bnutdeoborg-TrmsiA rendered great assistance Co tha
allies, fighting with distinction at Blenheim and elsewhere.
Frederick, who was deformed through an injury to his spine,
died on the 25th of February 1713. By his extravagance the king
exhausted the treasure amassed by his father, burdened his
country with heavy taxes, and reduced its finances to chaos. His
constant obligations to the emperor drained Brandenburg of
money which might have been employed more profitably at
home, and prevented her sovereign from interfering in the politics
of northern Europe. Frederick, however, was not an unpopular
ruler, and by making Prussia into a kingdom he undoubtedly
advanced it several stages towards its future greatness. Be
founded the university of Halle, and the Academy of Sciences at
Berlin; welcomed and protected Protestant refugees from France
and elsewhere: and lavished money on the erection of public
buildings.
The king was married three times. His second wife, Sophie
Charlotte (1668-1705), sister of the English king George I., was
the friend of Leibnitz and one of the most cultured princesses of
the age; she bore him his only son, his successor. King Frederick
William L
See W. Hahn, Friedrick /., Kdnig in Preusstn (Berlin, 1876);
J. G. Droysen, GesckickU der prcussisehen Polttik, Band iv. (Leipzig,
187a); E. Heyck, Friedrick I. und die Begriindung des frouuischm
Kontglums (Bielefeld, 1901): C. Graf von Dohna, Mimoires ongi-
naux sur U rirne el la eour de Fridiric I" (Berlin, 1 883); Austin
Briefweckrei KSnig Friedrichs I. von Prenssen und seiner Fomitie
(Berlin, 1901) ; and T. Carlyle, History of Frederick the Great, toL L
(London, 1872).
FREDERICK II. V known as " the Great " (1712*1786), king
of Prussia, born on the 94th of January 17x2, was the eldest son
of Frederick William I. He was brought up with extreme rigour,
his father devising a scheme of education which was intended
to make him a hardy soldier, and prescribing for him every
detail of his conduct. So great was Frederick William's horror
of everything which did not seem to bira practical, that he
strictly excluded Latin from the list of his son's studies.
Frederick, however, had free and generous impulses which could
not be restrained by the sternest system. Encouraged by his
mother, and under the influence of his governess Madame de
Roucoulle, and of his first tutor Duhan, a French refugee, he
acquired an excellent knowledge of French and a taste for litera-
ture and music He even received secret lessons in Latin,
which his father invested with all the charms of forbidden
fruit. As he grew up be became extremely dissatisfied with the
dull and monotonous life he was compelled to lead; and hh
discontent was heartily shared by his sister. Wilhelmina, a bright
and intelligent young princess for whom Frederick had a warn
affection.
Frederick WilKam, seeing his son apparently absorbed in
frivolous and effeminate amusements, gradually conceived for
him an intense dislike, which had its share in causing him to
break off the negotiations for a double marriage between the
prince of Wales and Wilhelmina, and the princess Amelia,
daughter of George II., and Frederick; for Frederick had been
so indiscreet as to carry on a separate correspondence with the
English court and to vow that he would marry Amelia or no one.
Frederick William's hatred of his son, openly avowed, displayed
itself in violent outbursts and public insults, and so harsh was
his treatment that Frederick frequently thought of running
away and taking refuge at the English court. He at last resolved
to do so during a journey which he made with the king to south
Germany in 1730, when he was eighteen years of age. He was
helped by his two friends, Lieutenant Katte and Lieutenant
Keith; but by the imprudence of the former the secret was found
out. Frederick was placed under arrest, deprived of his rank
as crown prince, tried by court-martial, and imprisoned in the
fortress of Ctlstrin. Warned by Frederick, Keith escaped;
but Katte delayed his flight too long, and a court-martial decided
that he should be punished with two years' fortress arrest. But
the king was determined by a terrible example to wake Frederick
once for all to a consciousness of the heavy responsibility of his
position. He changed the sentence on Katte to one of death and
ordered the execution to take place in Frederick's presence,
FREDERICK II.
S3
himself arranging its every detail, Frederick's own fate would
depend upon the effect of this terrible object lesson and the
response he should make to the exhortations of the chaplain sent
to reason with him. On the morning of the 7th of November
Katte was beheaded before Frederick's window, after the crown
prince had asked his pardon and received the answer that there
was nothing to forgive. On Frederick himself lay the terror of
death, and the chaplain was able to send to the king a favourable
report of his orthodoxy and his changed disposition Frederick
William, whose temper was by no means so ruthlessly Spartan
as tradition has painted it.was overjoyed, and commissioned the
clergyman to receive from the prince an oath of filial obedience,
and in exchange for this proof of " his intention to improve in
real earnest " his arrest was to be lightened, pending the earning
of a full pardon. " The whole town shall be his prison," wrote
the king; " I will give him employment, from morning to night,
in the departments of war, and agriculture, and of the govern-
ment, lie shall work at financial matters, receive accounts,
read minutes and make extracts ... But if he kicks or rears
again, he shall forfeit the succession to the crown, and even,
according to circumstances, life itself "
For about fifteen months Frederick lived in Custrin, busy
according to the royal programme with the details of the Prussian
administrative system. He. was very careful not to " kick or
rear," and his good conduct earned him a further stage in the
restoration to favour. During this period of probation he had
been deprived of his status as a soldier and refused the right to
wear uniform t while officers and soldiers were forbidden to give
him the military salute; in 1732 he was made colonel in command
of the regiment at Ncuruppin. In the following year he married,
in obedience to the king's orders, the princess Elizabeth Christina,
daughter of the duke of Brunswick-Bcvern. He was given the
estate of Rheinsberg in the neighbourhood of Neuruppin, and
there he lived until he succeeded to the throne. These years were
perhaps the happiest of his life. He discharged his duties with so
much spirit and so conscientiously that he ultimately gained
the esteem of Frederick William, who no longer feared that he
would leave the crown to one unworthy of wearing it. At the
same time the crown prince was able to indulge to the full his
personal tastes. He carried on a lively correspondence with
Voltaire and other French men of letters, and was a diligent
student of philosophy, history and poetry. Two of his best-
known works were written at this time — Considtrations sur
Vital pr£sent4u corps politique dc V Europe and his A nti-Macchiavcl.
In the former be calls attention to the growing strength of
Austria and France, and insists on the necessity of some third
power, by which he clearly means Prussia, counterbalancing their
excessive influence. The second treatise, which was issued by
Voltaire in Hague in 1740, contains a generous exposition of
some of the favourite ideas of the xSth-cenlury philosophers
respecting the duties of sovereigns, which may be summed up
in the famous sentence: " the prince is not the absolute master,
but only the first servant of his people."
On the 31st of May 1740 he became king. He maintained all
the forms of government established by his father, but ruled
in a far more enlightened spirit; be tolerated evtry fprm of re-
ligious opinion, abolished the use of torture, was most careful
to secure an exact and impartial administration of justice, and,
while keeping the reins of government strictly in his own hands,
allowed every one with a genuine grievance free access to his
presence. The Potsdam regiment of giants was disbanded, but
the real interests of the army were carefully studied, for Frederick
realized that the two pillars of the Prussian state were sound
finances and a strong army. On the 20th of October 1740 the
emperor Charles VI. died. Frederick at once began to make
extensive military preparations, and it was soon dear to all the
world that he intended to enter upon some serious enterprise.
He had made up his mind to assert the ancient claim of the house
of Brandenburg to the three Silesian duchies, which the Austrian
rulers of Bohemia had ever denied, but the Hohenzollerns had
never abandoned. Projects for the assertion of this claim by
force of arms had been formed by more than one of Frederick's
predecessors, and the extinction of the male line of the house of
Habsburg may well have seemed to him a unique opportunity
for realizing an ambition traditional in his family. For this
resolution he is often abused still by historians, and at the time
he had the approval of hardly any one out of Prussia. He him-
self, writing of the scheme in his Memoires, laid no claim to lofty
motives, but candidly confessed that "it was a means of acquiring
reputation and of increasing the power of the state." He
firmly believed, however, in the lawfulness of his claims; and
although his father had recognized the Pragmatic Sanction,
whereby the hereditary dominions of Charles VI were to descend
to his daughter, Maria Theresa, Frederick insisted that this
sanction could refer only to lands which rightfully belonged to the
house of Austria. He could also urge that, as Charles VI. had
not fulfilled the engagements by which Frederick William's
recognition of the Pragmatic Sanction had been secured, Prussia
was freed from her obligation.
Frederick sent an ambassador to Vienna, offering, in the event
of his rights in Silesia being conceded, to aid Maria Theresa
against her enemies. The queen of Hungary, who regarded the
proposal as that of a mere robber, haughtily declined; whereupon
Frederick immediately invaded Silesia with an army of 30,000
men. His first victory was gained at Mollwitz on the 10th of
April 174 1. Under the impression, in consequence of a furious
charge of Austrian cavalry, that the battle was lost, he rode
rapidly away at an early stage of the struggle — a mistake
which gave rise for a time to the groundless idea that he lacked
personal courage. A second Prussian victory was gained at
Chotusitz, near Caslau, on the 17th May 1742; by this time
Frederick was master of all the fortified places of Silesia. Maria
Theresa, in the heat of her struggle with France and the elector
of Bavaria, now Charles VII., and pressed by England to rid
herself of Frederick, concluded with him, on the nth of June
1 742, the peace of Brcslau, conceding to Prussia, Upper and Lower
Silesia as far as the Oppa, together with the county of Glatz.
Frederick made good use of the next two years, fortifying his new
territory, and repairing the evils inflicted upon it by the war.
By the death of the prince of East Friesland without heirs, he
also gained possession of that country (1744). He knew well that
Maria Theresa would not, if she could help it, allow him to
remain in Silesia; accordingly, in 1744, alarmed by her victories,
he arrived at a secret understanding with France, and pledged
himself, with Hesse-Cassel and the palatinate, to maintain the
imperial rights of Charles VII., and to defend his hereditary
Bavarian lands. Frederick began the second Silesian War by
entering Bohemia in August 1744 and taking Prague. By this
brilliant but rash venture he put himself in great danger, and
soon had to retreat; but in 1745 he gained the battles of Hohen-
friedberg, Soor and Hcnnersdorf ; and Leopold of Dessau (" Der
alte Dessauer ") won for him the victory of Kesselsdorf in Saxony.
The latter victory was decisive, and the peace of Dresden
(December 25, 1745) assured to Frederick a second time the.
possession of Silesia. (See Austrian Succession, War of ihe.)i
Frederick had thus, at the age of thirty-three, raised himself 4 ,
to a great position in Europe, and henceforth he was the most;
conspicuous sovereign of his time. He was a thoroughly absolute]
ruler, his so-called ministers being mere clerks whose business;
was to give effect to his will. To use his own famous phrase,'
however, he regarded himself as but " the first servant of the
state"; and during the next eleven years he proved that the
words expressed his inmost conviction and feeling. All kinds of
questions were submitted to him, important and unimportant;
and he is frequently censured for having troubled himself so
much with mere details. But in so far as these details related
to expenditure he was fully justified, for it was absolutely
essential for him to have a large army, and with a small state
this was impossible unless he carefully prevented unnecessary
outlay. Being a keen judge of character, he filled the public
offices with faithful, capable, energetic men, who were kept up
to a high standard of duty by the consciousness that their work
might at' any time come under his strict supervision. The
Academy of Sciences, which had fallen into contemot during
5+
FREDERICK It
his father's reign, he restored, infusing into it vigorous life; and
he did more to promote elementary education than any of his
predecessors. He did much too for the economic development
of Prussia, especially for agriculture; he established colonies,
peopling them with immigrants, extended the canal system,
drained and diked the great marshes of the Oderbruch, turning
them into rich pasturage, encouraged the planting of fruit
trees and of root crops; and, though in accordance with his
ideas of discipline he maintained serfdom, he did much to lighten
the burdens of the peasants. All kinds of manufacture, too,
particularly that of silk, owed much to his encouragement.
To the army he gave unremitting attention, reviewing it at
regular intervals, and sternly punishing negligence on the part
of the officers. Its numbers were raised to 160,000 men, while
fortresses and magazines were always kept in a state of readiness
for war. The influence of the king's example was felt far beyond
the limits of his immediate circle. The nation was proud of his
genius, and displayed something of his energy in all departments
of life. Lessing, who as a youth of twenty came to Berlin in
1749, composed enthusiastic odes in his honour, and Gleim,
the Halberstadt poet, wrote of him as of a kind of demi-god.
These may be taken as fair illustrations of the popular feeling
long before the Seven Years' War.
He despised German as the language of boors, although it is
remarkable that at a later period, in a French essay on German
literature, he predicted for it a great future. He habitually
wrote and spoke French, and had a strong ambition to rank
as a distinguished French author. Nobody can now read his
verses, but his prose writings have a certain calm simplicity
and dignity, without, however, giving evidence of the splendid
mental qualities which he revealed in practical life. To this
period belong bis Mimoires pour servir a I' his lair e de Brandebourg
and his poem L'Art de la guerre. The latter, judged as literature,
is intolerably dull; but the former is valuable, throwing as it
does considerable light on his personal sympathies as well as on
the motives of important epochs in his career. He continued to
correspond with French writers, and induced a number of them
to settle in Berlin, Maupertuis being president of the Academy.
In 1753 Voltaire, who had repeatedly visited him, came at
Frederick's urgent entreaty, and received a truly royal welcome.
The famous Hirsch trial, and Voltaire's vanity and caprice,
greatly lowered him in the esteem of the king, who, on his side,
irritated his guest by often requiring him to correct bad verses,
and by making him the object of rude banter. The publication
of Doctor Akakia, which brought down upon the president of the
Academy a storm of ridicule, finally alienated Frederick; while
Voltaire's wrongs culminated in the famous arrest at Frankfort,
the most disagreeable elements, of which were due to the mis-
understanding of an order by a subordinate official.
The king lived as much as possible in a retired mansion, to
which he gave the name of Sanssouci — not the palace so called,
which was built after the Seven Years' War, and was never a
favourite residence. He rose regularly in summer at five, in
winter at six, devoting himself to public business till about eleven.
During part of this time, after coffee, he would aid his reflections
by playing on the flute, of which iie was passionately fond/
being a really skilful performer. At eleven came parade, and an
hour afterwards, punctually, dinner, which continued till two,
or later, if conversation happened to be particularly attractive.
After dinner he glanced through and signed cabinet orders written
in accordance with his morning instructions, often adding
marginal notes and postscripts, many of which were in a caustic
tone. These disposed of, he amused himself for a couple of hours
with literary work; between six and seven he would converse
with his friends or listen to his reader (a post held for some time
by La Mettric); at seven there was a concert; and at half-past
eight he sat down to supper, which might go on till midnight.
He liked good eating and drinking, although even here the cost
was sharply looked after, the expenses of his kitchen mounting
to no higher figure than £1800 a year. At supper he was always
surrounded by a number of his most intimate friends, mainly
frenchmen;, and he insisted on the conversation being perfectly
free. His wit, however, was often cruel, and any one who re-
sponded with too much spirit was soon made to fed that the
licence of talk was to be complete only on one side.
At Frederick's court ladies were seldom seen, a circumstance
that gave occasion to much scandal for which there seems to have
been no foundation. The queen he visited only on rare occasions.
She had been forced upon him by his father, and he had never
loved her; but he always treated her with marked respect, and
provided her with a generous income, half of which she gave away
in charity. Although without charm, she was a woman of many
noble qualities; and, like her husband, she wrote French books,
some of which attracted a certain attention in their day. She
survived him by eleven years, dying in 1797.
Maria Theresa had never given up hope that she would recover
Silesia; and as all the neighbouring sovereigns were bitterly
jealous of Frederick, and somewhat afraid of him, she had do
difficulty in inducing several of them to form a scheme for his
ruin. Russia and Saxony entered into it heartily, and France,
laying aside her ancient enmity towards Austria, joined the
empress against the common object of dislike. Frederick,
meanwhile, had turned towards England, which saw in him a
possible ally of great importance against the French. A con-
vention between Prussia and Great Britain was signed in January
1756, and it proved of incalculable value to both countries,
leading as it did to a close alliance during the administration of
Pitt. Through the treachery of a clerk in the Saxon foreign office
Frederick was made aware of the future which was being prepared
for him. Seeing the importance of taking the initiative, and
if possible, of securing Saxony, he suddenly, on the 24th of
August 1 756, crossed the frontier of that country, and shut in
the Saxon army between Pima and Kdnigstcin, ultimately
compelling it, after a victory gained over the Austrians at
Lobositz, to surrender. Thus began the Seven Years' War,
in which, supported by England, Brunswick and Hesse-Cassel,
he had for a long time to oppose Austria, France, Russia, Saxony
and Sweden. Virtually the whole Continent was in arms against
a small state which, a fewyears before, had been regarded by most
men as beneath serious notice. But it happened that this small
state was led by a man of high military genius, capable of infusing
into others his own undaunted spirit, while his subjects had
learned both from him and his predecessors habits of patience,
perseverance and discipline. In 1757, after defeating the
Austrians at Prague, he was himself defeated by them at Kolin;
and by the shameful convention of Clostcr-Seven, he was freely
exposed to the attack of the French. In November 1757, how-
ever, when Europe looked upon him as ruined, he rid himself of
the French by his splendid victory over them at Rossbach, and
in about a month afterwards, by the still more splendid victory
at Lcuthen, he drove the Austrians from Silesia. From this time
the French were kept well employed in the west by Prince
Ferdinand of Brunswick, who defeated them at Crefeld in 1758,
and at Minden in 1 759. In the former year Frederick triumphed,
at a heavy cost, over the Russians at Zorndorf ; and although,
through lack of his usual foresight, he lost the battle of Hoch-
kirch, he prevented the Austrians from deriving any real
advantage from their triumph, Silesia still remaining in his
hands at the end of the year. The battle of Kunersdorf , fought
on the 1 2th of August 1759, was the most disastrous to him in
the course of the war. He had here to contend both with the
Russians and the Austrians; and although at first he had some
success, his army was in the end completely broken. " All is lost
save the royal family," he wrote to his minister Friesenstein;
" the consequences of this battle will be worse than the battle
itself. I shall not survive the ruin of the Fatherland. Adieu for
ever I " But he soon recovered from his despair, and in 1760
gained the important victories of Llegnitz and Torgau. He had
now, however, to act on the defensive, and fortunately for him,
the Russians, on the death of the empress Elizabeth, not only
withdrew in 176a from the compact against him, but for a time
became his allies. On the 29th of October of that year he gained
his last victory over the Austrians at Freiberg. Europe was by
Chat time sick of war, every power being more or less exhausted.
FREDERICK II.
55
The result was that, on the 15th of February 1763, a few days
after the conclusion of the peace of Paris, the treaty of Hubertua-
burg was signed, Austria confirming Prussia in the possession of
Silesia. (See Seven Years' YVak.)
It would be difficult to overrate the importance of the con-
tribution thus made by Frederick to the politics of Europe.
Prussia was now universally recognized as one of the great
powers of the Continent, and she definitely took her place in
Germany as the rival of Austria. From this time it was inevitable
that there should be a final struggle between the two nations
for predominance, and that the smaller German states should
group themselves around one or the other. Frederick himself
acquired both in Germany and Europe the indefinable influence
which springs from the recognition of great gifts that have been
proved by great deeds.
His first care after the war was, as far as possible, to enable
the country to recover from the terrific blows by which it had
been almost destroyed; and he was never, either before or after,
seen to better advantage than in the measures he adopted for
this end. Although his resources had been so completely
drained that he had been forced to melt the silver in his palaces
and to debase the coinage, his energy soon brought back the
national prosperity. Pomerania and Neumark were freed from
taxation for two years, Silesia for six months. Many nobles
whose lands had been wasted received corn for seed; his war
horses were within a few months to be found on farms all over
Prussia; and money was freely spent in the re-erection of houses
which had been destroyed. The coinage was gradually restored
to its proper value, and trade received a favourable impulse by
the foundation of the Bank of Berlin. All these mattera were
carefully looked into by Frederick himself, who, while acting
as generously as his circumstances would allow, insisted on every-
thing being done in the most efficient manner at the least possible
cost. Unfortunately, he adopted the French ideas of excise,
and the French methods of imposing and collecting taxes— a
system known as the Regie. This system secured for him a
large revenue, but it led to a vast amount of petty tyranny,
whkh was all the more intolerable because it was carried out by
French officials. It was continued to the end of Frederick's
reign, and nothing did so much to injure his otherwise immense
popularity. He was quite aware of the discontent the system ex-
cited, and the good-nature with which he tolerated the criticisms
directed against it and him is illustrated by a well-known incident.
Riding along the Jager Strasse one day, he saw a crowd of people.
" See what it is," he said to the groom who was attending him.
" They have something posted up about your Majesty," said the
groom, returning. Frederick, riding forward, saw a caricature of
himself: " King in very melancholy guise," says Preuss (as
translated by Carlyle), " seated on a stool, a coffee-mill between
his knees, diligently grinding with the one hand, and with the
other picking up any bean that might have fallen. ' Hang it
lower/ said the king, beckoning his groom with a wave of the
finger; 'lower, that they may not have to hurt their necks
about it.' No sooner were the words spoken, which spread
instantly, than there rose from the whole crowd one universal
huzzah of joy. They tore the caricature into a thousand pieces,
and rolled after the king with loud ' Le.be Uoch, our Frederick
for ever/ as he rode slowly away." There are scores of anecdotes
about Frederick, but not many so well authenticated as this.
There was nothing about which Frederick took so much
trouble as the proper administration of justice. He disliked the
formalities of the law, and in one instance, " the miller Arnold
case/' in connexion with which he thought injustice had been
done to a poor man, he dismissed the judges, condemned them
to a year's fortress arrest, and compelled them to make good out
of their own pockets the loss sustained by their supposed victim—
not a wise proceeding, but one springing from a generous motive.
He once defined himself as " l'avocat du pauvre," and few things
gave him more pleasure than the famous answer of the miller
whose windmill stood on ground which was wanted for the king's
garden. The miller sturdily refused to sell it. " Not at any
price?" said the king's agent; "could not the king take it
from you for nothing, if he chose?" "Have we not the
Kammergericht at Berlin?" was the answer, which became a
popular saying in Germany. Soon after he came to the throat
Frederick began to make preparations for a new code. In 1747
appeared the Codex Fridericianus, by which the Prussian judicial
body was established. But a greater monument of Frederick's
interest in legal reform was the AUgemeines preussisckes Land-
recht, completed by the grand chancellor Count Johann H. C
von Carreer (1721-1801) on the basis of the Project (Us Corporis
Juris Fridericiani, completed in the year 1740-1751 by the
eminent jurist Samuel von Cocceji ( 1 679-1 755). The Londretkt,
a work of vast labour and erudition, combines the two systems
of German and Roman law supplemented by the law of nature;
it was the first German code, but only came into force in 1794,
after Frederick's death.
Looking ahead after the Seven Years' War, Frederick saw no
means of securing himself so effectually as by cultivating the good*
will of Russia. In 1764 he accordingly concluded a treaty of
alliance with the empress Catherine for eight years. Six years
afterwards, unfortunately for his fame, he joined in the first
partition of Poland, by which he received Polish Prussia, without
Danzig and Thorn, and Great Poland as far as the river Netze.
Prussia was then for the first time made continuous with Branden-
burg and Pomerania.
The emperor Joseph II. greatly admired Frederick, and visited
him at Neisse, in Silesia, in x 769, a visit which Frederick returned,
in Moravia, in the following year. The young emperor was frank
and cordial; Frederick was more cautious, for he detected
under the respectful manner of Joseph a keen ambition that might
one day become dangerous to Prussia. Ever after these inter-
views a portrait of the emperor hung conspicuously in the rooms
in which Frederick lived, a circumstance on which some oat
remarked. " Ah yes," said Frederick, "lam obliged to keep
that young gentleman in my eye." Nothing came of these
suspicions till 1777, when, after the death of Maximilian Joseph,
elector of Bavaria, without children, the emperor took possessioa
of the greater part of his lands. The elector palatine, who
lawfully inherited Bavaria, came to an arrangement, which was
not admitted by his heir, Charles, duke of Zwcibrucken. Under
these circumstances the latter appealed to Frederick, who,
resolved that Austria should gain no unnecessary advantage,
took his part, and brought pressure to bear upon the emperor.
Ultimately, greatly against his will, Frederick felt compelled
to draw the sword, and in July 1778 crossed the Bohemian
frontier at the head of a powerful army. No general engagement
was fought, and after a great many delays the treaty of Teschen
was signed on the 13th of May 1779. Austria received the
circle of Burgau, and consented that the king of Prussia should
take the Franconian principalities. Frederick never abandoned
his jealousy of Austria, whose ambition be regarded as the chief
danger against which Europe had to guard. He seems to have
had no suspicion that evil days were coming in France. It was
Austria which had given trouble in his time; and if her pride
were curbed, he fancied that Prussia at least would be safe.
Hence one of the last important acts of his life was to form, in
1785, a league of princes (the " Furstenbund ") for the defence
of the imperial constitution, believed to be imperilled by Joseph's
restless activity. The league came to an end after Frederick's
death; but it is of considerable historical interest, as the first
open attempt of Prussia to take the lead in Germany.
Frederick's chief trust was always in his treasury and his
army. By continual economy he left in the former the immense
sum of 70 million t balers; the latter, at the time of his death,
numbered 200,000 men, disciplined with all the strictness to
which he had throughout life accustomed his troops. He died
at Sanssoud on the 17th of August 1786; his death being
hastened by exposure to a storm of rain, stoically borne, during
a military review. He passed away on the eve of tremendous
events, which for a time obscured his fame; but now that lie
can be impartially estimated, he is seen to have been in many
respects one of the greatest figures in modern history.
He was rather below the middle size, in youth inclined to
5*
FREDERICK III.
stoutness, lean in old age, but of vigorous and active habits. An
expression of keen intelligence lighted up his features, and his
large, sparkling grey eyes darted penetrating glances at every
one who approached him. In his later years an old blue uniform
with red facings was bis usual dress, and on his breast was gener-
ally some Spanish snuff, of which he consumed large quantities.
He shared many of the chief intellectual tendencies of his age,
having no feeling for the highest aspirations of human nature,
but submitting all things to a searching critical analysis. Of
Christianity he always spoke in the mocking tone of the " en-
lightened " philosophers, regarding it as the invention of priests;
but it is noteworthy that after the Seven Years' War, the trials
of which steadied his character, he sought to strengthen the
church for the sake of its elevating moral influence. In his
judgments of mankind he often talked as a misanthrope. He
was once conversing with Sulzer, who was a school inspector,
about education. Sulzer expressed the opinion that education
had of late years greatly improved. " In former times, your
Majesty," he said, " the notion being that mankind were natur-
ally inclined to evil, a system of severity prevailed in schools;
but now, when we recognize that the inborn inclination of men
is rather to good than to evil, schoolmasters have adopted a
more generous procedure." " Ah, my dear Sulzer," replied the
king, " you don't know this damned race " (" Ach, mein lieber
Sulaer, er kennt nicht diese verdammte Race "). This fearful
saying unquestionably expressed a frequent mood of Frederick's;
and he sometimes acted with great harshness, and seemed to
take a malicious pleasure in tormenting his acquaintances.
.Yet he was capable of genuine attachments. He was beautifully
loyal to his mother and his sister Wflhelmina; his letters to
the duchess of Got ha are full of a certain tender reverence;
the two Keiths found him a devoted friend. But the true
evidence that beneath his misanthropical moods there was an
enduring sentiment of humanity is afforded by the spirit in
which he exercised his kingly functions. Taking his reign as
a whole, it must be said that he looked upon his power rather
as a trust than as a source of personal advantage; and the trust
was faithfully discharged according to the best lights of his day.
He has often been condemned for doing nothing to encourage
German literature; and it is true that he was supremely in-
different to it. Before he died a tide of intellectual life was rising
all about him; yet he failed to recognize it, declined to give
Lessing even the small post of royal librarian, and thought Cdts
von Berlichingen a vulgar imitation of vulgar English models.
But when his taste was formed, German literature did not exist;
the choice was between Racine and Voltaire on the one hand and
Gottsched and Gellert on the other. He survived into the era
of Kant, Goethe and Schiller, but he was not of it, and it would
have been unreasonable to expect that he should in old age
pass beyond the limits of his own epoch. As Germans now
generally admit, it was better that he let their literature alone,
since, left to itself, it became a thoroughly independent product.
Indirectly he powerfully promoted it by deepening the national
life from which it sprang. At a time when there was no real bond
of cohesion between the different states, he stirred among tbem
a common enthusiasm; and in making Prussia great he laid the
foundation of a genuinely united empire.
BlBUOOHAPHICAL NC
Frederick the Great ar
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FREDERICK III. (1831-1888), king of Prussia, and German
emperor, was born at Potsdam on the 18th of October 1831,
being the eldest son of Prince William of Prussia, afterwards
first German emperor, and the princess Augusta, He was care-
fully educated, and in 1840-1850 studied at the university of
Bonn. The next years were spent in military duties and in
travels, in which he was accompanied by Moltke. In 1851 he
visited England on the occasion of the Great Exhibition, and in
1855 became engaged to Victoria, princess royal of Great Britain,
to whom he was married in London on the 25th of January 1858.
On the death of his uncle in 1861 and the accession of his father.
Prince Frederick William, as he was then always called, became
crown prince of Prussia. Hit education, the influence of his
mother, and perhaps still more that of his wife's father, the Prince
Consort, had made him a strong Liberal, and he was much dis-
tressed at the course of events in Prussia after the appointment
of Bismarck as minister. He was urged by the Liberals to put
himself into open opposition to the government; this he refused
to do, but he remonstrated privately with the king. In June 1863,
however, he publicly dissociated himself from the press ordinances
which had just been published. He ceased to attend meetings
of the council of state, and was much away from Berlin. The
opposition of the crown prince to the ministers was increased
during the following year, for be was a warm friend of the prince
of Augustenburg, whose claims to Schleswig-Holstein Bismarck
refused to support. During the war with Denmark he had his
first military experience, being attached to the staff of Marshal
von Wrangel; he performed valuable service in arranging the
difficulties caused by the disputes between the field marshal and
the other officers, and was eventually given a control ovti him.
After the war he continued to support the prince of Augustenburg
and was strongly opposed to the war with Austria. During the
campaign of 1866 he received the command of an army con-
sisting of four army corps; he was assisted by General von
Blumenthal, as chief of the staff, but took a very active part
in directing the difficult operations by which his army fought its
way through the mountains rrom Silesia to Bohemia, fighting
four engagements in three days, and showed that he possessed
genuine military capacity. In the decisive battle of Kdniggratz
the arrival of his army on the field of battle, after a march of
nearly a© m., secured the victory. During the negotiations
which ended the war he gave valuable assistance by persuading
the king to accept Bismarck's policy as regards peace with Austria.
From this time he was very anxious to see the king of Prussia
unite the whole of Germany, with the title of emperor, and was
impatient of the caution with which Bismarck proceeded In 1 860
he paid a visit to Italy, and in the same year was present at the
opening of the Suez Canal; on his way he visited the Holy Land.
He played a conspicuous part in the year 1870-1871, being
appointed to command the armies of the Southern States,
FREDERICK III.
57
General Bluracnthat again being his chief of the staff; his troops
won the victory of Worth, took an important part in the battle
of Sedan, and later in the siege of Paris. The popularity he won
was of political service in preparing the way for the union of
North and South Germany, and he was the foremost advocate
of the imperial idea at the Prussian court. During the years that
followed, little opportunity for political activity was open to him.
He and the crown princess took a great interest in art and
industry, especially in the royal museums; and the excavations
conducted at Olyznpia and Pcrgamon with such great results
were chiefly due to him. The crown princess was a keen advocate
of the higher education of women, and it was owing to her
exertions that the Victoria Lyceum at Berlin (which was named
after her) was founded. In 1878, when the emperor was in-
capacitated by the shot of an assassin, the prince acted for some
months as regent. His palace was the centre of all that was best
in the literary and learned society of the capital. He publicly
expressed his disapproval of the attacks on the Jews in 1878;
and the coalition of Liberal parties founded in 1884 was popularly
known as the " crown prince's party," but he scrupulously
refrained from any act that might embarrass his father's govern-
ment. For many reasons the accession of the prince was looked
forward to with great hope by a large part of the nation. Un-
fortunately he was attacked by cancer in the throat; he spent the
winter of 1887-1888 at San Rcmo; in January 1888 the operation
of tracheotomy had to be performed. On the death of his father,
which took place on the 9th of March, he at once journeyed to
Berlin; but his days were numbered, and he came to the throne
only to die. In these circumstances his accession could not have
the political importance which would otherwise have attached
to it, though it was disfigured by a vicious outburst of party
passion in which the names of the emperor and the empress were
constantly misused. Wliilc the Liberals hoped the emperor
would use his power for some signal declaration of policy, the
Adherents of Bismarck did not scruple to make bitter attacks
on the empress. The emperor's most important act was a severe
reprimand addressed to Herr von Puttkaracr, the reactionary
minister of the interior, which caused his resignation; in the
distribution of honours he chose many who belonged to classes
and parties hitherto excluded from court favour. A serious
difference of opinion with the chancellor regarding the proposal
for a marriage between Prince Alexander of Battenberg and the
princess Victoria of Prussia was arranged by the intervention
of Queen Victoria, who visited Berlin to see her dying son-in-law.
He expired at Potsdam on the 1 5th of June 1888, after a reign of
ninety-nine days.
After the emperor's death Professor Geffcken, a personal friend,
published in the Deutsche Rundschau extracts from the diary
of the crown prince containing passages which illustrated his
differences with Bismarck during the war of 1870. The object
was to injure Bismarck's reputation, and a very unseemly dispute
ensued. Bismarck at first, in a letter addressed to the new
emperor, denied the authenticity of the extracts on the ground
that they were unworthy of the crown prince. Geffcken was then
arrested and imprisoned. He had undoubtedly shown that he
wis an injudicious friend, for the diary proved that the prince,
in his enthusiasm for German unity, had allowed himself to con-
sider projects which would have seriously compromised the
relations of Prussia and Bavaria. The treatment of the crown
prince's illness also gave rise to an acrimonious controversy.
It arose from the fact that as early as May 1887 the German
physicians recognized the presence of cancer in the throat, but
Sir Morell Mackenzie, the English specialist who was also con-
sulted, disputed the correctness of this diagnosis, and advised
that the operation for removal of the larynx, which they had
recommended, should not be undertaken His advice was
followed, and the differences between the medical men were made
the occasion for a considerable display of national and political
animosity.
The empress Victoria, who, after the death of her husband,
was known as the empress Frederick, died on the 5th of August
1901 at the cattle of Friedrichskron, Cronberg, near Hamburg
v. d. H., where she spent her last years. Of the emperor's
children two, Prince Sigismund (1864-1866) and Prince Waldcmar
(1860-1879), died in childhood. He left two sons, William, his,
successor as emperor, and Henry, who adopted a naval career.
Of his daughters, the princess Charlotte was married to Bernard,
hereditary prince of Mciningcn; the princess Victoria to Prince
Adolf of Schaumburg-Lippc; the princess Sophie to the duke
of Sparta, crown prince of Greece; and the princess Margaretha
to Prince Friedrich Karl of Hesse
Authorities.— M. von Poschingcr, Kaiser Friedrich (3 vols*
Berlin. 1898-iyoo). Adapted into English by Sidney Whitman,
Life of the Emperor Frederick (1901 ). See also Bismarck. Reflection*
and Reminiscences: Renncll Rodd, Frederick, Crown Prince and
Emperor (1888); Gustav Frcytag, Der Kronprinz und die deutsche
Katserkrone (1889; English translation, 1890); Otto Richtcr,
Kaiser Friedrich III. (and ed., Berlin, 1903). For his illness, the
official publications, published both in English and German: Die
Krankheil Kaiser Frtedrichs III. (Berlin, 1888). and Morell Mac-
kenzie, The Fatal Illness of Frederick the Noble (1888). Most of the
copies of the Deutsche Rundschau containing the extracts from the
crown prince's diary were co n fi s cated, but there is an English edition,
published in 1889. (J. W. He.)
FREDERICK in. (1272-1337), king of Sicily, third son of
King Peter of Aragon and Sicily, and of Constance, daughter of
Manfred. Peter died in 1285, leaving Aragon to his eldest son
Alphonso, and Sicily to his second son James. When Alphonso
died in 1291 James became king of Aragon, and left his brother
Frederick as regent of Sicily. The war bet ween the Ange vins and
the Aragonese for the possession of Sicily was still in progress,
and although the Aragonese were successful in Italy James's
position in Spain became very insecure to internal troubles
and French attacks. Peace negotiations were begun with Charles
II. of Anjou, but were interrupted by the successive deaths of
two popes; at last under the auspices of Boniface VIII. James
concluded a shameful treaty, by which, in exchange for being left
undisturbed in Aragon and promised possession of Sardinia
and Corsica, he gave up Sicily to the Church, for whom it was to
be held by the Angcvins (1 295). The Sicilians refused to be made
over once more to the hated French whom they had expelled in
1282, and found a national leader in the regent Frederick. In
vain the pope tried to bribe him with promises and dignities;
he was determined to stand by his subjects, and was crowned
king by the nobles at Palermo in 1 296. Young, brave and hand-
some, he won the love and devotion of his people, and guided
them through the long years of storm and stress with wisdom
and ability. Although the second Frederick of Sicily, he called
himself third, being the third son of King Peter. He reformed
the administration and extended the powers of the Sicilian
parliament, which was composed of the barons, the prelates
and the representatives of the towns.
His refusal to comply with the pope's injunctions led to a
renewal of the war. Frederick landed in Calabria, where he
seized several towns, encouraged revolt in Naples, negotiated
with the GhibeUines of Tuscany and Lombardy, and assisted
the house of Colonna against Pope Boniface. In the meanwhile
James, who received many favours from the Church, married bis
sister Yolanda to Robert, the third son of Charles II. Un-
fortunately for Frederick, a part of the Aragonese nobles of
Sicily favoured King James, and both John of Procida and
Ruggiero di Lauria, the heroes of the war of the Vespers, went
over to the Angcvins, and the latter completely defeated the
Sicilian fleet off Cape Orlando. Charles's sons Robert and Philip
landed in Sicily, but after capturing Catania were defeated by
Frederick, Philip being taken prisoner (1209), while several
Calabrian towns were captured by the Sicilians. For two years
more the fighting continued with, varying success, until Charles
of Valois, who had been sent by Boniface to invade Sicily, was
forced to sue for peace, his army being decimated by the plague,
and in August 130a the treaty of CaltabeUotta was signed, by
which Frederick was recognized king of Trinacria (the name
Sicily was not to be used) for his lifetime, and was to marry
Eleonora, the daughter of Charles II.; at his death the king-
dom was to revert to the Angevins (this clause was inserted
chiefly to save Charles's face), and his children would receive
5»
FREDERICK I.— FREDERICK II.
compensation elsewhere. Boniface tried to induce King Charles
to break the treaty, but the latter was only too anxious for
peace, and finally in May 1303 the pope ratified it, Frederick
agreeing to pay him a tribute.
For a few years Sicily enjoyed peace, and the kingdom was
reorganized. But on the descent of the emperor Henry VII.,
Frederick entered into an alliance with him, and in violation
of the pact of Caltabellotta made war on the Angcvins again
(1313) and captured Reggio. He set sail for Tuscany to co-
operate with the emperor, but on the biter's death (13 14) he
returned to Sicily. Robert, who had succeeded Charles II. in
1309, made several raids into the island, which suffered much
material injury. A truce was concluded in 13x7, but as the
Sicilians helped the north Italian Ghibcllines in the attack on
Genoa, and Frederick seized some Church revenues for military
purposes, the pope (John XXII.) excommunicated him and
placed the island under an interdict (1321) which lasted until
1335. An Angevin fleet and army, under Robert's son Charles,
was defeated at Palermo by Giovanni da Chiaramonte in 1325,
and in 1326 and 1327 there were further Angevin raids on the
island, until the descent into Italy of the emperor Louis the
Bavarian distracted their attention. The election of Pope
Benedict XII. (1334), who was friendly to Frederick, promised
a respite; but after fruitless negotiations the war broke out once
more, and Chiaramonte went over to Robert, owing to a private
feud. In 1337 Frederick died at Paternione, and in spite of the
peace of Caltabellotta his son Peter succeeded. Frederick's
great merit was that during his reign the Aragonese dynasty
became thoroughly national and helped to weld the Sicilians
into a united people.
Bibliography. — G. M. Mira, Btbliografia SicUiana (Palermo,
i fl 75); of the contemporary authorities N. Special's " Htstoria
Sicula " (in Muratori's Script, rer. Hal. x.) is the most important ;
for the first years of Frederick'* reign see M. Amari, La Guerra del
Vespro Siciltano (Florence, 1876), and F. Lanzani, Storia dei Comuni
italiani (Milan, 1882); for the latter years C. Cipolla, Storia detle
rignorie Kalian* (Milan, x88l); also Testa, Vita di Federito di
Skilia. (L.V.)
FREDERICK I. (e. 1371-1440), elector of Brandenburg,
founder of the greatness of the House of Hohenzollern, was a son
of Frederick V., burgrave of Nuremberg, and first came into
prominence by saving the life of Sigismund, king of Hungary,
at the battle of Nicopolis in 1396. In 1397 he became burgrave
of Nuremberg, and after his father's death in 1398 he shared
Ansbach, Bayreuth, and the smaller possessions of the family,
with his only brother John, but became sole ruler after his
brother's death in 1420. Loyal at first to King Wenceslaus,
the king's neglect of Germany drove Frederick to take part in
his deposition in 1400, and in the election of Rupert III., count
palatine of the Rhine, whom he accompanied to Italy in the
following year. In 1401 he married Elizabeth, or Eka, daughter
of Frederick, duke of Bavaria-Landshut (d. 1393), and after
spending some time in family and other feuds, took service again
with King Sigismund in 1409, whom he assisted in his struggle
with the Hungarian rebels. The double election to the German
throne in 14x0 first brought Frederick into relation with Branden-
burg. Sigismund, anxious to obtain a other vote in the electoral
college, appointed Frederick to exercise the Brandenburg vote
on his behalf, and it was largely through his efforts that Sigis-
mund was chosen German king. Frederick then passed some
time as administrator of Brandenburg, where he restored a
certain degree of order, and was formally invested with the
electorate and margraviate by Sigismund at Constance on the
i8lh of April 14x7 (see Brandevbubg). He took part in the war
against the Hussites, but became estranged from Sigismund
when in 1423 the king invested Frederick of Wettin, margrave
of Meissen, with the vacant electoral duchy of Saxe-Wittenberg.
In 1427 be sold his rights as burgrave to the town of Nuremberg,
and he was a prominent member of the band of electors who
sought to impose reforms upon Sigismund. After having been
an unsuccessful candidate for the German throne in 1438,
Frederick was chosen king of Bohemia in 1440, but declined the
proffered honour. He took part in the election of Frederick UL
as German king in 1440, and died at Radolzburg on the 21M of
September in the same year. In 1 902 a bronze statue was erected
to his memory at Friesack, and there is also a marble one of the
elector in the ° Siegesallee " at Berlin.
See A. F. Riedel, Zekn Jahrt aus der GeschickU der Aknkerrem in
preussiscken Konigshauses (Berlin, 1851); E. Brandenburg, Konig
Sigmund und Kurfurst Friedrick I. von Brandenburg (Berlin, 1891);
and O. Franklin, Die deulscke Politik Friedricks f. Kurfursten worn
Brandenburg (Berlin, 1851).
FREDERICK I. (1425- 1476), elector palatine of the Rhine,
surnamed " the Victorious," and called by his enemies " wicked
Fritz," second son of the elector palatine Louis III., was born
on the xst of August 1425. He inherited a part of the Palatinate
on his father's death in 1439, but soon surrendered this inherit-
ance to his elder brother, the elector Louis IV. On his brother's
death in X449, however, he became guardian of the young elector
Philip, and ruler of the land. In 1 4 5 1 he persuaded the nobles to
recognize him as elector, on condition that Philip should be his
successor, a scheme which was disliked by the emperor Frederick
III. The elector was successful in various wars with neighbouring
rulers, and was a leading member of the band of princes who
formed plans to secure a more efficient government for Germany,
and even discussed the deposition of Frederick III. Frederick
himself was mentioned as a candidate for the German throne,
but the jealousies of the princes prevented any decisive anion,
and soon became so acute that in 1459 they began to fight amonf
themselves. In alliance with Louis IX., duke of Bavaria-
Landshut, Frederick gained several victories during the struggle,
and in 1462 won a decisive battle at Seckenheim over Ulrich V.,
count of Wttrttemberg. In 147 2 the elector married Clara Tolt,
or Dctt, the daughter of an Augsburg citizen, and by her he had
two sons, Frederick, who died during bis father's lifetime, and
Louis (d. 15 24), who founded the line of the counts of Ldwenstrin.
He died at Heidelberg on the 12th of December 1476, and was
succeeded, according to the compact, by his nephew Philip.
Frederick was a cultured prince, and, in spite of his warlike
career, a wise and intelligent ruler. He added largely to the
area of the Palatinate, and did not neglect to further its internal
prosperity.
Sec N. Feeser, Friedrick der Siegreicke, Kurfirst ton der Pfak
(Ncuburg, 1880); C. J. Kremer, GetekickU des Kurfursten Friedruks
I. ponder Plait (Leipzig, 1 70s); and K. Menzel, KurfUrst Friedrick
der Siegreicke von der PjaU (Munich, 1861).
FREDERICK II. (1482-1556), surnamed M the Wise," elector
palatine of the Rhine, fourth son of the elector Philip, was born
on the oth of December J482. Of an active and adventurous
temperament, he fought under the emperor Maximilian L in 1508,
and afterwards served the Habsburgs loyally in other ways. He
worked to secure the election of Charles, afterwards the emperor
Charles V., as the successor of Maximilian in 1519; fought in
two campaigns against the Turks; and being disappointed
in his hope of obtaining the hand of one of the emperor's sisters,
married in 1535 Dorothea (d. 1580), daughter of Christian IL,
who had been driven from the Danish throne. The Hababurgi
promised their aid in securing this crown for Frederick, but, like
many previous promises made to him, this came to nothing.
Having spent his time in various parts of Europe, and incurred
heavy debts on account of his expensive tastes, Frederick became
elector palatine by the death of his brother, Louis V., in March
x 544. With regard to the religious troubles of Germany, he took
up at first the role of a mediator, but in 1545 he joined the league
of Schmalkalden, and in 1546 broke definitely with the older
faith. He gave a Kttle assistance to the league in its war with
Charles, but soon submitted to the emperor, accepted the
Interim issued from Augsburg in May 2548, and afterwards
acted in harmony with Charles. The elector died on the a6th of
February 1556, and as he left no children was succeeded by his
nephew. Otto Henry (1502-1559)- He was a great benefactor
to the university of Heidelberg.
Frederick's life, Annates de vita et rebus gestis Friderici //. elecUtis
palatini (Frankfort, 1624), was written by his secretary Hubert
Thomas Leodius; this has been translated into German by E. von
Billow (Breslau, 1849). Sec also Rott, Friedrick //. von der Pfam
mud die Reformation (Heidtiberg, 1904).
FREDERICK III.— FREDERICK I.
59
FREDERICK III. (1515-1576), called "the Pious," elector,
palatine of the Rhine, eMest ton of John II., count palatine of
Simmern, was born at Simmern on the 14th of February 151s.
In 1S37 he married Maria (d. 1567), daughter ol Casimir, prince
ofBayreuth, and in 1 546, mainly as a result of this union, adopted
the reformed doctrines, which had already made considerable
progress in the Palatinate. He lived in comparative obscurity
and poverty until 1557, when he became count palatine of
Simmern by his father's death, succeeding his kinsman, Otto
Henry (1502-1 550), as elector palatine two years later. Although
inclined to the views of Calvin rather than to those of Luther,
the new elector showed great anxiety to unite the Protestants;
but when these efforts failed, and the breach between the
followers of the two reformers became wider, he definitely
adopted Calvinism. This form of faith was quickly established
in the Palatinate; in its interests the " Heidelberg Catechism "
was drawn up in 1563; and Catholics and Lutherans were
persecuted alike, while the churches were denuded of all their
ornaments. The Lutheran princes wished to root out Calvinism
u the Palatinate, but were not willing to exclude the elector from
the benefits of the religious peace of Augsburg, which were
confined to the adherents of the confession of Augsburg, and the
matter came before the diet in x 566. Boldly defending his posi-
tion, Frederick refused to give way an inch, and as the Lutherans
were unwilling to proceed to extremities the emperor Maximilian
IL could only warn him to mend his ways. The elector was an
ardent supporter of the Protestants abroad, whom, rather than
the German Lutherans, he regarded as his co-religionists. He
sided the Huguenots in France and the insurgents in the Nether-
lands with men and money; one of bis sons, John Casimir
(1 543-1 59a) , took a prominent part in the French wars of religion,
while another, Christopher, was killed in 1574 fighting for the
Dutch at Mooker Heath. In his later years Frederick failed
b his efforts to prevent the election of a member of the Habsburg
family as Roman king, to secure the abrogation of the " ecclesi-
astical reservation " clause in the peace of Augsburg, or to
obtain security for Protestants in the territories of the spiritual
princes. He was assiduous in caring for the material, moral and
educational welfare of bis electorate, and was a benefactor to
the university of Heidelberg The elector died at Heidelberg on
the 26th of October 1576, and was succeeded by his elder sur-
viving son, Louis (1 530-1 583), who had offended his father by
adopting Lutheranism.
See A. Kluckhohn, Friedrich der Fromme (Nordlingen, 1877-1879) ;
and Briefs Friedricks du Frommen, edited by Kluckhohn (Bruns-
wick. 1868-1872).
FREDERICK IV. (1 574-1610), elector palatine of the Rhine,
only surviving son of the elector Louis VI., was born at Amberg
on the 5th of March 1574* His father died in October 1583,
when the young elector came under the guardianship of his
uncle John Casimir, an ardent Calvinist, who, in spite of the
wishes of the late elector, a Lutheran, had his nephew educated
in his own form of faith. In January 1 592, on the death of John
Casimir, Frederick undertook the government of the Palatinate,
and continued the policy of his uncle, hostility to the Catholic
Church and the Habsburgs, and co-operation with foreign
Protestants. He was often in communication with Henry of
Navarre, afterwards Henry IV. of France, and like him was
unremitting in his efforts to conclude a league among the German
Protestants, while he sought to weaken the Habsburgs by refusing
aid for the Turkish War. After many delays and disappoint-
ments the Union of Evangelical Estates was actually formed in
May 1608, under the leadership of the elector, and he took a
prominent part in directing the operations of the union until his
death, which occurred on the 1 9th of September 1610. Frederick
was very extravagant, and liked to surround himself with pomp
and luxury. He married in 1593 Louise, daughter of William
the Silent, prince of Orange, and was succeeded by Frederick,
the elder of his two sons.
See M. Ritter, Cesekkhle der dtutscken Union (Schaffhausen, 1867-
1873): and L. Hauoer. Gesthichte der rheiniuken Pfaks (Heidelberg,
FREDERICK V. (1 596-1632), elector palatine of the Rhine
and king of Bohemia, son of the elector Frederick IV. by his wife,
Louisa Juliana, daughter of William the Silent, prince of Orange,
was born at Amberg on the 26th of August 1596. He became
elector on his father's death in September 16x0, and was under
the guardianship of his kinsman, John II., count palatine of
Zweibrucken (d. 1635), until he was declared of age in July 1614.
Having received a good education, Frederick had married
Elizabeth, daughter of the English king James I., in February
1613, and was the recognized head of the Evangelical Union
founded by his father to protect the interests of the Protestants.
In x 61 9 he stepped into a larger arena. Before this date the
estates of Bohemia, Protestant in sympathy and dissatisfied with
the rule of the Habsburgs, had been in frequent communication
with the elector palatine, and in August 161 9, a few months after
the death of the emperor Matthias, they declared bis successor,
Ferdinand, afterwards the emperor Ferdinand II., deposed,
and chose Frederick as their king. After some hesitation the
elector yielded to the entreaties of Christian I., prince of Anhalt
( 1 568-1630), and other sanguine supporters, and was crowned
king of Bohemia at Prague on the 4th of November 161 9. By
this time the emperor Ferdinand was able to take the aggressive,
while Frederick, disappointed at receiving no assistance either
from England or from the Union, had few soldiers and little
money* Consequently on the 8th of November, four days after
his coronation, his forces were easily routed by the imperial army
under Tilly at the White Hill, near Prague, and his short reign in
Bohemia ended abruptly. Soon afterwards the Palatinate was
overrun by the Spaniards and Bavarians, and after a futile
attempt to dislodge them, Frederick, called in derision the
" Winter King." sought refuge in the Netherlands. Having
been placed under the imperial ban his electorate was given in
1623 to Maximilian I. of Bavaria, who also received the electoral
dignity.
The remainder of Frederick's life was spent in comparative
obscurity, although his restoration was a constant subject of
discussion among European diplomatists. He died at Mainz on
the 29th of November 1632, having had a large family, among
his children being Charles Louis (1617-1680), who regained the
Palatinate at the peace of Westphalia in 1648, and Sophia,
who married Ernest Augustus, afterwards elector of Hanover,
and was the mother of George L, king of Great Britain. His
third son was Prince Rupert, the hero of the English civil war,
and another son was Prince Maurice (1620-1652), who also
assisted his uncle Charles I. during the civil war. Having sailed
with Rupert to the West Indies, Maurice was lost at sea in
September 1652.
In addition to the numerous works which treat of the outbreak
of the Thirty Yean' War see A. Gindely. Friedrich V. von der PJaU
(Prague, 1884); J. Krebs. Die Poltiik der evanielucken Union im
Jakre 1618 (Brcslaa, 1 890-1901); M. Ritter, " Friedrich V., M in the
AUgemeine deutscke Btoerapkie, Band vii. (Leipzig. 1878); and
Deutsche Lieder amj den Winterktnit, edited by R. Wolkao (Prague,
1899).
FREDERICK I. (1360-1428), surnamed "the Warlike,"
elector and duke of Saxony, was the eldest son of Frederick
" the Stern," count of Osterland, and Catherine, daughter and
heiress of Henry VIII., count of Coburg. He was born at Alten-
burg on the 29th of March 1369, and was a member of the family
of Wettin. When his father died in 1381 some trouble arose
over the family possessions, and in the following year an arrange-
ment was made by which Frederick and his brothers shared
Meissen and Thuringia with their uncles Balthasar and William.
Frederick's brother George died in 1402, and his uncle William
in 1407. A further dispute then arose, but in 14x0 a treaty was
made at Naumburg, when Frederick and bis brother William
added the northern part of Meissen to their lands; and in
1425 the death of William left Frederick sole ruler. In the
German town war of 1388 he assisted Frederick V. of Hohen-
soDern, burgrave of Nuremberg, and in 1391 did the same for the
Teutonic Order against Ladislaus V., king of Poland and prince
of Lithuania. He supported Rupert III., elector pdatine of the
Rhine, in his struggle with King Wenceslaus for the German
6o
FREDERICK II.— FREDERICK AUGUSTUS I.
throne, probably because Wenceslaus refused to fulfil a promise
to give him his sister Anna in marriage. The danger to Germany,
from the Hussites induced Frederick to ally himself with thei"
German and Bohemian king Sigismund; and he took a leading
part in the war against them, during the earlier years of which,
he met with considerable success. In the prosecution of this,
enterprise Frederick spent large sums of money, for which he "
received various places in Bohemia and elsewhere in pledge
from Sigismund, who further rewarded him in January 1423 with
the vacant electoral duchy of Saxe-Wittcnberg; and Frederick's
formal investiture followed at Ofen on the 1st of August 1425.
Thus spurred to renewed efforts against the Hussites, the elector-
was endeavouring to rouse the German princes to aid him in
prosecuting this war when the Saxon army was almost annihilated^
at Aussig on the 16th of August 1426. Returning to Saxony, m
Frederick died at Altenburg on the 4th of January 1428, and was
buried in the cathedral at Meissen. In 1402 he married Catherine _
of Brunswick, by whom he left four sons and two daughters.
In 1409, in conjunction with his brother William, lie founded _
the university of Leipzig, for the benefit of German students who ,
had j ust left the universi ty of Prague. Frederick's importance as* ■
an historical figure arises from his having obtained the electorate
of Saxe-Wittehberg for the house of Wettin, and transformed; -
the margraviate of Meissen into the territory which afterwards -
became the kingdom of Saxony. In addition to the king of -
Saxony, the sovereigns of England and of the Belgians are his
direct descendants.
There is a life of Frederick by G. Spalatin in the Scriptores rtrum -
Cermanicarum praecipue Saxonicarum, Band ii.. edited by I. B.
Mencke (Leipzig, 1728-1730)- See also C. W. Bottiger and Th.
Flathe, Ceschichte des Kurstaates und Konigreichs Sacksen (Gotha,»
1 867- 1 873); and J. G. Horn, Lebens- una Ueldengeschichte Frit-*
drichs des Streilbaren (Leipzig, 1733). A
FREDERICK II. (1411-1464), called " the Mild," elector and .
duke of Saxony, eldest son of the elector Frederick I., was born',
on the 22nd of August 1411. He succeeded his father as elector'
in 1428, but shared the family lands with his three brothers,
and was at once engaged in defending Saxony against the attacks
of the Hussites. Freed from these enemies about 1432, and
turning his attention to increasing his possessions, he obtained
the burgraviate of Meissen in 1430, and some part of Lower
Lusatia after a struggle with Brandenburg about the same time.
In 1438 it was decided that Frederick, and not his rival, Bernard
IV., duke of Saxe-Lauenburg, was entitled to exercise the Saxon
electoral vote at the elections for the German throne; and the
elector then aided Albert II. to secure this dignity, performing
a similar service for his own brother-in-law, Frederick, afterwards!
the emperor Frederick III., two years later. Family affairs,!
meanwhile, occupied Frederick's attention. One brother,
Henry, having died in 1435, ana> another, Sigismund (d. 1463) ,
having entered the church and become bishop of WUrzburg,
Frederick and his brother William (d. 1482) were the heirs of their I
childless cousin, Frederick " the Peaceful," who ruled Thuringial
and other parts of the lands of the Wettins. On his death in
1440 the brothers divided Frederick's territory, but this arrange-"
ment was not satisfactory, and war broke out between them in
1446. Both combatants obtained extraneous aid, but after a!
desolating struggle peace was made in January 145 1, when I
William received Thuringia, and Frederick Altenburg and other
districts. The remainder of the elector's reign was uneventful,
and he died at Leipzig on the 7th of September 1464. By his
wife, Margaret (d. i486), daughter of Ernest, duke of Styria,
he left two sons and four daughters. In July 1455 occurred the
celebrated Pr intent aub, the attempt of a knight named Kurtz von
Kaufungen (d. 1455) to abduct Frederick's two sons, Ernest
and Albert. Having carried them off from Altenburg, Kunz was!
making his way to Bohemia when the plot was accidentally!
discovered and the princes restored.
Sec W. Schafer, Der ifontag vor Kiliani (18*5); J. Gcrsdorf,
Einige AkUnstucke sur Geschukte des sachsischen PrintenraubesM
(1855); and T. Carlylc, Critical and Miscellaneous Essays, vol. iv."
(London, 1899). _
FREDERICK HI. (1463-1S25), called " the Wise," elector of-
Saxony, eldest son of Ernest, elector of Saxony, and Elizabeth,!
daughter of Albert, duke of Bavaria-Munich (d. rso8) t was- born
at Torgau, and succeeded his father as elector in 1486. Retaining
the government of Saxony in his own hands, he shared the other
possessions of his family with his brother John, called " the
Stedfast " (1468-1532). Frederick was among the princes who
pressed the need of reform upon the German king Maximilian I.
jn 1495, and in 1500 he became president of the newly-formed
council of regency (Rekhsregiment). He took a genuine interest
in learning; was a friend of Georg Spalatin; and in 1502
founded the university of Wittenberg, where he appointed Luther
and Melanchthon to professorships. In 1493 he had gone as a
pilgrim to Jerusalem, and had been made a knight of the Holy
Sepulchre; but, although he remained throughout Kfc an
adherent of the older faith, he seems to have been drawn into
sympathy with the reformers, probably through hb connexion
with the university of Wittenberg. In 1520 he refused to put
into execution the papal bull which ordered Luther's writings
to be burned and the reformer to be put under restraint or sent
to Rome; and in 1521, after Luther had been placed under the
imperial ban by the diet at Worms, the elector caused him to be
conveyed to his castle at the Wartburg, and afterwards protected
him while he attacked the enemies of the Reformation. In 1519,
Frederick, who alone among the electors refused to be bribed
by the rival candidates for the imperial throne, declined to be a
candidate for this high dignity himself, and assisted to secure
the election of Charles V. He died unmarried at Langau, near
Annaberg, on the 5th of May 1525.
See G. Spalatin, Das Leben und die ZeitgeschkhU Pritdrichs Us
Weisen, edited by C. G. Ncudcckcr and L. Preller Ueaa, i««i):
M. M. Tutzschmann, Fried rich der Weise, Kurfiirst nan Sacksen
(Grimtna, 1848); and T. Kolde, Fricdrichjder Weise und die Anfangc
der Reformation (Erlangen, 1881).
FREDERICK, a city and the county-seat of Frederick county,
Maryland,U.S.A.,on Carroll's Creek, atributary of the Monocacy,
61 m. by rail W. by N. from Baltimore and 45 m. N.W. from
Washington. Pop. (1890) 8193; (1900) 9296, of whom 1535
were negroes; (19 10 census) 10,411. It is served by the Balti-
more & Ohio and the Northern Central railways, and by two
interurban electric lines. Immediately surrounding it is the
rich farming land of the Monocacy valley, but from a distance
it appears to be completely shut in by picturesque hills and
mountains; to the E., the Linga ore Hills; to the \V., Catoctin
Mountain; and to the S., Siigar Loaf Mountain. It is buflr
for the most part of brick and stone. Frederick is the seat of the
Maryland school for the deaf and dumb and of the Woman's
College of Frederick (1893; formerly the Frederick Female
Seminary, opened in 1843), which in 1 907-1 908 had 212 students,
1 2 1 of whom were in the Conservatory of Music Francis Scott
Key and Roger Brooke Taney were buried here, and a beautiful
monument erected to the memory of Key stands at the entrance
to Mount Olivet cemetery. Frederick has a considerable
agricultural trade and is an important 'manufacturing centre,
its industries including the canning of fruits and vegetables, and
the manufacture of flour, bricks, brushes, leather goods and
hosiery. The total value of the factory product in 1905 was
$ii937.92*i being 34-7% more than in 1900. The municipality
owns and operates its water-works and electric-lighting plant.
Frederick, so named in honour of Frederick Calvert, son and
afterward successor of Charles, Lord Baltimore, was settled
by Germans in 1733, and was laid out as a town in 1745, but was
not incorporated until 181 7. Here in 1755 General Braddock
prepared for his disastrous expedition against the French at
Fort Duquesne (Pittsburg). During the Civil War the city was
occupied on different occasions by Unionists and Confederates,
and was made famous by Whitticr's poem " Barbara Frictchic."
FREDERICK AUGUSTUS I. (1750-1827), king of Saxony.
son of the elector Frederick Christian, was born at Dresden on
the 23rd of December 1750. He succeeded his father under the
guardianship of Prince Xavicr in 1763, and was declared of age
in 1768. In the following year (January 17, 1769) he married
Princess Maria Amelia, daughter of Duke Frederick of Zwei
brticken, by whom he had only one child, Princess Augu&u
(born June 21, 1782). One of his chief aims was the reduction
FREDERICK AUGUSTUS II.— FREDERICK CHARLES 61
of taxes and imposts and of the army. He was always extremely
methodical and conscientious, and a good example to all his
officials, whence his surname " the Just." On account of the
claims of his mother on the inheritance of her brother, the elector
of Bavaria, he sided with Frederick the Great in the short
Bavarian succession war of 1778 against Austria. At the peace
of Teschen, which concluded the war, he received 6 million florins,
which he employed partly in regaining those parts of his kingdom
which had been lost, and partly in favour of his relatives. In
1785 he joined the league of German princes (Dcutsckar Fiirslen-
bund) formed by Prussia, but without prejudice to his neutrality.
Thus he remained neutral during the quarrel between Austria
and Prussia in 1700. In the following year he declined the
crown of Poland. He refused to join the league against France
(February 7, 1792), but when war was declared his duty to the
Empire necessitated his taking part in it. Even after the peace
of Basel (April 5, 1795) he continued the war. But when the
French army, during the following year, advanced into the heart
of Germany, he was compelled by General Jourdan to retreat
(August 13, 1796). He maintained his neutrality during the
war between France and Austria in 1805, but in the following
year he joined Prussia against France. After the disastrous
battle of Jena he concluded a treaty of peace with Napoleon at
Posen (December n, 1806), and, assuming the title of king,
he joined the Confederation of the Rhine. But he did not alter
the constitution and administration of his new kingdom. After
the peace of Tilsit (July 9, 1807) he was created by Napoleon
grand-duke of Warsaw, but his sovereignty of Poland was little
more than nominal. There was a kind of friendship between
Frederick Augustus and Napoleon. In 1809 Frederick Augustus
fought with him against Austria. On several occasions (1807,
181 3, 1813) Napoleon was entertained at Dresden, and when,
on his return from his disastrous Russian campaign, he passed
through Saxony by Dresden (December x6, 1812), Frederick
Augustus remained true to his friend and ally. It was only during
April 1813 that he made overtures to Austria, but he soon
afterwards returned to the side of the French. He returned
to Dresden on the 10th of May and was present at the terrible
battle of August 26 and 27, in which Napoleon's army and his
own were defeated. He fell into the hands of the Allies after their
entry into Leipzig on the 19th of October 1813; and, although
he regained his freedom after the congress of Vienna, he was
compelled to give up the northern part — three-fifths— of his
kingdom to Prussia (May 21, 18 14). He entered Dresden on
the 7th of July, and was enthusiastically welcomed by his
people. The remainder of his life was spent in repairing the
damages caused by the Napoleonic wars, in developing the
agricultural, commercial and industrial resources of his kingdom,
reforming the administration of justice, establishing hospitals
and other charitable institutions, encouraging art and science
and promoting education. He had a special interest in botany,
and originated the beautiful park at Pillnitz. His reign through-
out was characterized by justice, probity, moderation and
prudence. He died on the 5th of May 1827.
Bibliography.— The earlier lives, by C. E. Weisse (18x1), A. L.
Herrmann (1827), Politz (1830), are mere panegyrics. On the other
side see Flat he in AUgcmeine dadsche Biograpkie, and Bot tiger-
Flathe. History of Saxonv (2rd ed., 1867 ft.), vols. ii. and iii.; A.
Bonnefons, Un Alltt de Napolion, Frtdi/ic August*, premier rot de
Scxe . . . (Paris, 1902); Fritz Friedrich. Polttik Sacksens 1801-
1803 (1808); P. Riihlmann, Offenilicke Meinunt . . . 1806-1813
(190a). There are many pamphlet* bearing on the Saxon question
and on Frederick Augustus during the years 1814 and 1815. (J- Hn.)
FREDERICK AUGUSTUS II. (1707-1854), king of Saxony,
eldest son of Prince Maximilian and of Caroline Maria Theresa
of Parma, was born on the 18th of May 1797. The unsettled
times in which his youth was passed necessitated his frequent
change of residence, but care was nevertheless taken that his
education should not be interrupted, and he also acquired,
through his journeys in foreign states (Switzerland 1818, Monte-
negro 1838, England and Scotland 1844) and his intercourse
with men of eminence, a special taste for art and for natural
science. He was himself a good landscape-painter and had a fine
collection of engravings on copper. He was twice married—
in x8io (October 7) to the duchess Caroline, fourth daughter
of the emperor Francis I. of Austria (d. May 22, 1832), and in
1833 (April 4) to Maria, daughter of Maximilian I. of Bavaria.
There were no children of either marriage. During the govern-
ment of his uncles (Frederick Augustus I. and Anthony) he
took no part in the administration of the country, though he
was the sole heir to the crown. In 1830 a rising in Dresden led
to his being named joint regent of the kingdom along with King
Anthony on the 13th of September; and in this position his
popularity and his wise and liberal reforms (for instance, in
arranging public audiences) speedily quelled all discontent.
On the 6th of June 1836 he succeeded his uncle. Though he
administered the affairs of his kingdom with enlightened liberality
Saxony did not escape the political storms which broke upon
Germany in 1848. He elected Liberal ministers, and he was at
first in favour of the programme of German unity put forward
at Frankfort, but he refused to acknowledge the democratic
constitution of the German parliament. This attitude led to
the insurrection at Dresden in May 1849, which was suppressed
by the help of Prussian troops. From that time onward his
reign was tranquil and prosperous. Later Count Beust, leader
of the Austrian and feudal party in Saxony, became his principal
minister and guided his policy on most occasions. His death
occurred accidentally through the upsetting of his carriage
near BrennbOhd, between Imst and Wcnns in Tirol (August 9,
1854). Frederick Augustus devoted his leisure hours chiefly to
the study of botany. He made botanical excursions into different
countries, and Flora Marienbadensis, oder Pjlanzen und Gebirgs-
arteu, gesammeU und beschricben, written by him, was published
at Prague by Kedlcr, 1837.
See Bfittigcr-Flathe, History of Saxony^ vol. Hi.; R. Freiherr von
Fricscn, Ertnnerungen (2 vols., Dresden, 1881); F. F. Graf von
Beust, Am drei-viertd Jakrhunierten (2 vols., 1887); Flat he, in
AMg. deutscke Biogr. " (J. Hn.)
FREDERICK CHARLES (FRIEDRICH KARL KIKOLAUS),
Prince (1828-18S5), Prussian general field marshal, son of Prince
Charles of Prussia and grandson of King Frederick William III.,
was born in Berlin on the 20th of March 1828. He was educated
for the army, which he entered on his tenth birthday as second
lieutenant in the 14th Foot Guards. He became first lieutenant
in 1844, and in 1846 entered the university of Bonn, where he
stayed for two years, being accompanied throughout by Major
von Roon, afterwards the famous war minister. In 1848 he
became a company commander in his regiment, and soon after-
wards served in the Schleswig-Holstcin War on the staff of Marshal
von Wrangcl, being present at the battle of Schleswig (April 23,
1848). Later in 1848 he became Riltmcistcr in the Garde du Corps
cavalry regiment, and in 1849 major in the Guard Hussars.
In this year the prince took part in the campaign against the
Baden insurgents, and was wounded at the action of Wiescnthal
while leading a desperate charge against entrenched infantry.
After this experience the wild courage of his youth gave place
to the unshakable resolution which afterwards characterized
the prince's generalship. In 1852 he became colonel, and in
1854 major-general and commander of a cavalry brigade. In
this capacity he was brought closely in touch with General von
Reyher, the chief of the general staff, and with Moltkc. He
married, in the same year, Princess Marie Anne of Anhalt. In
1857 he became commander of the 1st Guard Infantry division,
but very shortly afterwards, on account of disputes concerned
with the training methods then in force, he resigned the appoint-
ment.
In 1858 he visited France, where he minutely investigated
the state of the French army, but it was not long before he
was recalled, for in 1859, in consequence of the Franco-Austrian
War, Prussia mobilized her forces, and Frederick Charles was
made a divisional commander in the II. army corps. In this
post he was given the liberty of action which had previously been
denied to him. About this time (i860) the prince gave a lecture
to the officers of his command on the French army and its
methods, the substance of which (Eine miliitiriscke Dtnksckrift
6*
FREDERICK HENRY— FREDERICK LOUIS
von P. F.K., Frankfort on Main, i860) was circulated more widely
than the author intended, and in the French translation gave
rise to much indignation in France. In 1861 Frederick Charles
became general of cavalry. He was then commander of the III.
(Brandenburg) army corps. This post he held from i860 to 1870,
except during the campaigns of 1864 and 1866, and in it he dis-
played his real qualities as a troop leader. His self-imposed
task was to raise the military spirit of his troops to the highest
possible level, and ten years of his continuous and thorough
training brought the III. corps to a pitch of real efficiency which
the Guard corps alone, in virtue of its special recruiting powers,
slightly surpassed. Prince Frederick Charles' work was tested
to the full when von Alvensleben and the III. corps engaged the
whole French army on the 16th of August 1870. In 1864 the
prince once more fought against the Danes under his old leader
" Papa " WrangeL The Prussian contingent under Frederick
Charles formed a corps of the allied army, and half of it was
drawn from the III. corps. After the storming of the DUppcl lines
the prince succeeded Wrangel in the supreme command, with
Lieutenant-General Freiherr von Moltke as his chief of staff.
These two great soldiers then planned and brilliantly carried out
the capture of the island of Alsen, after which the war came to an
end.
In 1866 came the Seven Weeks' War with Austria. Prince
Frederick Charles was appointed to command the I. Army,
which he led through the mountains into Bohemia, driving
before him the Austrians and Saxons to the upper Elbe, where
on the 3rd of July took place the decisive battle of Koniggritz or
Sadowa. This was brought on by the initiative of the leader
of the I. Army, which had to bear the brunt of the fighting until
the advance of the II. Army turned the Austrian flank. After
the peace he returned to the III. army corps, which he finally
left, in July 1870, when appointed to command the II. German
Army in the war with France. In the early days of the advance
the prince's ruthless energy led to much friction between the
I. and II. Armies (see Franco-German War) , wh Ue his strategical
mistakes seriously embarrassed the great headquarters staff.
The advance of the II. Army beyond the Saar to the Moselle
and from that river to the Meuse displayed more energy than
careful strategy, but herein at least the " Red Prince " (as be
was called from the colour of his favourite hussar uniform)
was in thorough sympathy with the king's headquarters on the
one band and the feelings of the troops on the other. Then came
the discovery that the French were not in front, but to the right
rear of the II. Army (August 16). Alvensleben with the III.
corps held the French to their ground at Vionville while the prince
hurried together his scattered forces. He himself directed with
superb tactical skill the last efforts of the Germans at Vionville,
and the victory of St Privat on the 18th was due to his leadership
(see Metz), which shone all the more by contrast with the failures
of the I. Army at Gravclotte. The prince was left in command of
the forces which blockaded Bazaine in Metz, and received the
surrender of that place and of the last remaining field army of the
enemy. He was promoted at once to the rank of general field
marshal, and shortly afterwards the II. Army was despatched
to aid in crushing the newly organized army of the French
republic on the Loire. Here again he retrieved strategical errors
by energy and tactical skill, and his work was in the end crowned
by the victory of Le Mans on the 12th of January 1871. Of
til the subordinate leaders on the German side none enjoyed a
greater and a better deserved reputation than the Red Prince.
He now became inspector-general of the 3rd "army inspection,"
and a little later inspector of cavalry, and in the latter post he was
largely instrumental in bringing the German cavalry to the degree
of perfection in manoeuvre and general training which it gradually
attained in the years after the war. He never ceased to improve
his own soldierly qualities by further study and by the conduct of
manoeuvres on a laige scale. His sternness of character kept
him aloof from the court and from his own family, and he spent
his leisure months chiefly on his various country estates. In
1872 and in 1882 he travelled in the Mediterranean and the Near
East. He died on the 15th of June 1885 at Klein-Glienicke
near Berlin, and was buried at the adjacent church of Nikolskoe,
His third daughter. Princess Louise Margareta, was married,
in March 1870, to the duke of Con naught.
FREDERICK HENRY (1584-1647), prince of Orange, the
youngest child of William the Silent, was born at Delft about
six months before his father's assassination on the 29th of January
1 584. His mother, Louise de Coligny, was daughter of the famous
Huguenot leader, Admiral de Coligny, and was the fourth wife
of William the Silent. The boy was trained to arms by his elder
brother, Maurice of Nassau, one of the first generals of bis age.
On the death of Maurice in 1625, Frederick Henry succeeded
him in his paternal dignities and estates, and also in the stadt-
holderates of the five provinces of Holland, Zceland, Utrecht,
Overysel and Gelderland, and in the important posts of captain
and admiral-general of the Union. Frederick Henry proved
himself scarcely inferior to his brother as a general, and a far
more capable statesman and politician. During twenty-two
years he remained at the head of affairs in the United Provinces,
and in his time the power of the stadtholderate reached its highest
point. The " Period of Frederick Henry," as it is usually styled
by Dutch writers, is generally accounted the golden age of the
republic It was marked by great military and naval triumphs,
by world-wide maritime and commercial expansion, and by a
wonderful outburst of activity in the domains of art and literature.
The chief military exploits of Frederick Henry were the siega
and captures of Hertogenbosch in 1629, of Maastricht in 1632,
of Breda in 1637, of Sas van Ghent in 1644, and of Hulst in 1645.
During the greater part of his administration the alliance with
France against Spain had been the pivot of Frederick Henry's
foreign policy, but in his last years he sacrificed the French
alliance for the sake of concluding a separate peace with Spain,
by which the United Provinces obtained from that power all the
advantages for which they had for eighty years been contending.
Frederick Henry died on the 14th of March 1647, and was buried
with great pomp beside his father and brother at Delft. The
treaty of Miinster, ending the long struggle between the Dutch
and the Spaniards, was not actually signed until the 30th of
January 1648, the illness and death of the stadtholder having
caused a delay in the negotiations. Frederick Henry was married
in 1625 to Amalia von Solms, and left one son, William 1L of
Orange, and four daughters.
Frederick Henry left an account of his campaigns in his Mtwtoim
de FridcrU Henrx (Amsterdam, 1743). See Cambridge Mod. Hist.
vol. iv. chap. 24, and the bibliography on p. 931.
FREDERICK LOUIS (1707-1751), prince of Wales, eldest son
of George II., was born at Hanover on the 20th of January 1707.
After his grandfather, George I., became king of Great Britain
and Ireland in 1714, Frederick was known as duke of Gloucester 1
and made a knight of the Garter, having previously been be-
trothed to Wilhelmina Sophia Dorothea (1709-1758), daughter
of Frederick William I., king of Prussia, and sister of Frederick
the Great. Although he was anxious to marry this lady, the
match was rendered impossible by the dislike of George II. and
Frederick William for each other. Soon after his father became
king in z 7 27 Frederick took up his residence in England and in
1729 was created prince of Wales; but the relations between
George II. and his son were very unfriendly, and there existed
between them the jealousy which Stubbs calls the " incurable
bane of royalty." The faults were not all on one side. The
prince's character was not attractive, and the king refused to
make him an adequate allowance. In 173 s .Frederick wrote,
or inspired the writing of, the Hisloire du prince Titi, a book
containing offensive caricatures of both king and queen; and
losing no opportunity of irritating his father, " he made," says
Lecky, " his court the special centre of opposition to the govern-
ment, and he exerted all his influence for the ruin of Walpole."
After a marriage between the prince and Lady Diana Spencer,
afterwards the wife of John, 4th duke of Bedford, had been
frustrated by Walpole, Frederick was married in April 1736 to
1 Frederick was never actually created duke of Gloucester, and
when he was raised tothe peerage in 1736 it wasasduke of Edinburgh
only. See G. E. C(oluyne), Complete Peeratfi, sub " Gloucester."
FREDERICK WILLIAM I.
63
Augusta (1 719-1772), daughter of Frederick II., duke of Saxe-
Gotna, a union which was welcomed by his parents, but which
led to further trouble between father and son. George proposed
10 allow the prince £50,000 a year; but this sum was regarded
is insufficient by the latter, whose appeal to parliament was
unsuccessful. After the birth of his first child, Augusta, in 1 737,
Frederick was ordered by the king to quit St James' Palace, and
he foreign ambassadors were requested to refrain from visiting
urn. The relations between the two were now worse than before,
n 1 745 George II. refused to allow his son to command the British
inny against the Jacobites. On the 20th of March 1751 the
>rince died in London, and was buried in Westminster Abbey.
ie left five sons and two daughters. The sons were George
afterwards King George III.), Edward Augustus, duke of York
md Albany (1 730-1767*, William Henry, duke of Gloucester
nd Edinburgh (1743- 1805), Henry Frederick, duke of Cumber-
and (1745-1700)1 and Frederick William (1 750-1765); the
laughters were Augusta (1737-18x3)1 wife of Charles William
r erdinand,dukeofBruns\*ick,andCarolineMatilda(i 751-1775),
rife of Christian VII.. king of Denmark.
See Lord Hcrvey of lckworth, Memoirs of the Retem of George II.,
tlited by J. W. Croker (London, 1884); Horace Walnolc, Memoirs
f the Rett* oj George II. (London, 1847); and Sir N - W - Wraxall.
\Iemoirs, edited by H. B. Wheat Icy, vol. i. (London, 1884).
FREDERICK WILLIAM 1. (1688-1740). king of Prussia, son
f Frederick I. by his second marriage was born on the 15th
f August 1 638. He spent a considerable time in early youth at
he court of his grandfather, the elector Ernest Augustus of
lanover. On his return to Berlin he was placed under General
on Dohna and Count Finkcnstcin, who trained liim to the
nergetic and regular habits which ever afterwards characterized
im. He was soon imbued wiih a passion for military life, and
[lis was deepened by acquaintance wilh the dukcof Marlborough
1709), Prince Eugene, whom he visited during the siege of
ournai, and Prince Leopold of Anhalt (the " Old Dcssauer ").
n nearly every respect he was the opposite of his father, having
rugal, simple tastes, a passionate temper and a determined will,
'hroughout his life he was always the proteclorof the church and
f religion. But he detested religious quarrels and was very
olerant towards his Catholic subjects, except the Jesuits,
lis life was simple and puritanical, being founded on the teaching
f the Bible. He was, however, fond of hunting and somewhat
iven to drinking. He intensely disliked the French, and highly
isapproved of the imitation of their manners by his father and
is court. When he came to the throne (February 25, 17 13) his
rst act was to dismiss from the palace every unnecessary official
nd to regulate the royal household on principles of the strictest
arsimony. The greater part of the beautiful furniture was
)ld. His importance for Prussia is twofold: in internal politics
e laid down principles which continued to be followed long after
is death. This was a province peculiarly suited to his genius;
e was one of the greatest administrators who have everwornthe
Russian crown. His foreign policy was less successful, though
nder his rule the kingdom acquired some extension of territory.
Thus at the peace of Utrecht (April n, 17 13), after the War
f the Spanish Succession, he acquired the greater part of the
uchy of Geldurland. By the treaty of Schwedt, concluded with
:ussia on the 6th of October, he was assured of an important
ifiuence in the solution of the Baltic question, which during
ie long absence of Charles XII. had become burning; and
wedi&h Pomcrania.as far as the Peene,was occupied by Prussia,
ut Charles XII. on his return* turned against the king, though
ithout success, for the Pomeranian campaign of 1715 ended in
ivour of Prussia (fall of Stralsund, December 22). This enabled
rederick William I. to maintain a more independent attitude
wards the tsar; he refused, for example, to provide him with
-oops for a campaign (in Schonen) against the Swedes. When
b the 28th of May 1 7 i8,in view of the disturbances in Mecklen-
urg, he signed at Ha velberg the alliance with Russia, he con fined
iznself to taking up a defensive attitude, and, on the other hand,
11 the 14th of August 1719 he .also entered into relations with
is former enemies, England and Hanover. And so, by the
taty of Stockholm (February x, 1790), Frederick William
succeeded In obtaining the consent of Sweden to the cession of
that part of Pomerania which he had occupied (Usedom, Wollin,
Stettin, Hither Pomerania, east of the Peene) in return for a
payment of 2,000,000 thalers.
While Frederick William I. succeeded in carrying his wishes
into effect in this direction, he was unable to realize another
project which he had much at heart, namely, the Prussian succes-
sion to the Lower Rhine duchies of Jiilich and Berg. The treat y
concluded in 1725 at Vienna between the emperor and Spain
brought the whole of this question up again, for both sides had
pledged themselves to support thePalatinate-Sulzbachsucccssion
(in the event of the Palatinate-Neuberg line becoming extinct).
Frederick William turned for help to the western powers, England
and France, and secured it by the treaty of alliance signed at
Herrenhausen on the 3rd of September 1 725 (League of Hanover).
But since the western powers soon sought to use the military
strength of Prussia for their own ends, Frederick again turned
towards the east, strengthened aboveallhisrclat ions with Russia,
which had continued to be good, and finally, by the treaty of
Wilsterhauscn (October 12,1726; ratified at Berlin, December 23,
1728), even allied himself with his former adversary, the court of
Vienna; though this treaty only imperfectly safeguarded Prussian
interests, inasmuch as Frederick William consented to renounce
his claims to Juiich. But as in the following years the European
situation became more and more favourable to the house of
Habsburg, the latter began to try to withdraw part of the con-
cessions which it had made to Frederick William. As early as
1 7 28 Dusscldorf, the capital, was excluded from the guarantee of
Berg. Nevertheless, in the War of the Polish Succession against
France (1734-1735), Frederick William remained faithful to the
emperor's cause, and sent an auxiliary force of 10,000 men. The
peace of Vienna, which terminated the war, led to a reconciliat ion
between France and Austria, and so to a further estrangement
between Frederick William and the emperor. Moreover, in 1738
the western powers,together with the emperor, insisted in identi-
. cat notes on the recognition of the emperor's right to decide the
question of the succession in the Lower Rhine duchies. A breach
with the emperor was now inevitable, and this explains why
in a last treaty (April 5, 1739) Frederick William obtained from
France a guarantee of a part, at least, of Berg (excluding
Dusscldorf).
But Frederick William's failures in foreign policy were more
than compensated for by his splendid services in the internal
administration of Prussia. He saw the necessity of rigid economy
not only in his private life but in the whole administration of the
state. During his reign Prussia obtained for the first time a
centralized and uniform financial administration. It wastheking
himself who composed and wrote in the year 1722 the famous
instruction for the general directory (Generaldirektorium) of
war, finance and domains. When he died the income of the state
was abou t seven million thalers (£1 ,050,000) . The consequence
was that he paid off the debts incurred by his father, and left to
his successor a well filled treasury. In the administration of
the domains he made three innovations: (1) the private estates
of the king were turned into domains of the crown (August 13,
1713); (*) the freeing of the serfs on the royal domains (March
22, 1710); (3) the conversion of the hereditary lease into a
short-term lease on the basis of productiveness. His industrial
policy was inspired by the mercantile spirit. On this account he
forbade the importation of foreign manufactures and the export
of raw materials from home, a policy which had a very good
effect on the growl h of Prussian industries.
The work of internal colonization he carried on with especial
zeal. Most notable of all was his ritablisscmeni of East Prussia.to
which he devoted six million thalers (c. £000,000). His policy in
respect of the towns was motived largely by fiscal considerations,
but at the same time he tried also to improve their municipal
administration; for example, in the matter of buildings, of the
letting of domain lands and of the collection of theezciseintowns.
Frederick' William had many opponentsamong the nobles because
ho pretted on the abolition of the old feudal rights, introduced
uSast Pnusia and Lithuania a general land tax (the Garni-
64
FREDERICK WILLIAM II.
kufertsckoss),.***! finally in 1739 attacked in a special edict the
Lcgen, ijt. the expropriation of the peasant proprietors- He
did nothing for the higher learning, and even banished the philo-
sopher Christian Wolff at forty-eight hours' notice " on pain of
the halter," for teaching, as he believed, fatalist doctrines.
Afterwards he modified his judgment in favour of Wolff, and even,
in 1739, recommended the study of his works. He established
many village schools, which he often visited in person; and after
the year 17 17 (October 23) all Prussian parents were obliged to
send their children to school (Sckulzwong) . He was the especial
friend of the Franckiidit Stiftungen at Halle on the Saale.
Under him the people flourished; and although it stood in awe
of his vehement spirit it respected him for his firmness, bis
honesty of purpose and his love of justice. He was devoted
also to his army, the number of which he raised from 38,000
to 83,500, so that under him Prussia became the third military
power in the world, coming next after Russia and France. There
was not a more thoroughly drilled or better appointed force.
The Potsdam guard, made up of giants collected from all parts
of Europe, sometimes kidnapped, was a sort of toy with which
be amused himself. The reviewing of his troops was his chief
pleasure. But he was also fond of meeting his friends in the
evening in what he called his Tobacco-College, where amid clouds
of tobacco smoke he not only discussed affairs of state but heard
the newest " guard-room jokes." He died on the 31st of May
1 740, leaving behind him his widow, Sophia Dorothea of Hanover,
whom he had married on the 26th of November 1 706. His son
was Frederick the Great, who was the opposite of Frederick
William. This opposition became so strong in 1730 that the
crown prince fled from the court, and was later arrested and
brought before a court-martial. A reconciliation was brought
about, at first gradually. In later years the relations between
father and son came to be of the best (see Frederick II., king
of Prussia).
FREDERICK WILLIAM II. (1744-1797), king of Prussia,
son of Augustus William, second son of King Frederick William
I. and of Louise Amalic of Brunswick, sister of the wife of
Frederick the Great, was born at Berlin on the 2 5th of September
1744, and became heir to the throne on his father's death in 1757.
The boy was of an easy-going and pleasure-loving disposition,
averse from sustained effort of any kind, and sensual by nature.
His marriage with Elisabeth Christine, daughter of Duke Charles
of Brunswick, contracted in 1765, was dissolved m 1769, and he
soon afterwards married Frederika Louisa, daughter of the land-
grave Louis IX. of Hesse-Darmstadt. Although he had a
numerous family by his wife, be was completely under the in*
fluence of his mistress, Wilhelmine Enke, afterward* created
Countess Lichtenau, a woman of strong intellect and much
ambition. He was a man of singularly handsome presence, not
without mental qualities of a high order; he was devoted to the
arts— Beethoven and Mozart enjoyed his patronage and his
private orchestra had a European reputation. But an artistic
temperament was hardly that required of a king of Prussia on
the eve of the Revolution; and Frederick the Great, who bad
employed him in various services — notably in an abortive con-
fidential mission to the court of Russia in 1 780— openly expressed
his misgivings as to the character of the prince and his sur-
roundings.
The misgivings were justified by the event. Frederick
William's accession to the throne (August 17, 1786) was,. indeed,
followed by a series of measures for lightening the burdens of the
people, reforming the oppressive French system of tax-collecting
introduced by Frederick, and encouraging trade by the diminu-
tion of customs dues and the making of roads and canals. This
gave the new king much popularity with the mass of the people;
while the educated classes were pleased by his removal of
Frederick's ban on the German language by the admission of
German writers to the Prussian Academy, and by the active
encouragement given to schools and universities. But these
reforms were vitiated in their source. In 1 781 Frederick William,
then prince of Prussia, inclined, like many sensual natures, to
mysticism, had joined the Rosicrucians, and had fallen under the
influence of Johann Christof Wollner (1 732-1 800), and by him
the royal policy was inspired. Wollner, whom Frederick the
Great had described as a " treacherous and intriguing priest,"
had started life as a poor tutor in the family of General vod
Itzenplitz, a noble of the mark of Brandenburg, had, after the
general's death and to the scandal of king and nobility, married
the general's daughter, and with his mother-in-law's assistance
settled down ona small estate. By his practical experiments and
by his writings he gained a considerable reputation as an econo-
mist; but his ambition was not content with this, and he sought
to extend his influence by joining first the Freemasons and after-
wards (1779) the Rosicrucians. Wollncr, with his impressive
personality and easy if superficial eloquence, was just the man
to lead a movement of this kind. Under his influence the order
spread rapidly, and he soon found himself the supreme director
(Obcrhauptiircktor) of some 26 " circles," which included in their
membership princes, officers and high officials. As a Rosicrucian
Wollner dabbled in alchemy and other mystic arts, but he also
affected to be zealous for Christian orthodoxy, imperilled by
Frederick II. 's patronage of ''enlightenment," and a few months
before Frederick's death wrote to his friend the Rosicrucian
Johann Rudolph von Bischoffswerdcr (1741-1803) that his
highest ambition was to be placed at the head of the religious
department of the state " as an unworthy instrument in the hand
of Ormesus " (the prince of Prussia's Rosicrucian name) " for
the purpose of saving millions of souls from perdition and bringing
back the whole country to the faith of Jesus Christ."
Such was the man whom Frederick William II., immediately
after his accession, called to his counsels. On the 26th of August
1786 he was appointed privy councillor for finance (Gchcintr
Oberfinansratk), and on the end of October was ennobled.
Though not in name, in fact he was prime minister; in all in-
ternal affairs it was he who decided; and the fiscal and economic
reforms of the new reign were the application of his theories.
Bischoffswerder, too, still a simple major, was called into the
king's counsels; by 1789 be was already an adjutant-general.
These were the two men who enmeshed the king in a web of
Rosicrucian mystery and intrigue, which hampered whatever
healthy development of his policy might have been possible,
and led ultimately to disaster. The opposition to Wollner was,
indeed, at the outset strong enough to prevent his being entrusted
with the department of religion; but this too in time was over-
come, and on the 3rd of July 1788 he was appointed active
privy councillor of state and of justice and head of the spiritual
FREDERICK WILLIAM in.
65
department for Lutheran and Catholic affairs. War was at
once declared on what — to use a later term— we may call
the " modernists." The king, so long as Wollner was content
to condone his immorality (which Bischoffswerder, to do him
justice, condemned), was eager to help the orthodox crusade.
On the olh of July was issued the famous religious edict, which
forbade Evangelical ministers to teach anything not contained
in the letter of their official books, proclaimed the necessity of
protecting the Christian religion against the " cnlighteners "
(Au/kldrer), and placed educational establishments under the
supervision of the orthodox clergy. On the 18th of December
a new censorship law was issued, to secure the orthodoxy of all
published books, and finally, in 1791, a sort of Protestant
Inquisition was established at Berlin (I mmediat- Examinations-
commission) to watch over all ecclesiastical and scholastic
appointments. In his zeal for. orthodoxy, indeed, Frederick
William outstripped his minister, he even blamed Wollncr's
" idleness and vanity " for the inevitable failure of the attempt
to regulate opinion from above, and in 1794 deprived him of one
of his secular offices in order that he might have more time
" to devote himself to the things of God ", in edict after edict
the king continued to lite end of his reign to make regulations
" in order to maintain in his statesa true andactive Christianity,
as the path to genuine fear of God."
The effects of this policy of blind obscurantism faroutweighed
any good that resulted from the king's well-meant efforts at
economic and financial reform, and even this reform was but
spasmodic and partial, and awoke ultimately more discontent
than it allayed But far more fateful for Prussia was the king's
attitude towards the army and foreign policy. The army was
the very foundation of the Prussian state, a truth which both
Frederick William I. and the great Frederick had fully realized;
the army had been their first care, and its efficiency had been
maintained by their constant personal supervision. Frederick
William, who had no taste for military matters, put his authority
as " War-Lord " into commission under a supreme college of
war {Oberkricgs-Collcgtim) under the duke of Brunswick and
General von Mbllcndorf. It was the beginning of the process
that ended in 1806 at Jena.
In the circumstances Frederick William's intervention in
European affairs was not likely to prove of benefit to Prussia.
The Dutch campaign of 1787, entered on for purely family
reasons, was indeed successful, but Prussia received not even
the cost of her intervention An attempt to intervene in the war
of Russia and Austria against Turkey failed of its object, Prussia
did not succeed in obtaining any concessions of territory from
the alarms of the Allies, and the dismissal of Hertz berg in
1791 marked the final abandonment of the anti-Austrian tradi-
tion of Frederick the Great For, meanwhile, the French Revolu-
tion had entered upon alarming phases, and in August 1791
Frederick William, at the meeting at Pillnitz, arranged with the
emperor Leopold to join in supporting the cause of Louis XVI.
But neither the king's character, nor the confusion of the Prussian
finances due to his extravagance, gave promise of any effective
action. A formal alliance was indeed signed on the 71 h of
February 179a, and Frederick William took part personally in
the campaigns of 179a and 1793. He was hampered, however,
by want of funds, and his counsels were distracted by the affairs
of Poland, which promised a richer booty than was likely to be
gained by the anti-revolutionary crusade into France. A subsidy
treaty with the sea powers (April 19, 1794) filled his coffers, but
the insurrection in Poland that followed the partition of 1793,
ind the threat of the isolated intervention of Russia, hurried
him into the separate treaty of Basel with the French Republic
(April 5, 1795). which was regarded by the great monarchies as
a betrayal, and left Prussia morally isolated in Europe on the
eve of the titanic struggle between the monarchical principle
ind the new political creed of the Revolution. Prussia had paid
• heavy price for the territories acquired tt theexpenseof Poland
in 1793 and 1795, and when, on the 16th of November 1797,
Frederick William died, he left the state in bankruptcy and
confusion, the army decayed and the monarchy discredited
Frederick William II. was twice married: (1) in 1765 to
Elizabeth of Brunswick (d. 1841), by whom he had a daughter,
Frederika, afterwards duchess of York, and from whom be was
divorced in 1769; (2) in 1769 to Frederika Louisa of Hesse-
Darmstadt, by whom he bad four sons, Frederick William 111.,
Louis (d. 1706), Henry and William, and two daughters, Wilhel-
mina, wife of William of Orange, afterwards William I., king of
the Netherlands, and Augusta, wife of William II., elector of
Hesse. Besides his relations with his tnaUresse en litre, the
countess Lichtenau, the king— who was a frank polygamist—
contracted two " marriages of the left hand " with FrKulein von
Voss and the countess DOnhoff.
See article by von Hartmann in AUgem. devlsche Bieg. (Leipzig,
1878); Sudclmann, Preussens Kotune %m ihrer Talirkeit fur die
Landcskultur.v<A. iii. " Fried rich Wilhclna 1 1." (Leipzig, 188O ; Paulig,
Fricdrich Wiikdm //., setn Privaiteben u. seine Regterung (Frankfurt*
an-der-Oder, 1896).
FREDERICK WILLIAM III. (1770-1840), king of Prussia,
eldest son of King Frederick William II., was born at Potsdam
on the 3rd of August 1770. His father, then prince of Prussia,
was out of favour with Frederick the Great and entirely under the
influence of his mistress; and the boy, handed over to tutors
appointed by the king, lived a solitary and repressed life which
tended to increase the innate weakness of his character. But
though his natural defects of intellect and will-power were not
improved by the pedantic tutoring to which he was submitted,
he grew up pious, honest and well-meaning; and had fate cast
him in any but the most stormy times of his country's history
he might well have left the reputation of a model king. As a
soldier he received the usual training of a Prussian prince,
obtained his lieutenancy in 1784, became a colonel commanding
in 1790, and took part in the campaigns of 1792*94. In 1793
he married Louise, daughter of Prince Charles of Mecklenburg-
Strelita, whom he had met and fallen in love with at Frankfort
(see Louise, queen of Prussia). He succeeded to the throne on
'the 16th of November 1797 and at once gave earnest of his good
intentions by cutting down the expenses of "the royal establish-
ment, dismissing his father's ministers, and reforming the most
oppressive abuses of the late reign. Unfortunately, however,
he had all the Hohenzollern tenacity of .personal power without
the Hohenzollern genius for using it. Too distrustful to delegate
his responsibility to his ministers, he was too infirm of will to
strike out and follow a consistent course for himself.
The results of this infirmity of purpose are written large on the
history of Prussia from the treaty of Lunfville in 1801 to the
downfall that followed the campaign of Jena in 1806. By the
treaty of Tilsit (July 9th, 1807) Frederick William had to
surrender half his dominions, and what remained to him was
exhausted by French exactions and liable at any moment to
be crushed out of existence by some new whim of Napoleon.
In the dark years that followed it was the indomitable courage
of Queen Louise that helped the weak king not to despair of the
state. She seconded the reforming efforts of Stein and the work
of Scharnhorst and Gneisenau in reorganizing the army, by which
the resurrection of Prussia became a possibility. When Stein
was dismissed at the instance of Napoleon, Hardcnberg succeeded
him as chancellor (June 1S10). In the following month Queen
Louise died, and the king was left alone to deal with circum-
stances of ever-increasing difficulty. He was forced to join
Napoleon in the war against Russia; and even when the
disastrous campaign of 181 2 had for the time broken the French
power, it was not his own resolution, but the loyal disloyalty
of General York in concluding with Russia the convention of
Tauroggcn that forced him into line with the patriotic fervour
of his people.
Once committed to the Russian alliance, however, he became
the faithful henchman of the emperor Alexander, whose fascinat-
ing personality exercised over him to the last a singular power,
and began that influence. of Russia at the court of Berlin which
was to last till Frederick William IV.'s supposed Liberalism was
to shatter the cordiality of the tntrnte. That during and after the
settlement of 1815 Frederick William played a very secondary
part in European affairs is explicable as well by his character as
66
FREDERICK WILLIAM IV.
by the absorbing character of the internal problems of Prussia.
He was one of the original co-signatories of the Holy Alliance,
though, in common with most, he signed it with reluctance;
and in the counsels of the Grand Alliance he allowed himself to
be practically subordinated to Alexander and later to Metternich.
In a ruler of his character it is not surprising that the Revolution
and its developments had produced an unconquerable suspicion
of constitutional principles and methods, which the Liberal
agitations in Germany tended to increase. At the various
congresses, from Aix-la-Chapelle (1818) to Verona (1822), there-
lore, he showed himself heartily in sympathy with the repressive
policy formulated in the Troppau Protocol. The promise of a
constitution, which in the excitement of the War of Liberation
he had made to his people, remained unfulfilled partly owing to
this mental attitude, partly, however, to the all but insuperable
difficulties in the way of its execution. But though reluctant
to play the part of a constitutional king* Frederick William
maintained to the full the traditionaLcharacterof " first servant
of the state." Though he chastised Liberal professors and
turbulent students, it was in .the spirit of a benevolent Landes-
tater; and he laboured assiduously at the enormous task of
administrative reconstruction necessitated by the problem of
welding the heterogeneous elements of the new Prussian kingdom
into a united whole. He was sincerely religious; but his well-
meant efforts to unite the Lutheran and Reformed Churches,
in celebration of the tercentenary of the Reformation (1817),
revealed the limits of his paternal power; eleven years passed
in vain attempts to devise common formulae; a stubborn
Lutheran minority had to be coerced by military force, the con-
fiscation of their churches and the imprisonment or exile of their
pastors; not till 1834 was outward union secured on the basis of
common worship but separate symbols, the opponents of the
measure being forbidden to form communities of their own.
With the Roman Church, too, the kiug came into conflict on
the vexed question of " mixed marriages," a conflict in which
the Vatican gained an easy victory (see Bunsen, C.C.J., Baron
von).
The revolutions of 1830 strengthened Frederick William in his
reactionary tendencies; the question of the constitution was
indefinitely shelved; and in 1831 Prussian troops concentrated
on the frontier helped the task of the Russians in reducing the
military rising in Poland. Yet, in spite of all, Frederick William
was beloved by his subjects, who valued him for the simplicity
of his manners, the goodness of his heart and the memories of
the dark days after 1806. He died on the 7th of June 1840.
In 1824 he had contracted a morganatic marriage with the
countess August e von Harrach, whom he created Princess von
Liegnitz. He wrote Luther in Bezug auf die Kircbcnagenda
von 1822 und 1823 (Berlin, 1827), Raministenten aus der
Kampagne 1792 in Frankrcick, and Journal meiner Brigade in
der Kampagne am Rktin 1793.
The correspondence (Briefvechsel) of King Frederick William III.
and Queen Louise with the emperor Alexander I. has been published
(Leipzig, looo) and also that between the king and queen (ib. 1903),
both edited by P. Baillcu. See W. Hahn. Frudrick Wilhelm III. und
Luis* (3rd ed., Leipzig. 1 877): M. W. Duncker, Aus der Zeit Frie-
drichs des Crossen und Frudrick Wilhelms III. (Leipzig, 1876);
Bishop R. F. Eylert. Charaktertugt aus dem Leben des Konigs von
Prenssen Friedrich Wilhelm ///. (3 vols., Magdeburg, 1 843- 1846).
FREDERICK WILLIAM IV. (1795-1861), king of Prussia,
eldest son of Frederick William III., was born on the 15th of
October 1 70s- From his first tutor, Johann DelbrUck, he imbibed
a love of culture and art, and possibly also the dash of Liberalism
which formed an element of his complex habit of mind. But after
a time Delbrflck, suspected of inspiring his charge with a dislike
of the Prussian military caste and even of belonging to a political
secret society, was dismissed, his place being taken by the pastor
and historian Friedrich Ancillon, while a military governor was
also appointed. By Ancillon he was grounded in religion, in
history and political science, his natural taste for the antique
and the picturesque making it easy for his tutor to impress upon
him his own hatred of the Revolution and its principles. This
hatred was confirmed by the sufferings of his country and family
in the terrible yean after 1806, and his first experience of active
soldiering was in the campaigns thai ended in the occupation of
Paris by the Allies in 18 14. In action his reckless bravery had
earned him rebuke, and in Paris he was remarked for the exact
performance of his military duties, though he found time to whet
his appetite for art in the matchless collections gathered by
Napoleon as the spoil of all Europe. On his return to Berlin
he studied art under the sculptor Christian Daniel Rauch and
the painter and architect Karl Friedrich Schinkel (1781-1841),
proving himself in the end a good draughtsman, a born architect
and an excellent landscape gardener. At the same time he was
being tutored in law by Savigny and in finance by a series of
distinguished masters. In 1873 he married the princess Elizabeth
of Bavaria, who adopted the Lutheran creed. The union,
though childless, was very happy. A long tour in Italy in 1828
was the beginning of his intimacy with Bunsen and did much to
develop his knowledge of art and love of antiquity.
On his accession to the throne in 2840 much was expected
of a prince so variously gifted and of so amiable a temper, and
his first acts did not belie popular hopes. He reversed the
unfortunate ecclesiastical policy of his father, allowing a wide
liberty of dissent, and releasing the imprisoned archbishop of
Cologne; he modified the strictness of the press censorship;
above all he undertook, in the presence of the deputations of the
provincial diets assembled to greet him on his accession, to carry
out the long-deferred project of creating a central constitution,
which he admitted to be required alike by the royal promises,
the needs of the country and the temper of the times. The
story of the evolution of the Prussian parliament belongs to the
history of Prussia. Here it must suffice to notice Frederick
William's personal share in the question, which was determined
by his general attitude of mind. He was an idealist; but his
idealism was of a type the exact reverse of that which the
Revolution in arms had sought to impose upon Europe. The
ideaof the sovereignty of the people was to him utterly abhorrent,
and even any delegation of sovereign power on his own part would
have seemed a betrayal of a God-given trust. " I will never,"
he declared, " allow to come between Almighty God and this
country a blotted parchment, to rule us with paragraphs, and to
replace the ancient, sacred bond of loyalty." His vision of the
ideal 6tate was that of a patriarchial monarchy, surrounded and
advised by the traditional estates of the realm — nobles, peasants,
burghers— and cemented by the bonds of evangelical religion,
but in which there should be no question of the sovereign power
being vested in any other hands than those of the king by divine
right. In Prussia, with its traditional loyalty and its old-world
caste divisions, he believed that such a conception could be
realised, and he took up an attitude half-way between those who
would have rejected the proposal for a central diet altogether ass
dangerous " thin end of the wedge," and those who would have
approximated it more to the modern conception of a parliament.
With a charter, or a representative system based on population,
he would have nothing to do. The united diet which was opened
on the 3rd of February 1847 was no more than a congregation
of the diets instituted by Frederick William III. in the eight
provinces of Prussia. Unrepresentative though it was — for the
industrial working-classes had no share in it— it at once gave
voice to the demand for a constitutional system.
This demand gained overwhelmingly in force with the revolu-
tionary outbreaks of 1848. To Frederick William these came
as a complete surprise, and, rudely awakened from his medieval
dreamings, heeven allowed himself to be carried away for a while
by the popular tide. The loyalty of the Prussian army remained
inviolate; but the king was too tender-hearted to use military
force against his " beloved Berliners," and when the victory of
the populace was thus assured his impressionable temper yielded
to the general enthusiasm. He paraded the streets of Berlin
wrapped in a scarf of the German black and gold, symbol of his
intention to be the leader of the united Germany; and he even
wrote to the indignant tsar in praise of " the glorious German
revolution." The change of sentiment was, however, apparent
rather than reaL The shadow of venerable institutions, past or
FREDERICK WILLIAM OF BRANDENBURG
67
passing, still darkened bis counsels. The united Germany wl
be was prepared to champion was not the democratic state wl
the theorists of the Frankfort national parliament wereevoh
on paper with interminable debate, but the old Holy R01
Empire, the heritage of the house of Habsburg, of which he
prepared to constitute himself the guardian so long as its lai
possessors should not have mastered the forces of 'disordei
which they were held captive. Finally, when Austria had t
excluded from the new empire, he replied to the parliament
deputation that came to offer him the imperial crown thai
might have accepted it had it been freely offered to him by
German princes, but that he would never stoop " to pick 1
crown out of the gutter."
Whatever may be thought of the manner of this refusal
of its immediate motives, it was in itself wise, for the Gen
empire would have lost immeasurably had it been the a
rather than the result of the inevitable struggle with Aust
and Bismarck was probably right when be said that, to t
the heterogeneous elements of Germany into a united whole, w
was needed was, not speeches and resolutions, but a poLic
" blood and iron." In any case Frederick William, une
enough as a constitutional king, would have been impossible
a constitutional emperor. As it was, his refusal to play
part gave the deathblow to the parliament and to all hop<
the immediate creation of a united Germany. For Fredei
William the position of leaderof Germany now meant theempl
ment of the military force of Prussia to crush the scattc
elements of revolution that survived the collapse of the natic
movement. His establishment of the northern confederacy '
a reversion to the traditional policy of Prussia in opposii
to Austria, which, after the emperor Nicholas had crushed
insurrection in Hungary, was once more free to assert her da
to dominance in Germany. But Prussia was not ripe fc
struggle with Austria, even had Frederick William found it in
conscience to turn his arms against his ancient ally, and there
was the humiliating convention of Olmutz (November it
1850), by which Prussia agreed to surrender her separa
plans and to restore the old constitution of the confederati
Yet Frederick William had so far profited by the lessons of z
that he- consented to establish (1850) a national parliami
though with a. restricted franchise and limited powers. '
House of Lorfls (Hcrrcnkaus) justified the king's insistence
calling it into being by its support of Bismarck against the m
popular House during the next reign.
In religious matters Frederick William was also largely swa;
by his love for the ancient and picturesque. In concert with
friend Bunsen he laboured to bring about a rapprochem
between the Lutheran and Anglican churches, the first-fruit
which was the establishment of the Jerusalem bishopric un
the joint patronage of Great Britain and Prussia; but the
result of his efforts was to precipitate the secession of J.
Newman and his followers to the Church of Rome. In gent
it may be said that Frederick William, in spite of his talents i
his wide knowledge, lived in a dream-land of hisown.outof toi
with actuality. The style of his letters reveals a mind enthusia
and ill-balanced. In the summer of 1857 he had a stroke
paralysis, and a second in October. From this time, with
exception of brief intervals, his mind was completely cloud
and the duties of government were undertaken by his brot
William (afterwards emperor), who on the 7th of October 1
was formally recognized as regent. Frederick William died
the 2nd of January 1861,
Selections from the correspondence {Briefwttksef) of Fredei
William IV. and Bunsen were edited by Rank* (Leipzig, 18;
his proclamations, speeches, &c, from the 6th of March 1848 to
3irt of May 1851 have been published (Berlin, 1851); also
correspondence with Bettina, von Arnim, Bettina von A mint
Friedrich WUhelm IV., vngedruckle Briefe und AktensUUke, ed
Geifer (Frankfort-on-Main. 1902). See L. von Ranke, Fried
Wiikdm IV., Kdnig ton Preussen (works 51, 5a also in AlU
icmiuhe Biog. vol. vti.), especially for the king's education and
inner history of the debates leading up to the united diet of ifl
H. von Peteradorff, Konig Friedrich WUhelm IV. (Stuttgart, xo(
F. Racblahl. Dmtscktomt Kim$ PntdHtk WOhetm IV. md
Berliner Minraolution (Halle, 1901); H. von Poschinfer fed.).
Unter Friedrich WUhelm IV. Denhwirdigkeiten dee Ministers Otte
Frhr. ton Manlcuffel, 1848-1858 (3 vols., Berlin, 1000-1901); and
Preussens ausv&rligo PoiUik, 1850-1858 (3 vols., to., 1002), docu-
ments selected from those left By Manteuffel; E. Friedberg, Die
Grundtagen der preussiuhen KuckenpoliHh unler Friedrich Wtlkdm
IV. (Leipzig, 1882).
FREDERICK WILLIAM (1620-1688), elector of Brandenburg,
usually called the " Great Elector," was born in Berlin on the
z6th of February 1620. His father was the elector George
William, and his mother was Elizabeth Charlotte, daughter of
Frederick IV., elector palatine of the Rhine. Owing to the dis-
orders which were prevalent in Brandenburg he passed part of
his youth in the Netherlands, studying at the university of
Leiden and learning something of war and statecraft undei
Frederick Henry, prince of Orange. During his boyhood a
marriage had been suggested between him and Christina, after-
wards queen of Sweden; but although the idea was jevived
during the peace negotiations between Sweden and Brandenburg,
it came to nothing, and in 1646 be married Louise Henrietta
(d. 1 667), slaughter of Frederick Henry of Orange, a lady whose
counsel was very helpful to him end who se co nded his efforts for
the welfare of his country.
Having become ruler otBrandenburg and Prussia by hisfather's
death in December 1640, Frederick William set to work at once
to repair the extensive damage wrought during the Thirty Years'
War, still in progress. After some difficulty he secured hie
investiture as duke of Prussia from Wladislaus, king of Poland,
in October 1641, but was not equally successful in crushing the
independent tendencies of the estates of' Cleves. It was ilk
Brandenburg, however, that he showed his supreme skill as a
diplomatist and administrator. His disorderly troops were
replaced by an efficient and disciplined force; his patience and
perseverance freed his dominions from the Swedish soldiers;
and the restoration' of law and order was followed by a revival
of trade and an increase of material prosperity. After a tedious
struggle- he succeeded in centralizing the administration, and
controlling and increasing the revenue, while no department o?
public life escaped his sedulous care (see Brandenburo). The
area of his dominions was largely increased at the peace of
Westphalia in 2648, and this treaty and the treaty of OHva in
1660 alike added to his power and prestige. By a clever but
unscrupulous use of his intermediate position between Sweden
and Poland he procured his recognition as independent duke of
Prussia from both powers, and eventually succeeded in crushing*
the stubborn and lengthened opposition which was offered to his
authority by the estates of the duchy (see Pkxtssxa); After two
checks he made his position respected in Cleves, and in 1666 his
title to Cleves, Jttlich and Ravensbcrg was definitely recognized*
His efforts, however, to annex the western part of the duchy
of Fomerania, which he had conquered from the Swedes, failed
owing to the insistence of Louis XIV. at the treaty of St'Germain-
en-Laye in 1679, and he was unable to obtain the Silesian duchies
of Liegnitz, Brieg and Wohlau from the emperor Leopold L
after they had been left without e ruler in 2675.
Frederick William played an important part for European
politics. Although found once or twice on the side of France,
he was generally loyal to the interests of the empire and the
Habsburgs, probably because his political acumen scented danger
to Brandenburg from the aggressive policy of Louis XIV.
He was a Protestant in religion, but he supported Protestant
interests abroad on political rather than on religious grounds,
and sought, but without much success, to strengthen Branden-
burg by allaying the fierce hostility between Lutherans end
Calvinists. His success in founding and organizing the army
of Brandenburg-Prussia was amply demonstrated by the great
victory which he gained over the Swedes at Fehrbellin in June
1675, and by the eagerness with which foreign.powers sought his
support. He was also the founder of the Prussian navy. The
elector assisted trade in every possible way. He made the canal
which still bears his name between the Oder and the Spree;
established s trading company rand founded colonies on the west
coast of Africa, He encouraged Flemings to settle in Brmndenburg,
68
FREDERICK-LEMAITRE— FREDERICKSBURG
and both before and after the revocation of the edict of
Nantes in 16S3 welcomed large numbers of Huguenots, who
added greatly to the welfare of the country. Education was not
neglected; and if in this direction some of his plans were abortive,
it was from lack of means and opportunity rather than effort
and inclination. It is difficult to overestimate the services of the
great elector to Brandenburg and Prussia. They can only be
properly appreciated by those who compare the condition of his
country in 1640 with its condition in 1688. Both actually and
relatively its importance had increased enormously; poverty
had given place to comparative wealth, and anarchy to a
system of government which afterwards made Prussia the most
centralized state in Europe. He had scant sympathy with local
privileges, and in fighting them his conduct was doubtless
despotic. His aim was to make himself an absolute ruler, as he
regarded this as the best guarantee for the internal and external
welfare of the state.
The great elector died at Potsdam from dropsy on the 9th of
May 1688, and was succeeded by his eldest surviving son,
Frederick. His personal appearance was imposing, an*although
he was absolutely without scruples when working for the interests
of Brandenburg, he did not lack a sense of justice and generosity.
At all events he deserves the eulogy passed upon him by Frederick
the Great, " Messieurs; celui-ci a fait de granies ckoses" His
second wife, whom he married in 1668, was Dorothea (d. 1689),
daughter of Philip, duke of Holstein-Glucksburg, and widow
of Christian Louis, duke of Brunswick-Ltincburg; she bore
him four sons and three daughters. His concluding years were
troubled by differences between bis wife and her step-son,
Frederick; and influenced by Dorothea he bequeathed portions
of Brandenburg to her four sons, a bequest which was annulled
under his successor.
See S. de Pufendorf, De rebus testis Frideriei Witkelmi Magni
(Leipzig and Berlin, 1733); L. von Orlkh, Friedrich Wilhelm der
grosse Kurfiirst (Berlin, 1836); K. H. S. Rodenbeck, Zur Gesckichte
TriedrUk Wilkelms^des grosse* KurfursUn (Berlin,, 1851); B.
" "" ~ ■* " ): )• G.
Erdmannsddrffcr, Der grosse Kurfiirst (Leipzig,
~ yscn, Gesckichte der prcussiscJu •»■•-•• " '
Philippson, Der grosse Kurfiirst
Kurfiirst (Leipzig, 1870); J. G.
ischen Politik (Berlin, 1855-1886);
... „ . Urst (Berlin, 189 7- 1903) ; E. HcycK,
Der posse Knrjiirsl (Bielefeld, 1902) ; Spahn. Per grosse Kurfu '
(Mainz, 1902); H. Landwehr, Die Ktrthcnpolitik des grosse* K\
fursten (Berlin, 1894); H. Prutz, A us des grossen KurfursUn let:<
Kurfiirst
ten Kur~
„ --,-,.. - ,...—.»• letzlcn
Jahren (Berlin, 1 897) Also Urkunden und A ktenstiicke zur Gescktchle
des Kurfdrsten Friedrich Wilhelm von Brandenburg (Berlin, 1864-
1903), T Carlyle. History of Frederick the Great, vol i. (London,
1858); and A Waddington, he Grand Etecteur et Louts XIV (Paris,
1905).
FR6D4RICK-LEMAlTRB,ANT0INE LOUIS PROSPER (1800-
1876) French actor, the son of an architect, was born at Havre
on the 28th of July 1800. He spent two years at the Con-
servatoirc, and made his first appearance at a variety performance
in one of the basement restaurants at the Palais Royal. At
the Ambigu on the 1 2th of July 1823 he played the part of Robert
Macaire in VA uberge des Adrils. The melodrama was played
seriously on the first night and was received with little favour,
but it was changed on the second night to burlesque, and thanks
to him had a great success. All Paris came to see it, and from
that day he was famous. He created a number of parts that
added to his popularity, especially CardiUac, Cagliostro and
Cartouche. His success in the last led to an engagement at the
Porte St Martin, where in 1827 he produced TrenU ans, ou la
vie d'un joueur, in which his vivid acting made a profound
impression. Afterwards at the Odeon and other theatres he
passed from one success to another, until he put the final touch
to his reputation as an artist by creating the part of Ruy Bias
in Victor Hugo's play. On bis return to the Porte St Martin he
created the titlc-r61c in Balzac's Vautrin, which was forbidden
a second presentation, on account, it is said, of the resemblance
of the actor's wig to the well-known Umpei worn by Louis
Philippe His last appearance was at this theatre in 1873 as the
old Jew in if arte Tudor, and he died at Paris on the s6th of
January 1876.
FREDERICKSBURG, a city of Spottsylvania county, Virginia,
U.S.A., on the Rappahannock river, at the head of tide-water
navigation, about 60 m. N. of Richmond and about 55 m S.S.W
of Washington. Pop. (1800) 4528; (1900) 5068 (162c negroes),
(1910) 5874. It is served by the Potomac, Fredericksburg k
Piedmont, and the Richmond, Fredericksburg & Potomac
.railways, and by several coasting steamship lines. The city is
built on a series of terraces between the river and hills of con-
siderable height. The river is here spanned by iron bridges,
and just above the city is a dam 900 ft long and 18 ft. high.
By means of this dam and a canal good water-power is furnished,
and the city's manufactures include llour, leather, shoes, woollens,
silks, wagons, agricultural implements and excelsior (fine wood-
shavings for packing or stuffing). The water-works, gas and
electric-lighting plants are owned and operated by the munici-
pality. At Fredericksburg are Fredericksburg College (founded
in 1893; coeducational), which includes the Kenroorc school
for girls and the Saunders memorial school for boys (both
preparatory); a Confederate and a National cemetery (the
latter on Marye's Heights), a monument (erected in 1006) to
General Hugh Mercer (c. 1720-1777), whose home for several
years was here and who fell in the baule of Princeton, and a
monument to the memory of Washington's mother, who died here
in 1789 and whose home is still standing. Other buildings of
interest are the old Rising Sun Hotel, a popular resort during
Washington's time, and " Kenmore," the home of Colonel
Fielding Lewis, who married a sister of Washington. The city
was named in honour of Frederick, father of George III., and
was incorporated in 1727, long after its first settlement; in 1871
it was re-chartered by act of the General Assembly of Virginia.
The battle of Fredericksburg in the American Civil War was
fought on the 13th of December 1862 between the Union forces
(Army of the Potomac) under. Major-General A. E. Burnside
and the Confederates (Army of Northern Virginia) under General
R. E. Lee. In the middle of November, Burnside, newly ap-
pointed to command the Army of the Potomac, had manoeuvred
from the neighbourhood of Warren ton with a view to beginning
an offensive move trom Fredericksburg and, as a preliminary,
to seising a foothold beyond the Rappahannock at or near that
place. On arriving near Falmouth, however, he found that the
means of crossing that he bad asked for had not been forwarded
from Washington, and he sat down to wait for them, while,
on the other side, the Confederate army gradually assembled
south of the Rappahannock in a strong position with the left
on the river above Fredericksburg and the right near Hamilton's
Crossing on the Richmond railway. On the 10th of December
Burnside, having by now received his pontoons, prepared to
cross the river and to attack the Confederate entrenched position
on the heights beyond the town. The respective forces were
Union 122,000, Confederate 79.000. Major-General E. V.
Sumner, commanding the Federal right wing (II. and IX.
corps), was to cross at Fredericksburg, Major-General W, B.
Franklin with the left (I. and VI. corps) some miles below, while
the centre (III. and V. corps) under Major-General Joseph
Hooker was to connect the two attacks and to reinforce either
at need. The Union artillery took position along the heights of
the north bank to cover the crossing, and no opposition was
encountered opposite Franklin's command, which formed up on
the other side during the nth and 12th. Opposite Sumner,
however, the Confederate riflemen, hidden in the gardens and
houses of Fredericksburg, caused much trouble and considerable
losses to the Union pioneers, and a forlorn hope of volunteers
from the infantry had to be rowed across under fire before the
enemy's skirmishers could be dislodged. Sumner's, two corps
crossed on the 12th. The battle took place next morning.
Controversy has raged round Burnside's plan of action and
in particular round his orders to Franklin, as to which it can only
be said that whatever chance of success there was in soformidable
an undertaking as attacking the well-posted enemy was thrown
away through roisunderslandings,and that nothing but misunder-
standings could be expected from the vague and bcwilderioj
orders issued by the general in command. The actual battle can
be described in a few words. Jackson held the right of Lee's
line, Longstreet the left, both entrenched. Franklin, tied by
FREDERICTON^-FREE BAPTISTS
69
his instructions, attacked with one division -only, which a little
later he supported by two more (I. corps, Major-General J. F.
Reynolds) out of eight or nine available. His left flank was
harassed by the Confederate horse artillery under the young and
brilliant Captain John Pelham, and after breaking the first line
of Stonewall Jackson's corps the assailants were in the end
driven back with heavy losses. On the other flank, where part
of Longstreet's corps held the low ridge opposite Fredericksburg
called Marye's Heights, Burnside ordered in the II. corps under
Major-General D. N. Couch about 1 1 a.m., and thenceforward
division after division, on a front of little more than 800 yds.,
was sent forward to assault with the bayonet. The " Stone Wall ' '
along the foot of Marye's was lined with every rifle of Longstreet's
corps that could find-room to fire, and above them the Confederate
guns fired heavily on the assailants, whose artillery, on the height
beyond the river, was too far off to assist them. Not a man of
the Federals reached the wall, though the bravest were killed
a few paces from it, and Sumner's and most of Hooker's brigades
were broken one after the other as often as they tried to assault.
At night the wrecks of the right wing were withdrawn. Burnsidc
proposed next day to lead the IX. corps, which he had formerly
commanded, in one mass to the assault of the Stone Wall, but his
subordinates dissuaded him, and on the night of the 15th the
Army of the Potomac withdrew to its camps about Falmouth.
The losses of the Federals were 12,650 men, those of the Con-
federates 4200, little more than a third of which fell on Long-
street's corps;
See F. W. Palfrey. Antidam and Fredericksburg (New York, 1881) ;
G. W. Rcdway, Fredericksburg (London, 1906); and G. F. R.
Henderson, Fredericksburg (London, 1889).
•FREDERICK)!!, a city and port of entry of New Brunswick.
Canada, capital of the province, situated on the St John river,
84 m. from its mouth, and on the Canadian Pacific railway.
It stands on a plain bounded on one side by the river, which is
here \ m. broad, and on the other by a range of hills which almost
encircle the town. It is regularly built with long and straight
streets, and contains the parliament buildings, government
house, the Anglican cathedral, the provincial university and
several other educational establishments. Fredcricton is the
chief commercial centre in the interior of the province, and has
also a large trade in lumber. Its industries include canneries,
tanneries and wooden ware factories. The river is navigable
for large steamers up to the city, and above it by vessels of lighter
draught. Two bridges, passenger and railway, unite the city
with the towns of St Marye's and Gibson on the east side of the
river, at its junction with the Nashwaak. The city was founded
in 1785 by Sir Guy Carlclon.and made thccapitalof the province,
in spile of the jealousy of St John, on account of its superior
strategical position. Pop. (1901) 71 17.
FREDONIA, a village of Chautauqua county, New York,
U.S.A.. about 45 m. S.W. of Buffalo, and 3 m. from Lake Erie.
Pop. (1900) 4127; (1005, state census) 5148; (19x0 census) 528$.
Fredonia is served by the Dunkirk, Allegheny Valley & Pittsburg
railway, which connects at Dunkirk, 3 m.tothe N.,wilhthe Erie,
the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, the New York, Chicago &
St Louis, and the Pennsylvania railways; and by electric
railway to Erie, Buffalo and Dunkirk. It is the scat of a State
Normal School. The Darwin R. Barker public library contained
9700 volumes in 1908. Fredonia is situated in the grape-growing
region of western New York, is an important shipping point for
grapes, and has large grape-vine and general nurseries. The
auking of wine and of unfcrmcnled grape- juice arc important
industries of the village. Among other manufactures are canned
goods, coal dealers' supplies, and patent medicines. The first
settlement here was made in 1804, and the place was called
Canandaway until 18 17, when the present name was adopted.
The village was incorporated in 1829. Fredonia was one of the
first places in the United States, if not the first, to make use of
natural gas for public purposes. Within the village limits, near
a creek, whose waters showed the presence of gas, a well was sunk
io 1821, and the supply of gas thus tapped was sufficient to light
the streets of the village. Another well was sunk within the
village limits in 185S. About 1005 natural gas was againobtalned
by deep drilling near Fredonia and came into general use for
heat, light and power. In the Fredonia Baptist church on the
14th of December 1873 a Woman's Temperance Union was
organized, and from this is sometimes dated the beginning of the
Woman's Christian Temperance Union movement.
FREDRIKSHALD (Fkederikshald, Fhedriciishall), a
seaport and garrison town of Norway, in Smaalencne. ana
(county), 85 m. by rail S. by £. of Christiania. Pop. (xooo)
1 1,048. It is picturesquely situated on both banks of theTistedal
river at its outflow to the Idc fjord, surrounded by several
rocky eminences. The chief of these is occupied by the famous
fortress Fredriksten, protected on three sides by precipices,
founded by Frederick HI.. (1661), and mainly showing, in its
present form, the works of Frederick V. (1766) and Christian
VII. (1808). Between it and the smaller Gyldenlove fort a
monument marks the spot where Charles XII. was shot in the
trenches while besieging the town (17x8). The siege, which was
then raised, is further commemorated by a monument to the
brave defence of the brothers Peter and Hans Kolbjornsen.
Frcdrikshald is close to the Swedish frontier, and had previously
(1660) withstood invasion, after which its name was changed
from Halden to the present form in 1665 in honour of Frederick
III. The town was almost totally destroyed by fire in 1759
and 1826. The castle surrendered to the Swedish crown prince
Bcrnadotte in 1814, and its capture was speedily followed by the
conquest of the kingdom and its union with Sweden. Fredriks-
hald is one of the principal ports of the kingdom for the export
of timber. Marble of very fine quality and grain is extensively
quarried and exported for architectural ornamentation and .for
furniture-making. Wood-pulp is also exported. The industries
embrace granite quarries, wood-pulp factories, and factories for
sugar, tobacco, curtains, travelling-bags, boots, &c. There
are railway communications with Gothenburg and all parts of
Sweden and regular coastal and steamer services.
FREDRIKSTAD (Frederikstad), a seaport and manufactur-
ing town of Norway in Smaalcnenc ami (county), $8 m. S. by E.
of Christiania by the Christiania-Gothenburg railway. Pop.
(1000) 14,553. It MCS at tnc mouth and on the eastern shore of
Christiania fjord, occupying both banks of the great river
Glommen, which, descending from the richly- wooded district of
Ostcrdal, floats down vast quantities of limber. The new town
on the right bank is therefore a centre of the timber export trade,
this place being the principal port in Norway for the export of
pit-props, planed boards, and other varieties of timber. There
is also a great industry in the making of red bricks, owing to the
expansion of Christiania, Gothenburg and other towns. Granite
is quarried and exported. Besides the large number of saw and
planing mills, there are shipbuilding yards, engine and boiler
works, cotton and woollen mills, and factories for acetic acid and
napht ha. The harbour, which can be entered by vessels drawing
14 ft., is kept open in winter by an ice-breaker. In the vicinity
is the island Hanktt, the most fashionable Norwegian seaside
resort. The old town on the left bank was founded by Frederick
II. in 1567. It was for a long time strongly fortified, and in
1716 Charles XII. of Sweden madea vain attempt to capture it.
FREE BAPTISTS, formerly called (but no longer officially)
Freewill Baptists, an American denomination holding ami-
paedobaptist and anti-Calvinistic doctrines, and practically
identical in creed with the General Baptists of Great Britain.
Many of the early Baptist churches in Rhode Island and through-
out the South were believers in " general redemption " (hence
called " general " Baptists); and there was a largely attended
conference of this Arminian branch of the church at Newport in
1729. But the denomination known as " Frcc-willcrs " had its
rise in 1779-1780, when anti-Calvinists in Loudon, Barrington
and Canterbury, New Hampshire, seceded and were organized
by Benjamin Randall (1 749-1808), a native of New Hampshire.
Randall was an itinerant missionary, who had been preaching
for two years before his ordination in 17S0; in the same year
he was censured for " heterodox " teaching. The work of the
church suffered a relapse after his death, and a movement to join
7°
FREEBENCH— FREE CHURCH OF ENGLAND
the Freewill Baptists with the " Christians," who were led by
Elias Smith (1769-1S46) and had been bitterly opposed by
Randall, was nearly successful. Between 1820 and 1830 the
denomination made considerable progress, especially in New
England and the Middle West. The Freewill Baptists were
joined in 1841 by many " open-communion Baptists " — those
in the Carolinas who did not join the larger body distinguishing
themselves by the name of Original Freewill Baptists— and soon
afterwards by some of the General Baptists of North Carolina and
some of the Six Principle Baptists of Rhode Island (who had
ad(fed the " laying on of hands " to the Five Principles hitherto
held); and the abbreviation of the denominational name to
" Free Baptists " suggests their liberal policy— indeed open
communion is the main if not the only hindrance to union with
the " regular " Baptist Church.
Colleges founded by the denomination, all co-educational, are:
Hillsdale College, opened at Spring Harbor as Michigan Central
College in 1844, and established at Hillsdale, Michigan, in 1855;
Bates College, Le wist on, Maine, 1863, now non-sectarian; Rio
Grande College, Rio Grande, Ohio, 1876; and Parker College,
Winnebago City, Minnesota, opened in 1888. At the close of
1000 there were 1294 ministers, 1303 churches, and 73,536
members of the denomination in the United States. The Morn-
ing Star of Boston, established in 1826, is the most prominent
journal published by the church. In British North America,
according to a Canadian census bulletin of 1002, there were, in
1901, 24,229 Free Baptists, of whom 15,502 were inhabitants of
New Brunswick, 8355 of Nova Scotia, 246 of Ontario, and 87
of Quebec. The United Societies of Free Baptist Young People,
an international organization founded in 1888, had in 1007 about
15,000 members. At the close of 1007 the " Original Freewill
Baptists " had 1 20 ministers, 167 churches, and 12,000 members,
practically all in the Carolinas.
See I. D. Stewart, History of the Free Will Baptists (Dover. N. H.,
1862) for 1780-1830, and his edition of the Minutes of the General
Conference of the Free Will Baptist Connection (Boston, 1887) ; James
B. Taylor, The Centennial Record of the Free Will Baptists (Dover,
1 881); John Biiz2cll, Memoir of Eider Benjamin Randall (Parson-
field, Maine, 1827); and P. Richardson. Randall and the Free
Will Baptises*" in The Christian Review, vol. xxiii. (Baltimore, 1858).
FREEBENCH, in English law, the interest which a widow has
in the copyhold lands of her husband, corresponding to dower
in the case of freeholds. It depends upon the custom of the
manor, but as a general rule the widow takes a third for her life
of the lands of which her husband dies seised, but it may be an
estate greater or less than a third. If the husband surrenders
his copyhold and the surrenderee is admitted, or if he contracts
for a sale, it will defeat the widow's frcebench. As freebench is
regarded as a continuation of the husband's estate, the widow
does not (except by special custom) require to be admitted.
FREE CHURCH FEDERATION, a voluntary association of
British Nonconformist churches for co-operation in religious,
social and civil work. It was the outcome of a unifying tendency
displayed during the latter part of the 19th century. About
1890 the proposal that there should be a Nonconformist Church
Congress analogous to the Angbcan Church Congress was seriously
considered, and the first was held in Manchester on the 7th of
November 1892. In the following year it was resolved that the
basis of representation should be neither personal (as in the
Anglican Church Congress) nor denominational, but territorial.
England and Wales have since been completely covered with a
network of local councils, each of which elects its due proportion
of representatives to the national gathering. This territorial
arrangement eliminated all sectarian distinctions, and also the
possibility of committing the different churches as such to any
particular policy. The representatives of the local councils
attend not as denominationalists but as Evangelical Free
Churchmen. The name of the organization was changed from
Congress to National Council as soon as the assembly ceased to
be a fortuitous concourse of atoms, and consisted of duly
appointed representatives from the local councils of every part
of England. The local councils consist of representatives of the
Congregational and Baptist Churches, the Methodist Churches,
the Presbyterian Church of England, the Free Episcopal Churches,
the Society of Friends, and such other Evangelical Churches as
the National Council may at any time admit. The constitution
states the following as the objects of the National Council: (0)
To facilitate fraternal intercourse and co-operation among the
Evangelical Free Churches; (b) to assist in the organization of
local councils; (c) to encourage devotional fellowship and mutual
counsel concerning the spiritual life and religious activities of the
Churches; (</) to advocate the New Testament doctrine of the
Church, and to defend the rights of the associated Churches;
(e) to promote the application of the law of Christ in every
relation of human life. Although the objects of the Free Church
councils are thus in their nature and spirit religious rather than
political, there are occasions on which action is taken on great
national affairs. Thus a thorough-going opposition was offered
to the Education Act of 1002, and whole-hearted support accorded
to candidates at the general election of 1006 who pledged them-
selves to altering that measure.
A striking feature of the movement is the adoption of the
parochial system for the purpose of local work. Each of the
associated churches is requested to look after a parish, not of
course with any attempt to exclude other churches, but as having
a special responsibility for those in that area who are not already
connected with some existing church. Throughout the United
Kingdom local councils are formed into federations, some fifty
in number, which are intermediate between them and the
national council. The local councils do what is possible to prevent
overlapping and excessive competition between the churches.
They also combine the forces of the local churches for evangelistic
and general devotional work, open-air services, efforts on behalf
of Sunday observance, and the prevention of 'gambling. Services
are arranged in connexion with workhouses, hospitals and other
public institutions. Social work of a varied character forms a
large part of the operations of the local councils, and the Free
Church Girls' Guild has a function similar to that of the Anglican
Girls' Friendly Society. The national council engages in mission
work on a large scale, and a considerable number of periodicals,
hymn-books for special occasions, and. works of different kinds
explaining the history and ideals of the Evangelical Free
Churches have been published. The churches represented
in the National Council have 9066 ministers, 55,828 local
preachers, 407,091 Sunday-school teachers, 3.4i°»377 Sunday
scholars, 2,178,221 communicants, and sitting accommodation
for 8,555,460.
A remarkable manifestation of this unprecedented reunion
was the fact that a committee of the associated churches prepared
and published a catechism expressing the positive and funda-
mental agreement of all the Evangelical Free Churches on the
essential doctrines of Christianity (see The Contemporary Renew,
January 1899). The catechism reprcsentssubstantially the creed
of not less than 80,000,000 Protestants. It has been widely
circulated throughout Great Britain, the British Colonies and
the United States of America, and has also been translated into
Welsh, French and Italian.
The movement has spread to all parts of Australia, New
Zealand, South Africa, Jamaica, the United States of America and
India. It is perhaps necessary to add that it differs essentially
from the Evangelical Alliance, inasmuch as' its unit is not an
individual, private Christian, but a definitely organized and
visible Church. The essential doctrine of the movement is a
particular doctrine of churchmanship which, as explained in
the catechism, regards the Lord Jesus Christ as the sole and
Divine Head of every branch of the Holy Catholic Church
throughout the world. For this reason those who do not accept
the deity of Christ are necessarily excluded from the national
council and its local constituent councils.
FREE CHURCH OF ENGLAND, a Protestant episcopal church
" essentially one with the established church of England, but
free to go into any parish, to use a revised edition of the Book
of Common Prayer, to associate the laity with the clergy in the
government and work of the church, and to hold communion with
Christians of other denominations." It was founded in 1844
FREE CHURCH OF SCOTLAND
7'
in opposition to the Tractarian movement, and embodies the
distinctively evangelical elements of the Reformation. It pre-
serves and maintains to the letter all that is Protestant and
evangelical in the liturgy and services of the Anglican church,
while its free constitution and revised formularies meet the needs
of members of that communion who resent sacerdotal and
ritualistic tendencies. There are two dioceses (northern and
southern) each with a bishop, about 30 churches and ministers,
and about 1300 members.
FREE CHURCH OF SCOTLAND. In one sense the Free
Church of Scotland dated its existence from the Disruption of
1843, in another it claimed to be the rightful representative of
the National Church of Scotland (see Scotland, Ciiubch or)
as it was reformed in 1560. 1 In the ecclesiastical history of
Scotland the Free Churchman sees three great reforming periods.
In his view these deserve to be called reforming on many
accounts, but most especially because in them the independence
of the church, her inherent scriptural right to exercise a spiritual
jurisdiction in which she is responsible to her Divine Head alone,
was both earnestly asserted and practically maintained. The
first reformation extended from 1560, when the church freely
held her first General Assembly, and of her own authority acted
on the First Book of Discipline, to 1592, when her Presbyterian
order was finally and fully ratified by the parliament. The second
period began in 1638, when, after 20 years of suspended anima-
tion, the Assembly once more shook off Episcopacy, and termin-
ated in 1640, when the parliament of Scotland confirmed the
church in her liberties in a larger and ampler sense than before.
The third period began in 1834, when the Assembly made use
of what the church believed to be her rights in passing the Veto
and Chapel Acts* It culminated in the Disruption of 1843.
The fact that the Church, as led first by John Knox and after-
wards by Andrew Melville, claimed an inherent right to exercise
a spiritual jurisdiction is notorious. More apt to be overlooked
is the comparative freedom with which that right was actually
used by the church irrespective of state recognition. That recog-
nition was not given until after the queen's resignation in 1567;*
but, for several years before it came, the church had been holding
her Assemblies and settling all questions of discipline, worship,
and administration as they arose, in accordance with the first
book of polity or discipline which had been drawn up in 1560.
Further, in 1581 she, of her own motion, adopted a second book
of a similar character, in which she expressly claimed an inde-
pendent and exclusive jurisdiction or power in all matters
ecclesiastical, " which flows directly from God and the Mediator
Jesus Christ, and is spiritual, not having a temporal head on earth,
but only Christ, the only king and governor of his church ";
and this claim, though directly negatived in 1584 by the " Black
Acts," which included an Act of Supremacy over estates spiritual
and temporal, continued to be asserted by the Assemblies,
until at last it also was practically allowed in the act of 1592.*
this legislation of 1592, however, did not long remain in force.
An act of parliament in 1606, which " reponcd, restored and
reintegrated " the estate of bishops to their ancient dignities,
prerogatives and privileges, was followed by several acts of
various subservient assemblies, which, culminating in that of
1618, practically amounted to a complete surrender of jurisdiction
by the church itself. For twenty years no Assemblies whatever
were held. This interval must necessarily be regarded from the
Presbyterian point of view as having been one of very deep
depression. But a second reformation, characterized by great
1 " It it her being free, not her being established, that constitutes
tbe real historical and hereditary identity of the Reformed National
Church of Scotland." See Act and Declaration, &c, of Free Assembly,
1851.
'In the act Anrnt the true and holy Kirk, and of those that are
declared not to be of the same. Thb act was supplemented by that of
1579. Anent the Jurisdiction of the Kirk,
* The Second Book of Discipline was not formally recognized in
that act: but all former acts against " the jurisdiction and dis-
cipline of the true Kirk as the same is used ana exercised within the
realm" were abolished ; and all " liberties, privileges, immunities
and freedoms whatsoever ** previously granted were ratified and
approved.
energy and vigour, began in 163&. The proceedings of the
Assembly of that year, afterwards tardily and reluctantly
acquiesced in by the state, finally issued in the acts of parliament
of 1649, by which the Westminster standards were ratified,
by-patronage was abolished, and the coronation oath itself
framed in accordance with the principles of Presbyterian church
•government. Another period of intense reaction soon set in.
No Assemblies were permitted by Cromwell after 1653; and,
soon after the Restoration, Presbytery was temporarily over*
thrown by a series of rescissory acts. Nor was the Revolution
Settlement of 1690 so entirely favourable to the freedom of the
church as the legislation of 1 649 had been. Prelacy was abolished,
and various obnoxious statutes were repealed, but the acts
rescissory were not cancelled; prcsbyterianism was re-estab-
lished, but the statutory recognition of the Confession of Faith
took no notice of certain qualifications under which that docu-
ment had originally been approved by the Assembly of 1647; 4
the old rights of patrons were again discontinued, but the large
powers which had been conferred on congregations by the act of
1649 were not wholly restored. Nevertheless the great principle
of a distinct ecclesiastical jurisdiction, embodied in the Con-
fession of Faith, was accepted without reservation, and a Presby-
terian polity effectively confirmed both then and at the ratifica-
tion of the treaty of Union. This settlement, however, did not
long subsist unimpaired. In 1 7 1 2 the act of Queen Anne, restor-
ing patronage to its ancient footing, was passed in spite of the
earnest remonstrances of the Scottish people. For many years
afterwards (until 1784) the Assembly continued to instruct each
succeeding commission to make application to the king and the
parliament for redress of the grievance. But meanwhile a new
phase of Scottish ecclesiastical politics commonly known as
Moderatism had been inaugurated, during the prevalence of
which the church became even more indifferent than the lay
patrons themselves to the rights of her congregations with regard
to the " calling " of ministers. From tbe Free Church point of
view, the period from which the secessions under Ebenezer
Erskine and Thomas Gillespie are dated was also characterized
by numerous other abuses on the Church's part which amounted
to a practical surrender of the most important and distinctive
principles of her ancient Presbyterian polity. 1 Towards the
beginning of the present century there were many circumstances,
both within and without the church, which conspired to bring
about an evangelical and popular reaction against this reign of
" Moderatism." The result was a protracted struggle, which is
commonly referred to as the Ten Years' Conflict, and which has
been aptly described as the last battle in the long war which for
nearly 300 years had been waged within the church itself, between
the friends and the foes of the doctrine of an exclusive ecclesi-
astical jurisdiction. That final struggle may be said to have
begun with the passing in 1834 of the " Veto " Act, by which it
was declared to be a fundamental law of the church that no pastor
should be intruded on a congregation contrary to the will of the
people,* and by which it was provided that the simple dissent
of a majority of heads of families in a parish should be enough to
warrant a presbytery in rejecting a presentee. The question of
the legality of this measure soon came to be tried in the civil
courts; and it was ultimately answered in a sense unfavourable
to the church by the decision (1838) of the court of session in
the Auchterarder case, to the effect that a presbytery had no right
to reject a presentee simply because the parishioners protested
against his settlement, but was bound to disregard the veto (see
Chalmexs, Thomas). This decision elicited from the Assembly
• The most important of these had reference to the full right of a
constituted church to the enjoyment of an absolutely unrestricted
freedom in convening Assemblies. This very point on one occasion
at least threatened to be the cause of serious misunderstandings
between William and the people of Scotland. The difficulties were
happily smoothed, however, by the wisdom and tact of William
Carstares.
• See Act and Declaration of Free Assembly, 185 1.
• Thb principle had been asserted even by an Assembly so late as
that of 1736, and had been invariably presupposed in the " call,"
which had never ceased to be regarded as an indispensable pre*
requisite for the settlement of n minister.
72
FREE CHURCH OF SCOTLAND
of that year a new declaration of the doctrine of the spiritual
independence of the church. The "exclusive jurisdiction of
the civil courts in regard to the civil rights and emoluments
secured by law to the church and the ministers thereof " was
acknowledged without qualification; and continued implicit
obedience to their decisions with reference to these rights and
emoluments was pledged. At the same time it was insisted on
" that, as is declared in the Confession of Faith of this National
Established Church, ' the Lord Jesus Christ, as King and Head
of the church, hath therein appointed a government in the hand
of church officers distinct from the civil magistrate '; and that
in all matters touching the doctrine, discipline and government
of the church her judicatories possess an exclusive jurisdiction,
founded on the Word of God, which power ecclesiastical " (in
the words of the Second Book of Discipline) " flows immediately
from God and the Mediator the Lord Jesus Christ, and is spiritual,
not having a temporal head on earth, but only Christ, the only
spiritual King and Governor of His Kirk." And it was resolved
to assert, and at all hazards defend, this spiritual jurisdiction,
and firmly to enforce obedience to the same upon the office-
bearers and members of the church. The decision of the court
of session having been confirmed by the House of Lords early in
1839, it was decided in the Assembly of that year that the
church, while acquiescing in the loss of the temporalities at
Auchterarder, should reaffirm the principle of non-intrusion as
an integral part of the constitution of the Reformed Church
of Scotland, and that a committee should be appointed to confer
with the government with a view to the prevention, if possible,
of any further collision between the civil and ecclesiastical
authorities. While the conference with the government had no
better result than an unsuccessful attempt at compromise by
means of Lord Aberdeen's Bill, which embodied the principle
of a dissent with reasons, still graver complications were arising
out of the Marnoch and other cases. 1 In the circumstances it
was resolved by the Assembly of 1842 to transmit to the queen,
by the hands of the lord high commissioner, a " claim, declara-
tion, and protest," complaining of the encroachments of the court
of session, 2 and also an address praying for the abolition of
patronage. The home secretary's answer (received in January
1843) gave no hope of redress. Meanwhile the position of the
1 According to the Free Church " Protest " of 1843 it was in these
cases decided (1) that the courts of the church were liable to be com-
mon 1a I interests untouched.
* The narrative and argument of this elaborate and able document
cannot be reproduced here. In substance it is a claim " as of right "
on behalf of the church and of the nation and people of Scotland that
encroachments of the said court of session, and her people secured in
their Christian and constitutional rights and liberties. This claim is
followed by the "declaration " that the Assembly cannot intrude
ministers on reclaiming congregations, or carry on the government
of Christ's church subject to the coercion of the court of session; and
by the " protest " that all acts of the parliament of Great Britain
passed without the consent of the Scottish church and nation, in
alteration or derogation of the government, discipline, rights and
privileges of the church, as also all sentences of courts in contra-
ventionof said government, discipline, rights and privileges, "are and
shall be in themselves void and null, and of no legal force or effect."
lical party had been further hampered by the decision of
rt of session declaring the ministers of chapels of ease to
ualified to sit in any church court. A final appeal to
lent by petition was made in March 1843, when, by a
y of 135 (21X against 76), the House of Commons declined
npt any redress of the grievances of the Scottish Church. 1
Srst session of the following General Assembly (s8th May
lie reply of the non-intrusion party was made in a protest,
jy upwards of 200 commissioners, to the effect that since,
opinion, the recent decisions of the civil courts, and the
>re recent sanction of these decisions by the legislature,
de it impossible at that time to hold a free Assembly of
rch as by law established, they therefore " protest that it
1 lawful for us, and such other commissioners as may
with us, to withdraw to a separate place of meeting, for the
■ of taking steps for ourselves and all who adhere to tu-
ning with us the Confession of Faith and standards of
irch of Scotland as heretofore understood — for separating
orderly way from the Establishment, and thereupon
g such measures as may be competent to us, in humble
•nee on God's grace and toe aid of His Holy Spirit, for
ancement of His glory, the extension of the gospel of our
d Saviour, and the administration of the affairs of Christ's
rcording toHis.holy word." The reading of this document,
owed by the withdrawal of the entire non-intrusion party
ier place of meeting, where the first Assembly of the Free
was constituted, with Dr Thomas Chalmers as moderator,
sembly sat from the 18th to the 30th of May, and trans-
large amount of important business. On Tuesday the
06 4 ministers and professors publicly adhibited their
the Act of Separation and deed of demission by which
lounced all claim to the benefices they had held in con-
vith the Establishment, declaring them to be vacant, and
ing to their being dealt with as such. By this impressive
ing the signatories voluntarily surrendered an annual
amounting to fully £100,000.
irst care of the voluntarily disestablished church was to
incomes for her clergy and places of worship for her
As early as 1841 indeed the leading principle of a
itation fund " for the support of the ministry had been
:ed by Dr Robert Smith Candlish; and at " Convocation,"
Le unofficial meeting of the members of the evangelical
intrusion party held in November 1842, Dr Chalmers
3ared with a carefully matured scheme according to which
congregation should do its part in sustaining the whole,
j whole should sustain each congregation." Between
scr 1842 and May 1843, 647 associations had been
and at the first Assembly it was announced that up-
f £17,000 had already been contributed. At the close of
financial year (1843-1844) it was reported that the fund
eeded £61,000. It was participated in by 583 ministers;
• drew the full equal dividend of £105. Each successive
>wed a steady increase in the gross amount of the fund;
ng to an almost equally rapid increase of the number of
listerial charges participating in its benefits, the stipend
to each minister did not for many years reach the sura
which had been aimed at as a minimum. Thus in 1844-
e fund bad risen to £76,180, but the ministers had also
d to 627, and the equal dividend therefore was only £1 22.
the first ten years the annual income averaged £84,057;
he next decade £108,643; and during the third £130,246.
limum of £150 was reached at last in 1868; and subsc-
the balance remaining after that minimum had been
i was treated as a surplus fund, and distributed among
ninisters whose congregations have contributed at
specified rates per member. In 1878 the total amount
1 for this fund was upwards of £177,000; in this 1075
■s participated. The full equal dividend of £157 was
766 ministers; and additional grants of £36 and £18
Scottish members voted with the minority in the proportion
12.
. number ultimately rose to 474.
FREE CHURCH OF SCOTLAND
73
were paid out of the surplus fund to 632 and- 129 ministers
respectively.
To provide for the erection of the buildings which, it was
foreseen, would be necessary, a general building fund, in which
all should share alike, was also organized, and local building
funds were as far as possible established in each parish, with the
result that at the first Assembly a sum of £104,776 was reported
as already available. By May 1844 a further sum of £123,060
had been collected, and 470 churches were reported as completed
or nearly so. In the following year £131,737 was raised and
60 additional churches were built. At the end of four years
considerably more than 700 churches had been provided.
During the winter session 1843-1844 the divinity students
who had joined the Free Church continued their studies under
Dr Chalmers and Dr David Welsh (1793-1845); and at the
Assembly of 1844 arrangements were made for the erection of
suitable collegiate buildings. The New College, Edinburgh,
was built in 1847 at a cost of £46,506; and divinity halls were
subsequently set up also in Glasgow and Aberdeen. In 1878
there were 13 professors of theology, with an aggregate of 330
students, — the numbers at Edinburgh, Glasgow and Aberdeen
respectively being 129, 69 and 32.
A somewhat unforeseen result of the Disruption was the
necessity for a duplicate system of elementary schools. At
the 1843 Assembly it was for the first time announced by Dr
Welsh that " schools to a certain extent must be opened to afford
a suitable sphere of occupation for parochial and still more for
private teachers of schools, who are threatened with deprivation
of their present office on account of their opinions upon the church
question." The suggestion was taken up with very great energy,
with the result that in May 1845, 280 schools had been set up,
while in May 1847 this number had risen to 5x3, with an attend-
ance of upwards of 44,000 scholars. In 1869 it was stated in an
authoritative document laid before members of parliament
that at that time there were connected with and supported by
the Free Church 598 schools (including two normal schools),
with 633 teachers and 64,115 scholars. The school buildings
had been erected at a cost of £220,000, of which the committee
of privy council had contributed £35,000, while the remainder
had been raised by voluntary effort. Annual payments made
to teachers, &c, as at 1869, amounted to £16,000. In accordance
with certain provisions of the Education Act of 1872 most of the
schools of the Free Church were voluntarily transferred, without
compensation, to the local school boards. The normal schools
are now transferred to the state.
It has been seen already that during the period of the Ten
Years' Conflict the non-intrusion party strenuously denied
that in any one respect it was departing from acknowledged
principles of the National Church. It continued to do so after the
Disruption. In 1846, however, it was found to have become
necessary, " in consequence of the late change in the outward
condition of the church," to amend the " questions and formula "
to be used at the licensing of probationers and the ordination
of office-bearers. These were amended accordingly; and at the
same time it was declared that, " while the church firmly main-
tains the same scriptural principles as to the duties of nations
and their rulers in reference to true religion and the Church of
Christ for which she has hitherto contended, she disclaims in-
tolerant or persecuting principles, and docs not regard her
Confession of Faith, or any portion thereof when fairly interpreted,
as favouring intolerance or persecution, or consider that her
office-bearers by subscribing it profess any principles inconsistent
with liberty of conscience and the right of private judgment."
The main difference between the " formula " of the Free Church
sad that of the Established Church (as at the year xooo) was
that the former referred to the Confession of Faith simply as
" approven by General Assemblies of this Church," while the
latter described it as " approven by the General Assemblies of this
National Church, and ratified by law in the year 1690, and fre-
quently confirmed by divers Acts of Parliament since that time."
The former inserted an additional clause,—" I also approve of
the general principles respecting the jurisdiction of the church.
and her subjection to Christ as her only Head, which are con-
tained in the Claim of Right and in the Protest referred to in the
questions already put tome"; and also added the words which
are here distinguished by italics,—" And I promise that through
the grace of God I shall firmly and constantly adhere to the same,
and to the utmost of my power shall in my station assert,
maintain, and defend' the said doctrine, worship, discipline
and government of this church by kirk-sessions, presbyteries,
provincial synods, and general assemblies, together with the
liberty and exclusive jurisdiction thereof; and that I shall, in my
practice, conform myself to the said worship and submit to the
said discipline [and] government, and exclusive jurisdiction, and
not endeavour directly or indirectly the prejudice or subversion
of the same." In the year 185 1 an act and declaration anent the
publication of the subordinate standards and other authoritative
documents of the Free Church of Scotland was passed, in which
the historical fact is recalled that the Church of Scotland had
formally consented to adopt the Confession of Faith, catechisms,
directory of public worship, and form of church government agreed
upon by the Westminster Assembly ; and it is declared that
" these several formularies, as ratified, with certain explanations,
by divers Acts of Assembly in the years 1645, 1646, and particu-
larly in 1647, this church continues till* this day to acknowledge
as her subordinate standards of doctrine, worship and govern-
ment." 1
In 1858 circumstances arose which, in the opinion of many,
seemed fitted to demonstrate to the Free Church that her freedom
was an illusion, and that all her sacrifices had been made in vain.
John Macmillan, minister of Cardross, accused of immorality*,
had been tried and found guilty by the Free Presbytery of
Dumbarton. Appeal having been taken to the synod, an attempt
was there made to revive one particular charge, of which he had
been finally acquitted by the presbytery; and this attempt was
successful in the General Assembly. That ultimate court of
review did not confine itself to the points appealed, but went
Into the merits of the whole case as it had originally come before
the presbytery. The result was a sentence of suspension.
Macmillan, believing that the Assembly had acted with some
irregularity, applied to the court of session for an interdict
against the execution of that sentence; and for this act he waa
summoned to the bar of the Assembly to say whether or nojt
it was the case that he had thus appealed. Having answered
in the affirmative, he was deposed on the spot. Forthwith
he raised a new action (his previous application for an interdict
had been refused) concluding for reduction of the spiritual
sentence of deposition and for substantial damages. The
defences lodged by the Free Church were to the effect that the
civil courts had no right to review and reduce spiritual sentences,
or to decide whether the General Assembly of the Free Church
had acted irregularly or not. . Judgments adverse to the defenders
were delivered on these points; and appeals were taken to the
House of Lords. But before the case could be heard there,
the lord president took an opportunity in the court of session
to point out to the pursuer that, inasmuch as the particular
General Assembly against which the action was brought had
ceased to exist, it could not therefore be made in any circum-
stances to pay damages, and that the action of reduction of the
spiritual sentence, being only auxiliary to the claim of damages,
ought therefore to be dismissed. He further pointed out that
Macmillan might obtain redress in another way, sh6uld he be
able to prove malice against individuals. Very soon after this
deliverance of the lord president, the case as it had stood against
the Free Church was withdrawn, and Macmillan gave notice of
an action of a wholly different kind. But this last was not per-
severed in. The appeals which had been taken to the House of
Lords were, in these circumstances, also departed from by
the Free Church. The case did not advance sufficiently to show
1 By this formal recognition of the qualifications to the Confession
of Faith made in 1647 the scruples of the majority of the Associate
Synod of Original Sccedcra were removed, and 27 ministers, alone
with a considerable number of their people, joined the Free Church
in the following year.
74
FREE CHURCH OF SCOTLAND
how far the courts of law would be prepared to go in the direction
of recognizing voluntary tribunals and a kind of secondary
exclusive jurisdiction founded on contract. 1 But, whether
recognized or not, the church for her part continued to beKeve
that she had an inherent spiritual jurisdiction, and remained
unmoved in her determination to act in accordance with that
resolution " notwithstanding of whatsoever trouble or persecu-
tion may arise." *
In 1863 a motion was made and unanimously carried in the
Free Church Assembly for the appointment of a committee to
confer with a corresponding committee of the United Presby-
terian Synod, and with the representatives of such other dis-
established churches as might be willing to meet and deliberate
with a view to an incorporating union. Formal negotiations
between the representatives of these two churches were begun
shortly afterwards, which resulted in a report laid before the
following Assembly. From this document it appeared that the
committees of the two churches were not at one on the question
as to the relation of the civil magistrate to the church. While on
the part of the Free Church it was maintained that he " may
lawfully acknowledge, as being in accordance with the Word of
God, the creed and jurisdiction of the church/' and that " it is
his duty, when necessary and expedient, to employ the national
resources in aid of the church, provided always that in doing so,
while reserving to himself full control over the temporalities
which are his own gift, he abstain from all authoritative inter-
ference in the internal government of the church," it was declared
by the committee of the United Presbyterian Church that,
" inasmuch as the civil magistrate has no authority in spiritual
things, and as the employment of force in such matters is opposed
to the spirit and precepts of Christianity, it is not within his
province to legislate as to what is true in religion, to prescribe
a creed or form of worship to his subjects, or to endow the church
from national resources." In other words, while the Free Church
maintained that in certain circumstances it was lawful and even
incumbent on the magistrate to endow the church and on the
church to accept his endowment, the United Presbyterians main-
tained that in no case was this lawful either for the one party or for
the other. Thus in a very short time it had been made perfectly
evident that a union between the two bodies, if accomplished
at all, could only be brought about on the understanding that
the question as to the lawfulness of state endowments should
be an open one. The Free Church Assembly, by increasing
majorities, manifested a readiness for union, even although
unanimity had not been attained on that theoretical point.
But there was a minority which did not sympathize in this
readiness, and after ten years of fruitless effort it was in 1873
found to be expedient that the idea of union with the United
Presbyterians should for the time be abandoned. Other negotia-
tions, however, which had been entered upon with the Reformed
Presbyterian Church at a somewhat later date proved more
successful; and a majority of the ministers of that church with
their congregations were united with the Free Church in 1876.
(J- S. Bl.)
In the last quarter of the 19th century the Free Church con-
tinued to be the most active, theologically, of the Scottish
Churches. The College chairs were almost uniformly filled by
advanced critics or theologians, inspired more or less by Professor
A. B. Davidson. Dr A. B. Bruce, author of The Training of ike
Twehe, &c, was appointed to the chair of apologetics and New
Testament exegesis in the Glasgow College in 1875; Henry
Drummond (author of Natural Law in the Spiritual World, &c.)
was made lecturer in natural science in the same college in 1877
and became professor in 1884; and Dr George Adam Smith
(author of The Twelve Prophets, 8tc.) was called to the Hebrew
chair in 1801. Attempts were made between 1800 and 1895 to
bring all these professors except Davidson (similar attacks
were also made on Dr Marcus Dods, afterwards principal of the
1 See Taylor Innes, Law of Creeds in Scotland, p. 258 seq.
* The language of Dr Buchanan, for example, in 1800 was (mutatis
mutandis) the same as that which he had employed in 1838 in moving
the Independence resolution already referred to.
New College, Edinburgh) to the bar of the Assembly lor unsound
teaching or writing; but in every case these were abortive,
the Assembly never taking any step beyond warning the accused
that their primary duty was to teach and defend the church's
faith as embodied in the confession. In 1892 the Free Church,
following the example of the United Presbyterian Church and
the Church of Scotland (1889), passed a Declaratory Act relaxing
the stringency of subscription to the confession, with the result
that a small number of ministers and congregation*, mostly in the
Highlands, severed their connexion with the church and formed
the Free Presbyterian Church of Scotland, on strictly and
strailly orthodox lines. In 1907 this body had twenty congrega-
tions and twelve ministers.
The Free Church always regarded herself as a National Church,
and during this period she sought actively to be true to that
character by providing church ordinances for the increasing
population of Scotland and applying herself to the new problems
of non-church-going, and of the changing habits of the people.
Her Assembly's committee on religion and morals worked
toward the same ends as the similar organization of the Estab-
lished Church, and in her, as in the other churches, the standard
of parochial and congregational activity was raised and new
methods of operation devised. She passed legislation on the
difficult problem of ridding the church of inefficient minister*.
The use of instrumental music was sanctioned in Free Churches
during this period. An association was formed in 1891 to pro-
mote the ends of edification, order and reverence in the public
services of the church, and published in 1898 A Nmo Directory
for Public Worship which does not provide set forms of prayer,
but directions as to the matter of prayer in the various services.
The Free Church took a large share in the study of hymnology
and church music, which led to the production of The Church
Hynmary. From 1 885 to 1 895 much of the energy of all the Presby-
terian churches was absorbed by the disestablishment agitation.
In the former year the Free Church, having almost entirely
shed the establishment principle on which it was founded, began
to rival the United Presbyterian Church in its resolutions calling
for the disestablishment of the Church of Scotland. In spite of
the offers of the Establishment Assembly to confer with the
dissenting churches about union, the assaults upon its status
waxed in vigour, till In 1893 the Free Church hailed the result of
the general election as a verdict of the constituencies in favour
of disestablishment, and insisted upon the government of the day
taking up Sir Charles Cameron's bill.
During the last four or five years of the century the Free and
United Presbyterian churches, which after the failure of their
union negotiations in 1873 had been connected together by a
Mutual Eligibility Act enabling a congregation of one church
to call a minister from the other, devoted their energy to the
arrangement of an incorporating union. The Synod of the
United Presbyterian Church resolved in 1896 to u take steps
towards union," and in the following year the Free Assembly
responded by appointing a committee to confer with a committee
of the other church. The joint committee discovered a "remark-
able and happy agreement " between the doctrinal standards,
rules and methods of the two bodies, and with very little con-
cessions on either side a common constitution and common
"questions and formula" for the admission of ministers and
office-bearers were arranged. A minority, always growing
smaller, of the Free Church Assembly, protested against the pro-
posed union, and threatened if it were carried through to test
its legality in the courts. To meet this opposition, the suggestion
is understood to have been made that an act of parliament
should be applied for to legalize the union; but this was not done,
and the union was carried through on the understanding that
the question of the lawfulness of church establishments should
be an open one.
The supreme courts of the churches met for the last time in
their respective places of meeting on the 30th of October 1000,
and on the following day the joint meeting took place at
which the union was completed, and the United Free Church
of Scotland («;.».) entered on its career; The protesting and
FREEDMEN'S BUREAU— FREEHOLD
75
dissenting minority at once claimed to be the Free Church. They,
met outside the Free Assembly Hall on the 31st of October, and,
failing to gain admission to it, withdrew to another hall, where
they elected Mr Conn Bannatyne their moderator and held the
remaining sittings of the Assembly. It was reported that between
16,000 and 1 7,000 names had been received of persons adhering to
the anti-unionist principle. At the Assembly of 1001 it was
stated that the Free Church had twenty-five ministers and at
least sixty-three congregations. The character of the church is
indicated by the fact that its office-bearers were the faithful
survivors of the decreasing minority of the Old Free Church,
which had protested against the disestablishment resolutions,
against the relaxation of subscription, against toleration of the
teaching of the Glasgow professors, and against the use m worship
of organs or of human hymns. Her congregations were mostly
in the Gaelic-speaking districts of Scotland. She was confronted
with a very arduous undertaking; her congregations grew in
number, but were far from each other and there were not nearly
enough ministers. The Highlands were filled, by the Union,
with exasperation and dispeace which could not soon subside.
The church met with no sympathy or assistance at the hands
of the United Free Church, and her work was conducted at first
under considerable hardships, nor was her position one to appeal
to the general popular sentiment of Scotland. But the little
church continued her course with indomitable courage and
without any compromise of principle. The Declaratory Act of
1892 was repealed after a consultation of presbyteries, and the old
principles as to worship were declared. A professor was obliged
to withdraw a book he had written, in which the results of
criticism, with regard to the Synoptic Gospels, had been accepted
and applied. The desire of the Church of Scotland to obtain
relaxation of her formula was declared to make union with her
impossible. Along with this unbending attitude, signs of material
growth were not wanting. The revenue of the church increased;
the grant from the sustentation fund was in 1901 only £75, but
from 1003 onwards it was £167.
The decision of the House of Lords in 1004 did not bring the
trials of the Free Church to an end. In the absence of any
arrangement with the United Free Church, she could only gain
possession of the property declared to belong to her by an
application in each particular case to the Court of Session, and a
series of law-suits began which were trying to all parties. In
the year 1905 the Free Church Assembly met in the historic
Free Church Assembly Hall, but it did not meet there again.
Having been left by the awards of the commission without any
station in the foreign mission field, the Free Church resolved to
start a foreign mission of her own. The urgent task confronting
the church was that of supplying ordinances to her congregations.
The latter numbered 200 in 1907, and the church had as yet only
74 ordained ministers, so that many of the .manses allocated to
her by the commissioners were not yet occupied, and catechists
and elders were called to conduct services where possible. The
gallant stand this little church had made for principles which
were no longer represented by any Presbyterian church outside
the establishment attracted to her much interest and many
hopes that she might be successful in her endeavours to do some-
thing for the religious life of Scotland.
See Scotland. Church of, for bibliography and statistks.(A.M.*)
FREEDMEN'S BUREAU (officially the Bureau or Fxezdmen,
Refugees and Abandoned Lands), a bureau created in the
United States war department by an act of Congress, 3rd of March
1865, to last one year, but continued until 187a by later acts
passed over the president's veto. Its establishment was due
partly to the fear entertained by the North that the Southerners
if left to deal with the blacks would attempt to re-establish
some form of slavery, partly to the necessity for extending relief
to needy negroes and whites in the lately conquered South,
and partly to the need of creating some commission or bureau
to take charge of lands confiscated in the South. During the
Civil War a million* negroes fell into the hands of the Federals
and had to be cared for. Able-bodied blacks were enlisted in the
army, and the women, children and old men were settled in large
camps on confiscated Southern property, where they were cared
for alternately by the war department and by the treasury
department until the organization of the Freedmen's Bureau.
At the bead of the bureau was a commissioner, General O. 0.
Howard, and under him in each Southern state was an assistant
commissioner with a corps of local superintendents, agents
and inspectors. The officials had the broadest possible authority
mall matters that concerned the blacks. The work of the bureau
may be classified as follows: (x) distributing rations and medical
supplies among the blacks; (a) establishing schools for them and
aiding benevolent societies to establish schools and churches;
(3) regulating labour and contracts; (4) taking charge of con-
fiscated lands; and (5) administering justice in cases in which
blacks were concerned. For several years the ex-slaves were
under the almost absolute control of the bureau. Whether this
control had a good or bad effect is still disputed, the Southern
whites and many Northerners holding that the results of the
bureau's work were distinctly bad, while others hold that much
good resulted from its work. There is now no doubt,- however,
that while most of the higher officials of the bureau were good
men, the subordinate agents were generally without character
or judgment and that their interference between the races caused
permanent discord. Much necessary relief work was done,
but demoralisation was also caused by it, and later the institution
was used by its officials as a means of securing negro votes.
In educating the blacks the bureau made some progress, but the
instruction imparted by the missionary teachers resulted in
giving the ex-slaves notions of liberty and racial equality that led
to much trouble, finally resulting in the hostility of the whites to
negro education. The secession of the blacks from the white
churches was aided and encouraged by the bureau. The whole
field of labour and contracts was covered by minute regulations,
which, good in theory, were absurd in practice, and which failed
altogether, but not until labour had been disorganised for several
years. The administration of justice by the bureau agents
amounted simply to a ceaseless persecution of the whites who bad
dealings with the blacks, and bloody conflicts sometimes resulted.
The law creating the bureau provided for the division of the
confiscated property among the negroes, and though carried
out only in parts of South Carolina, Florida and Georgia, it caused
the negroes to believe that they were to be cared for at the
expense of their former masters. This belief made them subject
to swindling schemes perpetrated by certain bureau agents and
others who promised to secure lands for them. When negro
suffrage was imposed by Congress upon the Southern States, the
bureau aided the Union League (q.v.) in organising the blacks into
a political party opposed to the whites. A large majority of the
bureau officials secured office through their control of the blacks.
The failure of the bureau system and its discontinuance in the
midst of reconstruction without harm to the blacks, and the
intense hostility of the Southern whites to the institution caused
by the irritating conduct of bureau officials, are indications that
the institution was not well conceived nor wisely administered.
See P. S. Pierce, The Freedmen's Bureau (Iowa City, 1904);
Report of ike Joint Committee on Reconstruction (Washington, 1866);
W. L. Fleming (fidX Documents relating to Reconstruction (Cleveland,
O., 1906) ; W. L. Fleming, Civil War and Reconstruction in Alabama
(New York, 1905); and James W. Garner, Reconstruction in Missis-
sippi (New York, 1901). (W, L s F^
FREEHOLD, a town and the county-seat of Monmouth county,
New Jersey, U.S.A., .in the township of Freehold, about 25 m.
E. by N. of Trenton. Pop. (1800) 2932; (1900) 2934, of whom
215 were foreign-born and 126 were negroes; (1905) 3064; (1910)
1 3>33- . Freehold is served by the Pennsylvania and the Central
of New Jersey railways. It is the trade centre of one of the most
productive agricultural districts of the state and has various
manufactures, including carriages, carpets and rugs, files, shirts,
underwear, and canned beans and peas. The town is the seat
of two boarding schools for boys: the Freehold Military School
and the New Jersey Military Academy (chartered, 1000;
founded in 1844 as the Freehold Institute). One of the resi-
dences in the town dates from 1755. A settlement was made
I in the township about 1650, and the township was incorporated
7 6
FREEHOLD— FREEMAN
in 1693. In 17 1 5 the town was founded and wa
seat; it was long commonly known (from the
mouth Court-House, but afterwards took (fr
the name Freehold, and in 1869 it was incorpo
of Freehold. An important battle of the Waj
known as the battle of Monmouth, was foug!
house on the 28th of June 1778. A short dis
court-house is a park in which there is a nu
on the 13th of November 1884 in commemora
the base is of Quincy granite and the shaft is o
Surmounting the shaft is a statue repres
Triumphant " (the height to the top of which
The monument is adorned with five bronze re
modelled by James £. Kelly (b. 1855); on
represents " Molly Pitcher " (d. 1832), a nati
when her husband (John C. Hays), an artille
insensible during the battle, served the gun
prevented its capture by the British. 1 Jc
1888)-, governor of New Jersey in 1 863-1866 ai
long a resident of Freehold, and the erection
was largely due to his efforts. A bronze ta
in front of the present court-house, commemon
house, used as a hospital in the battle of Monnv
in 1007. Freehold was the birthplace and hoi
Henderson (1 743-1824), a Whig or Patriot lea<
an officer in the War of Independence, and
Continental Congress in 1770-1780 and of the
Representatives in 1705-1 797.
The name Freehold was first used of a Pi
established about 1692 by Scottish exiles v,
Jersey in 1682-1685 and built what was
Scots' Church " near the present railway stal
in Marlboro' township, Monmouth county.
December 1706, John Boyd (d. 1709) was
recorded Presbyterian ordination in America,
the first regularly constituted Presbyterian c
of the building now remains in the bury
Boyd was interred, and where the Presbyteri
Jersey in 1900 raised a granite monument U
tombstone is preserved by the Presbyterian Hi
Philadelphia. John Tennent (1706-1732) be<
Freehold church in 1730, when a new church
Old Scots congregation on White Hill in the p:
Manalapan (then a part of Freehold township]
station and village called Tennent; his broth'
i777)i whose trance, in which he thought he
heaven, was a matter of much discussion in hi
in 1733-1777. In 1751-1753 thepresent " Old
then called the Freehold Church, was erecte<
same site as the building of 1730; in it White
in the older building David Brainerd and his In<
In 1859 this church (whose corporate name is "
terian Church of the County of Monmouth ")
of Tennent, partly to distinguish it from the Pi
organized at Monmouth Court-House (now Fr
See Frank % R. Symmcs, History of the Old Ti
ed., Cranbury, New Jersey, 1904).
FREEHOLD, in the English law of real pro]
land, not being less than an estate for life. A
of years, no matter how long, was considered
to an estate for life, and unworthy of a freer
" Some time before the reign of Henry II., b
so early as Domesday, the expression liberm
introduced to designate land held by a frcema:
Thus freehold tenure is the sum of the rights
constitute the relation of a free tenant to hi
1 Her maiden name was Mary Ludwip. " M
a nickname given to her by the soldiers tn refere
water to soldiers overcome by heat in the battle
married Hays in 1769: Hays died soon after the
married one George McCaulcy. She lived fo
years at Carlisle, Perm., where a monument 1
memory in 1876.
* Digby'a History of Ik* Law of Real Property *
sense freehold is distinguished from copyhold, which b a tenure
having its origin in the relation of lord and villein (see Copyhold).
Freehold is also distinguished from leasehold, which is an estate
for a fixed number of years only. By analogy the interest of a
person who holds an office for life is sometimes said to be a freehold
interest. • The term customary freeholds is applied to a kind of
copyhold tenure in the north of England/ via. tenure by copy
of court -roll, but not, as in other cases, expressed to be at the
will of the lord.
FREELAND, a borough of Luzerne county, Pennsylvania,
U.S.A., about 20 m. S. of Wilkes-Barre, in the E. part of the state.
Pop. (1800) 1730; (1900) 5254 (1339 foreign-born, many being
Slavs); (1910) 6197. Freeland is served by the Lehigh
Valley railway and by electric railway to Upper Lehigh (1 m.
distant, served by the Central Railroad of New Jersey) and
to other neighbouring places. The borough is built on Broad
Mountain, nearly 2000 ft. above sea-level, and the chief industry
is the mining of coal at the numerous surrounding collieries.
Freeland is the seat of the Mining and Mechanical Institute
of the Anthracite Region, chartered in 1894, modelled after the
German Stdgersckulcn, with elementary and secondary depart-
ments and a night school for workmen. The borough baa
foundries and machine shops of considerable importance,
and manufactures silk, overalls, beer and hames, Freeland
was first settled about 1842, was laid out in 1870, and was
incorporated in 1876.
FREEMAN, EDWARD AUGUSTUS (1823-1892), English
historian, was born at Harborne, Staffordshire, on the and of
August 1823. He lost both his parents- in infancy, was brought
up by a grandmother, and was educated at private schools and
by a private tutor. He was a studious and precocious boy, more
interested in religious matters, history and foreign politics than
in boyish things. He obtained a scholarship at Trinity College,
Oxford, and a second class in the degree examination, and was
elected fellow of his college (1845) . While at Oxford he was much
influenced by the High Church movement, and thought seriously
of taking orders, but abandoned the idea. He married a daughter
of his former tutor, the Rev. R. Gutch, in 1847, and entered
on a life of study. Ecclesiastical architecture attracted him
strongly. He visited many churches and began a practice,
which he pursued throughout his life, of making drawings of
buildings on the spot and afterwards tracing them over in ink
His first book, save for his share in a volume of English verse,
was a History of Architecture (1849). Though he had not then
seen any buildings outside England, it contains a good sketch
of the development of the art. It is full of youthful enthusiasm
and is written in florid language. After some changes of residence
he bought a house called Somerieaze, near Wells, Somerset, and
settled there in i860.
Freeman's life was one 0/ strenuous literary work. He wrote
many books, and countless articles for reviews, newspapers and
other publications, and was a constant contributor to the
Saturday Renew until 1878, when he ceased to write for it for
political reasons. His Saturday Review articles corrected many
errors and raised the level of historical knowledge among the
educated classes, but as a reviewer he was apt to- forget that a
book may have blemishes and yet be praiseworthy. For some
years he was an active county magistrate. He was deeply
interested in politics, was a follower of Mr Gladstone, and
approved the Home Rule Bill of 1886, but objected to the later
proposal to retain the Irish members at Westminster. To be
returned to Parliament was one of his few ambitions, and in x86S
he unsuccessfully contested Mid-Somerset. Foreign rather than
domestic politics had the first place with him. Historical and
religious sentiment combined with his desteslation of all that was
tyrannical to inspire him with hatred of the Turk and sympathy
with the smaller and subject nationalities ot eastern Europe.
He took a prominent part in the agitation which followed
"the Bulgarian atrocities "; his speeches were intemperate,
and he was accused of uttering the words " Perish India P
at a public meeting in 1876. This, however, Was a misrepre-
sentation of .his words. He was wari^ a knight commander
FREEMAN
77
of the order of the Saviour by the king of Greece, and also
received an order from the prince of Montenegro.
Freeman advanced the study of history in England in two
special directions, by insistence on the unity of history, and by
teaching the importance and right use of original authorities.
History is not, he urges, to be divided " by a middle wall of
partition " into ancient and modern, nor broken into fragments
as though the history of each nation stood apart. It is more
than a collection of narratives; it is a science, " the science of
man in his political character." The historical student, then,
cannot afford to be indifferent to any part of the record of man's
political being; but as his abilities for study are limited, he will,
while reckoning all history to be within his range, have his own
special range within which he will master every detail (Rede
Lecture). Freeman's range included Greek, Roman and the
earlier part of English history, together with some portions of
foreign medieval history, and he had a scholarly though general
knowledge of the rest of the history of the European work).
He regarded the abiding life of Rome as " the central truth of
European history," the bond of its unity, and he undertook his
History of Sicily (1801-1804) partly because it illustrated this
unity. Further, he urges that all historical study is valueless
which does not take in a knowledge of original authorities, and
he teaches both by example* and precept what authorities should
be thus described, and how they are to be weighed and used.
He did not use manuscript authorities, and for most of his work
he had no need to do so. The authorities which lie needed were
already in print, and his books would not have been better if
he had disinterred a few more facts from unprinted sources.
His reputation as a historian will chiefly rest on his History of
the Norman Conquest (1867-1876), his longest completed book.
In common with his works generally, it is distinguished by
exhaustiveness of treatment and research, critical ability,
a remarkable degree of accuracy, and a certain insight into the
past which, he gained from his practical experience of men and
institutions. He b almost exclusively a political historian.
His saying that " history is past politics and politics arc present
history " is significant of this limitation of his work, which left
on one side subjects of the deepest interest in a nation's life.
In dealing with constitutional matters he sometimes attaches
too much weight to words and formal aspects. This gives certain
of his arguments an air of pedantry, and seems to lead him to
find evidences of continuity in institutions which in reality and
spirit were different from what they once had been. As a rule
his estimates of character arc remarkably able. It is true that
he is sometimes swayed by prejudice, but this is the common lot
of great historians; they cannot altogether avoid sharing in
the feelings of the past, for they live in it, and Freeman did so to
an extraordinary degree. Yet if he judges too favourably the
leaders of the national party in England on the eve of the
Norman Conquest, that is a small matter to set against the insight
which he exhibits in writing of Aratus, Sulla, Nicias, William
the Conqueror, Thomas of Canterbury, Frederick the Second
and many more. In width of view, thoroughness of investiga-
tion and honesty of purpose he is unsurpassed by any historian.
He never conceals nor wilfully misrepresents anything, and he
reckoned no labour too great which might help him to draw a
truthful picture of the past. When a place had any important
connexion with his work he invariably visited it. He travelled
much, always to gain knowledge, and generally to complete his
historical equipment. His collected articles and essays on places
of historical interest are perhaps the most pleasing of his writings,
but they deal exclusively with historical associations and
architectural features. The quantity of work which he turned
out is enormous, for the fifteen large volumes which contain his
Norman Conquest, his unfinished History of Sicily, his William
Rufut (188a), and his Essays (1872-1870), and the crowd of his
smaller books, are matched in amount by his uncollected con-
tributions to periodicals. In respect of matter his historical
work is uniformly excellent. In respect of form and style the
case is different. Though his sentences themselves are not wordy,
he is extremely diffuse in treatment, habitually repeating an idea
in successive sentences of much the same import. While this
habit was doubtless aggravated by the amount of his journalistic
work, it seems originally to have sprung from what may be called
a professorial spirit, which occasionally appears in the tone of
his remarks. He was anxious to make sure that his readers would
understand his exact meaning, and to guard them against all
possible misconceptions. His lengthy explanations are the more
grievous because he insists on the same points in several of his
books. His prolixity was increased by his unwillingness, when
writing without prescribed limits, to leave out any detail,
however unimportant. His passion for details not only swelled
his volumes to a portentous size, but was fatal to artistic con-
st ruction. The length of his books has hindered their usefulness.
They were written for the public at large, but few save professed
students, who can admire and value his exhaustiveness, will read
the many hundreds of pages which he devotes to a short period
of history. In some of his smaller books, however, be shows
great powers of condensation and arrangement, and writes
tersely enough. His style is correct, lucid and virile, but gener-
ally nothing more, and his endeavour to use as far as possible
only words of Teutonic origin limited his vocabulary and makes'
his sentences somewhat monotonous. While Froude often
strayed away from his authorities, Freeman kept his authorities
always before his eyes, and his narrative is here and there little
more than a translation of their words. Accordingly, while it has
nothing of Froude's carelessness and inaccuracy, it has nothing
of his charm of style. Yet now and again he rises to the level
of some heroic event, and parts of hb chapter on the " Campaign
of Hastings " and of his record of the wars of Syracuse and
Athens, his reflections on the vbit of Basil the Second to the
church of the Virgin on the Acropolis, and some other passages
in his books, are fine pieces of eloquent writing.
The high quality of Freeman's work was acknowledged by
all competent judges. He was made D.C.L. of Oxford and LL.D.
of Cambridge honoris causa, and when he visited the United
States on a lecturing tour was warmly received at various places
of learning. He served on the royal commission on ecclcsiast ical
courts appointed in 1881. In 1884 he was appointed rcgius
professor of modern history at Oxford. Hb lectures were thinly
attended, for he did not care to adapt them to the requirements
of the university examinations, and be was not perhaps well
fitted to teach young men. But be exercised a wholesome in-
fluence over the more earnest students of history among the
resident graduates. From 1886 he was forced by ill-health to
spend much of hb time abroad, and he died of smallpox at
Alicante on the 16th of March 1893, while on a tour in Spain.
Freeman had a strongly marked personality. Though impatient
in temper and occasionally rude, he was tender-hearted and
generous. Hb rudeness to strangers was partly caused by shy-
ness and partly by a childlike inability to conceal hb feelings.
Eminently truthful, he could not understand that some verbal
insincerities are necessary to social life. He had a peculiar
faculty for friendship, and hb friends always found him sym-
pathetic and affectionate* In their society he would talk well
and showed a keen sense of humour. He considered it his duty
to expose careless and ignorant writers, and certainly enjoyed
doing so. He worked hard and methodically, often had several
pieces of work in hand, and kept a daily record of the time which
he devoted to each of them. Hb tastes were curiously limited.
No art interested him except architecture, which he studied
throughout his life; and he cared little for literature which was
not either historical or political. In later life he ceased to hold
the theological opinions of hb youth, but remained a devout
churchman.
See W. R. W. Stephens, Life and Letters ofE.A. Freeman (London,
1893); Frederic Harrison. Tennyson, Rusktn, Mill and other Literary
Estimates (London, 1899); James Bryce, " E. A. Freeman," E*g.
HuL Rev., July 1893. (W. Hu.)
FREEMAN, primarily one who is free, as opposed to a slave or
•erf (see Feudalism; Slavery). The term b more specifically
applied to one who pos se s se s the freedom of a city, borough or
company. Before the passing of tbe Municipal Corporations
?8
FREEMASONRY
Act 1835, each English borough admitted freemen according tc
its own peculiar custom and by-laws. The rights and privileges
of a freeman, though varying in different boroughs, generally
included the right to vote at a parliamentary election of the
borough, and exemption from all tolls and dues. The act ol
1835 respected existing usages, and every person who was then
an admitted freeman remained one, retaining at the same time
all his former rights and privileges. The admission of freemen
is now regulated by the Municipal Corporations Act 1882. By
section 301 of that act the term " freeman " includes any person
of the class whose rights and interests were reserved by the
act. of 1835 under the name either of freemen or of burgesses.
By section 202 no person can be admitted a freeman by gift or
by purchase; that is, only birth, servitude or, marriage are
qualifications. The Honorary Freedom of Boroughs Act 1885,
however, makes an exception, as by that act the council of every
borough may from time to time admit persons of distinction
to be honorary freemen of the borough. The town clerk of
every borough keeps a list, which is called " the freeman's roll,"
and when any person claims to be admitted a freeman in respect
of birth, servitude or marriage, the mayor examines the claim,
and if it is established the claimant's name is enrolled by the
town clerk.
A person may become a freeman or freewoman of one of the
London livery companies by (1) apprenticeship or servitude;
(2) patrimony; (3) redemption; (4) gift. This last is purely
honorary. The most usual form of acquiring freedom was by
serving apprenticeship to a freeman, free both of a company and
of the city of London. By an act of common council of 1836
apprenticeship was permitted to freemen of the city who had not
taken up the freedom of a company. By an act of common
council of 18S9 the term of service was reduced from seven years
to four years. Freedom by patrimony is always granted to
children of a person who has been duly admitted to the freedom.
Freedom by redemption or purchase requires the payment of
certain entrance fees, which vary with the standing of the com-
pany. In the Grocers' Company freedom by redemption does
not exist, and in such companies as still have a trade, e.g. the
Apothecaries and Stationers, it is limited to members of the trade.
See W. C. Hazlitt, The Livery Companies of Ike City of London
(1892).
FREEMASONRY. According to an old " Charge " delivered
to initiates, Freemasonry is declared to be an " ancient and
honourable institution: ancient no doubt it is, as .having sub-
sisted from time immemorial; and honourable it must be acknow-
ledged to be, as by a natural tendency it conduces to make those
so who are obedient to its precepts ... to so high an eminence
has its credit been advanced that in every age Monarch* them-
selves have been promoters of the -art, have not thought it
derogatory from their dignity to exchange the sceptre for the
trowel, have patronised our mysteries and joined in our
Assemblies." For many years the craft has been conducted
without respect to clime, colour, caste or creed.
History. — The precise origin of the society has yet to be ascer-
tained, but is not likely to be, as the early records are lost;
there is, however, ample evidence remaining to justify the claim
for its antiquity and its honourable character. Much has been
written as to its eventful past, based upon actual records, but
still more which has served only to amuse or repel inquirers, and
led not a few to believe that the fraternity has no trustworthy
history. An unfavourable opinion of the historians of the craft
generally may fairly have been held during the 18th and early
in the 19th centuries, but happily since the middle of the latter
century quite a different principle has animated those brethren
who have sought to make the facts of masonic history known
to the brotherhood, as well as worth the study of students in
general. The idea that it would require an investigator to be
a member of the " mystic tie " in order to qualify as a reader of
masonic history has been exploded. The evidences collected
concerning the institution during the last five hundred years,
or more, may now be examined and tested in the most severe
jnanner by literary and critical experts (whether opposed or
favourable to the body), who cannot fail to accept the claims
made as to its great antiquity and continuity, as the lineal
descendant of those craftsmen who raised the cathedrals and other
great English buildings during the middle ages.
It is only needful to refer to the old works on freemasonry, and
to compare them with the accepted histories of the present time,
to be assured that such strictures as above are more than justified.
The premier work on the subject was published in London in 1723,
the Rev. James Anderson being the author of the historical portion,
introductory to the first " Book of Constitutions " of the original
Grand Lodge of England. Dr Anderson gravely states that " Grand
Master Moses often marshalled the Israelites into a regular and
general lodge, whilst in the wilderness. . . . King Solomon was
Grand Master of the lodge at Jerusalem. 1 . . Nebuchadnezzar became
•he -Grand Master Mason," oe., devoting many more pages to similar
In considering the early history of Freemasonry, from a
purely matter-of-fact standpoint, it will be well to settle as a
necessary preliminary what the term did and does now include
or mean, and how far back the inquiry should be conducted,
as well as on what lines. If the view of the subject herein taken
be correct, it will be useless to load the investigation by devoting
considerable space to a consideration of the laws and customs
of still older societies which may have been utilized and imitated
by the fraternity, but which in no sense can be accepted as the
actual forbears of the present society of Free and Accepted
Masons. They were predecessors, or possibly prototypes, but
not near relatives or progenitors of the Freemasons.*
The Mother Grand Lodge of the world is that of England,
which was inaugurated in the metropolis on St John Baptist's
day 171 7 by four or more old lodges, three of which still flourish.
There were other lodges also in London and the country at the
time, but whether they were invited to the meeting is not now
known. Probably not , as existing records of the period preserve
a sphinx-Kke silence thereon. Likewise there were many scores
of lodges at work in Scotland, and undoubtedly in Ireland the
craft was widely patronized. Whatever the ceremonies may have
been which were then known as Freemasonry in Great Britain and
Ireland, they were practically alike, and the venerable Old Charges
or MS. constitutions, dating back several centuries, were rightly
held by them as the title-deeds of their masonic inheritance.
It was a bold thing to do, thus to start a governing body for
the fraternity quite different in many respects to all preceding
organizations, and to brand as irregular all lodges which declined
1 If history be no ancient Fable
Free Masons came from Tower of Babel.
(*' The Freemasons; an Hudibrastic poem," London, 1723.)
9 The Early History and Antiquities of Freemasonry and Medieval
Builders, by Mr G. F. Fort (U.S.A.). and the Cathedral Builders: The
Magestri Comacini, by " Leader Scott " (the late Mrs Baxter), take
rather a different view on this point and ably present their argu-
ments. The Rev. C. Kingsley in Roman and. Teuton writes of
the Comacini, " Perhaps the original germ of the great society of
Freemasons."
FREEMASONRY
79
to accept such authority; but the very originality and audacity
of its promoters appears to have led to its success, and it was not
long before most of the lodges of the pre-Grand-Lodgeera joined
and accepted " constitution " by warrant of the Grand Master.
Not only so, but Ireland quickly followed the lead, so early as
1725 there being a Grand Lodge for that country which must have
been formed even still earlier, and probably by lodges started
before any were authorized in the Englisn counties. In Scotland
the change was not made until 1736, many lodges even then
holding aloof from such an -organisation. Indeed, out of some
hundred lodges known to have been active then, only thirty-three
responded and agreed to fall into line, though several joined later;
some, however, kept separate down to the end of the 19th century,
while others never united. Many of these lodges have records
of the 17th century though not then newly formed; one in
particular, the oldest (the Lodge of Edinburgh, No. 1), possesses
minutes so far back as the year x 509.
It is important to bear in mind that all the regular lodge?
throughout the world, and likewise all the Grand Lodges, directly
or indirectly, have sprung from one or othei of the three governing
bodies named; Ireland and Scotland following the example
set by their masonic mother of England in having Grand Lodges
of their own. It is not proved how the latter two became ac-
quainted with Freemasonry as a secret society, guided more or
less by the operative MS. Constitutions or Charges common to
the three bodies, not met with elsewhere; but the credit of a
Grand Lodge being established to control the lodges belongs to
England.
It may be a startling declaration, but it is well authenticated,'
that there is no other Freemasonry, as the term is now understood,
than what which has been so derived. In other words, the lodges
and Grand Lodges in both hemispheres trace their origin and
authority back to England for working what are known as the
Three Degrees, controlled by regular Grand Lodges. That being
so, a history of modern Freemasonry, the direct offspring of the
British parents aforesaid, should first of all establish the descent
of the three Grand Lodges from the Freemasonry of earlier days;
such continuity, of five centuries or more, being a sine qua non
of antiquity and regularity.
It will be found that from the early part of the x8th century
back to the 16th century existing records testify to the assemblies
of lodges, mainly operative, but partly speculative, in Great
Britain, whose guiding stars and common heritage were the Old
Charges, and that when their actual minutes and transactions
cease to be traced by reason of their loss, these same MS. Con-
stiiuiions furnish testimony of the still older working of such
combinations of freemasons or masons, without the assistance,
countenance or authority of any other masonic body; conse-
quently such documents still preserved, of the 14th and later
centuries (numbering about seventy, mostly in form of rolls),
with the existing lodge minutes referred to of the 16th century,
down to the establishment of the premier Grand Lodge in 17 17,
prove the continuity of the society. Indeed so universally has
this claim been admitted, that in popular usage the term Frtt-
mason is only now applied to those who belong to this particular
fraternity, that of mason being applicable to one who follows
that trade, or honourable calling, as a builder.
There is no evidence that during this long period any other
organisation of any kind, religious, philosophical, mystical or
otherwise, materially or even slightly influenced the customs
of the fraternity, though they, may have done so; but so far
as is known the lodges were of much the same character through-
out, and consisted really of operatives (who enjoyed practically
a monopoly for some time of the trade as masons or freemasons),
and, in part, of " speculatives," i.e. noblemen, gentlemen and
men of other trades, who were admitted as honorary members.
Assuming then that the freemasons of the present day are the
sole inheritors of the system arranged at the so-called " Revival
of 1717," which was a development from an operative body to
one partly speculative, and thai, so far back as the MS. Records
extend and furnish any light, they must have worked in Lodges
in secret throughout the period noted, a history of Freemasonry
should be mainly devoted to giving particulars, as far as possible,
of the lodges, their traditions, customs and laws, based upon
actual documents which can be tested and verified by members
and non-members alike.
It has been the rule to treat, more or less fully, of the influence
exerted on the fraternity by the Ancient Mysteries, the Essenes,
Roman Colleges, Culdees, Hermeticism, Fehm-Gerichte tt hoc
genus »m*f, especially the Stdnmetxai, the Craft Gilds and the
Companionage of France, &c; but in view of the separate and
independent character of the freemasons, it appears to be quite
unnecessary, and the time so employed would be better devoted
to a more thorough search after additional evidences of the
activity of the craft, especially during the crucial period overlap-
ping the second decade of the 18th century, so as to discover in-
formation as to the transmitted secrets of the medieval masons,
which, after all, may simply have been what Gaspard Mong*
felicitously entitles " Descriptive Geometry, or the Art and
Science of Masonic Symbolism."
The rules and regulations of the masons were embodied in
what are known as the Old Charges; the senior known copy
being the Regius MS. (British Museum Bibl. Reg. 17 A, L),
which, however, is not so exclusively devoted to masonry as the
later copies. David Casley, in his catalogue of the MSS. in the
King's Library (1734), unfortunately styled the little gem
A Poem of Moral Duties) and owing to this misdescription its
troe character was not recognized until the year 1839, and then
by a non-mason (Mr Halliwcll-Phillipps), who had it reproduced
in 1840 and brought out an improved edition in 1844. Its date
has been approximately fixed at 1300 by Casley and other
authorities.
The curious legend of the craft, therein made known, deals
first of all with the number of unemployed in early days and
t he necessity of finding work, " that they myght gete here lyvynge
thcrby." Euclid was consulted, and recommended the " onest
craft, of good masonry/' and the genesis of the society is found
" yn Egypte lande." By a rapid transition, but " mony erys.
afterwarde," we are told that the " Craft com ynto England yn
tyme of good kynge Adelstonus (iEtbclstan) day," who called
an assembly of the masons, when fifteen articles and as many more
points were agreed to for the government of the craft, each being
duly described. Each brother was instructed that —
" He must love wel God, and holy Churche algatt
And hys mayster also, that he ys wythe."
" The thrydde poynt must be severle.
With the prentes knowe hyt welc,
Hys mayster cownsel he kepe and close,
And hys felows by hys goode purpose ;
The prevetyse of the chamber telle he no mott,
Nv yn the loggc whatsevcr they done,
Whatsevcr thou heryst, or syste hem do*
Telle hyt no raon, whenever thou go."
The rules generally, besides referring to trade regulations, are
as a whole suggestive of the Ten Commandments in an extended
form, winding up with the legend bf the Ars quatuor coronatorum,
as an incentive to a faithful discharge of the numerous obligations.
A second part introduces a more lengthy account of the origin
of masonry, in which Noah's flood and the Tower of Babylon
are mentioned as well as the great skill of Euclid, who—
" Through hye grace of Crist yn heven.
He commented yn the syens seven " ;
The " seven sciences " are duly named and explained. The
compiler apparently was a priest, line 629 reading " And, when
ye gospel me rede sckai," thus also accounting' for the many
religious injunctions in the MS.; the last hundred Hoes are
evidently based upon UrbamtaUs (Cott. MS. Caligula A n.foL 88)
and Instructions for a Parish Priest (Cott. MS. Claudius A 11,
fol. 27), instructions such as lads and even men would need who
were ignorant of the customs of polite society, correct deportment
at church and in the presence of their social superiors.
The recital Of the legend of the Quatuer Conmati has been held
by Herr Findel in his History of Freemasonry (AUgemeine Ce-
schichU der Frtimawcm, 1862; English editions, 1866-1869)
to prove that British Freemasonry was derived from- Germany,
8o
FREEMASONRY
but without any justification, the legend being met with in
England centuries prior to the date of the Regius MS., and long
prior to its incorporation in masonic legends on the Continent.
The next MS., in order, is known as the " Cooke " (Ad. MS.
33,198, British Museum), because Matthew Cooke published a
fair reproduction of the document in 1861 ; and it is deemed by
competent paleographers to date from the first part of the 15th
century. There are two versions of the Old Charges in this little
book, purchased for the British Museum in 1859. The compiler
was probably a mason and familiar with several copies of these
MS. Constitutions, two of which be utilizes and comments upon;
he quotes from a MS. copy of the Policronicon the manner in
which a written account of the sciences was preserved in the two
historic stones at the time of the Flood, and generally makes
known the traditions of the society as well as the laws which
were to govern the members.
Its introduction into England through Egypt is noted (where
the Children of Israel " lernyd ye craft of Masonry "), also the
" lande of behest " (Jerusalem) and the Temple of Solomon (who
" confirmed ye chargys yt David his Fadir " had made). Then
masonry in France is interestingly described; and St Alban and
" j£thelstane with his yongest sone " (the Edwin of the later
MSS.) became the chosen mediums subsequently, as with the
other Charges, portions of the Old Testament are often cited in
order to convey a correct idea to the neophyte, who is to hear the
document read, as to these sciences which are declared to be free
in themselves (fro in hem scifc). Of all crafts followed by man
in this world " Masonry hathe the moste notabilite," as con-
firmed by " Elders that were bi for us of masons [who] had these
chargys wry ten," and " as is write and taught in ye boke of our
charges."
Until quite recently no representative or survival of this
particular version had been traced, but in 1800 one was dis-
covered of 1687 (since known as the William Watson MS.).
Of some seventy copies of these old scrolls which have been
unearthed, by far the greater proportion have been made public
since i860. They have all much in common, though often
curious differences are to be detected; are of English origin,
no matter where used; and when complete, as they mostly are,
whether of the xoth or subsequent centuries, are noteworthy
for an invocation or prayer which begins the recital.—
" The mighte of the flfather of heaven
And the wysedome of the glorious Sonne
through the grace and the goodnes of the holly
ghoste yt been three p'sons and one God
c ~ — '"*- " *—*— '-T and give us gn
lyving that wee maye
be with us at or beginning and give us grace
so to gou'ne us here in orlyving that wee maj _
come to his blisse that nevr shall have ending. — Amen."
(Grand Lodge MS. No. I, A.D. 1583.)
They are chiefly of the 17th century and nearly all located
in England; particulars may be found in Hughan 's Old Charges
of the British Freemasons (1872, 1895 and supplement xooo). 1
The chief scrolls, with some others, have been reproduced in
facsimile in six volumes of the Quatuor Coronatorum Antigrapka;
and the collection in Yorkshire has been published separately,
either in the West Yorkshire Reprints or the Ancient York
Masonic Rolls, Several have been transcribed and issued in
other works.
These scrolls give considerable information as to the tradi-
tions and customs of the craft, together with the regulations
for Its government, and were required to be read to. appren-
tices long after the peculiar rules ceased to be acted upon,
each lodge apparently having one or more copies kept for
the purpose. The old Lodge of Aberdeen ordered in 1670 that
the Charge was to be " read at ye entering of everie entered
prenteise "; another at Alnwick in 1701 provided —
" Noe Mason shall take any apprentice (but he must]
Enter him and give him his Charge, within one whole
year after " ;
* The service rendered by Dr W. Begemann (Germany) in his
" Attempt to Classify the Old Charges of the British Masons "
(vol x Trans, of the Quatuor Coronati Lodge, London) has been very
great, and the researches of the Rev. A. F. A. Woodford and G. w.
Speth have also been of the utmost consequence.
and still another at Swallwell (now No. 48 Gateshead) demanded
that " the Apprentices shall have their Charge given at the time
of Registering, or within thirty days after "; the minutes in-
serting such entries accordingly even so late as 1754, nearly
twenty years after the lodge bad cast in its lot with the Grand
Lodge of England.
Their Christian character is further emphasised by the " First
Charge that you shall be true men to God and the holy Church ";
the Yorh MS. No. 6 beseeches the brethren " at every meeting
and assembly they pray heartily for all Christians "; the Melrose
MS. No. 2 (1674) mentions " Merchants and all other Christian
men," and the Aberdeen MS. (1670) terms the invocation
44 A Prayer before the Meeting." Until the Grand Lodge era,
Freemasonry was thus wholly Christian. The York MS. No. 4
of 1693 contains a singular error in the admonitory lines: —
" The [n] one of the elders takeing the Booke and that
hee or shee that is to be made mason, shall lay their
hands thereon and the charge shall be given.
This particular reading was cited by Hughan in 1871, but was
considered doubtful; Findcl,* however, confirmed it, on his
visit to York under the guidance of the celebrated masonic
student the late Rev. A. F. A. Woodford. The mistake was due
possibly to the transcriber, who had an older roll before him,
confusing " they," sometimes written " the," with " she,"
or reading that portion, which is often in Latin, as UU vel ilia,
instead of Ule vel UU.
In some of the Codices, about the middle of the 17th century,
and later, New Articles are inserted, such as would be suitable
for an organization similar to the Masons' Company of London,
which had one, at least, of the Old Charges in its possession ac-
cording to inventories of 1665 and 1676; and likewise in 1731,
termed The Book of the Constitutions of the Accepted Masons'.
Save its mention (" Book wrote on parchment ") by Sir Francis
Palgrave in the Edinburgh Review (April 1839) as being in
existence " not long since,"" this valuable document has been
lost sight of for many years.
That there were signs and other secrets preserved and used
by the brethren throughout this mainly operative period may
be gathered from discreet references in these old MSS. The
Institutions in parchment (22nd of November 1696) of the
Dumfries Kilwinning Lodge (No. 53, Scotland) contain a copy
of the oath taken " when any man should be made ": —
" These Charges which we now rcherse to you and all others ye
secrets and misterys belonging to free masons you shall
faithfully and truly keep, together with ye Counsell of ye
assembly or lodge, or any other lodge, or brother, or fellow."
" Then after ye oath taken and the book kissed " (i.e. the Bible)
the " precepts" are read, the first being: —
" You shall be true men to God and his holy Church, and that
you do not countenance or maintaine any eror, faction,
schism or herisey, in ye church to ye best of your under-
standing." {History of No. S3, by James Smith.)
The Grand Lodge MS. No. 2 provides that " You shall keepe
secret ye obscure and intricate pts. of ye science, not disclosinge
them to any but such as study and use ye same."
The Harleian MS. No. 2054 (Brit. Mus.) is still more explicit,
termed TkeJJre* Masons Orders and Constitutions, and is in the
handwriting of Randle Holme (author of the Academic of
Armory, 1688), who was a member of a lodge in Cheshire. Follow-
ing the MS. Constitutions, in the same handwriting, about 1650,
is a scrap of paper with the obligation:—
" There is sevrall words and signes of a free Mason to be revatled
to yu wch as yu will answr. before God at the Great and
terrible day of judgmt. yu keep secret and not to revaile the
same to any in the heares of any p'son, but to the Mrs and
fellows of the Society of Free Masons, so hdpe me God, &c M
(W. H, Rylands, Mas. Mag., 1882.)
•Findel claims that his Treatise on the society was the cause
which " first impelled England to the study of masonic history
and ushered in the intellectual movement which resulted in the
writings of Bros. Hughan, Lyon, Gould and others." Great credit
was due to the late German author for Ins important work, but
before Its advent the Rev. A. F. A. Woodford, D. Murray Lyon
and others in Gnat Britain were diligent masonic students on sisnuar
FREEMASONRY
81
It b not yet settled who were the actual designers or architects
the grand old English cathedrals. Credit has been claimed
: church dignitaries, to the exclusion more or less of the master
Lsons, to whom presumably of right the distinction belonged,
early days the title " architect " is not met with, unless the
m " Ingenator " had that meaning, which is doubtful. As to
is interesting question, and as to the subject of building
nerally, an historical account of Master and Free Masons
Hstemrses upon Architecture in England, by the Rev. James
illaway, 1833), and Notts on Ike Superintendents of English
tildings in the Middle Ages (by Wyatt Papworth, 1887), should
consulted. Both writers were non-masons. The former
serves: " The honour due to the original founders of these
ifiees is almost invariably transferred to the ecclesiastics
der whose patronage they rose, rather than to the skill and
sign of the master mason, or professional architect, because the
ly historians were monks. . . . They were probably not so
11 versed in geometrical science as the master masons, for
ithetnatics formed a part of monastic learning in a very limited
pee." In the Journal of Proceedings R.l.B.A . vol. iv. (1887),
ikilful critic (W.H. White) declares that Papworth, in that valu-
le collection of facts, has contrived to annihilate all the profes-
<nal idols of the century, set Ling up in their place nothing
xpt the master mason. The brotherhood of Bridge-builders, 1
it travelled far and wide to build bridges, and the travelling
dies of Freemasons, 1 he believes never existed; nor was
imam of Wykeham the designer of the colleges attributed to
n. It seems well-nigh impossible to disprove the statements
ide by Papworth, because they are all so well grounded on
ested facts; and the attempt to connect the Abbey of Cluny,
men trained at Cluny, with the original or preliminary designs
the great buildings erected during the middle ages, at least
ring the 12th and 13th centuries, is also a failure. The whole
at ion is ably and fully treated in the History of Freemasonry
Robert Frcke Gould (1886-1887), particularly in chapter vi.
" Medieval Operative Masonry," and in his Concise History
03).
rhc lodge is often met with, either as the tabula turn domicialem
00, at St Alban's Abbey) or actually so named in the Fabric
Us of York Minster (1370), ye loge being situated close to the
e in course of erection; it was used as a place in which the
oes were prepared in private for the structure, as well as
upied at meal- time, &c. Each mason was required to " swere
mi ye boke yt he sail trewly andc bysyli at his power, hold and
ie holy all ye poynles of yis forsayde ordinance" {Ordinacio
nentanorum).
Is to the term /ree-mason, from the 14th century, it is held
some authorities that it described simply those men who
rked " freestone," but there is abundant evidence to prove
X, whatever may have been intended at first, /ree-mason soon
1 a much wider signification, the prefix/res being also employed
carpenters (1666), sewers (15th century, tailors at Exeter) and
iers, presumably to indicate they were free to follow their
des in certain localities. On this point Mr Gould well observes:
rhe class of persons from whom the Freemasons of Warrington
J46), Staffordshire (1686), Chester, York, London and their
tgeners in the 17th century derived the descriptive title,
ich became the inheritance of the Grand Lodge of England,
re free men, and masons of Gilds or Companies " {History,
1. ii. p. 160). Dr Brcntano may also be cited: " Wherever
t Craft Guilds were legally acknowledged, we find foremost,
at the right to exercise their craft, and sell their manufactures,
pended upon the freedom of their city " {Development of
aids, &c, p. 65). In like manner, the privilege of working
a mason was not conferred before candidates had been " made
*." The regular free-masons would not work with men, even
they had a knowledge of their trade, " if ttufree," but styled
1 It is not considered necessary to refer at length to the Fratres
nlis, or other imaginary bodies of freemasons, as such questions
iy well be left to the curious and interested student.
■ " No distinct trace of the general employment of large migratory
ads of masons, going from place to place as a guild, or company,
brotherhood '* (Prof. T. Hayter-Lewis, Brit. Arch. Assoc., 1889).
XI 2*
them " Cowans," a course justified by the king's " Maister of
Work,'.' William Schaw, whose Statutis and Ordmoneeis (28th
December 1508) required that " Na maister or fellow of craft
ressauc any cawanis to wirk in his societie or companye, nor send
nane of his servants to wirk wt, cowanis, under the pane of
t wen tie pounds." Gradually, however, the rule was relaxed, in
time such monopoly practically ceased, and the word " cowan "
is only known in connexion with speculative Freemasonry.
Sir Walter Scott, as a member of Lodge St David (No. 36), was
familiar with the word and used it in Reb Roy. In 1707 a cowan
was described in the minutes of Mother Lodge Kilwinning,
as a mason " without the word," thus one who was not a free
mason {History of the Lodge of Edinburgh No. /, by D. Murray
Lyon, 1000).
In the New English Dictionary (Oxford, vol. iv., 1807) under
" Freemason " it is noted that three views have been pro-
pounded :— (x) "The suggestion that free-mason stands for
free-stone-mason would appear unworthy of attention, but
for the curious fact that the earliest known instances of any
similar appellation are mestre mason defranche peer (Act 25 Edw.
IIL, 1350), and sculptures lapidum liberorum, alleged to occur
in a document of 1317; the coincidence, however, seems to be
merely accidental. (2) The view most generally held is that
freemasons were those who were free of the masons' guild.
Against this explanation many forcible objections have been
brought by Mr G. W. Speth, who suggests (3) that the itinerant
masons were called free because they claimed exemption from .
the control of the local guilds of the towns in which they
temporarily settled. (4) Perhaps the best hypothesis is that the
term refers to the medieval practice of emancipating skilled
artisans, in order that they might be able to travel and render
their services wherever any great building was in process of
construction." The late secretary of the Quatuor Coronati
Lodge (No. 2076, London) has thus bad his view sanctioned by
" the highest tribunal in the Republic of Letters so far as
Philology is concerned " (Dr W. J. Chetwode Crawley in Art
Quatuor Coronaiorum, 1898). Still it cannot be denied that
members of lodges in the xfjth and following centuries exercised
the privilege of making free masons and denied the freedom
of working to cowans (also called vM-freemen) who had not been
so made free; " the Masownys of the luge " being the only ones
recognized as freemasons. As to the prefix being derived from
the word frert, a sufficient answer is the fact that frequent
reference is made to " Brother /recmasons," so that no ground for
that supposition exists (cf. articles by Mr Gould in the Freemason
for September 1808 on " Free and Freemasonry ").
There are numerous indications of masonic activity in the
British lodges of the 17th century, especially in Scotland;
the existing records, however, of the southern part of the United
Kingdom, though few, arc of importance, some only having been
made known in recent years. These concern the Masons'
Company of London, whose valuable minutes and other docu-
ments are ably described and commented upon by Edward
Conder, jr., in his Hole Crafte and Fellowship of Masons (1894),
the author then being the Master of that ancient company. It
was incorporated in 1677 by Charles II., who graciously met the
wishes of the members, but as a company the information " that
is to be found in the Corporation Records at Guildhall proves very
clearly that in 1376 the Masons' Company existed and was
represented in the court of common council." The title then
favoured was 4 ' Masons," the entry of the term " Freemasons "
being crossed out. Herbert erroneously overlooked the correc-
tion, and stated in his History of the Twelve Great Livery Com-
panies (vol. i.) that the Freemasons returned two, and the Masons
four members, but subsequently amalgamated; whereas the
revised entry was for the " Masons " only. The Company
obtained a grant of arms in 147 2 (1 ath year Hen. VIII.), one of the
first of the kind, being thus described.'—" A feld of Sablys A
Cheveron silver grailed thre Castellis of the same garnysshed wt.
dores and wyndows of the feld in the Cheveron or Cumpas of
Black of Blak "; it is the authority (if any) for all later armorial
bearings having a chevron and castles, assnmrri by other masonic
82
FREEMASONRY
organizations. This precious document was only discovered in
187 1 , having been missing for a long time, thus doubtless account-
ing for the erroneous representations met with, not having the
correct blazon to follow. The oldest masonic motto known
is " God is our Guide " on Kerwin's tomb in St Helen's church,
Bishopgate, of 1504; that of " In the Lord is all our trust "
not being traced until the next century. Supporters consisting
of two done columns are mentioned in x688 by Randle Holme,
but the Grand Lodge of England in the following century used
Beavers as operative builders. Its first motto was " In the
beginning was the Word " (in Greek), exchanged a few years on-
ward for " Relief and Truth," the rival Grand Lodge (Atholl
Masons) selecting " Holiness to the Lord " (in Hebrew), and the
final selection at the " Union of December 1813 " being Audi
Vide Tact.
Mr Conder's discovery of a lodge of " Accepted Masons " being
held under the wing of the Company was a great surprise, dating
as the records do from 1620 to 1631 (the earliest of the kind yet
traced in England), when seven were made masons, all of whom
were free of the Company before, three being of the Livery;
the entry commencing " Att the making masons." The meetings
were entitled the " Acception," and the members of the lodge
were called Accepted Masons, being those so accepted and initiated,
the term never otherwise being met with in the Records. An
additional fee had to be paid by a member of the Company to
join the "Acception," and any not belonging thereto were
mulct in twice the sum; though even then such " acceptance "
did not qualify for membership of the superior body; the fees
for the - Acception " being £1 and £1 respectively. In 163&-
2630, when Nicholas Stone entered the lodge (he was Master
of the Company 1633-1633) the banquet cost a considerable
sum, showing that the number of brethren present must have
been large.
Elias Ashmole (who according to his diary was " made a Free
Mason of Warrington with Colonel Henry Mainwaring," seven
brethen being named as in attendance at the lodge, x6th of
October 1646) states that he " received a summons to appear at
a Lodge to be held next day at Masons' Hall, London." Accord-
ingly on the xith of March 1682 he attended and saw six gentle-
men " admitted into the Fellowship of Free Masons," of whom
three only belonged to the Company; the Master, however,
Mr Thomas Wise, the two wardens and six others being present
on the occasion as members in their dual capacity. Ashmole
adds: " We all dyned at the Halfe Moone Tavern in Cheapside
at a noble dinner prepaired at the charge of the new-accepted
Masons."
It is almost certain that there was not an operative mason
present at the Lodge held in 1646, and at the one which met
in 1682 there was a strong representation of the speculative
branch. Before the year 1654 the Company was known as that
of the Freemasons for some time, but after then the old title
of Masons was reverted to, the terms " Acception " and
" Accepted " belonging to the speculative Lodge, which, however,
in all probability either became independent or ceased to work
soon after 1682. It is very interesting to note that subsequently
(but never before) the longer designation is met with of " Free
and Accepted Masons," and is thus a combination of operative
and speculative usage.
Mr Conder is of opinion thaf in the Records " there is no
evidence of any particular ceremony attending the position of
Master Mason, possibly it consisted of administering a different
oath from the one taken by the apprentices on. being entered."
There is much to favour this supposition, and it may provide
the key to the vexata quaestio as to the plurality of degrees prior
to the Grand Lodge era. The fellow-crafts were recruited from
those apprentices who had served their time and had their essay
(or sufficient trial of their skill) duly passed; they and the'
Masters, by the Sckaw Statutes of 1598, being only admitted in
the presence of " sex Maisteris and ttea tnteril prenteissis." As
a rule a master mason meant one who was master of his trade, i.e.
duly qualified; but it sometimes described employers as distinct
from journeymen Freemasons; being also a compliment con-
ferred on honorary members during the 17th century in
particular.
In Dr Plot's History of Staffordshire (1686) is a remarkable
account of the " Society of Freemasons," which, being by an
unfriendly critic, is all the more valuable. He states that the
custom had spread " more or less all over the nation "; persons
of the most eminent quality did not disdain to enter the Fellow-
ship; they had " a large parchment volum containing the History
and Rules of the Craft of Masonry "; St Amphibal, St Alban,
King Athelstan and Edwin are mentioned, and these " charges
and manners " were " after perusal approved by King Hen. 6
and his council, both as to Masters and Fellows of this right
Worshipfull craft." It is but fair to add that notwithstanding
the service he rendered the Society by his lengthy description,
that credulous historian remarks of its history that there is
nothing he ever u met with more false or incoherent."
The author of the Academic of Armory, previously noted,
knew better what he was writing about in that work of 1688 in
which he declares: " I cannot but Honor the Fellowship of
the Masons because of its Antiquity; and the more, as being a
member of that Society, called Free Masons " Mr Rylands states
that in Harl. MS. 5Q55 is a collection of the engraved plates for a
second volume of this important work, one being devoted to the
Arms of the Society, the columns, as supporters, having globes
thereon, from which possibly are derived the two pillars, with
such ornaments or additions seen in lodge rooms at a later period.
In the same year " A Tripos or Speech delivered at a, commence-
ment in the University of Dublin held there July xx, 1688, by
John Jones, then A.B., afterwards D.D.," contained " notable
evidence concerning Freemasonry in Dublin." The Tripos was
included in Sir Walter Scott's edition of Dean Swift's works
(1814), but as Dr Chetwode Crawley points out, though noticed
by the Rev. Dr George Oliver (the voluminous Masonic author),
he failed to realize its historical importance. The satirical and
withal amusing speech was partly translated from the Latin by
Dr Crawley for his scholarly introduction to the Masonic Re-
prints, &c, by Henry Sadler. " The point seems to be that
Ridley (reputed to have been an informer against priests under
the barbarous penal laws) was, or ought to have been, hanged;
that his carcase, anatomized and stuffed, stood in the library;
and that froth scouudreUtts discovered on his remains the Free-
masons' Mark." The importance of the references to the craft in
Ireland is simply owing to the year in which they were made,
as illustrative of the influence of the Society at that time, of which
records are lacking.
It is primarily to Scotland, however, that we have to look
for such numerous particulars of the activity of the fraternity
from 1509 to the establishment of its Grand Lodge in 1736,
for an excellent account of which we are indebted to Lyon, the
Scottish masonic historian. As early as 1600 (8th of June) the
attendance of John Boswell, Esq., the laird of Auchinleck, is
entered in the minutes of the Lodge of Edinburgh; he' attested
the record and added his mark, as did the other members; so
it was not his first appearance. Many noblemen and other
gentlemen joined this ancient aldier, notably Lord Alexander,
Sir Anthony Alexander and Sir Alexander Strachan in 1634.
the king's Master of Work (Herric Alexander) in 1638, General
Alexander Hamilton in 1640, Dr Hamilton in 1647, and many
other prominent and distinguished men later; "James Keilsooe,
Master Sklaitter to His Majestic," who was " entered and post
in the Lodge of Linlithgow, being elected a joining member,''
2nd March 1654. Quarter-Master General Robert Moray (or
Murray) was initiated by members of the Lodge of Edinburgh,
at Newcastle on the 20th of May 1641, while the Scottish amy
was in occupation. On due report to their Alma Mater such
reception was allowed, the occurrence having been considered
the first of its kind in England until the ancient Records of the
Masons' Company were published.
The minute-books of a number of Scottish Lodges, which are
still on the register, go back to the 17th century, and abundantly
confirm the frequent admission of speculattves as members and
officers, especially those of the venerable " Mother Lodge
FREEMASONRY
83
Kilwinning," of which the earl of Casslllis was the deacon in 167a,
who was succeeded by Sir Alexander Cunningham, and the earl
of EglinLon, who like the first of the trio was but an apprentice.
There were three Head Lodges according to the Scottish Code of
1509, Edinburgh being " the first and principal!," Kilwinning
" the sccund," and Stirling " the third ludge."
The Aberdeen Lodge (No. x tris) has records preserved from
1670, in which year what is known as the Mark Book begins,
containing the oldest existing roll of members, numbering 49,
all of whom have their marks registered, save two, though only
ten were operatives. The names of the earls of Finlater, Erroll
and Dunfermline, Lord Forbes, several ministers and professional
men are on the list, which was written by a glazier, all of whom
bad been enlightened as to the " benefit of the measson word,"
and inserted in order as they " were made fellow craft." The
Charter {Old Charges) had to be read at the " entering of everie
prenteise," and the officers included a master and two wardens.
The lodge at Melrose (No. 1 bis) with records back to 1674 did
not join the Grand Lodge until 1891, and was the last of those
working (possibly centuries before that body was formed) to
accept the modern system of government. Of the many note-
worthy lodges mention should be made of that of " Canongatc
Kilwinning No. 2," Edinburgh, the first of the numerous pendicles
of" Mother Lodge Kilwinning, No. o," Ayrshire, started in 1677;
and of the Journeymen No 8, formed in 1 707, which was a secession
from the Lodge of Edinburgh; the Fellow Crafts or Journeymen
not being satisfied with their treatment by the Freemen Masters
of the Incorporation of Masons, &c. This action led to a trial
before the Lords of Council and Session, when finally a " Decreet
Arbitral " was subscribed to by both parties, and the junior
organisation was permitted " to give the mason word as it is
called " in a separate lodge. The presbytery of Kelso 1 in 1652
sustained the action of the Rev. James Ainslie in becoming a
Freemason, declaring that " there is neither sinne nor scandale
in that word " {i.e. the " Mason Word "), which is often alluded
to but never revealed in the old records already referred to. 1
One Scottish family may be cited in illustration of the continuous
working of Freemasonry, whose membership is enshrined in
the records of the ancient Lodge of " Scoon and Perth No. 3 "
and others. A venerable document, lovingly cared for by No. 3,
bears date 1658, and recites how John Mylne came to Perth from
the " North Countrie," and was the king's Master Mason and
W.M. of the Lodge, his successor being his son, who entered
" King James the sixt as fireman measone and fellow craft ";
bis third son John was a member of Lodge No. x and Master
Mason to Charles I., 1631-1636, and his eldest son was a deacon
of No. 1 eleven times during thirty years. To him was
apprenticed his nephew, who was warden in 1663-1664 and
deacon several times. William Mylne was a warden in 1695,
Thomas (eldest son) was Master in 173 s, and took part in the
formation of the Grand Lodge of Scotland. Others of the family
continued to join the Lodge No. 1, until Robert, the last of the
Mylnes as Freemasons, was initiated in 1754, died in 181 1, and
M was buried in St Paul's cathedral, having been Surveyor to
that Edifice for fifty years," and the last of the masonic Mylnes
for five generations. The " St John's Lodge," Glasgow (No. 3
bis), has some valuable old records and a " Charter Cheat "
with the words carved thereon " God save the King and Masons
Craft, 1684." Loyalty and Charity are the watchwords of the
Society.
The Craft Gilds {Corps d'£iat) of France, and their progeny
the Companionate, have been fully described by Mr Gould,
and the Steinmetzen of Germany would require too detailed
notice if we were to particularize its rules, customs and general
•The Associate Synod which met at Edinburgh, March 1755,
fast a century later, took quite an opposite view, deciding to depose
from office any of their brethren who would not give up their masonic
membership {Scots Mag., 1755, p. 158). Papal Bulls have also
been issued against the craft, the first being in 1738; but neither
interdicts nor anathemata have any influence with the fraternity,
and fall quite harmless.
* " We have the Mason Word and second sight.
Things for to come wc can fortell aright. '
{The Muses Threnodic, by H. Adamson, Edin., 1638.)
character, from about the 12th century onward. Much as there
was in common between the Stonemasons of Germany and the
Freemasons of Great Britain and Ireland, it must be conceded
that the two societies never united and were all through this
long period wholly separate and independent; a knowledge of
Freemasonry and authority to hold lodges in Germany being
derived from the Grand Lodge of England during the first half
of the x8th century. The theory of the derivation of the Free-
masons from the Steinmetxen was first propounded in 1779 by
the abbe* Grandidier, and has been maintained by more modern
writers, such as Fallou, Heideloff and Schneider, but a thorough
examination of their statements has resulted in such an origin
being generally discredited. Whether the Steinmetzen bad secret
signs of recognition or not, is not quite clear, but that the Free-
masons bad, for centuries, cannot be doubted, though precisely
what they were may be open to question, and also what portions
of the existing ceremonies are reminiscent of the craft anterior
to the Revival of 17x7. Messrs Speth and Gould favour the
notion that there were two distinct and separate degrees prior to
the third decade of the x8lh century {Art Q.C., 1898 and 1903),
while other authorities have either supported the One degree
theory, or consider there is not sufficient evidence to warrant
a decision. Recent discoveries, however, tend in favour of the
first view noted, such as the Trinity College MS., Dublin (" Free
Masonry, Feb. 17 11 "), and the invaluable' Chetwode Crawley
MS, (Grand Lodge Library, Dublin); the second being read in
connexion with the Haughfoot Lodge Records, beginning 1702
{Hist, of Freemasonry, by W. F. Vernon, X893).
Two of the most remarkable lodges at work during the period
of transition (1717-1723), out of the many then existing in
England, assembled at Alnwick and at York. The origin of the
first noted is not known, but there are minutes of the meetings
from 1703, the Rules are of 1701, signed by quite a number of
members, and a transcript of the Old Charges begins the volume.
In 1 708-1 709 a minute provided for a masonic procession, at
which the brethren were 'to walk " with their aprons on and
Comon Square." The Lodge consisted mainly of operative
" free Brothers," and continued for many years, a code of by-
laws being published in 1763, but it never united with the Grand
Lodge, giving up the struggle for existence a few years further on.
The other lodge, the most noteworthy of all the English
predecessors of the Grand Lodge of England, was long held at
York, the Mecca of English Freemasons. 4 Its origin is unknown,
but there are traces of its existence at an early date, and possibly
it was a survival of the Minster Lodge of the 14th century.
Assuming that the Yorh MS. No. 4 of 1693 was the property
of the lodge in that year (which Roll was presented by George
Walker of Wetherby in 1777), the entry which concludes that
Scroll is most suggestive, as it gives " The names of the Lodge "
(members) and the " Lodge Ward(en)." Its influence most
probably may be also noted at Scarborough, where " A private
Lodge " was held on the xoth of July 1705, at which the president
" William Thompson, Esq., and severall others brethren ffrce
Masons " were present, and six gentlemen (named) " were then
admitted into the said flraternity." These particulars are en-
dorsed on the Scarborough MS. of the Old Charges, now owned
by the Grand Lodge of Canada at Toronto. " A narrow folio
manuscript Book beginning 7th March 1 705-1 706," which was
quoted from in 1778, has long been missing, which is much to be
regretted, as possibly it gave particulars of the lodge which
assembled at Bradford, Yorkshire, " when 18 Gentlemen of the
first families in that neighbourhood were made Masons." There
is, however, another roll of records from 1712 to 1730 happily
preserved of this " Ancient Honble. Society and Fraternity
of Free Masons," sometimes styled " Company " or " Society of
Free and Accepted Masons."
Not to be behind the London fratres, the York brethren formed
a Grand Lodge on the 1 27th of December 1725 (the " Grand
» The Chetwode Crawley MS., by W. J. Huyhan (Are. Q.C. 1904).
* The Yorh Grand Lodge, by Messrs. Hughan and Whytehead
(Ars Q.C., 1900), and Masonic Sketches and Reprints (1871), by the
former.
84
FREEMASONRY
Lodge of eU England" wu its modest title), and was flourishing
for years, receiving into their company many county men of great
influence. Some twenty years later there was a brief period
of somnolence, but in 1761 a revival took place, with Francis
Drake, the historian, as Grand Master, ten lodges being chartered
in Yorkshire, Cheshire and Lancashire, 1 762-1 700, and a Grand
Lodge of England, south of the Trent, in 1779, at London,
which warranted two lodges. Before the century ended all these
collapsed or joined the Grand Lodge of England, so there was
not a single representative of " York Masonry " left on the advent
of the next century.
The premier Grand Lodge of England soon began to constitute
new Lodges in the metropolis, and to reconstitute old ones that
applied for recognition, one of the earliest of 1720-1721 being
still on the Roll as No. 6, thus having kept company ever since
with the three " lime immemorial Lodges," Nos. 2, 4 and 12.
Applications for constitution kept coming in, the provinces
being represented from 1723 to 1724, before which time it is likely
the Grand Lodge of Ireland 1 had been started, about which the
most valuable Cacmtniaria Hibernica by Dr Chetwode Crawley
may be consulted with absolute confidence. Provincial Grand
Lodges were formed to ease the authorities at headquarters,
and, as the society spread, also for the Continent, and gradually
throughout the civilized globe. Owing to the custom prevailing
before the i8th century, a few brethren were competent to form
lodges on their own initiative anywhere, and hence the registers
of the British Grand Lodges are not always indicative of the first
appearance of the craft abroad. In North America 1 lodges were
held before what is known as the first " regular " lodge was
formed at Boston, Mass., in 1733, and probably in Canada 3
likewise. The same remark applies to Denmark, France, Ger-
many, Holland, Italy, Portugal, Russia, Spain, Sweden and other
countries. Of the many scores of military lodges, the first war-
rant was granted by Ireland in 1732. To no other body of
Freemasons has the craft been so indebted for its prosperity in
early days as to their military brethren. There were rivals to
the Grand Lodge of England during the x8th century, one of
considerable magnitude being known as the Ancients or Atholl
Masons, formed in 1751, but in December 1813 a junction was
effected, and from that time the prosperity of the United Grand
Lodge of England, with few exceptions, has been extraordinary
Nothing but a volume to itself could possibly describe the
main features of the English Craft from 17 17, when Anthony
Sayer was elected the first Grand Master of a brilliant galaxy
of rulers. The first nobleman to undertake that office was the
duke of Montagu in 1721, the natural philosopher J. T.
Desaguliers being his immediate predecessor, who has been
credited (and also the Rev. James Anderson) with the honour of
starting the premier Grand Lodge; but like the fable of Sir
Christopher Wren having been Grand Master, evidence is entirely
lacking. Irish and Scottish peers share with those of England
the distinction of presiding over the Grand Lodge, and from
1782 to 1813 their Royal Highnesses the duke of Cumberland,
the prince of Wales, or the duke of Sussex occupied the masonic
throne. From 1753 to 1813 the rival Grand Lodge had been
busy, but ultimately a desire for a united body prevailed, and
under the " ancient " Grand Master, H.R.H. the duke of Kent,
it was decided to amalgamate with the original ruling organiza-
tion, H.R.H. the duke of Sussex becoming the Grand Master of
the United Grand Lodge. On the decease of the prince in 1843
the earl of Zetland succeeded, followed by the marquess of Ripon
in 1874, on whose resignation H.R.H. the prince of Wales
became the Grand Master. Soon after succeeding to the throne,
1 The celebrated ,( Lady Freemason," the Hon. Mrs Aldworth
{net Miss St Lcger, daughter of Lord Doneraile), was initiated in
Ireland, but at a much earlier date than popularly supposed;
certainly not later than 17 13, when the venturesome lady was
twenty. All early accounts ofthe occurrence must be received with
caution, as there are no contemporary records of the event.
* History of Freemasonry, by Dr A. G. Mackey (New York, 1 898),
and the History of the Fraternity Publishing Company, Boston,
Mass., give very full particulars as to the United States.
• See History of Freemasonry in Canada (Toronto, 1899), by J.
Ross Robertson.
King Edward VII. ceased to govern the English craft, and was
succeeded by H.R.H. the duke of Connaught. From 1737 to
1007 some sixteen English princes of the royal blood joined the
brotherhood.
From 1723 to 1813 the number of lodges enrolled in England
amounted to 1626, and from 1814 to the end of December 1909
as many as 3352 were warranted, making a grand total of 4978,
of which the last then granted was numbered 3x85. There were
in 1009 still 2876 on the register, notwithstanding the many
vacancies created by the foundation of new Grand Lodges in the
colonics and elsewhere.
Distribution and Organization. — The advantage of the cosmo-
politan basis of the fraternity generally (ihough some Grand
Lodges still preserve the original Christian foundation) has been
conspicuously manifested and appreciated in India and other
countries where the votaries of numerous religious systems
congregate; but the unalterable basis of a belief in the Great
Architect of the Universe remains, for without such a recognition
there can be no Freemasonry, and it is now, as it always has been,
entirely free from party politics. The charities of the Society in
England, Ireland and Scotland are extensive and well organized,
their united cost per day not being less than £500, and with (hose
of other Grand Lodges throughout the world must amount to
a very large sum, there being over two millions of Freemasons.
The vast increase of late years, both of lodges and members,
however, calls for renewed vigilance and extra care in selecting
candidates, that numbers may not be a source of weakness
instead of strength.
In its internal organization, the working of Freemasonry
involves an elaborate system of symbolic ritual,* as carried out
at meetings of the various lodges, uniformity as to essentials
being the rule. The members are classified in numerous degrees,
of which the first throe arc " Entered Apprentice," ** Fellow
Craft " and " Master Mason," each class of which, after initia-
tion, can only be attained after passing a prescribed ordeal or
examination, as a lest of proficiency, corresponding to the
" essays " of the operative period.
The lodges have their own by-laws for guidance, subject to
the Book of Constitutions of their Grand Lodge, and the regula-
tions of the provincial or district Grand Lodge if located in
counties or held abroad.
It is to be regretted that on the continent of Europe Free-
masonry has sometimes developed on different lines from thai
of the " Mother Grand Lodge " and Anglo-Saxon Grand Lodges
generally, and through its political and anti-religious tendencies
has come into contact or conflict with the state authorities 1
or the Roman Catholic church. The " Grand Orient of France "
(but not the Supreme Council 33*, and its Grand Lodge) is an
example of this retrograde movement, by its elimination of
the paragraph referring to a belief in the " Great Architect of
the Universe " from its Slaluts et riglcmcnts gdnfraux. This
deplorable action has led to the withdrawal of all regular Grand
Lodges from association with that body, and such separation
must continue until a return is made to the ancient and inviolable
landmark of the society, which makes it impossible for an atheist
cither to join or continue a member of the fraternity.
The Grand Lodge of England constituted its first lodge in
Taris in the year 1732, but one was formed still earlier on the
continent at Gibraltar 1728-1729. Others were also opened in
Germany 1733, Portugal 1735, Holland 1735, Switzerland 1740,
Denmark 1745, Italy 1763, Belgium 1765, Russia 1771, and
* The Masonic Records 1717-1894, by John Lane, and the ex-
cellent Masonic Yearbook, published annually by the Grand Lodge
of England, are the two standard works on Lodge enumeration,
localization and nomenclature. For particulars of the Grand Lodges,
and especially that of England, Gould's History is most useful and
trustworthy; and for an original contribution to the history of the
rival Grand Lodge or Atholl Masons, Sadler's Masonic Facts §nd
Fictions,
• " A peculiar system of Morality, veiled in Allegory and illus-
trated by Symbols " (old definition of Freemasonry).
•The British House of Commons in 1799 and 1817, in act* of
parliament, specifically recognized the laudable character of the
society and provided for its continuance on definite lines.
FREEPORT— FREE PORTS
»5
Sweden 1773. In most of these countries Grand Lodges were
subsequently created and continue to this date, save that in
Austria (not Hungary) and Russia no masonic lodges have for
some time been permitted to assemble. There is a union of Grand
Lodges of Germany, and an annual Diet is held for the transaction
of business affecting the several masonic organizations in that
country, which works well. H.R.H. Prince Frederick Leopold
was in 1009 Protector, or the " Wisest Master " (Vicarius
Salomonis). King Gustav V. was the Grand Master + of the
freemasons in Sweden, and the sovereign of the " Order of Charles
X1IL," the only one of the kind confined to members of the
fraternity.
Lodges were constituted in India from 1730 (Calcutta), 1752
(Madras), and 1758 (Bombay); in Jamaica 1742, Antigua 1738,
and St Christopher 1739; soon after which period the Grand
Lodges of England, Ireland and Scotland had representatives
at work throughout the civilized world.
In no part, however, outside Great Britain has the craft
flourished so much as in the United States of America, where the
first " regular " lodge (i.e. according to the new regime) was
opened in 1733 at Boston, Mass. Undoubtedly lodges had
been meeting still earlier, one of which was held at Philadelphia,
Penna., with records from 1731, which blossomed into a Grand
Lodge, but no authority has yet been traced for its proceedings,
save that which may be termed " time immemorial right,"
which was enjoyed by all lodges and brethren who were at work
prior to the Grand Lodge era (1 716-17 17) or who declined to
recognize the autocratic proceedings of the premier Grand Lodge
of England, just as the brethren did in the city of York. A
" deputation " was granted to Daniel Coxe, Esq. of New Jersey,
by the duke of Norfolk, Grand Master, 5th of June 1730, as
Prov. Grand Master of the" Provinces of New York, New Jersey
and Pensilvania," but there is no evidence that he ever constituted
any lodges or exercised any masonic authority in virtue thereof.
Henry Price as Prov. Grand Master of New England, and his
lodge, which was opened on the 31st of August 1733, in the city
of Boston, so far as is known, began " regular " Freemasonry in
the United States, and the older and independent organization
was soon afterwards " regularized." Benjamin Franklin (an
Initiate of the lodge of Philadelphia) printed and published the
Book of Constitutions, 1723 (of London, England), in the " City
of Brotherly Love " in 1734, being the oldest masonic work in
America. English and Scottish Grand Lodges were soon after
petitioned to grant warrants to hold lodges, and by the end of
the 1 8th century several Grand Lodges were formed, the Craft
becoming very popular, partly no doubt by reason of so many
prominent men joining the fraternity, of whom the chief was
George Washington, initialed in a Scottish lodge at Fredericks-
burg, Virginia, in 1752-1753. In 1007 there were fifty Grand
Lodges assembling in the United States, with considerably over
a million members.
In Canada in 1909 there were eight Grand Lodges, having
about 64,000 members. Freemasonry in the Dominion is be-
lieved to date from 1740. The Grand Lodges are all of com-
paratively recent organization, the oldest and largest, with
40,000 members, being for Ontario; those of Manitoba, Nova
Scotia and Quebec numbering about 5000 each. There are
some seven Grand Lodges in Australia; South Australia coming
first as a " sovereign body," followed closely by New South
Wales and Victoria (of 1884-1889 constitution), the whole of
the lodges in the Commonwealth probably having fully 50,000
members on the registers.
There are many additional degrees which may be taken or not
(being quite optional), and dependent on a favourable ballot;
the difficulty, however, of obtaining admission increases as pro-
gress is made, the numbers accepted decreasing rapidly with each
advancement. The chief of these are arranged in separate
classes and are governed either by the " Grand Chapter of the
Royal Arch," the " Mark Grand Lodge," the " Great Priory of
Knights Templars " or the " Ancient and Accepted Rite," these
being mutually complementary and intimately connected as
respects England, and more or less so in Ireland, Scotland,
North America and wherever worked on a similar basis; the
countries of the continent of Europe nave also their own Hautes
Grades. (W. J. H. •)
FREEPORT, a city and the county-seat of Stephenson county,
Illinois, in the N.W. part of the state, on the Pccatonka river,
30 m. from its mouth and about 100 m. N.W. of Chicago. Pop.
(1800) 10,189; (1000) 13,258, of whom 2264 were foreign-born;
(1910 census) 17,567. The city is served by the Chicago &
North-Western, the Chicago, Milwaukee & St Paul, and the
Illinois Central railways, and by the Rock ford & Interurban
electric railway. The Illinois Central connects at South Free-
port, about 3 m. S. of Freeport, with the Chicago Great Western
railway. Among Freeport 's manufactures are foundry and
machine shop products, carriages, hardware specialties, patent
medicines, windmills, engines, incubators, organs, beer and
shoes. The Illinois Central has large railway repair shops here.
The total value of the city's factory product in 1905 was
$3,109,302, an increase of 14*8% since 1000. In the sur-
rounding country cereals are grown, and swine and poultry are
raised. Dairying is an important industry also. The city
has a Carnegie library (1001). In the Court House Square is
a monument, 80 ft. high, in memory of the soldiers who died
in the Civil War. At the corner of Douglas Avenue and
Mechanic Street a granite boulder commemorates the famous
debate between Abraham Lincoln and Stephen A. Douglas,
held in Freeport on the 27th of August 1858. In that debate
Lincoln emphasized the differences between himself and the
radical anti-slavery men, and in answer to one of Lincoln's
questions Douglas declared that the people of a territory, through
" unfriendly " laws or denial of legislative protection, could
exclude slavery, and that " it matters not what way the Supreme
Court may hereafter decide on the abstract question whether
slavery may or may not go into a territory under the Constitu-
tion." This, the so-called " Freeport doctrine," greatly weakened
Douglas in the presidential election of i860. Freeport was
settled in 1835, was laid out and named Winneshiek in 1836,
and in 1837 under its present name was made the county-seat
of Stephenson county. It was incorporated as a town in 1850
and chartered as a city in 1855.
FREE FORTS, a term, strictly speaking, given to localities
where no customs duties arc levied, and where no customs super-
vision exists. In these ports (subject to payment for specific
services rendered, wharfage, storage, &c, and to the observance
of local police and sanitary regulations) ships load* and unload,
cargoes are deposited and handled, industries are exercised,
manufactures are carried on, goods arc bought and sold, without
any action on the part of fiscal authorities. Ports are likewise
designated " free " where a space or zone exists within which
commercial operations are conducted without payment of import
or export duty, and without active interference on the part of
customs authorities. The French and German designations
for these two descriptions of ports are — for the former La Vitle
franche, Freihafen; for the latter Le Port franc, Freibezirk or
Frcilager. The English phrase free port applies to both. 1 The
leading conditions under which free ports in Europe derived their
origin were as follows: — (1) When public order became re-
established during the middle ages, trading centres were gradually
formed. Marts for the exchange and purchase of goods arose in
different localities. Many Italian settlements, constituting free
zones, were established in the Levant. The Hanseatic towns
arose in the 12th century. Great fairs became recognized —
the Leipzig charter was granted in 1268. These localities were
free as regards customs duties, although dues of the nature of
octroi charges were often levied. (2) Until the 19th century
European states were numerous, and often of small size. Accord-
ingly uniform customs tariffs of wide application did not exist.
1 In China at the present time (1902) certain ports are designated
" free and open." This phrase means that the ports in question are
(1) open to foreign trade, and (2) that vessels engaged in oversea
voyages may freely resort there. Exemption from payment of
customs duties is not implied, which is a matter distinct from the
permission granted under treaty engagements to foreign vessels to
carry cargoes to and from the treaty ports."
86
FREE REED VIBRATOR
Uniform rates of duty were fixed in England by the Subsidy Act
of 1660. In France, before the Revolution (besides the free
ports), Alsace and the Lorraine Bishoprics were in trade matters
treated as foreign countries. The unification of the German
customs tariff began in 1834 with the Steuerverein and the
Zollvcrcin. The Spanish fiscal system did not include the Basque
provinces until about 1850. The uniform Italian tariff dates from
1 861. Thus until very recent times on the Continent free ports
were compatible with the fiscal policy and practice of different
countries. (3) Along the Mediterranean coast, up to the 19th
century, convenient shelter was needed from corsairs. In other
continental countries the prevalent colonial and mercantile
policy sought to create trans-oceanic trade. Free ports were
1 Europe, it is to be
e never existed. In
outharnpton on this
quently the bonding
(United Kingdom,
tspectively free ports
visit to the Austrian
Tate a direct trade
s made a free port,
igcs, Brussels, Ghent
tionary government
about 150 acres at
great facilities are
ns in order that the
Baltic trade may centre there.
France. — Marseilles was a free port in the middle ages, and so
was Dunkirk when it formed part of Flanders. In 1669 these privi-
leges were confirmed, and extended to Dayonnc. In 1784 there was
a fresh confirmation, and Lorient and St Jean dc Lux were included
in the ordonnance. The National Assembly in 1790 maintained
this policy, and created free ports in the French West Indies. In
1795* however, all such privileges were abolished, but large bonding
facilities were allowed at Marseilles to favour the Levant trade. The
government of Louis XVI II. in 1814 restored, and in 1871 again
revoked* the free port privileges of Marseilles. There are now no
free ports in France or in French possessions; the bonding system
is in force.
Germany. — Bremen, Hamburg and LUbcck were reconstituted
free towns and ports under the treaties of 1814-1815. Certain minor
ports, and several landing-stages on the Rhine and The Ncckar,
:ptcd
trncd,
area
itrol,
»ncr-
Cux-
>5SCSS
itsidc
cona,
n (in
har-
1868,
tuscs,
uring
> port
I was
was,
1865,
[for a
ouses
1 free.
oods,
were
■ - .. m cnt
for internal consumption, and also in transit to Persia. The tsar
Alexis revoked this grant on the execution of Charles I. Free
ports were opened in 1895 at Kola, in Russian Lapland. Dalny,
adjoining Port Arthur, was a free port during the Russian occupation ;
and Japan after the war decided to renew this privilege as soon as
practicable.
The number of free ports outside Europe has also lessened. The
administrative policy of European countries has been gradually
adopted in other parts of the world, and customs duties have become
almost universal, conjoined with bonding and transhipment facilities.
In British colonies and possessions, under an act of parliament
passed in 1766, and repealed in 1867, two ports in Dominica and four
in Jamaica were free, Malacca, Penang and Singapore have been
free ports since 1824, Hong-Kong since 1842, and Weifcafwei since
it was leased to Great Britain in 1898. Zanzibar was a free port
during 1892-1899. Aden, Gibraltar, St Helena and St Thomas
(West Indies) are sometimes designated free ports. A few duties
are, however, levied, which arc really octroi rather than custom*
charges. These places are mainly stations for coaling and awaiting
orders.
Some harbours in the Netherlands East Indies were free ports
between 1829 and 1899 , but these privileges were withdrawn by lavs
passed in 1898-1899, in order to establish uniformity of customs
administration. Harbours where custom houses are not maintained
will be practically closed to foreign trade, though the governor-
general may in special circumstances vary the application of the
new regulations.
Macao has been a free port since 1845. Portugal has no other
harbour of this character.
The American Republics have adopted the bonding system. la
1896 a free wharf was opened at New Orleans in imitation of the
recent European plan. Livingstone (Guatemala) was a free port
during the period 1 882-1 888.
The privileges enjoyed under the old free port system benefited
the towns and districts where they existed; and their aboli-
tion has been, locally, injurious. These places were, however,
" foreign " to their own country, and their inland intercourse
was restricted by the duties levied on their products, and by the
precautions adopted to prevent evasion of these charges. With
fiscal usages involving preferential and deferential treatment
of goods and places, the drawbacks thus arising did not attract
serious attention. Under the limited means of communication
within and beyond the country, in former times, these con-
veniences were not much felt. But when finance departments
became more completely organized, the free port system fell out
of favour with fiscal authorities: it afforded opportunities for
smuggling, and impeded uniformity, of action and practice.
It became, in fact, out of harmony with the administrative and
financial policy of later times. Bonding and entrepot facilities,
on a scale commensurate with local needs, now satisfy trade
requirements. In countries where high customs duties are levied,
and where fiscal regulations arc minute and rigid, if an extensioa
of foreign trade is desired, and the competition which it involves
is a national aim, special facilities must be granted for this pur
pose. In these circumstances a free zone sufficiently large to
admit of commercial operations and transhipments on a scale
which will fulfil these conditions (watched but not interfered with
by the customs) becomes indispensable. The German govern-
ment have, as we have seen, maintained a free zone of this nature
at Hamburg. And when the free port at Copenhagen was opened,
counter measures were adopted at Danzig and Stettin. An
agitation has arisen in France to provide at certain ports free
zones similar to those at Copenhagen and Hamburg, and to open
free ports in French possessions. A bill to this effect was sub-
mitted to the chamber of deputies on the 12th of April 1905.
Colonial free ports, such as Hong-Kong and Singapore, do not
interfere with the uniformity of the home customs and excise
policy. These two harbours in particular have become great
shipping resorts and distributing centres. The policy which led
to their establishment as free ports has certainly promoted
British commercial interests.
Sec the Parliamentary Paper on " Continental Free Ports," 1904.
(CM.K.)
FREE REED VIBRATOR (Fr. anchc libre, Gcr. dureksckkgende
Zunge, Ital. ancia or lingua libera), in musical instruments, a
thin metal tongue fixed at one end and vibrating freely either
in surrounding space, as in the accordion and concertina, or
enclosed in a pipe or channel, as in certain reed stops of the
organ or in the harmonium. The enclosed reed, in its typical
and theoretical form, is fixed over an aperture of the same shape
but just large enough to allow it to swing freely backwards and
forwards, alternately opening and closing the aperture, when
driven by a current of compressed air. We have to deal with
air under three different conditions in considering the phenome-
non of the sound produced by free reeds. (1) The stationary
column or stratum in pipe or channel containing the reed, which
is normally at rest. (2) The wind or current of air fed from the
bellows with a variable velocity and pressure, which is broken
up into periodic air puffs as its entrance into pipe or channel n
FREESIA— FREE SOIL PARTY
87
alternately checked or allowed by the vibrator. (3) The disturbed
condition of No. 1 when acted upon by the metal vibrator and
by No 2, whereby the air within the pipe is forced into alternate
pulses of condensation and rarefaction. The free reed is there-
fore not the tone-producer but only the exciting agent, that is
to say, the sound is not produced by the communication of
the free reed's vibrations to the surrounding air, 1 as in the case
of a vibrating string, but by the series of air puffs punctuated by
infinitesimal pauses, which it produces by alternately opening
and almost closing the aperture.' A musical sound is thus
produced the pitch of which depends on the length and thick-
ness of the metal tongue; the greater the length, the slower
the vibrations and the lower the pitch, while on the contrary,
the thicker the reed near the shoulder at the fixed end, the
higher the pitch. It must be borne in mind that the periodic
vibrations of the reed determine the pitch of the sound solely
by the frequency per second they impose upon the pulses of
rarefaction and condensation within the pipe.
The most valuable characteristic of the free reed is its power
of producing all the delicate gradations of tone between forte and
piano by' virtue of a law of acoustics
governing the vibration of free reeds,
whereby increased pressure of wind pro-
duces a proportional increase in the
volume of lone. The pitch of any sound
depends upon the frequency of the
sound-waves, that is, the number per
second which reach the ear; the fullness
of sound depends upon the amplitude
of the waves, or, more strictly speaking,
of the swing of the transmitting particles
Ftaa J B Biol. Tnkito of the medium— greater pressure in the
tk9Htmr*xpirimniaU. a j r current (No. 2 above) which sets the
Fie 1. — Grenie's vibrator in motion producing amplitude
? rBa !L5 pe -K iUcd with °f vibration in the air within the rc-
ATTa^n^ '' c <* tac,c < No - 3 abovc > Mrvin « " nion '
D, Free reed. ating medium. The sound produced by
R, Recd-box. the free reed itsdf is weak and requires
B.C, Feed DJpc with to ^ reinforced by means of an ad-
t nS^if ~ na .: Mn . ditional stationary column or stratum of
T, Fart of resonating _ . . * . ,
pipe, the upper end air - Free rce< * instruments are therefore
with cap and vent classified according to the nature of the
hole being shown resonant medium provided:— (1) Free
separately at the reed, vibrating in pipes, such as the reed
stops of church organs on the continent
of Europe (in England the reed pipes are generally provided
witk beating reeds, see Reed Instruments .and Clarinet),
(j) Free reeds vibrating in reed compartments and reinforced
by air chambers of various shapes and sizes as in the har-
monium (q.v.). (3) Instruments like the accordion and con-
certina having the free reed set in vibration through a valve,
but having no reinforcing medium.
The arrangement of the free reed in an organ pipe is simple,
and does not differ greatly from that of the beating reed shown
in fig. 2 for the purpose of comparison. The recd-box, a rect-
angular wooden pipe, is closed at the bottom and covered on one
face with a thin plate of copper having a rectangular slit over
which is fixed the thin metal vibrating tongue or reed as described
above. The rccd-boa, itself open at the top, is enclosed in a feed
pipe having a conical foot pierced with a small hole through
which the air current is forced by the action of the bellows.
The impact of the incoming compressed air against the reed
tongue sets h swinging through the slit, thus causing a disturb-
ance or scries of pulsations within the reed-box. The air then
finds an escape through the resonating medium of a pipe fitting
over the recd-box and terminating in an inverted cone covered
with a cap in the top of which is pierced a small hole or vent.
The quality of tone of free reeds is due to the tendency of air set
'See H. Helm holt z, DU Lehrc von den Tonempfindungen (Bruns-
wick. 1877). n. 166.
•See also Km* Hemrich and Wilhehn Webrr, WHUnlekr*
(Leipzig. 1825). where a particularly lucid explanation of the pheno-
awnon is given, pp. 526-530.
h
v
F/, Tuning 1
TV. Feed pipe.
W, Conical foot.
S, Hole through
which compressed
air is fed.
in periodic pulsations to divide into aliquot vibrations or loops,
producing the phenomenon known as
harmonic overtones or upper partials,
which may, in the highly composite
clang of free reeds, be discerned as far
as the 16th or 20th of the series. The
more intermittent and interrupted the
air current becomes, the greater the
number of the upper partials produced. 1
The power of the overtones and their
relation to the fundamental note depend
greatly upon the form of the tongue, its
position and the amount of the clearance
left as it swings through the aperture.
Free reeds not associated with reson- Fig. 2.— Organ pipe
ating media as in the concertina arc fitted with bcatuigreed.
peculiarly rich in harmonics, but as the AL, Beating reed,
higher harmonics lie very dose together, !*• 5°** box*
disagreeable dissonances and a harsh
tone result. The resonating pipe or
chamber when suitably accommodated
to the reed greatly modifies the tone by
reinforcing the harmonics proper to itself,
the others sinking into comparative insignificance. In order to
produce a full rich tone, a resonator should be chosen whose
deepest note coincides with the fundamental tone of the reed.
The other upper partials will also be reinforced thereby, but to
a less degree the higher the harmonics- 4
For the history of the application of the free reed to keyboard
instruments see Harmonium. (K. S.)
FREESIA* in botany, a genus of plants belonging to the Iris
family (Iridaceae), and containing a single species, F. rtfrada,
native at the Cape of Good Hope. The plants grow from a corm
(a solid bulb, as in Gladiolus) which sends up a tuft of long
narrow leaves and a slightly branched stem bearing a few leaves
and loose one-sided spikes of fragrant narrowly funnel-shaped
flowers. Several varieties are known in cultivation, differing
in the colour of the flower, which is white, cream or yellow.
They form pretty greenhouse plants which are readily increased
from seed. They are extensively grown for the market in
Guernsey, England and America. By potting successively
throughout the autumn a supply of flowers is obtained through
winter and spring. Some very fine large-flowered varieties,
including rose-coloured ones, are now being raised by various
growers in England, and are a great improvement on the older
forms.
FREE SOIL PARTY, a political party in the United States,
which was organized in 1847-1848 to oppose the extension of
slavery into the Territories. It was a combination of the political
abolitionists—many of whom had formerly been identified with
the more radical Liberty party — the anti-slavery Whigs, and the
faction of the Democratic party in the state of New York, called
" Barnburners," who favoured the prohibition of slavery, in
accordance with the " Wilmol Proviso " (see Wilmot, David),
in the territory acquired from Mexico. The party was prominent
in the presidential campaigns of 1848 and 1852. At the national
convention held in Buffalo, N. Y., on the oth and iothof August
1848, they secured the nomination to the presidency of ex-
President Martin Van Burcn, who had failed to secure nomination
by the Democrats in 1844 because of his opposition to the annexa-
tion of Texas, and of Charles Francis Adams, of Massachusetts,
for the vice-presidency, taking as their " platform "a Declaration
that Congress, having " no more power to make a slave than to
make a king," was bound to restrict slavery to the slave states,
and concluding, " we inscribe on our banner 'Free Soil, Free
Speech, Free Labor and Free Man,' and under it we will fight on and
fight ever, until a triumphant victory shall reward our exertions."
The Liberty party had previously, in November 1847, nominated
•See Hclmholtz. op. ciL p. 167.
4 These phenomena are clearly explained at greater length by
Sedley Taylor in Sound and Mtunc (tandon. 1806). pp. 134-153 and
pp. 74-86. See also Fricdrich Zamminer. Die Nusik und du muriko-
htcken In t tr mm nte, Ac (Giessen, 1855), pC 261.
88
FREE-STONE— FREE TRADE
John P. Hale and Leicester King as president and vice-president
respectively, but in the spring of 1848 it withdrew its candidates
and joined the "free soil" movement. Representatives of
eighteen states, including Delaware, Maryland and Virginia,
attended the Buffalo convention. In the ensuing presidential
election Van Buren and Adams received a popular vole of
291,263, of which 120,510 were cast in New York. They re-
ceived no electoral votes, all these being divided between the
Whig candidate, Zachary Taylor, who was elected, and the
Democratic candidate, Lewis Cass. The " free soilera," however,
succeeded in sending to the thirty-first Congress two senators
and fourteen representatives, who by their ability exercised an
influence out of proportion to their number.
Between 1 848 and 185 2 the "Barnburners "and the "Hunkers,"
their opponents, became partially reunited, the former returning
to the Democratic ranks, and thus greatly weakening the Free
Soilers. The party held its national convention at Pittsburg,
Pennsylvania, on the nth of August 1852, delegates being
present from all the free states, and from Delaware, Maryland,
Virginia and Kentucky; and John P. Hale, of New Hampshire,
and George W. Julian of Indiana, were nominated for the
presidency and the vice-presidency respectively, on a platform
which declared slavery " a sin against God and a crime against
man," denounced the Compromise Measures of 1850, the fugitive
slave law in particular, and again opposed the extension of
slavery in the Territories. These candidates, however, received
no electoral votes and a popular vote of only 156,149, of
which but 25,329 were polled in New York. By 1856 they aban-
doned their separate organisation and joined the movement
which resulted in the formation of the powerful Republican
party (q.v.), of which the Free Soil party' was the legitimate
precursor.
FREE-STONE (a translation of the O. Fr.frotteke pert or Pierre,
i.e. stone of good quality; the modern French equivalent is
picrredetaille, and Ital. pictra metk), stone used in architecture
for mouldings, tracery and other work required to be worked
with the chisel. The oolitic stones arc generally so called,
although in some countries soft sandstones arc used; in some
churches an indurated chalk called " dunch " is employed for
internal lining and for carving.
FREETOWN, capital of the British colony of Sierra Leone,
West Africa, on the south side of the Sierra Leone estuary, about
5 m. from the cape of that name, in 8° 29' N., 13° 10' W. Pop.
(1901) 34,463. About 500 of the inhabitants are Europeans.
Freetown is picturesquely situated on a plain, closed in behind
by a succession of wooded hills, the Sierra Leone, rising to a height
of 1700 ft. As nearly every house is surrounded by a courtyard
or garden, the town covers an unusually large area for the number
of its inhabitants. It possesses few buildings of architectural
merit. The principal are the governor's residence and govern-
ment offices, the barracks, the cathedral, the missionary institu-
tions, the fruit market, Wilberfofte Hall, courts of justice,
the railway station and the grammar school. Several of these
institutions are built on the slopes of the hills, and on the highest
point, Sugar Loaf Mountain, is a sanatorium. The botanic
gardens form a pleasant and favourite place of resort. The roads
are wide bat badly kept. Horses do not live, and all wheeled
traffic is done by manual labour— hammocks and sedan-chairs
are the customary means of locomotion. Notwithstanding that
Freetown possesses an abundant and pure water-supply, drawn
from the adjacent hills, it is enervating and unhealthy, and it
was particularly to the capital, often spoken of as Sierra Leone,
that the designation " White Man's Grave" applied. Since the
beginning of the 20th century strenuous efforts have been made
to improve the sanitary condition by a new system of drainage,
a better water service, the filling up of marshes wherein the
malarial mosquito breeds, and in other directions. A light
railway 6 m. long, opened in 1004, has been built to Hill Station
(000 ft. high), where, on a healthy site, are the residences of the
government officials and of other Europeans. As a consequence
the public health has improved, the highest death-rate in the
years 1 901-1007 being 296 pec 1000. The town is governed
by a municipality (created in 1893) with a mayor and councillors,
the large majority being elective. Freetown was the first place
in British West Africa granted local self-government.
Both commercially and strategically Freetown is a place of
importance. Its harbour affords ample accommodation for the
largest fleets, it is a coaling station for the British navy, the head-
quarters of the British military forces in West Africa, the sea
terminus of the railway to the rich oil-palm regions of Mendfland,
and a port of call for all steamers serving West Africa. Its
inhabitants are noted for their skill as traders; the town itself
produces nothing in the way of exports.
In consequence of the character of the original settlement
(see Sierra Leone), 75% of the inhabitants are descended from
non-indigenous Negro races. As many as 150 different tribes
are represented in the Sierra Leonis of to-day. Thdr semi-
Europeanization is largely the result of missionary endeavour.
The only language of the lower class is pidgin-English— quite
incomprehensible to the newcomer from Great Britain, — but
a large proportion of the inhabitants are highly educated men
who excel as lawyers, clergymen, clerks and traders. Many
members of the upper, that is, the best-educated, class have
filled official positions of great responsibility. The most noted
citizens are Bishop Crowther and Sir Samuel Lewis, chief justice
of Sierra Leone 1882-1894. Both were full-blooded Africans.
The Kru-mcn form a distinct section of the community, Eving
in a separate quarter and preserving their tribal customs.
Since 1861-1862 there has been an independent Episcopal
Native Church; but the Church Missionary Society, which in
1804 sent out the first missionaries to Sierra Leone, still maintains
various agencies. Furah Bay College, built by the society on
the site of General Charles Turner's estate (1 \ m. E. of Freetown),
and opened in 2828 with six pupils, one of wham was Bishop
Crowther, was affiliated in 1876 to Durham University and has
a high -class curriculum. The Wesleyans have a high school, a
theological college, and other educative agencies. The Moslems,
who are among the most law-abiding and intelligent citizens of
Freetown, have several state-aided primary schools.
FREE TRADE, an expression which has now come to be
appropriated to the economic policy of encouraging the greatest
possible commercial intercourse, unrestricted by " protective "
duties (see Protection), between any one country and its neigh-
bours. This policy was originally advocated in France, and it
has had its adherents in many countries, but Great Britain
stands alone among the great commercial nations of the world
in having adopted it systematically from 1846 onwards as the
fundamental principle of her economic policy.
In the economic literature of earlier periods, it may be noted
that the term " free trade " is employed in senses which have m
relation to modern usage. The term conveyed no suggestion
of unrestricted trade or national liberty when it first appeared
in controversial pamphlets; 1 it stood for a freedom conferred
and maintained by authority — like that of a free town. The
merchants desired to have good regulations for trade so that they
might be free from the disabilities imposed upon them by
foreign princes or unscrupulous fellow-subjects. After 1640 the
term seems to have been commonly current in a different sense.
When the practice which had been banded down from the middle
ages— -of organizing the trade with particular countries by means
of privileged companies, which professed to regulate the trade
according to the state of the market so as to secure its steady
development in the interest of producers and traders— was
seriously called in question under the Stuarts and at the Revolu-
tion, the interlopers and opponents of the companies insisted
on the advantages of a w Free Trade "; they meant by this
that the various branches of commerce should not be confined
to particular persons or limited in amount, but should be throws
open to be pursued by any Englishman in the way ho thought
most profitable himself.' Again, in the latter half of the i8tb
1 E. Mistclden, Free Trade or the Meanes to make Trade Flemish
(i6m), p. 68; G. Malyaes, The Matnienemce df Free Trade (i6ar),
»■'%*
Parker, Qf a Free Trade (164ft). p. fc
FREE TRADE
89
century, tilt Pitt*» financial reforms * were brought into operation,
the English customs duties on wine and brandy were excessive;
and those who carried on a remunerative business by evading
these duties were known as Fair Traders or Free Traders. 1
Since 1846 the term free trade has been popularly used, in
England, to designate the policy of Cobden (q.v.) and others who
advocated the abolition of the tax on imported corn (see Corn
Laws); this is the only one of the specialized senses of the term
which is at all likely to be confused with the economic doctrine.
The Anti-Corn Law movement was, as a matter of fact, a special
application of the economic principle; but serious mistakes have
arisen from the blunder of confusing the part with the whole,
and treating the remission of one particular duty as if it were the
essential element of a policy in which it was only an incident.
W. E. Gladstone, in discussing the effect of improvements in
locomotion on British trade, showed what a large proportion of
the stimulus to commerce during the 19th century was to be
credited to what he called the " liberalizing legislation " of the
free-trade movement in the wide sense in which he used the term.
" I rank the introduction of cheap postage for letters, docu-
ments, patterns and printed matter, and the abolition of all taxes
00 printed matter, in the category of Free Trade Legislation.
Not only thought in general, but every communication, and every
publication, relating to matters of business, was thus set free.
These great measures, then, may well take their place beside the
abolition of prohibitions and protective duties, the simplifying
of revenue laws, and the repeal of the Navigation Act, as forming
together the great code of industrial emancipation. Under this
code, our race, restored to freedom in mind and hand, and braced
by the powerful stimulus of open competition with the world, has
upon the whole surpassed itself and every other, and has won for
itself a commercial primacy more evident, more comprehensive,
and more solid than it had at any previous time possessed."'
In this large sense free trade may be almost interpreted as the
combination* of the doctrines of the division of labour and of
laissez-faire in regard to the world as a whole. The division of
labour between different countries of the world— so that each
concentrates its energies in supplying that for the production
of which it is best fitted— appears to offer the greatest possi-
bility of production; but this result cannot be secured unless
trade and industry are treated as the primary elements in the
welfare of each community, and political considerations are not
allowed to hamper them.
Stated in its simplest form, the principle which underlies the
doctrine of free trade is almost a truism; it is directly deducible
from the very notion of exchange (q.v.). Adam Smith and his
successors have demonstrated that in every case of voluntary
exchange each party gains something that is of greater value-in-
use to him than that with which he parts, and that consequently
ih every exchange, either between individuals or between
nations, both parties are the gainers. Hence it necessarily
follows that, since both parties gain through exchanging, the more
facilities there are for exchange the greater will be the advantage
to every individual all round. 4 There is no difficulty in translat-
ing this principle into the terms of actual life, and stating the
conditions in which it holds good absolutely. If, at any given
moment, the mass of goods in the world were distributed among
the consumers with the minimum of restriction on interchange,
each competitor would obtain the largest possible share of the
things he procures in the world's market. But the argument
is less conclusive when the element of time ia taken into account;
what is true of each moment separately is not necessarily true
of any period in which the conditions of production, or the
requirements of communities, may possibly change. Each
individual is likely to act with reference to his own future, but
1 (1787), S7 Geo. III.c. 13.
' Sir Walter Scott, Guy Afannering, chapter v.
* Gladstone. " Free Trade, Railways and Commerce," in Nine-
tenth Century (Feb. 1880), vol. vii. p. 370.
• Parker states a similar argument in the form in which It suited
the special problem of his day. " If merchandise be good for the
commonweal, then the more common it is made, the more open it is
laid, the more good it will convey to us." Op, ck\ 30.
it may often be wise for the statesman to look far ahead, beyond
the existing generation. 4 Owing to t he neglect of this element of
time, and the allowance which must be made for it, the reasoning
as to the advantages of free trade, which is perfectly sound in
regard to the distribution of goods already in existence, may
become sophistical,' if it is put forward as affording a complete
demonstration of the benefits of free trade as a regular policy.
After ail, human society is very complex, and any attempt to
deal with its problems off-hand by appealing to a simple principle
raises the suspicion that some important factor may have been
left out of account. When there is such mistaken simplification,
the reasoning may seem to have complete certainty, and yet it
fails to produce conviction, because it does not profess to deal
with the problem in all its aspects. When we concentrate atten-
tion on the phenomena of exchange, we are viewing society as a
mechanism in which each acts under known laws and is impelled
by one particular force— that of self-interest; now, society is,
no doubt, in this sense a mechanism, but it is also an organism, 7
and it is only for very short periods, and in a very limited way,
that we can venture to neglect its organic character without
running the risk of falling into serious mistakes.
The doctrine of free trade maintains that in order to secure
the greatest possible mass of goods in the world as a whole, and
the greatest possibility of immediate comfort for the consumer,
it is expedient that there should be no restriction on the exchange
of goods and services either between individuals or communities.
The controversies in regard to this doctrine have not turned on
its certainty as a hypothetical principle, but on the legitimacy
of the arguments based upon it. It certainly supplies a principle
in the light of which all proposed trade regulations should be
criticized. It gives us a basis for examining and estimating the
expense at which any particular piece of trade restriction is
carried out; but thus used, the principle does not necessarily
condemn the expenditure; the game may be worth the candle
or it may not, but at least it is well that we should know how
fast the candle is being burnt. It was in this critical spirit that
Adam Smith examined the various restrictions and encourage-
ments to trade which were in vogue in his day; he proved of each
in turn that it was expensive, but he showed that he was conscious
that the final decision could not be taken from this standpoint,
since he recognized in regard to the Navigation Acts that " defence'
is more than opulence."* In more recent times, the same sort
of attitude was taken by Henry Sidgwick,* who criticizes various
protective expedients in turn, in the light of free trade, but does
not treat it as conveying an authoritative decision on their merits.
But other exponents of the doctrine have not been content
to employ it in this fashion. They urge it in a more positive
manner, and insist that free trade pure and simple is the founda-
tion on which the economic life of the community ought to be
based. By men who advocate it in this way, free trade is set
forward as an ideal which it is a duty to realize, and those who
hold aloof from it or oppose it have been held up to scorn as if
they were almost guilty of a crime. 10 The development of the
material resources of the world is undoubtedly an important
clement in the welfare of mankind; it is an aim which is common
to the whole race, and may be looked upon as contributing to the
greatest happiness of the greatest number. Competition in the
open market seems to secure that each consumer shall obtain the
best possible terms; and again, since all men are consumers
whether they produce or not, or whatever they produce, the
greatest measure of comforts for each seems likely to be attainable
on these lines. For those who are frankly cosmopolitan, and who
regard material prosperity as at all events the prime object at
which public policy should aim, the free-trade doctrine is readily
•Schmolltr, Crundriss der aUgemeinen VoUtswirtschaftskkre
(1904), U. 607.
•Byles, Sophisms of Free Trade-, L. S. Amery, Fundamental
Fallacies of Fret Trade, 13.
1 W. Cunningham, Rise and Decline of the Free Trade Movement,
pp. 5-1 1-
• Wealth of Nations, book iv. chap. ii.
• Prineipks of Political Economy, 483.
N J. Morley, Life of Cobden. i. 230.
90
FREE TRADE
transformed, from a mere principle of criticism, till it comes to
be regarded as the harbinger of a possible Utopia. It was in this
fashion that it was put forward by French economists and proved
attractive to some leading American statesmen in the 1 8th century.
Turgot regarded the colonial systems of the European countries
as at once unfair to their dependencies and dangerous to the peace
of the world. " It will be a wise and happy thing for the nation
which shall be the first to modify its policy according to the new
conditions, and be content to regard its colonics as if they were
allied provinces and not subjects of the mother country." It
will be a wise and happy thing for the nation which is the first
to be convinced that the secret of " success, so far as commercial
policy is concerned, consists in employing all its land in the
manner most profitable for the proprietary, all the hands in the
manner most advantageous to the workman personally, that is
to say, in the manner in which each would employ them, if we
could let him be simply directed by his own interest, and that
all the rest of the mercantile policy is vanity and vexation of
spirit. When the entire separation of America shall have forced
the whole world to recognize this truth and purged the European
nations of commercial jealousy there will be one great cause of
war less in the world." 1 Pitt, under the influence of Adam
Smith, was prepared to admit the United States to the benefit
of trade with the West Indian Colonies; and Jefferson, accepting
the principles of his French teachers, would (in contradistinction
to Alexander Hamilton) have been willing to see his country re-
nounce the attempt to develop manufactures of her own.' It
seemed as if a long step might be taken towards realizing the free-
trade ideal for the Anglo-Saxon race; but British shipowners
insisted on the retention of their privileges, and the propitious
moment passed away with the failure of the negotiations of
1783.' Free trade ceased to be regarded as a gospel, even in
France, till the ideal was revived in the writings of Bastiat,
and helped to mould the enthusiasm of Richard Cobden. 4
Through his zealous advocacy, the doctrine secured converts in
almost every part of the world; though it was only in Great
Britain that a great majority of the citizens became so far
satisfied with it that they adopted it as the foundation of the
economic policy of the country.
It is not difficult to account for the conversion of Great Britain
to this doctrine; in the special circumstances of the first half of
the 19th century it was to the interest of the most vigorous
factors in the economic life of the country to secure the greatest
possible freedom for commercial intercourse. Great Britain had,
through her shipping, access to all the markets of the world;
she had obtained such a lead in the application of machinery to
manufactures that she had a practical monopoly in textile
manufactures and in the hardware trades; by removing every
restriction, she could push her advantage to its farthest extent,
and not only undersell native manufactures in other lands,
but secure food, and the raw materials for her manufactures, on
the cheapest possible terms. Free trade thus seemed to offer the
means of placing an increasing distance between Britain and her
rivals, and of rendering the industrial monopoly which she had
attained impregnable. The capitalist employer had superseded
the landowner as the mainstay of the resources and revenue
of the realm, and insisted that the prosperity of manufactures
was the primary interest of the community as a whole. The
expectation, that a thoroughgoing policy of free trade would not
only favour an increase of employment, but also the cheapening
of food, could only have been roused in a country which was
» >. w Memoire," 6 April 1776, in (Emres, viii. 460.
'Jefferson, Notes on Vu&nia, 275. §ee also the
JspFsasoN and Hamilton, Alexander.
' One incidental effect of the failure to secure free trade was that '
the African clave trade, with West Indies as a depot for supplying
the American market, ceased to be remunerative, and the opposition
to the abolition of the trade was very much weaker than it would
otherwise have been; see Hochstetter, " Die wirtschaftlichen und
Clitischen Motive far die Abschaffung des britischen SJdavcn-
ndels," in Schmoller, Stoats und Sosiahrissensckoftiicke For-
uhungen, xxv. i. 37.
4 J. Wclsford, " Cobden** Foreign Teacher," in National Reoiem
(December 1905).
obliged to import a considerable amount of corn. The exceptional
weakness, as well as the exceptional strength, of Great Britain,
among European countries, made it seem desirable to adopt the,
principle of unrestricted commercial intercourse, not merely
in the tentative fashion in which it had been put in operation
by Huskisson, but in the thoroughgoing fashion in which
it at last commended itself to the minds of Peel and Gladstone.
The " Manchester men " saw clearly where their interest lay;
and the fashionable political economy was ready to demonstrate
that in pursuing their own interest they were conferring the
benefit of cheap clothing on all the most poverty-stricken races
of mankind. It seemed probable, in the 'forties and early 'fifties,
that other countries would take a similar view of their own
interests and would follow the example which Great Britain had
set.* That they have not done so, is partly due to the fact that
none of them had such a direct, or such a widely diffused, interest
in increased commercial intercourse as existed in Great Britain;
but their reluctance has been partly the result of the critititm
to which the free-trade doctrine has been subjected. The
principles expressed in the writings of Friedrich List have taken
such firm hold, both in America and in Germany, that these
countries have preferred to follow on the lines by which Great
Britain successfully built up her industrial prosperity in the 17th
and 18th century, rather than on those by which they have seen
her striving to maintain it since 1846.
Free trade was attractive as an ideal, because it appeared
to offer the greatest production of goods to the world as a whole,
and the largest share of material goods to each consumer; it is
cosmopolitan, and it treats consumption, and the interest of the
consumer, as such, as the end to be considered. Hence it lies
open to objections which are partly political and partly economic.
As cosmopolitan, free-trade doctrine is apt to be indifferent
to national tradition and aspiration. In so tar indeed as
patriotism is a mere aesthetic sentiment, it may be tolerated,
but in so far as it implies a genuine wish and intention to preserve
and defend the national habits and character to the exclusion
of alien elements, the cosmopolitan mind will condemn ft as
narrow and mischievous. In the first half of the 19th century
there were many men who believed that national ambitions
and jealousies of every kind were essentially dynastic, and that if
monarchies were abolished there would be fewer occasions of
war, so that the expenses of the business of government would
be enormously curtailed. For Cobden and his contemporaries
it was natural to. regard the national administrative institutions
as maintained for the benefit of the " classes " and without much
advantage to the " masses." But in point of fact, modern times
have shown the existence in democracies of a patriotic sentiment
which b both exclusive and aggressive; and the burden of
armaments has steadily increased* It was by means of a civil
war that the United States attained to a consciousness of national
life; while such later symptoms as the recent interpretations
of the Monroe doctrine, or the war with Spain, have proved that
the citizens of that democratic country cannot be regarded as
destitute of self-aggrandizing national ambition.
In Germany the growth of militarism and nationalism have
gone on side by side under constitutional government, and
certainly in harmony with predominant public opinion. Neither
of these communities is willing to sink its individual conception
of progress in those of the world at large; each is jealous of the
intrusion of alien elements which cannot be reconciled with its
own political and social system. And a similar recrudescence
of patriotic feeling has been observable in other countries, such
as Norway and Hungary: the growth of national sentiment
is shown, not only in the attempts to revive and popularize the
use of a national language, but still more decidedly in the deter-
mination to have a real control ever the economic life of the
country. It is here that the new patriotism comes into direct
conflict with the political principles of free trade as advocated
by Bastiat and Cobden; for them the important point was that
countries, by becoming dependent on one another, would be
prevented from engaging in hostilities. The new nations art
• Compatriot Club Uctnm (1905), p. 306.
FREE TRADE
9>
determined that they will not allow other countries to have such
control over their economic condition, as to be able to exercise
a powerful influence on their political life. Each is determined
to bo the master in his own house, and each has rejected free
trade because of the cosmopolitanism which it involves.
Economically, free trade lays stress on consumption as the
chief criterion of prosperity. It is, of course, true that goods are
produced with the object of being consumed, and it is plausible
to insist on taking this test; but it is also true that consumption
and production are mutually interdependent, and that in some
ways production is the more important of the two. Consumption
looks to the present, and the disposal of actual goods; production
looks to the future, and the conditions under which goods can
continue to be regularly provided and thus become available for
consumption in the long run. As regards the prosperity of the
community in the future it is important that goods should be
consumed in such a fashion as to secure that they shall be replaced
or increased before they are used up; it is the amount of pro-
duction rather than the amount of consumption that demands
consideration, and gives indication of growth or of decadence.
In these circumstances there is much to be said for looking at
the economic life of a country from the point of view which free-
traders have abandoned or ignore It is not on the possibilities
of consumption in the present, but on the prospects of production
w the future, that the continued wealth of the community depends;
and this principle is the only one which conforms to the modern
conception of the essential requirements of sociological science
in its wider aspect (see Sociology). This is most obviously true
in regard to countries of which the lesources are very imperfectly
developed. If their policy is directed to securing the greatest
possible comfort for each consumer in the present, it is certain
that progress will be slow; the planting of industries for which
the country has an advantage may be a tedious process; and
in order to stimulate national efficiency temporary protection-
involving what is otherwise unnecessary immediate cost to the
consumer — may seem to be abundantly justified. Such a free
trader as John Stuart Mill himself admits that a case may be
made out for treating "infant industries" as exceptions; 1
and if this exception be admitted it is likely to establish a pre-
cedent. After all, the various countries of the world are all in
different stages of development; some are old and some are
new; and even the old countries differ greatly in the progress they
have made in distinct arts. The introduction of machinery
has everywhere changed the conditions of production, so that
some countries have lost and others have gained a special advan-
tage. Most of the countries of the world are convinced that the
wisest economy is to attend to the husbanding of their resources
of every kind, and' to direct their policy not merely with a view
to consumption in the present, but rather with regard to the
possibilities of increased production in the future.
This deliberate rejection of the doctrine of free trade between
nations, both in its political and economic aspects, has not
interfered, however, with the steady progress of free commercial
Intercourse within the boundaries of a single though composite
political community. " Internal free trade," though the name
was not then current in this sense, was one of the burning questions
in England in the 17th century; it was perhaps as important a
factor as puritanism in the fall of Charles I. Internal free trade
was secured in France in the 1 8th century; thanks to Hamilton,'
it was embodied in the constitution of the United States; it
was introduced into Germany by Bismarck; and was firmly
established in the Dominion of Canada and the Commonwealth
of Australia. It became in consequence, where practicable, a
part of the modern federal idea as usually interpreted. There
are thus great areas, externally self-protecting, where free trade,
as between internal divisions, has been introduced with little,
if any, political difficulty, and with considerable economic
advantage. These cases are sometimes quoted as justifying
the expectation that the same principle is likely to be adopted
sooner or later in regard to external trading relations. There
* J. 5. Mill, Principles of Political Economy, book v. chapter x. 1 1 .
•F. S. Oliver, Alexander Hamilton. 14a.
is some reason, however, for raising the question whether free
trade has been equally successful, not only in its economic, but
in its social results, in all the large political communities where
it has been introduced. In a region like the United States of
America, it is probably seen at its best; there is an iin«"»"f*
variety of different products throughout that great zone of the
continent, so that the mutual co-operation of the various ports
is most beneficial, while the standard of habit and comfort is so
far uniform' throughout the whole region, and the facilities for
the change of employment are so many, that there is little in-
jurious competition between different districts. In the British
empire the conditions are reversed; but though the great self-
governing colonies have withdrawn from the circle, in the hope
of building up their own economic life in their own way, free
trade is still maintained over a very large part of the British
empire. Throughout this area, there are very varied physical
conditions; there is also an extraordinary variety of races, each
with its own habits, and own standard of comfort; and in these
circumstances it may be doubted whether the free competition,
involved in free trade, is really altogether wholesome. Within
this sphere the ideal of Bastiat and his followers is being realized.
England, as a great manufacturing country, has more than held
her own; India and Ireland are supplied with manufactured
goods by England, and in each case the population is forced to
look to the soil for its means of support, and for purchasing
power. In each case the preference for tillage, as an occupation,
has rendered it comparatively easy to keep the people on the
land; but there is some reason to believe that the law of diminish-
ing returns is already making itself felt, at all events in India,
and is forcing the people into deeper poverty. 4 It may be doubtful
in the case of Ireland how far the superiority of England in in-
dustrial pursuits has prevented the development of manufactures;
the progress in the last decades of the iSth century was too short-
lived to be conclusive; but there is at least a strong impression
in many quarters that the industries of Ireland might have
flourished if they had had better opportunities allowed them.*
In the case of India we know that the hereditary artistic skill,
which had been built ud in bygone generations, has been stamped
out. It seems possible that the modern unrest in India, and the
discontent in Ireland, may be connected with the economic
conditions in these countries, on which free trade has been imposed
without their consent. So far the population which subsists on
the cheaper food, and has the lower standard of life, has been
the sufferer; but the mischief might operate in another fashion.
The self-governing colonies at all events feel that competition in
the same market between races with different standards of comfort
has infinite possibilities of mischief. It is easy to conjure up
conditions under which the standard of comfort of wage-earners
in England would be seriously threatened.
Since the oth edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica was
published it has become clear that the free-trade doctrines of
Bastiat and Cobdcn have not been gaining ground in the world
at large, and at the opening of the aoth century it could hardly
•be said with confidence that the question was " finally settled "
so far as England was concerned. As to whether the interests of
Great Britain still demanded that she should continue on the
line she adopted in the exceptional conditions of the middle of the
10th century, expert opinion was conspicuously divided;* but
there remained no longer the old enthusiasm for free trade as
* The standard is, of course, lower among the negroes and mean
whites in the South than in the North and West.
* F. Beauclcrk, " Free Trade in India," in Economic Review
(Jury 1907). xvii. 284.
* A. £. Murray. History of the Commercial and Financial Relations
between England and Ireland, 294.
* For the tariff reform movement in English politics see the article
on Chamberlain, J. Among continental writers G. Schmoller
(Grundnss der aUgemeinen Volkswirtsckaftslekre, ii. 641) and A.
Wagner (Preface to M. Schwab's Chamberlains Handelspalitik)
pronounce in favour of a change, as Fuchs did by anticipation.
Schulse-Gaevernitz (Britischcr Fmperialismus und englischer Fret-
hand ft). Aubry (Etude critique de la politique commerciale de VAngle-
terrt d rtgard de ses colonies), and Blondel (La politique ProtecHonnista
en Angleterre un nouveau danger pour la France) are against it.
92
FREGELLAE— FREIBURG IM BREISGAU
the harbinger of an Utopia. The old principles of the bourgeois
manufacturers had been taken up by the proletariat and shaped
to suit themselves. Socialism, like free trade, is cosmopolitan in
its aims, and is indifferent to patriotism and hostile to militarism.
Socialism, like free trade, insists on material welfare as the
primary object to be aimed at in any policy, and, like free
trade, socialism tests welfare by reference to possibilities of con-
sumption. In one respect there is a difference; throughout
Cobden's attack on the governing classes there are signs of his
jealousy of the superior status of the landed gentry, but socialism
has a somewhat wider range. of view and demands ''equality of
opportunity " with the capitalist as well
Bibliography. — Reference has already been made to the prin-
cipal works which deal critically with the free-trade policy. Pro-
fessor Fawcett's Free Trade is a good exposition of free-trade
principles; so also is Professor Bastable's Commerce of Nations.
Among authors who have restated the principles with special
reference to the revived controversy on the subject may be .men-
tioned Professor W. Smart, The Return to Protection, being a Re-
statement of the Case for Free Trade (2nd ed., 1906), and A. C. Pigou,
Protective and Preferential Import Duties (1906). (W. Cu.)
FREGELLAE, an ancient town of Latium adiectum, situated
on the Via Latina.i 1 m. W. N. W. of Aquinum, near the left branch
of the Liris. It is said to have belonged in early times to the*
Opici or Oscans, and later to the Volscians. It was apparently
destroyed by the Samnites a little before 330 B.C., in which year
the people of Fabrateria Vetus (mod. Ceccano) besought the help
of Rome against them, and in 328 B.C. a Latin colony was estab-
lished there. The place was taken in 320 B.C. by the Samnites,
but re-established by the Romans in 313 B.C. It continued hence-
forward to be faithful to Rome; by breaking the bridges over the
Liris it interposed an obstacle to the advance of Hannibal on
Rome in 212 B.C., and it was a native of-Fregellae who headed the
deputation of the non-revolting colonies in 200 B.C. It appears to
have been a very important and flourishing place owing to its
command of the crossing of the Liris, and to its position in a
fertile territory, and it was here that, after the rejection of the
proposals of M. Fulvius Flaccus for the extension of Roman
burgess-rights in 125' B.C., a revolt against Rome broke out.
It was captured by treachery in the same year and destroyed;
but its place was taken in the following year by the colony of
Fabrateria Nova, 3 m. to the S.E. on the opposite bank of the
Liris, while a post station Fregellanum (mod. Ceprano) is
mentioned in the itineraries; Fregcllae itself, h6wcver, continued
to exist as a village even under the empire. The site is clearly
traceable about/ \ m. E. of Ceprano, but the remains of the city
are scanty.
See G. Colasanti, Ftegellae, sloria e topografta (1906). (T. As.)
FREIBERG, or Freybexg, a town of Germany in the kingdom
of Saxony, on the Munzbach, near its confluence with the Mulde,
19 m. S.W.of Dresden on the railway to Chemnitz, with a branch
to Nossen. Pop. (1005) 30,806. Its situation, on the rugged
northern slope of the Erzgebirgc, is somewhat bleak and uninvit-
ing, but the town is generally well built and makes a prosperous
impression. A part of its ancient walls still remains; the other
portions have been converted into public walks and gardens.
Freiberg is the seat of. the general administration of the mines
throughout the kingdom, and its celebrated mining academy
(Bergakademie), founded in 1765, is frequented by students
from -all parts of the world. Connected with it are extensive
collections of minerals and models, a library of 50,000 volumes,
and laboratories for chemistry, metallurgy and assaying. Among
its distinguished scholars it reckons Abraham Gottlob Werner
(1750-1817), who was also a professor there, and Alexander, von
Humboldt. Freiberg has extensive manufactures of gold and
silver lace, woollen cloths, linen and cotton goods, iron, copper
and brass wares, gunpowder and white-lead. It has also several
large breweries. In the immediate vicinity are its famous silver
and lead mines, thirty in number, and of which the principal ones
passed into the property of the state in 1886. The castle of
Freudenstein or Freistein, as rebuilt by the elector Augustus
in 1572, is situated in one of the suburbs and is now used as a
military magazine. In its grounds a monument was erected
to Werner in 1851. The cathedral, rebuilt in late Gothic style
after its destruction by fire in 1484 and restored in 1893, was
founded in the 12th century. Of the original church a magnifi-
cent German Romanesque doorway, known as the Golden Gate
(Golden* PJorU), survives. The church contains numerous
monuments, among others one to Prince Maurice of Saxony.
Adjoining the cathedral is the mausoleum (BegrdbniskapeUt),
built in 1 594 in the Italian Renaissance style, in which are buried
the remains of Henry the Pious and his successors down to John
George IV., who died in 1694. Of the other four Protestant
churches the most noteworthy is the Peterskirche which,
with its three towers, is a conspicuous object on the highest
point of the town. Among the other public buildings are the old
town-hall, dating from the 1 5th century, the antiquarian museum,
and the natural history museum. There axe a classical and
modern, a commercial and an agricultural school, and numerous
charitable institutions.
Freiberg owes its origin to the discovery of its silver mines
(c. X163). The town, with the castle of Freudenstein, was built
by Otto the Rich, margrave of Meissen, in 1175, and its name,
which first appears in 122 1, is derived from the extensive mining
franchises granted to it about that time. In all the partitions of
the territories of the Saxon house of Wet tin, from the latter part
of the 13th century onward, Freiberg always remained common
property, and it was not till 1485 (the mines not till 1537) that
it was definitively assigned to the Albertine line. The Reforma-
tion was introduced into Freiberg in 1536 by Henry the Pious,
who resided here. The town suffered severely during the Thirty
Years' War, and again during the French occupation from 1806
to 1814, during which time it had to support an army of 7004000
men and find forage for 200,000 horses.
See H. Gerlach, Klein* Chronik von Freiberg (2nd ed., Fretberf,
1898); H. Ennisch, Das Freiberger Stadtrechl (Leipzig, iftte);
Ermisch and O. Posse, Urkmdenbuch der Stadt Freiberg, in Codes
diplom. Sax, reg. (3 vols., Leipzig, 1 883-1891); Freibergs Berg- **d
HQUenwesen, published by the Bergmlnnncher Verein (Freiberg,
1883); Ledebur, Vber die BedeuUtng der Freiberger Bergmkademt*
(ib. 1903); Steche, Ban- und KunsldenkmaJer der Amtthaupim*n+-
sckaft Freiberg (Dresden, 1884).
FREIBURG, a town of Germany in Prussian Silesia, on the
Polsnitz, 35 m. S.W. of Breslau, on the railway to Halbstadt.
Pop. (1905) 0917. It has an Evangelical and Roman Catholic
church, and its industries include watch-making, linen- weaving
and distilling. In the neighbourhood are the old and modem
castles of the FUrstenstein family, whence the town is sometimes
distinguished as Freiburg untcr dem FUrstenstein. At Freiburg,
on the 22nd of July 1762, the Prussians defended themselves
successfully against the superior forces of the Austriana.
' FREIBURG III BREISGAU, an archiepiscopal see and city of
Germany in the grand duchy of Baden, 12 m. E. of the Rhine,
beautifully situated on the Dreisam at the foot of the Schlossberg,
one of the heights of the Black Forest range, on the railway
between Basel and Mannheim, 40 m. N. of the fotmerdiy.
Pop. (1005) 76,285. The town is for the most part well built,
having several wide and handsome streets and a number of
spacious squares. It is kept clean and cool by the waters of
the river, which flow through the streets in open channels; and
its old fortifications have been replaced by public walks, and,
what is more unusual, by vineyards. It possesses a famous
university, the Ludovica Albertina, founded by Albert VI.,
archduke of Austria, in 1457, and attended by about 2000
students. The library contains upwards of 2 50,000 volumes and
600 MSS., and among the other auxiliary establishments are
an anatomical hall and museum and botanical gardens. The
Freiburg minster is considered one of the finest of all the Gothic
churches of Germany, being remarkable alike for the symmetry
of its proportions, for the taste of its decorations, and for the
fact that it may more correctly be said to be finished than almost
any other building of the kind. The period of its erection pro-
bably lies for the most part between 1122 and 1252; but the
choir was not built till 1513. The tower, which rises above the
western entrance, is 386 ft. in height, and it presents a skilful
transition from .a square base into an octagonal superstructure,
which in its turn is surmounted by a pyramidal spire of the most
FREIBURG IM BREISGAU
93
exquisite open work in stone. In the interior of the church are
some beautiful stained glass windows, both ancient and modern,
the tombstones of several of the dukes of Zihringen, statues of
archbishops of Freiburg, and paintings by Holbein and by
HansBaldung (c. 1470-1545), commonly called Grim. Among the
other noteworthy buildings of Freiburg are the palaces of the
grand duke and the archbishop, the old town-hall, the theatre,
the Kaufkaus or merchants' hall, a 19th-century building with
a handsome facade, the church of St Martin, with a graceful
spire restored 1880-1881, the new town-ball, completed xooi,
in Renaissance style, and the Protestant church, formerly the
church of the. abbey of Thennenbach, removed hither in 1839.
In the centre of the fish-market square is a fountain surmounted
by a statue of Duke Berthold III. of Zihringen; in the Francis-
kaner Plata there is a monument to Berthold Schwarz, the
traditional discoverer here, in 1259, of gunpowder; the Rot tec k
Plats takes its name from the monument of Karl Wenzeslaus
von Rottcck (1775-1840), the historian, which formerly stood
00 the site of the Schwarz statue; and in Kaiser Wilheim
Strasse a bronze statue was erected in 1876. to the memory of
Herder, who in the. early part of the 19th century founded in
Freiburg an institute for draughtsmen, engravers and litho-
graphers, and carried on a famous bookselling business. On the
Schlossberg above the town there are massive ruins of two
castles destroyed by the French in 1744; and about a m.
10 the N.E. stands the castle of Zihringen, the original seat of
the famous family of the counts of that name. Situated on the
ancient road which runs by the H&Uenpass between the valleys
of the Danube and the Rhine, Freiburg early acquired com-
mercial importance, and it is still the principal centre of the
trade of the Black Forest. It manufactures buttons, chemicals,
starch, leather, tobacco, silk thread, paper, and hempen goods,
u well as beer and wine.
Freiburg is of uncertain foundation. In nao it became a
free town, with privileges simikr to those of Cologne; but in
1219 it fell into the hands of a branch of the family of Urach.
After it had vainly attempted to throw off the yoke by force
of arms, it purchased its freedom in 1366; but, unable to
reimburse the creditors who had advanced the money, it was,
in 136S, obliged to recognize the supremacy of the house of
Hapsburg. In the f7th and 18th centuries it played a consider-
able part as a fortified town. It was captured by the Swedes
in 1632, 1634 and 1638; and in 1644 it was seized by the
Bavarians, who shortly after, under General Mercy, defeated in
the neighbourhood the French forces under Enghien and Turenne.
The French were in possession from 1677 to 1697, and again in
17 1 3-1 7 14 and 1744; and when they left the place in 1748, at
the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, they dismantled the fortifications.
The Baden insurgents gained a victory at Freiburg in 1848, and
the revolutionary government took refuge in the town in June
1849, but in the following July the Prussian forces took possession
and occupied It until 1851. Since 1821 Freiburg has been the
seat of an archbishop with jurisdiction over the sees of Mainz,
Rottenberg and Limburg.
See Schrdber, Gesckichte und Beuhreibung des Minsters sv Frei-
burg (1820 and 1825); Gesckichte der Stadl und Universit&t Frei-
burgs (1857-1859); Der Scklossberg bei Freiburg (i860); and Albert,
Dm Gesdrichtssckreibung der Stadt Freiburg (190*).
Baltics of Freiburg, jrd, $tk and 10th if August 2644.— During
the Thirty Years' War the neighbourhood of Freiburg was the
icene of a scries of engagements between the French under
Louis de Bourbon, due d'Enghien (afterwards called the great
Conde), and Henri de la Tour d'Auvergne, vicomte de Turenne,
tod the Bavarians and Austrians commanded by Franz, Freiherr
von Mercy.
At the close of the campaign of 1643 the French " Army of
Weimar," having been defeated and driven into Alsace by the
Bavarians, had there been reorganized under the command of
Turenne, then a young general of thirty-two and newly promoted
to the marsbalate. In May 1644 ne opened the campaign by
recrossing the Rhine and raiding the enemy's posts as far as
Oberlingen on the lake of Constance and Donaueschingen on
the Danube. The French then fell back with their booty and
prisoners to Breisach, a strong garrison being left in Freiburg.
The Bavarian commander, however, revenged himself by besieging
Freiburg (June 27th), and Turenne's first attempt to relieve the
place failed. During July, as the siege progressed, the French
government sent the due d'Enghien, who was ten years younger
still than Turenne, but had just gained his great victory of
Rocroy, to take over the command. Enghien brought with, him
a veteran army, called the " Army of France," Turenne remaining
in command of the Army of Weimar. The armies met at Breisach
on the 2nd of August, by which date Freiburg had surrendered.
At this point most commanders of the time would have decided
not to fight, but to manoeuvre Mercy away from Freiburg;
Enghien, however, was a fighting general, and Mercy's entrenched
lines al Freiburg seemed to him a target rather than an obstacle.
A few hours after his arrival, therefore, without waiting for the
rearmost troops of his columns, he set the combining armies in
motion for Krozingen, a village on what was then the main road
between Breisach and Freiburg. The total force immediately
available numbered only 16,000 combatants. Enghien and
Turenne had arranged that the Army of France was to move
direct upon Freiburg by Wolfenweiter, while the Army of Weimar
was to make its way by hillside tracks to Wittnau and thence
to attack the rear of Mercy's lines while Enghien assaulted
them in front. Turenne's march (August 3rd, 1644) was slow
and painful, as had been anticipated, and late in the afternoon,
on passing Wittnau, he encountered the enemy. The Weimarians
carried the outer lines of defence without much difficulty, but
as they pressed on towards Merzhausen the resistance became
more and more serious. Turenne's force was little more than
6000, and these were wearied with a long day of marching and
fighting on the steep and wooded hillsides of the Black Forest.
Thus the turning movement came to a standstill far short of
Uffingen, the village on Mercy's line of retreat that Turenne
was to have seized, nor was a flank attack possible against
Mercy's main line, from which he was separated by the crest
of the SchOnberg. Meanwhile, Enghien's army bad at the
prearranged hour (4 p.m.) attacked Mercy's position on the
Ebringen spur. A steep slope, vineyards, low stone walls and
abatis had all to be surmounted, under a galling fire from the
Bavarian musketeers, before the Army of France found itself,
breathless and in disorder, in front of the actual entrenchments
of the crest. A first attack failed, as did an attempt to find an
unguarded path round the shoulder of the SchOnberg. The
situation was grave in the extreme, but Enghien resolved on
Turenne's account to renew the attack, although only a quarter
of his original force was still capable of making an effort. He
himself and all the young nobles of his staff dismounted and led
the infantry forward again, the prince threw his baton into the
enemy's lines for the soldiers to retrieve, and in the end, after
a bitter struggle, the Bavarians, whose reserves had been taken
away to oppose Turenne in the Merzhausen defile, abandoned
the entrenchments arid disappeared- into the woods of the
adjoining spur. Enghien hurriedly re-formed his troops, fearing
at every moment to be hurled down the hill by a counlerstroke;
but none came. The French bivouacked in the rain, Turenne
making his way across the mountain to confer with the prince,
and meanwhile Mercy quietly drew off his army in the dark to
a new set of entrenchments on the ridge on which stood the
Loretto Chapel. On the 4th of August the Army of France and
the Army of Weimar met at Merzhausen, the rearmost troops of
the Army of France came in, and the whole was arranged by
the major-generals in the plain facing the Loretto ridge. This
position was attacked on the 5th. Enghien had designed his
battle even more carefully than before, but as the result of a
series of accidents the two French armies attacked prematurely
and straight to their front, one brigade after another, and though
at one moment Enghien, sword in hand, broke the line of defence
with his last intact reserve, a brilliant counlerstroke, led by
Mercy's brother Kaspar (who was killed), drove out the assailants.
It is said that Enghien lost half his men on this day and Mercy
one-third of bis, so severe was the battle. But the result could
9+
FREIDANK— FREILIGRATH
not be gainsaid; it was lor the French a complete and costly
failure.
For three days after this the armies lay in position without
fighting, the French well supplied with provisions and comforts
from Breisach, the Bavarians suffering somewhat severely from
want of food, and especially forage, as all their supplies had to
be hauled from Villingen over the rough roads of the Blade
Forest. Enghien then decided to make use of the Glotter Tal
to interrupt altogether this already unsatisfactory line of supply,
and thus to force the Bavarians either to attack him at a serious
disadvantage, or to retreat across the hills with the loss of their
artillery and baggage and the disintegration of their army by
famine and desertion. With this object, the Army of Weimaj
was drawn oil on the morning of the oth of August and marched
round by Betzenhausen and Lehcn to Langen Denzling. The
infantry of the Army of France, then the trains, followed, while
Enghien with his own cavalry faced Freiburg and the Loretto
position.
Before dawn on the xoth the advance guard of Turenne's
army was ascending the Glotter Tal. But Mercy had divined his
adversary's plan, and leaving a garrison to hold Freiburg, the
Bavarian army had made a night march on the o/ioth to the A bbcy
of St Peter, whence on the morning of the xoth Mercy fell back
to Graben, his nearest magazine in the mountains. Turenne's
advanced guard appeared from the Glotter Tal only to find a
stubborn rearguard of cavalry in front of the abbey. A sharp
action began, but Mercy hearing the drums and fifes of the
French infantry in the Glotter Tal broke it of! and continued his
retreat in good order. Enghien thus obtained little material
result from his manoeuvre. Only two guns and such of Mercy's
wagons that were unable to keep up fell into the hands of the
French. Enghien and Turenne did not continue the chase farther
than Graben, and Mercy fell hack unmolested to Rothenburg on
the Tauber.
The moral results of this sanguinary fighting were, however,
important and perhaps justified the sacrifice of so many valuable
soldiers. Enghien's pertinacity had not achieved a decision
with the sword, but Mercy had been so severely punished that
he was unable to interfere with his opponent's new plan of cam-
paign. This, which was carried out by the united armies and by
reinforcements from France, while Turenne's cavalry screened
them by bold demonstrations on the Tauber, led to nothing less
than the conquest of the Rhine Valley from Basel to Coblenz,
a task which was achieved so rapidly that the Army of France
and its victorious young leader were free to return to France in
two months from the time of their appearance in Turenne's
qukrtea *t Breisach.
FREIDANK (VrIdancJ, the name by which a Middle High
German didactic poet of the early 13 th century is known. It has
been disputed whether the word, which is equivalent to " free*
thought," is to be regarded as the poet's real name or only as a
pseudonym; the latter is probably the case. Little is known of
Freidank's life. He accompanied Frederick II. on his crusade
to the Holy Land, where, in the years 1228-1129, a portion at
least of his work was composed; and it is said that on his tomb
(if indeed it was not the tomb of another Freidank) at Treviso.
there was inscribed, with allusion to the character of his style,
" he always spoke and never sang." Wilhelm Grimm originated
the hypothesis that Freidank was to be identified with Waltber
von der Vogelweide; but this is no longer tenable. Freidank's
work bears the name of Besckeidenhcil, i.e. " practical wisdom,"
" correct judgment," and consists of a collection of proverbs,
pithy sayings, and moral and satirical reflections, arranged under
general heads. Its popularity till the end of the 16th century is
shown by the great number of MSS. extant.
Sebastian Brant oublished the Bescheidenkeil in a modified form
in 1508. Wilhelm Grimm's edition appeared in 1834 (2nd ed. i860).
H. F. Bezzcnberger's in 1872. A later edition is by F. Sandvoa
(1877). The old Latin translation, Fridangi Discretto, was printed
by C. Lemcke in 1868; and there are two translations into modern
German, A. Bacmeister's (1861) and K. Simrock's (1867). See also
F. Pfciffcr, Ober Freidank (Zur deutschen LiUraturgescktckM, 1855),
and H. Paul. Vber die ursprungliche Anordnuni von Freidmnhs Dt-
sckeidenheit (1870).
FRBIENWALDB, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of
Prussia, on the Oder, sS m. N.E. of Berlin, on the Frankfort-
AngermUnde railway. Pop. (1905) 7005. It has a small palace,
built by the Great Elector, an Evangelical and a Roman Catholic
church, and manufactures of furniture, machinery, ftc The
neighbouring forests and its medicinal springs make it a favourite
summer resort of the inhabitants of Berlin. A new tower com-
mands a fine view of the Oderbruch (see Oder). Freaenwalde,
which must be distinguished from the smaller town of the same
name in Pomerania, first appears as a town in 1564.
FREIESLEBENITE, a rare mineral consisting of snlphaati-
monite of silver and lead, (Pb,Ag»)»Sb,Sn. The monodiiik
crystals are prismatic in habit, with deeply striated prism and
dome faces. The colour is steel-grey, and the lustre metallic;
hardness 2}, specific gravity 62. It occurs with argentite,
chalybite and galena in the silver veins of the HunroelsfQrst
mine at Freiberg, Saxony, where it has been known since 1720.
The. species was named after J. K. Freiesleben, who had earlier
called it Sckilf-Glasen. Other localities are Htendelaencina
near Guadalajara in Spain, Kapnik-Banya in Hungary, and
Guanajuato in Mexico. A species separated from freieslebenite
by V. von Zepharovich in 1871, because of differences in crystal-
line form, is known as diaphorite (from fco4opa» " difference");
it is very similar to freieslebenite in appearance and has perhaps
the same chemical composition (or possibly AgsPbSbjSi), but
is orthorhombic in crystallization. A third mineral also very
similar to freieslebenite in appearance is the orthorhombic
andorite, AgPbSbjS*, which is mined as a silver ore at Oruro ia
Bolivia.
FREIGHT, (pronounced like " weight "; derived from the
Dutch vrockt or vrcchl, in Fr. fret, the Eng. " fraught " being the -
same word, and formerly used for the same thing, but no*
only as an adjective «* " laden "), the lading or cargo of a ship, *
and the hire paid for their transport (see Affreightmext); ■
from the original sense of water-transport of goods the word hu -
also come to be used for land-transit (particularly in Anuria, -
by railroad), and by analogy for any load or burden.
FRRIUGRATH, FBRDLNAJTD (1810-1876), German poet, ^
was born at Detmold on the 1 7th of June 1810. He was educated
at the gymnasium of his native town, and in his sixteenth year J
was sent to Soest, with a view to preparing him for a commercial
career. Here he had also time and opportunity to acquire t
taste for French and English literature. The years from 1S31
to 1836 he spent in a bank at Amsterdam, and 1837 to 1830 ia '_
\ business house at Barmen. In 1838 his Gedickie appeared
snd met with such extraordinary success that he gave up the
FREIND— FREISCHUTZ
95
Idea of a commercial life and retohred to devote bimtelf entirely
to literature His repudiation of the political poetry of 1841
and its revolutionary ideals attracted the attention of the king
of Prussia, Frederick William IV., who, in 184a, granted him
a pension of 300 talers a year. He married, and, to be near his
friend Emanuel Geibel, settled at St-Goar. Before long, however,
Freiligrath was himself carried away by the rising tide of liberal-
ism. In the poem Bin Gaubensbekenntnis (1844) he openly
avowed his sympathy with the political movement led by his old
adversary, Georg Herwegh; the day, he declared, of his own
poetic trifling with Romantic themes was over; Romanticism
itself was dead. He laid down his pension, and, to avoid the
inevitable political persecution, took refuge in Switzerland.
As a sequel to the Claubensbekenntnis he published Qa iral (1846),
which strained still further his relations with the German
authorities. He fled to London, where he resumed the com-
mercial life he had broken off seven years before. When the
Revolution of 1848 broke out, it seemed to Freiligrath, as to all
the liberal thinkers of the time, the dawn of an era of political
freedom; and, as may be seen from the poems in his collection of
Poliiiscke nnd satiate Cedichte (1840-1851), he welcomed it with
unbounded enthusiasm. He returned to Germany and settled
in Dflsseldorf; but it was not long before he had again called
down upon himself the ill- will of the ruling powers by a poem,
Die Toten an die Lebendcn (1848). He was arrested on a charge
of lese-majcsti, but the prosecution ended in his acquittal. New
difficulties arose; his association with the democratic movement
rendered him an object of constant suspicion, and in 1851 he
judged it more prudent to go back to London, where he remained
until 1 868. In that year he returned to Germany, settling first in
Stuttgart and in 1875 in the neighbouring town of Cannstatt,
where he died on the 18th of March 1876.
As a poet, Freiligrath was the most gifted member of the
German revolutionary group. Coming at the very close of the
Romantic age, his own purely lyric poetry re-echoes for the most
part the familiar thoughts and imagery of his Romantic pre-
decessors; but at an early age be had been attracted by the work
of French contemporary poets, and he reinvigorated the German
lyric by grafting upon it the orientalism of Victor Hugo. In this
reconciliation of French and German romanticismlay Freiligrath's
significance for the development of the lyric in Germany. His
remarkable power of assimilating foreign literatures is also to
be seen in his translations of English and Scottish ballads, of
the poetry of Burns, Mrs Hemans, Longfellow and Tennyson
{Bngfische Cedichte aus nenerer Zeit, 1846; The Rase, Thistle
and Shamrock, 1853, 6th ed. 1887); he also translated Shake-
speare's Cymbcline, Winter's Tale and Venus and Adonis, as well
as Longfellow's Hiawatha (1857). Freiligrath is most original
in his revolutionary poetry. His poems of this class suffer,
it is true, under the disadvantage of all political poetry— purely
temporary interest and the unavoidable admixture of much that
has no claim to be called poetry at all— but the agitator Freili-
grath, when he is at his best, displays a vigour and strength, a
power of direct and cogent poetic expression, not to be found in
any other political singer of the age.
Freiligrath's Cedi e hie have pawed tl
his Gtsammelte Dick tun gen, first pub!
sixth edition (1808). Nachtelauetu
Byron's Mazeppa) was published in
Sith's best-known poems in English
tighter. Mrs Freiligrath-Kroeker, ii
fiMarv Epoch were translated by I.
Schnudt-Weisscnfels, F. Freiligrath,
Berliner. F. Freiligrath, tin Diehterle
G. Freiligrath, Ennnemngcn an F.
FreiUgraih (Paris. 1899); K. Rich
FREIIID, JOHN (1675-17*8), English physician, younger
brother of Robert Freind (1667-1751), headmaster of West-
minster school, was born in 1675 ** Croton in Northamptonshire.
He made great progress in classical knowledge under Richard
Busby at Westminster, and at Christ Church, Oxford, under
Pean Aldrich. and while still very young, produced, along with
Peter Foulkcs, an excellent edition of the speeches of Aeschines
and Demosthenes on the affair of Ctetfpfcoii. After this ho began
the study of medicine, and having proved his scientific attain-
ments by various treatises was appointed a lecturer on chemistry
at Oxford in 1704. In the following year he accompanied the
English army, under the earl of Peterborough, into Spain, and
on returning home in 1707, wrote an account of the expedition,
which attained great popularity. Two years later be published
his Prdectiones chimicae, which he dedicated to Sir Isaac Newton.
Shortly after his return in 1713 from Flanders, whither he had
accompanied the British troops, he took up his residence in
London, where he soon obtained a great reputation as a physician.
In 17 16 he became fellow of the college of physicians, of which
he was chosen one of the censors in 17x8, and Harvcian orator
in 1720. In 172a he entered parliament as member for Launceston
in Cornwall, but, being suspected of favouring the cause of the
exiled Stuarts, he spent half of that year in the Tower. During
his imprisonment he conceived the plan of his most important
work, The History of Physic, of which the first part appeared
in 1 725, and the second in the following year. In the latter year
he was appointed physician to Queen Caroline, an office which he
held till his death on the 26th of July 1738.
A complete edition of his Latin works, with a Latin translation of
the History of Physic, edited by Dr John Wigan, was published in
London in 1732.
FREMSHVJM [FraHSBEious], JOHAMH (1608-1600), German
classical scholar and critic, was born at Ulm on the 16th of
November 1608. After studying at the universities of Marburg,
Giessen and Strassburg, he visited France, where he remained
for three years. He returned to Strassburg in 1637, and in
1642 was appointed professor of eloquence at Upsala. In 1647
he was summoned by Queen Christina to Stockholm as court
librarian and historiographer. In 16 so he resumed his professor-
ship at Upsala, but early in the following year he was obliged
to resign on account of ill-health. In 1656 he became honorary
professor at Heidelberg, and died on the 31st of August 1660.
Freinshdm's literary activity was chiefly devoted to the Roman'
historians. He first introduced the division into chapters and
paragraphs, and by means of carefully compiled indexes illus-
trated the lexical peculiarities of each author. He is best known
for his famous supplements to Quintus Curtius and Livy , contain-
ing the missing books written by himself. He also published
critical editions of Curtius and Floras.
FREIRB, FRANCISCO JOSfi (1710-1773), Portuguese historian
and philologist, was born at Lisbon on the 3rd of January
17x9. He belonged to the monastic society of St Philip Nerl,
and was a cealous member of the literary association known as
the Academy of Arcadians, in connexion with which he adopted
the pseudonym of Candido Lusitano. He contributed much
to the improvement of the style of Portuguese prose literature,
but his endeavour to effect a reformation in the national poetry
by a translation of Horace's Ars poitica was less successful The
work in which be set forth his opinions regarding the vicious
taste pervading the current Portuguese prose literature is entitled
MaximassobreaArle Oratorio (1745) and is preceded by a chrono-
logical table forming almost a social and physical history of
Portugal. His best known work, however, is his Vida do
infante D. Henrique (1758), which has given him a place in the
first rank of Portuguese historians, and has been translated into
French (Paris, 1781). He also wrote a poetical dictionary
(Diccionario portico) and a translation of Racine's Athalie (1762),
and his inflexions sur la languc portugaise waa published in 1842
by the Lisbon society for the promotion of useful knowledge.
He died at Mafra on the 5th of July 1773.
FRBISCHOTZ, in German folklore, a marksman who by a
compact with the devil has obtained a certain number of bullets
destined to bit without fail whatever object he wishes. As the
legend is usually told, six of the Freihugeln or " free bullets "
are thus subservient to the marksman's will, but the seventh Is
at the absolute disposal of the devil himself. Various methods,
were adopted in order to procure possession of the marvellous
missiles. According to one the marksman, instead of swallowing
the sacramental host, kt^\ \i von, fcsaA \V wv * vewt, fenx w\\.
9 6
FREISING— FRfcMIET
and caused it to bleed great drops of blood, gathered the drops
on a piece of doth and reduced the whole to ashes, and then with
these ashes added the requisite virtue to the lead of which his
bullets were made. Various vegetable or animal substances had
the reputation of serving the same purpose. Stories about the
Freischutx were especially common in Germany during the 14th,
15th and 16th centuries; but the first time that the legend was
turned to literary profit is said to have been by Apel in the
Ctspensterbuch or " Book of Ghosts." It formed the subject
of Weber's opera Dew Freischutx (1821), the libretto of which
was written by Friedrich Kind, who had suggested Apel's story
as an excellent theme for the composer. The name by which the
Freischuts is known in French is Robin des Bois.
See Kind, FnyscMsmhuh (Leipzig, 1843); Revue des deux monies
(February 1855); Grasee, Die Quelle des Freischuts (Dresden, 1875).
FREISING, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria,
on the Isar, 16 m. by rail N.N.E. of Munich. Pop. (1005) 13,538.
Among its eight Roman Catholic churches the most remarkable
is the -cathedral, which dates from about 1160 and is famous for
its curious crypt* Noteworthy also are the old palace of the
bishops, now a clerical seminary, the theological lyceum and the
town-halL There are several schools in .the town, and there is a
statue to the chronicler, Otto of Freising, who was bishop here
from 1x38 to 1 1 58. Freising has manufactures of agricultural
machinery and of porcelain, while printing and brewing are carried
on. Near the town is the site of the Benedictine abbey of
Weihenstephan, which existed from 725 to 1803. This is now
a model farm and brewery. Freising is a very ancient town and
is said to have been founded by the Romans. After being
destroyed by the Hungarians in 955 it was fortified by the emperor
Otto II. in 976 and by Duke Welf of Bavaria in 1082. A bishopric
was established here in 724 by St Corbinianus, whose brother
Erimbert was consecrated second bbhop by St Boniface in 739.
Later on the bishops acquired considerable territorial power
and in the 17th century became princes of the Empire. In
1802 the see was secularized, the bulk of its territories being
assigned to Bavaria and the rest to Salzburg, of which Freising
had been a suffragan bishopric In 1817 an archbishopric
was established at Freising, but in the following year it was
transferred to Munich. The occupant of the see is now called
archbishop of Munich and Freising.
See C. Meichelbeck, Historuu Frisingensis (Augsburg, 1724-1729,
new and enlarged edition 1854).
FRAJUS, a town in the department of the Var in S.E. France.
Pop. (1006) 3430. It is 28} m. S.E. of Draguignan (the chief
town of the department), and 22} ro. S.W. of Cannes by rail. It
is only important on account of the fine Roman remains that it
contains, for it is now a mile from the sea, its harbour having been
silted up by the deposits of the Argens river. Since the 4th
century it has been a bishop's see, which is in the ecclesiastical
province of Aix en Provence. In modern times the neighbouring
fishing village at St Raphael (2} m. by rail S.E., and on the sea-
shore) has become a town of 4865 inhabitants (in 1 001); in 1799
Napoleon disembarked there on his return from Egypt, and xe-
embarked for Elba in 1814, while nowadays it is much frequented
as a health resort, as is also Valescure (2 m. N.W. on the heights
above). The cathedral church in part dates from the 1 2th cen-
tury, but only Small portions of the old medieval episcopal palace
are now visible, as it was rebuilt about 1823. The ramparts of
the old town can still be traced for a long distance, and there
are fragments of two moles, of the theatre and of a gate. The
amphitheatre, which seated 12,000 spectators, is in a better state
of preservation. The ruins of the great aqueduct which brought
the waters of the Siagnole, an affluent of the Siagne, to the town,
can still be traced for a distance of nearly 19 m. The original
hamlet was the capital. of the tribe of the Oxybii, while the town
of Forum Julii was founded on its site by Julius Caesar in order
to secure to the Romans a harbour independent of that of
Marseilles. The buildings of which ruins exist were mostly
built by Caesar or by Augustus, and show that it was an important
naval station and arsenal. But the town suffered much at the
Juuds of tic Arabs, of Barbary pirates, and of its inhabitants,
who constructed many of their dwellings out of the mined Roman
buildings. The ancient harbour (really but a portion of the
lagoons, which had been deepened) is now completely s&ted
up. Even in early times a canal had to be kept open by perpetual
digging, while about 1700 this was dosed, and now a sandy
and partly cultivated waste extends between the town and the
seashore.
See J. A. Aubenas, HisUrirede Frtjus (Frejus, 1881); Ch. LentMrie.
La Pretence Maritime ancienne et mederm (Paris, 1880). chap. viL
(W. A. B. C)
FREUNGHUYSEN. FREDERICK THEODORE (1817-1885),
American lawyer and statesman, of Dutch descent, was bora at
Millstone, New Jersey, on the 4th of August 1817. His grand-
father, Frederick Frelinghuysen (1753-1804), was an eminent
lawyer, one of the framers of the first New Jersey constitution,
a soldier in the War of Independence, and a member (1778-1779
and 1 782-1 783) of the Continental Congress from New Jersey,
and in 1 793-1 796 of the United States senate; and his uncle,
Theodore (1 787-1862), was attorney-general of New Jersey
from 1817 to 1829, was a United States senator from New
Jersey in 1820-1835, was the Whig candidate for vice-president
on the Clay ticket in 1844, and was chancellor of the university
of New York in 1 839-1 850 and president of Rutgers College
in 1850-1862. Frederick Theodore, left an orphan at the age of
three, was adopted by his uncle, graduated at Rutgers in 1836,
and studied law in Newark with his uncle, to whose practice
he succeeded in 1839, soon after his admission to the bar. He
became attorney for the Central Railroad of New Jersey, the
Morris Canal and Banking Company, and other corporations,
and from 1861 to 1867 was attorney-general of New Jersey.
In 1861 he was a delegate to the peace congress at Washington,
and in 1866 was appointed by the governor of New Jersey, as
a Republican, to fill a vacancy in the United States senate.
In the winter of 1867 he was elected to fill the unexpired term,
but a Democratic majority in the legislature prevented his
re-election in 1869. In 1870 he was nominated by President
Grant, and confirmed by the senate, as United States minister
to England to succeed John Lothrop Motley, but declined the
mission. From 1871 to 1877 he was again a member of the United
Stales senate, in which he was prominent in debate and in com-
mittee work, and was chairman of the committee on foreign
affairs during the Alabama Claims negotiations. He was a strong
opponent of the reconstruction measures of President Johnson,
for whose conviction he voted (on most of the specific charges)
in the impeachment trial. He was a member of the joint com-
mittee which drew up and reported (1877) the Electoral Com-
mission Bill, and subsequently served as a member of the com-
mission. On the 1 2th of December 1881 he was appointed
secretary of state by President Arthur to succeed James G.
Blaine, and served until the inauguration of President Cleveland
in 1885. Retiring, with his health impaired by overwork, to
his home in Newark, he died there on the 20th of May, less than
three months after relinquishing the cares of office.
FREMANTLE, a seaport of Swan county, Western Australia,
at the mouth of the Swan river, 12 m. by rail S.W. of Perth.
It is the terminus of the Eastern railway, and is a town of
some industrial activity, shipbuilding, soap-boiling, saw-milling,
smelting, iron-founding, furniture-making, flour-milling, brewing _
and tanning being its chief industries. The harbour, by the -
construction of two long moles and the blasting away of the rocks -
at the bar, has been rendered secure. The English, French and
German mail steamers call at the port. Fremantle became a
municipality in 1871; but there are now three separate muniri- a
palities— Fremantle, with a population in 1001 of 14.704; -
Fremantle East (2494) ; and Fremantle North (3246). At Rott- -3
nest Island, off. the harbour, there are government salt-worb *
and a residence of the governor, also penal and reformatory *
establishments.
FRAmIET, EMMANUEL (1824- ), French sculptor, bom *
in Paris, was a nephew and pupil of Rude; he chiefly devoted
himself to animal sculpture and to equestrian statues in armour.
His earliest work was in scientific lithography (osteology), and «-
FREMONT
97
far a while he served in timet of adversity in the gramme office
of M punter to the Morgue." In 1843 he lent to the Salon a
study of a " Gazelle/' and after that date was very prolific in bis
works. His " Wounded Bear " and " Wounded Dog " were
produced in 1850, and the Luxembourg Museum at once secured
this striking example of his work. From 1855 to 1859 Fremiet
was engaged on a series of military statuettes for Napoleon III.
He produced his equestrian statue of " Napoleon I." in 1868,
and of " Louis d 'Orleans" in 1869 (at the Chateau de Pierrefonds)
and in 1874 the first equestrian statue of " Joan of Arc/ 1 erected
in the Place des Pyramides, Paris; this he afterwards (1889)
replaced with another and still finer version. In the meanwhile
he had exhibited his masterly " Gorilla and Woman " which won
him a medal of honour at the Salon of 1887. Of the same
character, and even more remarkable, is his " Ourang-Outangs
and Borneo Savage " of 1895, a commission from the Paris
Museum of Natural History. Fremiet also executed the statue
of " St Michael " for the summit of the spire of the £glisc
St Michel, and the equestrian statue of Velasquez for the Jardin
de l'lnfante at the Louvre. He became a member of the
Academic des Beaux-Arts in 1893, and succeeded Barye as
professor of animal drawing at the Natural History Museum of
Paris.
FREMONT, JOHN CHARLES (18x3-1890), American explorer,
soldier and political leader, was born in Savannah, Georgia, on
the sist of January 1813. His father, a native of France, died
when the boy was in his sixth year, and his mother, a member of
an aristocratic Virginia family, then removed to Charleston, South
Carolina. In 1828, after a year's special preparation, young
Fremont entered the junior class of the college of Charleston,
and here displayed marked ability, especially in mathematics;
but his irregular attendance and disregard of college discipline
led to his expulsion from the institution, which, however, conferred
upon him a degree in 1836. In 1833 he was appointed teacher
of mathematics on board the sloop of war " Natchez, " and was
so engaged during a cruise along the South American coast
which was continued for about two and a half years. Soon
after returning to Charleston he was appointed professor of
mathematics in the United States navy, but he chose instead to
serve aa assistant engineer of a survey undertaken chiefly for
the purpose of finding a pass through the mountains for a pro-
posed railway from Charleston to Cincinnati. In July 1838 he
was appointed second lieutenant of Topographical Engineers in
the United States army, and for the next three years he was
assistant to the French explorer, Jean Nicholas Nicollet (1786-
1843), employed by the war department to survey and map a
Urge part of the country lying between the upper waters of the
Mississippi and Missouri river*. In 1841 Fremont surveyed, for
the government, the lower course of the Des Moines river. In
the same year he married Jessie, the daughter of Senator Thomas
H. Benton of Missouri, and it was in no small measure through
Benton's influence with the government that Fremont was
enabled to accomplish within the next few years the exploration
of much of the territory between the Mississippi Valley and the
Pacific Ocean.
When the claim of the United States to the Oregon territory
was being strengthened by occupation, Fremont was sent, at
his urgent request, to explore the frontier beyond the Missouri
river, and especially the Rocky Mountains in the vicinity of the
South Pass, through which the American immigrants travelled.
Within four months (1842) he surveyed the Pass and ascended
to the summit of the highest of the Wind River Mountains*, since
known as Fremont's Peak, and the interest aroused by his
descriptions was such that in the next year he was sent on a
second expedition to complete the survey across the continent
along the line of traveli rom Missouri to the mouth of the Columbia
river. This time he not only carried out his instructions but,
by further explorations together with interesting descriptions,
dispelled general ignorance with respect to the main features of
the country W. of the Rocky Mountains: the Great Salt Lake,
the Great Basin, the Sierra Nevada Mountains, and the fertile
river basins of the Mexican province of California.
His report of this expedition upon his return to Washington,
D.C., in 1844, aroused much solicitude for California, which, iL
was feared, might, in the event of war then threatening between
the United States and Mexico, be seized by Great Britain. In
the spring of 1845 Fremont was despatched 00 a third expedition
for the professed purposes of further exploring the Great Basin
and the Pacific Coast, and of discovering the easiest lines of
communication between them, as well as for the secret purpose
of assisting the United States, in case of war with Mexico, to
gain possession of California, He and his party of sixty-two
arrived there in January 1846. Owing to the number of American
immigrants who had settled in California, the Mexican
authorities there became suspicious and hostile, and ordered
Fremont out of the province. Instead of obeying he pitched
his camp near the summit of a mountain overlooking Monterey,
fortified his position, and raised the United States flag. A few
days later he was proceeding toward the Oregon border when
new instructions from Washington caused him to retrace his
steps and, perhaps, to consider plana for provoking war. The
extent of his responsibility for the events that ensued is not
wholly clear, and has been the subject of much controversy;
his defenders have asserted that he. was not responsible for the
seizure of Sonoma or for the so-called " Bear-Flag War "; and
that he played a creditable part throughout. (For an opposite
view see California.) Commodore John D. Sloat, after seizing
Monterey, transferred his command to Commodore Robert
Field Stockton (1795-1866), who made Fremont major of a
battalion; and by January 1847 Stockton and Fremont completed
the conquest of California, In the meantime General Stephen
Watts Kearny (1794-1848) had been sent by the Government
to conquer it and to establish a government. This created a
conflict of authority between Stockton and Kearny, both of
whom were Fremont's superior officers. Stockton, ignoring
Kearny, commissioned Fremont military commandant and
governor. But Kearny's authority being confirmed about the
1st of April, Fremont, for repeated acts of disobedience, was
sent under arrest to Washington, where he was tried by court-
martial, found guilty (January 1847) of mutiny, disobedience
and conduct prejudicial to military discipline, and sentenced
to dismissal from the service. President Polk approved of the
verdict except as to mutiny, but remitted the penalty, whereupon
Frimont resigned.
With the mountain-traversed region he had been exploring
acquired by the United States, Fremont was eager for a railway
from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and in October 1848 he set out
at his own and Senator Benton's expense to find passes for such
a railway along a line westward from the headwaters of the Rio
Grande. But he had not gone far when he was led astray by a
guide, and after the loss of his entire outfit and several of his
men, and intense suffering of the survivors from cold and hunger,
he turned southward through the valley of the Rio Grande and
then westward through the valley of the Gila into southern
California. Late in the year 1853, however, he returned to the
place where the guide had led him astray, found passes through
the mountains to the westward between latitudes 37 and 38
N., and arrived in San Francisco early in May 1854. From the
conclusion of his fourth expedition until March 1855, when he
removed to New York city, he lived in California, and in December
1849 was elected one of the first two United States senators from
the new state. But as be drew the short term, he served only
from the xoth of September 1850 to the 3rd of March 1851.
Although a candidate for re-election, he was defeated by the
pro-slavery party. His opposition to slavery, however, together
with his popularity— won by the successes, hardships and dangers
of his exploring expeditions, and by his part in the conquest of
California— led to his nomination, largely on the ground of
" availability," for the presidency in 1856 by the Republicans
(this being their first presidential campaign), and by the National
Americans or " Know-Nothings." In the ensuing election he
was defeated by James Buchanan by 174 to 114 electoral votes.
Soon after the Civil War began, Fremont was e>ro&c&sA
major-general and placed \n cjVBB&axvd, <A \2n& t*tsXKXfe. ta^xvo&xft.
9 8
FREMONT— FRENCH, D. C.
with headquarters at St Louis, bat his lack of judgment and
of administrative ability soon became apparent, the affairs of
his department fell into disorder, and Fremont seems to have
been easily duped by dishonest contractors whom he trusted.
On the 30th of August 1861 he issued a proclamation in which
he declared the property of Missourians in rebellion confiscated
and their slaves emancipated. For this he was applauded by
the radical Republicans, but his action was contrary to an act
of congress of the 6th of August and to the policy of the Adminis-
tration. On the xxth of September President Lincoln, who
regarded the action as premature and who saw that it might
alienate Kentucky and other border states, whose adherence he
was trying to secure, annulled these declarations. Impelled by
serious charges against Frlmont, the president sent Mont-
gomery Blair, the postmaster-general, and Montgomery C. Meigs,
the quartermaster-general, to investigate the department; they
reported that Fremont's management was extravagant and
inefficient ; and in November he was removed. Out of con-
sideration for the " Radicals," however, Fremont was placed in
command of the Mountain Department of Virginia, Kentucky
and Tennessee. In the spring and summer of 1863 he co-operated
with General N. P. Banks against " Stonewall " Jackson in the
Shenandoah Valley, but showed little ability as a commander, was
defeated by General Ewell at Cross Keys, and when his troops
were united with those of Generals Banks and McDowell to form
the Army of Virginia, of which General John Pope was placed
in command, Frfmont declined to serve under Pope, whom he
outranked, and retired from active service. On the 31st of May
1864 he was nominated for the presidency by a radical faction
of the Republican party, opposed to President Lincoln, but
his following was so small that on the axst of September he with-
drew from the contest. From 1878 to 1881 he was governor of
the territory of Arizona, and in the last year of his life he was
appointed by act of congress a major-general and placed on the
retired list. He died in New York on the 13th of July 1800.
See J. C. Fremont, Report of the Exploring Expedition to the Rocky
Mountains, 1842, and to Oregon and North California, 1843-1844
(Washington, 1845); Fremont's Memoirs of my Life (New York,
1887); and J. Bigclow, Memoirs of the Life and Public Services
of John C. Fremont (New York, 1856).
FREMONT, a city and the county-seat of Dodge county,
Nebraska, U.S.A., about 37 m. N.W. of Omaha, on the N. bank
of the Platte river, which here abounds in picturesque bluffs
and wooded islands. Pop. (1800) 6747; (xooo) 7741 (1303
foreign-born) ; (1910) 87 18. It is on the main line of the Union
Pacific railway, on a branch of the Chicago, Burlington &
Quincy system, and on the main western line of the Chicago &
North-Western railway, several branches of which (including the
formerly independent Fremont, Elkhorn ft Missouri Valley and
the Sioux City ft Pacific) converge here. The city has an attrac-
tive situation and is beautifully shaded. It has a public library
and is the seat of the Fremont College, Commercial Institute
and School of Pharmacy (1875), & private institution. There is
considerable local trade with the rich farming country of the
Platte and Elkhorn valleys; and the wholesale grain interests arc
especially important. Among the manufactures are flour,
carriages, saddlery, canned vegetables, furniture, incubators
and beer. The city owns and operates its electric-lighting plant
and water- works. Fremont was founded in 1856, and became
the county-seat in x 860. It was chartered as a city (second-class)
in 1871, and became a city of the first class in 1901.
FREMONT, a dty and the county-seat of Sandusky county;
Ohio, U.S.A., on the Sandusky river, 30 m. S.E. of Toledo.
Pop. (1800) 7141; (1000) 8439, of whom 1074 were foreign-born;
(1910 census) 9939- Fremont is served by the Lake Shore ft
Michigan Southern, the Lake Shore Electric, the Lake Erie
ft Western, and the Wheeling ft Lake Erie railways. The river
b navigable to this point. Spiegel Grove, the former residence of
Rutherford B. Hayes, is of interest, and the city has a public
library (1873) and parks, tn large measure the gifts of his uncle,
Sardis Birchard. Fremont is situated in a good agricultural
region; oil and natural gas abound in the vicinity; and the dty
his various manufactures, including boilers, electro-carbons,
cutlery, bricks, agricultural implements, stoves and ranges;
safety razors, carriage irons, sash, doors, blinds, furniture, beet
sugar, canned vegetables, malt eitract, garters and suspenders.
The total factory product was valued at $3,833,385 in 1905,
an increase of 23*4% over that of 1900. Fremont is on the site
of a favourite abode of the Indians, and a tradkj post was at
times maintained here; but the place is best known in history as
the site of Fort Stephenson, erected during the War of 181 *,
andon the and of August 18x3 gallantly and successfully defended
by Major George Croghan (1 791-1849), with 160 men, against
about xooo British and Indians under Brigadier-General Henry
A. Proctor. In 1906 Croghan 's remains were re-interred on the
site of the old fort. Until 1849, when the present name was
adopted in honour of J. C. Fremont, the place was known as
Lower Sandusky; it was incorporated as a village in 1829
and was first chartered as a dty in 1867.
FRftMY, EDMOND (18x4-1894), French chemist, was bora
at Versailles on the 29th of February 1814. Entering Gay-
Lussac's laboratory in 183 1, he became prtparaltur at the Scale
Poly technique in 1834 and at the College de France in 1837.
His next post was that of rSpiliteur at the £cole Polytechnique,
where in 1846 he was appointed professor, and in 1850 he sue*
ceeded Gay-Lussac in the chair of chemistry at the Museum
d'Histoire Naturelle, of which he was director, in succession, to
M. E. Chevreul, from 1879 to 1891. He died at Paris on the 3rd
of February 1894. His work included investigations of oarnic
add,- of the ferrates, stannates, plumbates, &c, and of ozone,
attempts to obtain free fluorine by the electrolysis of fused
fluorides, and the discovery of anhydrous hydrofluoric add and
of a series of acides sulphazoUs, the precise nature of which long
remained a matter of discussion. He also studied the colouring
matters of leaves and flowers, the composition of bone, cerebral
matter and other animal substances, and the processes of fer-
mentation, in regard to the nature of which he was an opponent of
Pasteur's views. Keenly alive to the importance of the technical
applications of chemistry, he devoted special attention as a
teacher to the training of industrial chemists. In this field he
contributed to our knowledge of the manufacture of iron and steel,
sulphuric add, glass and paper, and in particular worked at the
saponification of fats with sulphuric add and the utilization of
palmitic add for candle-making. In the later years of his life
he applied himself to the problem of obtaining alumina in the
crystalline form, and succeeded in making rubies identical with
the natural gem not merely in chemical composition but also in
physical properties.
FRENCH, DANIEL CHESTER (1850- ), American sculptor,
was born at Exeter, New Hampshire, on the 20th of April 1850,
the son of Henry Flagg French, a lawyer, who for a time was
assistant-secretary of the United States treasury. After a year
at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, French spent a
month in the studio of John Q. A. Ward, then began to work on
commissions, and at the age of twenty-three received from the
town of Concord, Massachusetts, an order for his well-known
statue " The Minute Man," which was unveiled (April 19, 1875)
on the centenary of the battle of Concord. Previously French
had gone to Florence, Italy, where he spent a year with Thomas
Ball. French's best-known work is " Death Staying the Hand of
the Sculptor," a memorial for the tomb of the sculptor Martin
Milmore, in the Forest Hills cemetery, Boston ; this recdved a
medal of honour at Paris, in 1900. Among his other works are:
a monument to John Boyle O'Reilly, Boston; " Gen. Cass,"
National Hall of Statuary, Washington; "*Dr Gallaudct and his
First Deaf-Mute Pupil," Washington; the colossal "Statue
of the Republic," for the Columbian Exposition at Chicago;
statues of Rufus Choate (Boston), John Harvard (Cambridge,
Mass.), and Thomas Starr King (San Francisco, California), a
memorial to the architect Richard M. Hunt, in Fifth Avenue,
opposite the Lenox library, New York, and a large "Alma
Mater," near the approach to Columbia University, New York.
In collaboratidn with Edward C. Potter he modelled the
M Washington," presented to France by the Daughters of the
American Revolution; the " General Grant " in Fairmount Park,
FRENCH, N.— FRENCH CONGO
99
~* i_;_ i«*_ .
Philadelphia, and the "General Joseph Hooker" in Boston.
French became a member of the National Academy of Design
(igox), the National Sculpture Society, the Architectural League,
and the Accademia di San Luca, of Rome.
FRENCH, NICHOLAS (i 604-1678), bishop of Ferns, was an
Irish political pamphleteer, who was born at Wexford. He
was educated at Lou vain, and returning to Ireland became a
priest at Wexford, and before 1646 was appointed bishop of
Ferns. Having taken a prominent part in the political disturb-
ances of this period, French deemed it prudent to leave Ireland
in 1651, and thr
passed on the con
as coadjutor to I
de Cbrapostclla a
of Ghent, and di
August 1678. In
on James Butlc
entitled "The 1
Men and True Fri
"The Bleeding
port ant of hisothc
of the Earl of Cla
Of Ireland " (Lou
The Historical \
prising the three
and some letter*. *
at Dublin in 1841
Writtrz of Ike 17U
\ T. Gilbert, Omi
', 1641-1652
Carte, Lift of Jam
Oxford, 1851).
FRENCH CONG
French possession:
have an area estir
a population, als
10,000,000. The
of whom 50a wc
officially renamed
in 1010, compris
(2) the Middle C<
Shari Circumscrir.
scription. The W
the Ubangi-Shari-
The present ar
as a unit. It a t „. .„ .
h bounded W. by the Atlantic, N. by the (Spanish) Muni
River Settlements, the German colony of Cameroon and the
Sahara, E. by the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, and S. by Belgian
Congo and the Portuguese territory of Kabinda, In the greater
part of its length the southern frontier is the middle course of
the Congo and the Ubangi and Mbomu, the chief northern
affluents of that stream, but in the south-west the frontier
keeps north of the Congo river, whose navigable lower course
» partitioned between Belgium and Portugal The coast line,
some 600 m. long, extends from 5 S. to x° N. The northern
frontier, starting inland from the Muni estuary, after skirting the
Spanish settlements follows a line drawn a little north of a° N.
and extending east to 16 E. North of this line the country is
part of Cameroon, German territory extending so far inland from
the Gulf of Guinea as to approach within 130 m. of the Ubangi.
From the intersection of the lines named, at which point French
Congo is at its narrowest, the frontier runs north and then east
until the Sbari is reached in io° 40' N. The Shari then forms the
frontier up to Lake Chad, where French Congo joins the Saharan
regions of French West Africa. The eastern frontier, separating
the colony from the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, is the water-parting
between the Nile and the Congo. The Mahommedan sultanates
of Wadai and Bagirmi occupy much of the northern part of
French Congo (see Wadai and Bagirmi).
Physical Features. — The coast line, beginning in the north at
Corisco Bay, is shortly afterwards somewhat deeply indented by
the estuary of the Gabun, south of which the shore runs in a nearly
straight line until the delta of the Ogowe is reached, where Cape
Lopez projects N.W. From this point the coast trends unifornuy
S.E. without presenting any striking features, though the Bay of
Mayumba, the roadstead of Loango, and the Pointe Noire may be
mentioned. A large proportion 01 the coast region is occupied by
primeval forest, with trees rising to a height of 150 and 200 ft-, but
there is a considerable variety of scenery — open lagoons, mangrove
swamps, scattered clusters of trees, park-like reaches, dense walls of
tangled underwood along the rivers, prairies of tall grass and patches
of cultivation. Behind the coast region is a ridge which rises from
3000 to 4500 ft., called the Crystal Mountains, then a plateau with
an elevation varying from 1500 to 2800 ft., cleft with deep river-
valleys, the walls of which are friable, almost vertical, and in some
places 760 ft. high.
The coast rivers flowing into the Atlantic cross four terraces.
On the higher portion of the plateau their course is over bare sand;
on the second terrace, from 1200 to 2000 ft. high, it is over wide
grassy tracts; then, for some 100 m., the rivers pass through virgin
forest, and, lastly, they cross the shore region, which is about 10 m.
broad. The rivers which fall directly into the Atlantic are generally
unnavigable. The most important, the Ogowe (?.».), is, however,
navigable from its mouth to N'lole, a distance of 235 m. Rivers to
the south of the Ogowe are the Nyanga, 120 m. long, and the Kwilu.
The latter, 320 m. in length, is formed by the Kiasi and the Luetft;
it has a very winding course, flowing by turns from north to south,
from east to west, from south to north-west and from north to south-
west. It is encumbered with rocks and eddies, and is navigable only
over 38 m., and for five months in the year. The mouth is 1 100 ft.
wide. The Muni river, the northernmost in the colony, is obstructed
by cataracts in its passage through the escarpment to the coast.
Nearly all the upper basin of the Shari (q.v.) as well as the right
bank of the lower river is within French Congo. The greater part
of the country belongs, however, to the drainage area of the Congo
river. In addition to the northern banks of the Mbomu and Ubangi,
330 m. of the north shore of the Congo itself are in the French pro-
tectorate as well as numerous subsidiary streams. For some 100 m.
however, the right bank of the Sanga, the most important of these
subsidiary streams, is in German territory (see Congo).
Ceotogy. — Three main divisions are recognized in the French
Congo: — (x) the littoral tone, covered with alluvium and superficial
deposits, and underlain by Tertiary and Cretaceous rocks; (2) the
mountain sone of the Crystal Mountains, composed of granite,
metamorphic and ancient sediments; (3) the plateau of the northern
portion of the Congo basin, occupied by Karroo sandstones. The
core of the Crystal Mountains consists of granite and schists.
Infolded with them, and on die flanks, are three rock systems ascribed
to the Silurian, Devonian and Carboniferous. These are unfossili-
ferous, but fossils of Devonian age occur on the Congo (see Congo
Freb State). Granite covers wide areas north-west of the Crystal
Mountains. The plateau sandstones lie horizontally and consist
of a lower red sandstone group and an upper white sandstone group.
They have not yielded fossils. Limestones of Lower Cretaceous age,
with Schloenbachia inflate, occur north of the Gabun and in the Ogowe
basin. Marls and limestones with fossils of an Eocene fades over-
lie the Cretaceous rocks on the Gabun. A superficial iron-cemented
sand, erroneously termed latcrite, covers large areas in the littoral
cone, on the flanks of the mountains and on the high plateau.
Climate. — The whole of the country being in the equatorial region,
the climate is everywhere very hot and dangerous for Europeans.
On the coast four seasons are distinguished: the dry season (15th
of May to 15th of September), the rainy season (15th of September
to 15th of January), then a second dry season (isth of January to
1st of March), and a second rainy season (ist of March to 15th of
May). The rainfall at Libreville is about 96 in. a year.
flora and Fauna. — The elephant, the hippopotamus, the crocodile
and several kinds of apes — including the chimpanzee and the rare
gorilla — are the most noteworthy larger animals; the birds are
variouaand beautiful — grey parrots, shrikes, flycatchers, rhinoceros
birds, weaver birds (often in large colonies on the palm-trees), ice-
birds, from the CecyU Sharpii to the dwarfish Alctdo crisiata, butter-
fly finches, and helmet-birds (Turacus giganieus), as well as more
familiar types. Snakes are extremely common. The curious
climbing-fish, which frequents the mangroves, the Protopterus or
lung-fish, which lies in the mud in a state of lethargy during the dry
season, the strange and poisonous Telrodon guttifer, and the herring-
like Pellona africana, often caught in great shoals — are the more
remarkable of the fishes. Oysters are got in abundance from the
lagoons, and the huge Cardisoma armatum or heart -crab is fattened
for tabic. Fireflies, mosquitoes and sandflies are among the most
familiar forms of insect life. A kind of ant builds very striking
bent-house or umbrella-shaped nests rising on the tree trunks one
above the other.
Among the more characteristic forms of vegetation are baobabs,
silk-cotton trees, screw-pines and palms— especially Hyphaene
guineensis (a fan-palm), Raphia (the wine-palm), and Elaeis guineen-
sis (the oil-palm). Anonaceous plants (notably A nona senegalensis,
and the pallabanda, an olive-myrtle-like tree, are common in the
prairies; the papyrus shoots up to a height of 20 ft. along the rivers;
the banks are fringed by the cottony Hibiscus tUiauus, ipomaeas
and fragrant jasmines; and the thickets are bourid together in one
inextricable mass by lianas of many kinds. In the upper Shari
region and that of the Kotto tributary of the Ubangi, arc species of
the coffee tree, one species attaining a height of over 60 ft. Its bean
resembles that of Abyssinian coffee of medium quality. Among the
fruit trces^arc the mango and the papaw, the orange and the lemon.
FRENCH CONGO
3,652,000, divided in districts as follows:— Gabun, 376,000; Middle
Congo, 259,000; Ubangi-Shari, 2,130,000; Chad, 883,000. The
country is peopled by diverse negro races, and, in the regions border-
ing Lake Chad and in Wadai, by Fula, Hausa, Arabs and semi-
cue Cameroon lrontier.
Communications.— The rivers are the chief means of internal
communication. Access to the greater part of the colony is ob-
tained by ocean steamers to Matadi on the lower Congo, and thence
round the falls by the Congo railway to Stanley Pool. From Brazza-
ville on Stanley Pool there is 680 m. of uninterrupted steam navi-
gation N.E. into the heart of Africa. 330 m. being on the Congo
and 350 m. on the Ubangi. The farthest point reached is Zongo,
where rapids block the river, but beyond that port there are several
navigable stretches of the Ubangi, and for small vessels access to
the Nile is possible by means of the Bahr-el-Ghazal tributaries.
The Sanga, which joins the Congo, 270 m. above Brazzaville, can be
navigated by steamers for 350 ra., it. up to and beyond the S.E.
frontier of the German colony of Cameroon. The Shari is alio
navigable for a considerable distance and by 'means of its affluent,
the Logone, connects with the Benue and Niger, affording a waterway
between the Gulf of Guinea and Lake Chad. Stores for government
posts in the Chad territory are forwarded by this route. There it,
however, no connecting link between the coast rivers — Gabun,
Ogowe and Kwilu and the Congo system. A railway, about 500 m.
long, from the Gabun to the Sanga is projected and the surveys for
the purpose made. Another route surveyed for a railway is that
from Loango to Brazzaville. A narrow-gauge line. 75 tn. long, from
Brazzaville to Mindule in the cataracts region was begun in November
1908, the first railway to be built in French Congo. The district
served by the line is rich in copper and other minerals. From Wadai
a caravan route across the Sahara leads to Bengasi on the shores of
the Mediterranean. Telegraph lines connect Loango with Beam-
ville and Libreville, there is telegraphic communication with Europe
by submarine cable, and steamship communication between Loango
and Libreville and Marseilles, Bordeaux, Liverpool and Hamburg.
Trade and Agriculture. — The chief wealth of the colony consists in
the products of its forests and in ivory. The natives, in addition to
manioc, their principal food, cultivate bananas, ground nuts and
tobacco. On plantations owned by Europeans coffee, cocoa and
vanilla are grown. European vegetables are raised easily. Gold,
iron and copper are found. Copper ores have been exported from
Mindule -since 1905. The chief exports are rubber and ivory, next
in importance coming palm nuts and palm oil, ebony and other
woods, coffee, cocoa ana-copal. The imports are mainly cotton and
metal goods, spirits and foodstuffs. In the Gabun and in the basin
of the Ogowe the French customs tariff, with some modifications,
prevails, out in the Congo basin, that is, in the greater part of the
country, by virtue of international agreements, no discrimination
can be made between French and other merchandise, whilst customs
duties must not exceed jo% ad valorem. 1 In the Shari basin and in
Wadai the Anglo-French declaration of March 1899 accorded for
thirty years equal treatment to British and French goods. Tke
value of the trade rose in the ten years 1896-1905 from £360.000 to
£850,000, imports and exports being nearly equal. The bulk of the
export trade is with Great Britain, which takes most of the rubber,
France coming second and Germany' third. The imports are in about
equal proportions from France. and foreign countries.
Land Tenure. The Concessions Rtgime.— Land held by the
natives is governed by tribal law, but the state only recognizes native
ownership in land actually occupied by the aborigines. The greater
part of the country is considered a state domain. Land held by
Europeans is subject to the Civil Code of France except such estates
as have been registered under the terms of a decree of the 28th of
March 1899, when, registration having been effected, the title to the
land b guaranteed by the state. Nearly the whole of the colony has
been divided since 1899 into large estates held by limited liability
companies to whom has been granted the sole right of exploiting the
land leased to them. The companies holding concessions numbered
in 1904 about forty, with a combined capital of over £2,000,000,
whilst the concessions varied in size from 425 sq. m. to 54,000 sq. o.
One effect of the granting of concessions was the rapid decline in the
business of non-concessionaire traders, of whom the most importaat
were Liverpool merchants established in the Gabun before the advent
of the French. As by the Act of Berlin of 1885, to which all the
European powers were signatories, equality of treatment in com-
mercial affairs was guaranteed to all nations in the Congo basin,
protests were raised against the terms of the concessions. The reply
was that the critics confused the exercise of the right of proprietor-
ship with the act of commerce, and that in no country was the
landowner who farmed his land and sold the produce regarded as a
merchant. Various decisions by the judges of the colony during
1902 and 1903 and by the French cour de cassation in 1905 con-
firmed that contention. The action of the companies was. however,
in most cases, neither beneficial to the country nor financially
successful, whilst the native cultivators resented the prohibition of
their trading direct with their former customers. The case of the
Liverpool traders was taken up by the British government and it
was agreed that the dispute should be settled fry arbitration, in
September 1908 the French government issued a decree reorganizing
and rendering more stringent the contrql exercised by the local
authorities over the concession companies, especially in maticn
concerning the rights of natives and the liberty of commerce.
History. — The Gabun was visited in the 15th century by the
Portuguese explorers, and It became one of the chief seats of
the slave trade. It was not, however, till well on in the 19th
century that Europeans made any more permanent settlement
than was absolutely necessary for the maintenance of their
commerce. In 1839 Captain (afterwards Admiral) Boaft-
Willaumez obtained for France the right of residence on the left
bank, and in 1842 he secured better positions on the right bank.
The primary object of the French settlement was to secure &
» Berlin Act of 1885; Brussels conference of 1890 (see Afuca:
History).
FRENCH CONGO
IOI
poet wherein men-of-war could revictual. The chief establish-
ment, Libreville, was founded in 1849, with negroes taken from
a slave ship. The settlement in time acquired importance as a
trading port. In 1867 the troops numbered about 1000, and the
civil population about 5000, while the official reports about the
same date claimed for the whole colony an area of 8000 sq. m.
mad a population of 186,000. Cape Lopez had been ceded to
France in 1862, and the colony's coast-line extended, nominally,
to a length of 200 m. In consequence of the war with Germany
the colony was practically abandoned in 1871, the establishment
at Libreville being maintained as a coaling depot merely. In
187s, however, France again turned her attention to the Gabun
estuary, the hinterland of which had already been partly ex-
plored. Paul du Chaillu penetrated (1855-1859 and 1863- 1S6 5)
to the south of the Ogowe; Walker, an English merchant,
explored the Ngunye, an affluent of the Ogowe, in 1866. In
1872-1873 Alfred Marche, a French naturalist, and the marquis
de Compiegne 1 explored a portion of the Ogowe basin, but it was
not until the expedition of 1875-1878 that the country east of
the Ogowe was reached. This expedition was led by Savorgnan
de Brazza (q.v) t who was accompanied by Dr Noel Eugene
Ballay < and, for part of the lime, by Marche. De Brazza 's
expedition, which was compelled to remain for many months at
several places, ascended the Ogowe over 400 m., and beyond the
basin of that stream discovered the A lima, which was, though the
explorers were ignorant of the fact, a tributary of the Congo.
From the Alima. de Brazza and Balky turned north and finally
readied the Gabun in November 1878, the journey being less
fruitful in results than the time it occupied would indicate.
Returning to Europe, de Brazza learned that H. M. Stanley had
revealed the mystery of the Congo, and in his next journey,
begun December 1879, the French traveller undertook to find a
way to the Congo above the rapids via the Ogowe. In this he
was successful, and in September 1880 reached Stanley Pool,
on the north side of which Brazzaville was subsequently founded.
Returning to the Gabun by the lower Congo, de Brazza met
Stanley. Both explorers were nominally in the service of the
International African Association (see Congo Free State),
but de Brazza in reality acted solely in the interests of
J* France and concluded treaties with Makoko, " king
t , rti * of the Batekes," and other chieftains, placing very large
areas under the protection of that country. The con-
flicting claims of the Association (which became the Congo Free
State) and France were adjusted by a convention signed in
February 1885.* In the meantime de Brazza and Ballay had
more fully explored the country behind the coast regions of Gabun
and Loango, the last-named seaport being occupied by France
in 188 j. The conclusion of agreements with Germany (December
1885 and February-March 1804) and with Portugal (May 1886)
secured France in the possession of the western portion of the
colony as it now exists, whilst an arrangement with the Congo
Free State in 1887 settled difficulties which had arisen in the
Ubangi district.
The extension of French influence, northward towards Lake Chad
and eastward to the verge of the basin of the Nile followed, though
not without involving the country in serious disputes
with the other European powers possessing rights in
those regions. By creating the posts of Bangi (1800),
Wesso and Abiras (1891), France strengthened her
hold over the Ubangi and the Sanga. But at the same
time the Congo Free State passed the parallel of 4° N. — which,
after the compromise of 1887, France had regarded as the southern
boundary of her possessions — and, occupying the sultanate of
Bangasso (north of the Ubangi river), pushed on as far as 9° N.
The dispute which ensued was only settled in 1894 and after
1 Louis Eugene Henri Dupont, marquis de Compiegne (1846-
1877), on his return from the West coast replaced Georg Schwcin-
furth at Cairo as president of the geographical commission. Arising
out of this circumstance de Compiegne was killed in a duel by a
German named Mayer.
'A Franco- Belgian agreement of the 23rd of Dec. 1008 defined
precisely the frontier in the lower Conga Bamu Island in Stanley
Powl was recognized as French.
the signature of the convention between Great Britain and the
Congo State of the 12th of May of that year, against which both
the German and the French governments protested, the last
named because it erected a barrier against the extension of French
territory to the NHe valley. By a compromise of the 14th of
August the boundary was definitely drawn and, in accordance
with this pact, which put the frontier back to about 4 N.,
France from 1895 to 1897 took possession of the upper Ubangi,
with Bangasso, Rafai and Zemio. Then began the French
encroachment on the Bahr-cl-Ghazal; the Marchand expedition,
despatched to the support of Victor Liotard, the lieutenant-
governor of the upper Ubangi, reached Tambura in July 1897
and Fashoda in July 1898. A dispute with Great Britain arose,
and it was decided that the expedition should evacuate Fashoda.
The declaration of the 21st of March 1899 finally terminated the
dispute, fixing the eastern frontier of the French colony as already
stated. Thus, after the Franco-Spanish treaty of June 1900
settling the limits of the Spanish territory on the coast, the
boundaries of the French Congo on all its frontiers were deter-
mined in broad outline. The Congo-Cameroon frontier was
precisely defined by another Franco-German agreement in
April 1908, following a detailed survey made by joint com-
missioners in 1905 and 1906. For a comprehensive description
of these international rivalries see Africa, § 5, and for the con-
quest of the Chad regions see Bagiriu and Rabah Zobeir. In
the other portions of the colony French rule was accepted by the
natives, for the most part, peaceably. For the relations of France
with Wadai see that article.
Following the acquisitions for France of de Brazza, the ancient
Gabun colony was joined to the Congo territories. From r886
to 1889 Gabun was, however, separately administered. By
decree of the 11th of December 1888 the whole of the French
possessions were created one " colony " under the style of Congo
francais, with various subdivisions; they were placed undcracom-
missioncr- general (de Brazza) having his residence at Brazzaville.
This arrangement proved detrimental to the economic develop-
ment of the Gabun settlements, which being outside the limits
of the free trade conventional basin of the Congo (see Africa,
§ 5) enjoyed a separate tariff. By decree of the 29th of December
1903 (which became operative in July 1904) Congo francais was
divided into four parts as named in the opening paragraph.
The first commissioner-general under the new scheme was Emile
Gcntil, the explorer of the Shari and Chad. In 1905 de Brazza
was sent out from France to investigate charges of cruelty and
maladministration brought against officials of the colony, several
of which proved well founded. De Brazza died at Dakar when
on his way home. The French government, after considering
the report he had drawn up, decided to retain Gentil as com-
missioner-general, making however (decree of 15th of February
1906) various changes in administration with a view to protect
the natives and control the concession companies. Gentil,
who devoted the next two years to the reorganization of the
finances of the country and the development of its commerce,
resigned his post in February 190S. He was succeeded by
M. Merlin, whose title was changed (June 1908) to that of
governor-general.
Administration and Revenue. — The governor-general has control
over the whole of French Congo, but does not directly administer
any part of it, the separate colonies being under lieutenant-governors.
The Gabun colony includes the Gabun estuary and the whole of the
coast-line of French Congo, together with the basin of the Ogowe
river. The inland frontier is so drawn as to include all the hinter-
•- trade rone (the Chad district ex-
s for its western frontier the Gabun
mds inland to the easterly bend of
j inscriptions extend cast and north
i a general budget for the whole of
also a separate budget and adminis-
French colonies the legislative power
but in the absence 01 specific legis-
the force of law. A judicial service
ists. but the district administrators
Education is in the hands of the
missionaries, upwards of 50 schools being established by 1909.
The military force maintained consists of natives officered by
Europeans.
102 FRENCH GUINEA
Revenue is derived from taxes on land, rent paid b] "* - ••- - — ..... . _ ^ . _^
companies, a capitation or hut tax on natives, and custo l-
supplemcnted by a subvention from France. In additio «
ing the military expenses, about £100,000 a year, a gran d
yearly was made up to 1906 by the French chambers t
civil expenses, la 1907 the budget of the Congo balanc e
£250,000 without the aid of this subvention, fn 1909 tl s
sanctioned a loan for the colony 0/ £840,000, guarantee! )
and to be applied to the establishment of administrat s
and public works. t
Bibliography. — Fernand Rouget, L' Expansion c t
Congo Jrancais (Paris, 1906), a valuable monograph, f
graphy and maps; A. Chevalier, L'Afrtque centralefran e
1907). For special studies see Lacroix, Risultats mini I
nootogiques des ricentes explorations de I'Afrique occidenh t
si dela region du Tchad (Paris, 1905) ; M. Barrat, 5nr U ■
Congo franyais (Paris, 1895), and Ann. des mines, sir. q. t. 1
J. Cornet, " Les Formations post-primaires du ba&sin 1
Ann. soc, giol. betg. vol. xxi. (1895). The Paris Bulletin 1
for 1003 and 1904 contains papers on the soology of t t
For flora see numerous papers by A. Chevalier in Con 1
de I'acadimie des sciences (1902-1904), and the Journal < 1
pratique des pays chauds (1901, &c). For history, besid
book, sec J. Ancel, " Etude historique. La formation d ,
du Congo francais, 1843-1882," containing an annot I
graphy. in Bull. Com. I'AfriqueJrancaise, vol. xii. (1902) t
cited under B razz a; and E. Gentil, La Chute de I'empt ;
(Paris, 1902). Of earlier books of travels the most vali t
Paul du Chaillu, Explorations and Adventures in Equal ,
(London, 1861); A Journey to Ashonga Land (London, r
Sir R. Burton, Two Trips to Gorilla Land (London,
later works see Mary H. Kingsley. Travels in West AJru I
1897) ; A. B. de Mczieres, Rapport de mission sur le Han 1
le M'Bomou el le Bahr-el-Chasal (Paris, 1903); and C.
trovers fAfrique centrale du Congo au Niger, 1892-1891 (f i
For the story of the concession companies see E. D. ,
British Case in French Congo (London, 1903). 1
FRENCH GUINEA, a French colony in West Afric
known as Rivieres du Sud. It is bounded W. by th \
N. by Portuguese Guinea and Senegal, E. by Upp
and the Ivory Coast, and S. by Liberia and Sierra Le i
a sea-board running N.N.W. andS.S.E. from 10*50' N >
a distance, without reckoning the indentations, of 1
colony extends eastward 450 m. in a straight line a ,
a maximum width N. to S. of nearly 300 m., covering f u
sq. m., and containing a population estimated at 2,
2,500,00a
Physical Features. — Though in one or two places rock] '
jut into the sea. the coast is in general sandy, low, and m
by rivers and deep estuaries, dotted with swampy islanc
the appearance of a vast delta. In about 0° 30' N., off t
Lory 01 Konakry, lie the Los Islands (?.».), forming part of
The coast plain, formed of alluvial deposits, is succeeded 1
inland by a line of cliffs, the Susu Hills, which form th
in the terrace-like formation of the interior, culminai
massif of Futa Jallon, composed chiefly of Arcbean a
rocks. While the coast lands are either densely forested
with savannas or park-like country, the Futa Jallon t
mainly covered with short herbage. This tableland,
graphic centre of West Africa, is most elevated in its soul
where heights of 5000 ft. are found. Near the Sierra Le<
this high land is continued westward to within 20 m.
where Mount Kakulima rises over 3300 ft. East and soi
Jallon the country slopes to the basin of the upper Niger,
part of which is included in French Guinea. The south*
is formed by the escarpments which separate the Niger
those of the coast rivers of Liberia. Besides the Niger. C
Senegal, all separately noticed, a large number of streai
direct to the Atlantic rise in Futa Jallon. Among them ar
and Little Scarries, whose lower courses arc in Sierra ;
the Rio Grande which enters the sea in Portuguese Guii
whose courses are entirely in French Guinea include the
Componi), the Rio Nunez, the Fatalla (which reaches the 1
an estuary named Rio Pongo), the Konkure, whose
named Rio Bramaya, the Forekaria and the Mclakori. "
Fatallah and Konkure are all large rivers which descen
plateaus through deep, narrow valleys in rapids and cat
are only navigable for a few miles from their mouth.
Climate.— The climate of the coast district is hot, moi
healthy, with a season of heavy rain lasting from May to
during which time variable winds, calms and tornadoes s
another. The mean temperature in the dry season.
" harmattan " is frequent, is 62° Fahr., in the wet -
Throughout the year the humidity of the air is very grea
much rain in the Futa Jallon highlands, but the Niger ba<
what drier. In that region and in the highlands the clutu
healthy for Europeans and the heat somewhat less than ol
FRENCH LANGUAGE
103
sport. Among minor product* art coffee, wax and ivory. Large
Kfda of cattle and flocks of sheep are raised in Futa Jallon; these arc
eat in considerable numbers to Sierra Leone, Liberia and French
Umgg. The trade in hides is also of considerable value. The chief
rajn raised is millet, the staple food of the people. The rubber is
aainly exported to England, the palm products to Germany, and
he ground-nuts to France.
The principal imports are cotton goods, of which 80% come from
jreat Britain, rice, kola nuts, chiefly from Liberia, spirits, tobacco,
wilding material, and arms and ammunition, chiefly " trade guns."
rhc average annual value of the trade for the period 1900-1907 was
bout £1.250,000, the annual export of rubber alone being worth
400,000 or more. The great bulk of the trade of the colony is with
•ranee and Great Britain, the last-named country taking about
&% of the total; Germany cos ---■*--' **'- * "
47% has been imposed on all 1
Communications. — The railw
Curuasa, by the route chosen
900, and from 1902 has been
irst section to rundia. 93 m.,
ectioo. to near Timbo in Futa
he rails reached Kurussa in
tavigable at high water all the
rhence there is communication
rimbuktu. Besides the railwa
R)p m. long, from Konakry to
idng dose to the Sierra Leone
rade from that British colon;
teen built by the French, and
ystcm, the lines having been
History. — This part of the Guinea coast was made known by
he Portuguese voyagers of the 15th century. In consequence,
srgely, of the dangers attending its navigation, it was not visited
rjr the European traders of the 1 6th- 18th centuries so frequently
is other regions north and east, but in the Rio Pongo, at Mata-
loag (a diminutive island near the mouth of the Forekaria),
ind elsewhere, slave traders established themselves, and ruins of
be strongholds they built, and defended with cannon, still exist.
AShen driven from other parts of Guinea the slavers made this
lifficult and little known coast one of their last resorts, and many
mrracoons were built in the late years of the 18th century. It
ros not until after the restoration of Goree to her at the close
if the Napoleonic wars that France evinced any marked interest
a this region. At that time the British, from their bases at the
Gambia and Sierra Leone, were devoting considerable attention
to these Rivieres du Sud (i.e. south of Senegal) and also to Futa
Jallon. Rene* Cailiie, who started bis journey to Timbuktu from
Boki in 1827, did much to quicken French interest in the district,
ind from 1838 onward French naval officers, Bouet-Willaumex
indhis successors, made detailed studies of the coast. About the
time that the British government became wearied of its efforts
to open up the interior of West Africa, General Faidherbe was
ippointed governor of Senegal (1854), and under his direction
vigorous efforts were made to consolidate French influence.
Already in 1848 treaty relations had been entered into with the
Nam, and between that date and 1865 treaties of protectorate
were signed with several of the coast tribes. During 1 876-1 880
new treaties were concluded with the chief tribes, and in 1881
the almany (or emir) of Futa Jallon placed his country under
French protection, the French thus effectually preventing the
junction, behind the coast lands, of the British colonies of the
Gambia and Sierra Leone. The right of France to the Kttoral as
far south as the basin of the Melakori was recognized by Great
BriUin in 1882; Germany (which had made some attempt to
acquire a protectorate at Konakry) abandoned its claims in 1885,
while in 1886 the northern frontier was settled in agreement with
Portugal, which had ancient settlements in the same region (see
Poetuccese Guinea). In 1809 the limits of the colony were
extended, on the dismemberment of the French Sudan, to include
the upper Niger districts. In 1904 the Los Islands were ceded by
Great Britain to France, in part return for the abandonment
of French fishing rights in Newfoundland waters. (See also
Senegal: History.)
French Guinea was made a colony independent of Senegal in
1891, but in 1895 came under the supreme authority of the newly
constituted governor-generalship of French West Africa. Guinea
has a considerable measure of autonomy and a separate budget.
It is administered by. a lieutenant-governor, assisted by a
nominated, council. Revenue is raised principally from customs
and a capitation tax, which has replaced a hut tax. The local
budget for 1007 balanced at £205.000. Over the greater part
of the country the native princes retain their sovereignty under
the superintendence of French officials. The development of
agriculture and education are objects of special solicitude to the
French authorities. In general the natives are friendly towards
their white masters.
See M. Famechon. Not ice sttr la Cuinfe francaise (Paris. 1000): J.
Chautard, Etude ftophysujue et tfotogique sur U Fouta-D jallon (Paris.
1905); Andre Arcin, La Cuinee francaise (Paris. 1906). a valuable
monograph ; J. Machat, Let Rivieres du Sud et la Fouta-D talton (Paris.
1906), another valuable work, containing exhaustive bibliographies.
Consult also F. Rouget, La Cuinee (Paris. 1908), an official publi-
cation, the annual Reports on French West Africa, published by
the British Foreign Office, and the Carte de la Guinee francaise
by A. Meunicr in 4 sheets on the scale 1 : 500,000 (Paris, 1902).
FRENCH LANGUAGE. I. Geography.— French is the general
name of the north-north-western group of Romanic dialects,
the modern Latin of northern Gaul (carried by emigration to
some places— as lower Canada—out of France). In a restricted
sense it is that variety of the Parisian dialect which is spoken
by the educated, and is the general literary language of France.
The region in which the native language is termed French
consists of the northern half of France (including Lorraine)
and parts of Belgium and Switzerland; its boundaries on the
west are the Atlantic Ocean and the Celtic dialects of Brittany;
on the north-west and north, the English Channel; on the north-
east and east the Teutonic dialects of Belgium, Germany and
Switzerland. In the south-east and south the boundary is to a
great extent conventional and ill-defined, there being originally
no linguistic break between the southern French dialects and the
northern Provencal dialects of southern France, north-western
Italy and south-western Switzerland. It is formed partly by
spaces of intermediate dialects (some of whose features are
French, others' Provencal), partly by spaces of mixed dialects
resulting from the invasion of the space by more northern and
more southern settlers, partly by lines where the intermediate
dialects have been suppressed by more northern (French) and
more southern (Provencal) dialects without these having mixed:
Starting in the west at the mouth of the Girondc, the boundary
runs nearly north soon after passing Bordeaux; a little north of
Angoulerae it turns to the east, and runs in this direction into
Switzerland to the north of Geneva.
II. External History. — (a) Political. — By the Roman conquests
the language of Rome was spread over the greater part of southern
and western Europe, and gradually supplanted the native
tongues. The language introduced was at first nearly uniform
over the whole empire, Latin provincialisms and many more
or less general features of the older vulgar language being
suppressed by the preponderating influence of the educated
speech of the capital. As legions became stationary, as colonics
were formed, and as the natives adopted the language of their
conquerors, this language split up into local dialects, the dis-
tinguishing features of which are due, as far as can be ascertained
(except, to some extent, as to the vocabulary), not to speakers
of different nationalities misspeaking Latin, each with the
peculiarities of his native language, but to the fact that linguistic
changes, which are ever occurring, are not perfectly uniform
over a large area, however homogeneous the speakers. As Gaul
was not conquered by Caesar till the middle of the first century
before our era, its Latin cannot have begun to differ from that of
Rome till after that date; but the artificial retention of classical
Latin as the literary and official language after the popular
spoken language had diverged from it, often renders the chrono-
logy of the earlier periods of the Romanic languages obscure.
It is, however, certain that the popular Latin of Gaul bad become
differentiated from that of central Italy before the Teutonic
conquest of Gaul, which was not completed till the latter half
of the 5th century; the invaders gradually adopted the language
of their more civilized subjects, which remained unaffected,
except in its vocabulary Probably by this time it bad diverged
104
FRENCH LANGUAGE
so widely from the artificially preserved literary language that
it could no longer be regarded merely as mispronounced Latin;
the Latin documents of the next following centuries contain
many clearly popular words and forms, and the literary and
popular languages are distinguished as latino and romana.
The term gallica, at first denoting the native Celtic language
of Gaul, is found applied to its supplanter before the end of the
9th century, and survives in the Breton sdUk, the regular term
for " French." After the Franks in Gaul had abandoned their
native Teutonic language, the term francisca, by which this
was denoted, came to be applied to the Romanic one they
adopted, and, under the iormfrancaist, remains its native name
to this day; but this name was confined to the Romanic of
northern Gaul, which makes it probable that this, at the lime
of the adoption of the name francisca, had become distinct
from the Romanic of southern Gaul. Francisca is the Teutonic
adjective frankisk, which occurs in Old English in the form
frencisc, this word, with its umlauted e from o with following
i, survives under the form French, which, though purely Teutonic
in origin and form, has long been exclusively applied to the
Romanic language and inhabitants of GauL The German name
frataose, with its accent on, and o in, the second syllable, comes
from francois, a native French form older than francais, but
later than the Early Old French franccis. The Scandinavian
settlers on the north-west coast of France early in the 10th
century quickly lost their native speech, which left no trace
except in some contributions to the vocabulary of the language
they adopted. The main feature since is the growth of the
political supremacy of Paris, carrying with it that of its dialect ;
in i S39 Francis I. ordered that all public documents should be
in French (of Paris), which then became the official language
of the whole kingdom, though it is still foreign to nearly hall its
population.
The conquest of England in 1066 by William, duke of
Normandy, introduced into England, as the language of the rulers
and (for a time) most of the writers, the dialects spoken in
Normandy (see also Anglo-Norman Litebatuix). Confined in
their native country to definite areas, these dialects, following
their speakers, became mixed in England, so that their forms
were used to some extent indifferently; and the constant com-
munication with Normandy maintained during several reigns
introduced also later forms of continental Norman. As the
conquerors learned the language of the conquered, and as the
more cultured of the latter learned that of the former, the Norman
of England (including that of the English-speaking Lowlands of
Scotland) became anglicized; instead of following the changes
of the Norman of France, it followed those of English. The
accession in 1 154 of Henry II. of Anjou disturbed the Norman
character of Anglo-French, and the loss of Normandy under John
in 1*04 gave full play to the literary importance of the French
of Paris, many of whose forms afterwards penetrated to England.
At the same time English, with a large French addition to its
vocabulary, was steadily recovering its supremacy, and is
officially employed (for the first time since the Conquest) in the
Proclamation of Henry III., 1258. The semi-artificial result of
this mixture of French of different dialects and of different periods,
more or less anglicized according to the date or education of the
speaker or writer, is generally termed " the Anglo-Norman
dialect "; but the term is misleading for a great part of its
existence, because while the French of Normandy was not a
single dialect, the later French of England came from other
French provinces besides Normandy, and being to a considerable
extent in artificial conditions, was checked in the natural develop-
ment implied by the term " dialect." The disuse of Anglo-French
as a natural language is evidenced by English being substituted
for it in legal proceedings in 1362, and in schools in 1387, but
law reports were written in it up to about 1600, and, converted
into modern literary French, it remains in official use for giving
the royal assent to bills of parliament
(o) Z.»krory .—Doubtless because the popular Latin of northern
Gaul changed more rapidly than that of any other part of the
, French was, of all the Romanic dialects, the first 10 be
recognized as a distinct language, and the first to be used in
literature; and though the oldest specimen now extant is prob-
ably not the first, it is considerably earlier than any existing
documents of the allied languages. In S13 the council of Tours
ordered certain homilies to be translated into Rustic Roman or
into German; and in 842 Louis the German, Charles the Bald,
and their armies confirmed their engagements by taking oaths in
both languages at Strassburg. These have been preserved to
us by the historian Nithard (who died in 853); and though, in
consequence of the only existing manuscript (at Paris) being
more than a century later than the time of the author, certain
alterations have occurred in the text of the French oaths, they
present more archaic forms (probably of North-Eastcrn French)
than any other document. The next memorials are a short poem,
probably North-Eastcrn, on St Eulalia, preserved in a manuscript
of the 10th century at Valenciennes, and some autograph frag-
ments (also at Valenciennes) of a homily on the prophet Jonah,
in mixed Latin and Eastern French, of the same period. To the
same century belong a poem on Christ's Passion, apparently in
a mixed (not intermediate) language of French and Provencal,
and one, probably in South-Eastern French, on St Leger; both
are preserved, in different handwritings, in a MS. at Clermont-
Ferrand, whose scribes have introduced many Provencal forms.
After the middle of the nth century literary remains are com-
paratively numerous; the chief early representative of the main
dialects are the following, some of them preserved in several
MSS., the earliest of which, however (the only ones here men*
tioned), are in several cases a generation or two later than the
works themselves. In Western French are a verse life of St
Alexius (Alexis), probably Norman, in an Anglo-Norman MS.
at Hildesheim; the epic poem of Roland, possibly also Norman,
in an A.-N. MS. at Oxford; a Norman verbal translation of the
Psalms, in an A.-N. MS. also at Oxford; another later one,
from a different Latin version, in an A.-N. MS. at Cambridge;
a Norman translation of the Four Books of Kings, in a probably
A.-N. MS. at Paris. The earliest work in the Parisian dialect is
probably the Travels of Charlemagne, preserved in a late Anglo-
Norman MS. with much altered forms. In Eastern French, of
rather later date, there are translations of the Dialogues of Flops
Gregory, in a MS. at Paris, containing also fragments of Gregory's
Moralities, and (still later) of some Sermons of St Bernard, in
a MS. also in Paris. From the end of the 12th century literary
and official documents, often including local charters, abound is
almost every dialect, until the growing influence of Paris caused
its language to supersede in writing the other local ones. Tim
influence, occasionally apparent about the end of the 1 7th century,
was overpowering in the 15th, when authors, though often dis-
playing provincialisms, almost all wrote in the dialect of the
capital, the last dialect to lose its literary independence wis
the North- Eastern, which, being the Romanic language «f
Flanders, had a political life of its own, and (modified by Farinas)
was used in literature after 1 40a
III. Internal History.— Though much has been done in recent
years, in the scientific investigation of the sounds, inflexions, and
syntax of the older stages and dialects of French, much suH
remains to be done, and it must suffice here to give a sketch,
mainly of the dialects which were imported into England by tk
Normans — in which English readers will probably take nmt
interest, and especially of the features which explain the forms
of English words of French origin. Dates and places are only
approximations, and many statements are liable to be modified
by further researches. The primitive Latin forms given ue
often not classical Latin words, but derivatives from these; ind
reference is generally made to the Middle English (Chaucerian)
pronunciation of English words, not the modern.
(a) Vocabulary— Tht fundamental part of the vocabohrj
of French is the Latin imported into Gaul, the French words being
simply the Latin words themselves, with the natural change
undergone by all living speech, or derivatives formed at viriwa
dates. Comparatively few words were introduced from the Cekk
language of the native inhabitants (bee, Irene from the Celtic
words given by Latin writers as beccut, Uuca), but the 1
FRENCH LANGUAGE
>°S
adopted from the language of the Teutonic conqueror* of Gaul
is large (guerre— werra-, laid—laidh; choisir—kausjan). The
words were imported at different periods of the Teutonic supre-
macy, and consequently show chronological differences in their
sounds (ha\r — hatan; francais — frankisk, Screvisse — krebis;
ickine—skina). Small separate importations of Teutonic words
resulted from the Scandinavian settlement in France, and the
commercial intercourse with the Low German nations on the
North Sea {/riper- Norse hripa; ehaloupe- Dutch shop; est-
Old English edst). In the meantime, as Latin (with considerable
alterations in pronunciation, vocabulary, &c) continued in
literary, official and ecclesiastical use, the popular language
borrowed from time- to time various more or less altered classical
Latin words; and when the popular language came to be used
in literature, especially in that of the church, these importations
largely increased (virginitet Eulalia — virginildtem; imagena
Alexis— imdginem — the popular forms would probably have been
ttrgedet, emain). At the Renaissance they became very abundant,
and have continued since, stilling to some extent the develop-
mental power of the language. Imported words, whether
Teutonic, classical Latin or other, often receive some modifica-
tion at their importation, and always take part in all subsequent
natural phonetic changes in the language (Early Old French
aitersarie, Modern French adversaire). Those French words
which appear to contradict the phonetic laws were mostly intro-
duced into the language after the taking place (in words already
existing in the language) of the changes formulated by the laws
in question; compare the late imported laique with the inherited
foi, both from Latin laicum. In this and many other cases the
language possesses two forms of the same Latin word, one
descended from it, the other borrowed (meulie and mobile from
mdinlem). Some Oriental and other foreign words were brought
in by the crusaders (amiral from amir); in the 16th century,
wars, royal marriages and literature caused a large number
of Italian words (soldat—soldato; brave— hrato; caresser—
earestare) to be introduced, and many Spanish ones (alcove—
aleoba; hdbUr—hablar). A few words have been furnished by
Provencal (abeille, codettas), and several have been adopted from
other dialects into the French of Paris (esquher Norman or
Picard for the Paris-French eschiver). German has contributed
a few (blocus—bloch&s; choucroute—sHrkrut); and recently a
considerable number have been imported from England (drain,
ctnforlabUy fiirtcr). In Old French, new words are freely
formed by derivation, and to a less extent by composition; in
Modern French, borrowing from Latin or other foreign languages
is the more usual course. Of the French words now obsolete
tome have disappeared because the things they express are
obsolete; others have been replaced by words of native forma-
tion, and many have been superseded by foreign words generally
of literary origin; of those which survive, many have undergone
considerable alterations in meaning. A krge number of Old
French words and meanings, now extinct in the language of
Paris, were introduced into English after the Norman Conquest;
and though some have perished, many have survived — strife
from Old French eslrif (Teutonic strlt); quaint from cointe
(cognitum); remember from remembrer (rememordre); chaplet
(garland) from chapelct (Modern French "chaplet of beads");
appointment (rendezvous) from appointment (now "salary" ).
Many also survive in other French dialects.
(b) Dialects.— The history of the French language from the
period of its earliest extant literary memorials is that of the
diakcts composing it. But as the popular notion of a dialect
as the speech of a definite area, possessing certain peculiarities
confined to and extending throughout that area, is far from
correct, it will be advisable to drop the misleading divisions into
"Norman dialect," "Picard dialect" and the like, and take
isstead each important feature in the chronological order (as
bras can be ascertained) of its development, pointing out roughly
the area in which it exists, and its present state. The local terms
med are. intentionally vague, and it does not, for instance, at all
follow that because " Eastern" and " Western" are used to
denote the localities of more than one dialectal feature, the
boundary line between the two divisions is the same in each case.
It is, indeed, because, dialectal differences as they arise do not
follow the same boundary lines (much less the political divisions
of provinces), but cross one another to any extent, that to speak
of the dialect of a large area as an individual whole, unless that
area is cut off by physical or alien linguistic boundaries, creates
only confusion. Thus the Central French of Paris, the ancestor
of classical Modern French, agrees with a more southern form
of Romanic (Limousin, Auvergnc, Forez, Lyonnais, Dauphine)
in having Is, not tsh, for Latin k (c) before i and e;tsh, not h, for
k (c) before a; and with the whole South in having gu, not v,
for Teutonic v; while it belongs to the East in having oi for
earlier ei; and to the West in having 4, not «*, for Latin a; and *',
not ci, from Latin £+'. It may be well to denote that Southern
French does not correspond to southern France, whose native
language is Provencal " Modem French " means ordinary
educated Parisian French.
(c) Phonology.'— The history of the sounds of a language is,
to a considerable extent, that of its inflections, which, no less
than the body of a word, arc composed of sounds. This fact,
and the fact that unconscious changes are much more reducible
to law than conscious ones, render the phonology of a language
by far the surest and widest foundation for its dialectology, the
importance of the sound-changes in this respect depending,
not on their prominence, but on the earliness of their date. For
several centuries after the divergence between spoken and written
Latin, the history of these changes has to be determined mainly
by reasoning, aided by a little direct evidence in the misspellings
of inscriptions the semi-popular forms in glossaries, and the
warnings of Latin grammarians against vulgarities. With the
rise of Romanic literature the materials for tracing the changes
become abundant, though as they do not give us the sounds
themselves, but only their written representations, much
difficulty, and some uncertainty, of ten attach to deciphering the
evidence. Fortunately, early Romanic orthography, that of
Old French included (for which see next section), was phonetic,
as Italian orthography still is; the alphabet was imperfect, as
many new sounds had to be represented which were not provided
for in the Roman alphabet from which it arose, but writers aimed
at representing the sounds they uttered, not at using a fixed
combination of letters for each word, however they pronounced it.
The characteristics of French as distinguished from the alliei
languages and from Latin, and the relations of its sounds, in-
flections and syntax to those of the last-named language, belong
to the general subject of the Romanic languages. It wUl be well,
however, to mention here some of the features in which it agrees
with the closely related Provencal, and some in which it differs.
As to the latter, it has already been pointed out that the two
languages glide insensibly into one another, there being a belt
of dialects which possess some of the features of each. French
and Provencal of the xoth century — the earliest date at which
documents exist in both— agree to a great extent in the treatment
of Latin final consonants and the vowels preceding them, a
matter of great importance for inflections (numerous French
examples occur in this section), (i) They reject all vowels,
except a, of Latin final (unaccented) syllables, unless preceded
by certain consonant combinations or followed by nt (here,
as elsewhere, certain exceptions cannot be noticed); (2) they do
not reject a similarly situated; (3) they reject final (unaccented)
m; (4) they retain "final s. French and Northern Provencal
also agree in changing Latin d from a labio-guttural to a labio-
palatal vowel; the modern sound (German U) of the accented
vowel of French lune, Provencal luna, contrasting with that in
Italian and Spanish luna, appears to hav? existed before the
earliest extant documents. The final vowel laws generally apply
to the unaccented vowel preceding the accented syllable, if it is
preceded by another syllable, and followed by a single consonant
— matin (mdtutinum), dortoir (dormitdrium), with vowel dropped;
canevas (cannabdeeum), armedure, later armiurt, now armure
(armdturam), with e—9, as explained below.
On the other hand, French differs from Provencal: (1) in
uniformly preserving (jn Early Old French) Latin final /, whfc*
io6 FRENCH LANGUAGE
i
fcjw 10 lonn s in inc wckwh uuucccs, wmic mc uncrn uvc cue peac€ ypau, pacum),jeonjau,jaaum)
FRENCH LANGUAGE 107
be tea — rot {rei, rigem), croix (cruis, crucem). Before nasals and
palatal /, ei (now - b) was kept — wtw (vine), veilk (rfgi/d), and it
everywhere survives unlabialized in Modern Norman—Guernsey
HeUt {jttoilt, steJta) with i, set (soir, strum) with *. English shows
generally ei (or at) fur original ei — strait (estreit) t prey (Zreie) ; but
in several words the later Parisian oi — coy {cot, qyictum)7loyal {loyal.
Jtg6fa«). (16) The splitting of the vowel-sound from accented
Latin 9 or u not in position, represented in Old French by and u
Indifferently, into u, (before nasals), and tu (the Utter at first a
diphthong, now ^German <5), is unknown to. Western French till
the I2th century
century Normar
(Modern Frcncl
first written u,
not quite w, as
sound as Paris!
tspuse {spdnsam
French tpousc. 1
%im,flUur. M
before r— flour \
Old French 6—
spouse, noun. fi<
ntpkew with iu
dates from the c
r titer (cviiMre)
In Walloon the t* is preserved — coudr (guar I), cuiUer; as is
the case in English— quart, quit. The w of gw seems to have been
important change began much earlier than the last; this is the loss j
of many final consonants. In Early Old French every consonant l
was pronounced as written; by degrees many of them disappeared ►
when followed by another consonant, whether in the same word (ir ,
which case they were generally omitted in writing) or in a following .
oae. This was the state of things in the !6th century; those fina
consonants which are usually silent in Modern French were stil r
sounded, if before a vowel or at the end of a sentence or a Km '
of poetry, but generally not elsewhere. Thus a large number ok v«u U w «»« iuwdv<><. wck. — 1, oiwu tU r * auu mm or n, a iux J
io8
FRENCH LANGUAGE
and dk (soft ik)\ e for i, e, and 9; g for g and dxk; h was often
written in words of Latin origin where not sounded; i (7) stood
for i, y consonant, and dzk; for 6 (Anglo-Norman *) and d\
s for s and s; / for I and Ik; n (9) for 4 (Anglo-Norman u), y and
v; y (rare) for /; s for dz and fc. Some new sounds had also
to be provided for: where tsk had to be distinguished from non-
final Is, ch— at first, as in Italian, denoting k before i and e (chi*
ki from qxH) — was used for it; palatal / was represented by ill,
which when final usually lost one /, and after s dropped iis >;
palatal n by gn, ng or ngn, to which i was often prefixed; and
the new letter w, originally uu (w), and sometimes representing
merely uv or vu, was employed for the consonant-sound still
denoted by it in English. All combinations of vowel-letters
represented diphthongs; thus ai denoted a followed by i, on
either 6u or on, ui cither 6i (Anglo-Norman ui) or yi, and similarly
with the others — ei, cu, oi, iu, ie, ue {and oc), and the triphthong
ieu. Silent letters, except initial k in Latin words, are very rare;
though MSS. copied from older ones often retain letters whose
sounds, though existing in the language of the author, had dis-
appeared from that of the more modern scribe. The subsequent
changes in orthography are due mainly to changes of sound,
and find their explanation in the phonology. Thus, as Old
French progresses, s, having become silent before voiced con-
sonants, indicates only the length of the preceding vowel; e
before nasals, from the change of e (nasal e) to d (nasal a), repre-
sents fl; c, from the change of Is to s, represents s; qu
and gu, from the loss of the w of kw and gw, represent
k and g (hard); ai, from the change of ai to e, represents I; ou,
from the change of du and 6u to u, represents u; ch and g, from
the change of tsk and dsk to sh and th, represent sh and zh; eu
and ue, originally representing diphthongs, represent a (German
o)\%, from the change of Is and as to s and s, represents s and s.
The new values of some of these letters were applied to words
not originally spelt with them: Old French k before i and e
was replaced by qu (evesque, eteske, Latin episcopum); Old
French u and for 6, after this sound had split into eu and u,
were replaced in the latter case by ou (rous, for ros or rus, Latin
russum); s was accidentally inserted to mark a long vowel
{paste, pale, Latin pallidum); eu replaced ue and oe (neuf, nucj,
Latin novum and novem); s replaced s after 4 (net, ncs, nasum).
The use of x for final s is due to an orthographical mistake; the
MS. contraction of us being something like x was at last confused
with it (iex for it us, ootids), and, its meaning being forgotten, «
was inserted before the x iyeux) which thus meant no more than
s, and was used for it after other vowels (voix for vois, vbeem).
As literature came (o be extensively cultivated, traditional as
distinct from phonetic spelling began to be influential; and in the
r4th century, the close of the Old French period, this influence,
though not overpowering, was strong— stronger than in England
at that time. About the same period there arose etymological as
distinct from traditional spelling. This practice, the alteration
of traditional spelling by the insertion or substitution of letters
which occurred (or were supposed to occur) in the Latin (or sup-
posed Latin) originals of the French words, became very prevalent
in the three following centuries, when such forms as debvoir
(debire) for devoir, faulx (Jalsum) for faus, aulhcur (auddrcm,
supposed to be authdrcm) for autcur, poids (supposed to be from
pondus, really from pinsum) for pois, were the rule. But besides
the etymological, there was a phonetic school of spelling (Ramus,
in 1562, for instance, writes time, eimates— with e—t, e=>l, and
(-9— for aimai, aimastcs), which, though unsuccessful on the
whole, had some effect in correcting the excesses of the other,
so that in the 17th century most of these inserted letters began to
drop; of those which remain, some {flegme for fiemme or fleume,
Latin pkUgma) have corrupted the pronunciation. Some im-
portant reforms— as the dropping of silent s, and its replace-
ment by a circumflex over the vowel when this was long; the
frequent distinction of close and open e by acute and grave
accents; the restriction of i and u to the vowel sound, otj and »
to the consonant; and the introduction from Spain of the cedilla
to distinguish c=s from c = * before a, u and 0— are due to the
1 6th century. The replacement of oi, where it had assumed the
value e, by ai, did not begin till the last century, and was not the
rule till the present one. Indeed, since the 16th century the
changes in French spelling have been small, compared with the
changes of the sounds; final consonants and final e (unaccented)
are still written, though the sounds they represent have dis-
appeared.
Still, a marked effort towards the simplification of French
orthography was made in the third edition oi the Dictionary of
the French Academy (1740), practically the work of the Abbe
d'Olivet. While in the first (1604) and second (1 7x8) editions of
this dictionary words were overburdened with silent letters,
supposed to represent better the etymology, in the third edition
the spelling of about 5000 words (out of about 18,000) was
altered and made more in conformity with the pronunciation.
So, for instance, c was dropped in beinfaicteur and object, e in
scavoir, d in advocat, s in accroistre, atbastre, aspre and bastard, t in
the past part, creu, deu, veu, and in such words as aUcure, so*&-
leure; y was replaced by * in cecy, celuy, gayjoye, &c But those
changes were not made systematically, and many pedantic
spellings were left untouched, while many inconsistencies stiD
remain in the present orthography (siffltr and persifter, sonfitr
and boursoujler, &£.). The consequence of those efforts in con'
trary directions is that French orthography is now quite ai
traditional and unphonetic as English, and gives an even falser
notion than this of the actual state of the language it is supposed
to represent. Many of the features of Old French orthography,
early and late, are preserved in English orthography; to it we"
owe the use of c for s (Old English c-k only), o(j (s) for dsk, of
v (n) for v (in Old English written/), and probably cfcAkxIsk
The English w is purely French, the Old English letter beiDf
the runic >. When French was introduced into England, kw had
not lost its w, and the French qu, with that value, replaced the
Old English <r> (queen for cf>en). In Norman, Old French * had
become very like u, and in England went entirely into it; o %
which was one of its French signs, thus came to be often used
for u in English (come for cume), U, having often in Old French
its Modern French value, was so used in England, and replaced
the Old English y (busy for bysi, Middle English brud for ftrjtf),
and y was often used for i (day for dat). In the 13th century,
when ou had come to represent u in France, it was borrowed by
English, and used for the long sound of that vowed (sour for *+)',
and gu, which had come to mean simply g (hard), was occasion-
ally used to represent the sound g before i and e (guess for jtur).
Some of the Early Modern etymological spellings were imitated
in England; fleam and autour were replaced by phlegm and
outkour, the latter spelling having corrupted the pronundation.
(e) Inflections.— In the earliest Old French extant, the in-
fluence of analogy, especially in verbal forms, is very marked
when these are compared with Latin (thus the present parUdnks
of all conjugations take ant, the ending of the first, Latin <nkn),
and becomes stronger as t he language progresses. Such isolated
inflectional changes as saveil into savoit, which are cases of regular
phonetic changes, are not noticed here.
(i.) Verbs.— (1) In the oldest French texts the Latin pluperfect
(with the sense of the perfect) occasionally occurs — owrtt ( hab mm t ),
roveret (rogdveraJ); it disappears before the 1 2th century. 0)
The u of the ending of the 1st pers. plur. mus drops in Old French,
except in the perfect, where its presence (as *) is not yet aatMfactorflj
explained — amoms (am&mus, influenced by sumtu). but
the earliest documents, to all verbs— awe, reeeva, oa
recipUis, auditis) like amez (amatis) ; such forms as diles, jWn
(dicitis, facltis) being exceptional archaisms. This levelling of tk
conjugation does not appear at such an early time in the fntue
(formed from the infinitive and from kabetis reduced to His); m
the Roland both forms occur, porlertit (portare habUis) aasnamt*
ing on rei (roi, rigem), and the younger porlerex on rifle* (atf.
ctoiUUem), but about the end of the 13th century the older torn
•cu, -of's, is dropped, and -ez becomes gradually the uniform € _
for this 2nd person of the plural in the future tense. (4) In Eastern
French the 1st plur., when preceded byt, has r. not 0, before the nasal,
while Western French has « (or 0), as in the present: posti m n
Iposse&mus) in the Jonah homily makes it probable that the latter
is the older form — Ptcard anemes, Burgundian aliens. Nomas
FRENCH LANGUAGE
109
miums (kabibdmus). (5) The subjunctive of the first conjugation
has at first in the singular no final e, in accordance with the final
vowel laws — plur, plurs. plurt (pldrem, pldris. plorel). The forms are
gradually assimilated to tho>c of the other conjugations, which,
deriving from Latin am, as, at. have e. es. e(t) . Modern Fn-nch pleure,
pkures, pleure, like perde, per da, ptrde {per dam. perdds, per da i).
(6) In Old French the present subjunctive and the i*t sing. pre*,
ind. generally show the influence of the t or e of the Latin iam, com,
td t e*— Old French mutrt or moerge {mortal for mortdtur), ticrne or
ticntc (teneat), mutr or moerc (mono for mortor), tieng or Utnc (tenet)).
By degrees these forms are levelled under the other present forms —
Modern French meure and meurs following meurt (morit for montur),
tienne and liens following tienl (tenet). A few of the older forms
remain — the vowel of ate (kabeam) and ai (t,abeo) contrasting with
that of a (kabet). (7) A levelling of which instances occur in the nth
century, but which is not yet complete, is that of the accented and
unaccented, stem-syllables of verbs. In Old French many verb-
steins with shifting accent vary in accordance with phonetic laws— •
porter (paraboldre), amer (amdre) have in the present indicative
parol (paraboU), paroles (parahotds), parolet (parabola/), bariums
Xpmraboldmus), parlez (paraholdtis), parole nl (parabolanl); aim
i*mt), aimes (amds), aimet (amal), am urns (amdmut), amez (amdlis).
o*ment (amant). In the first rase the unaccented, in the second
the accented form has prevailed— Modern French parte, patter ;
aim*, aimer. In several verbs, as tenir (tenire), the distinction is
retained — liens, tuns, tienl, tenons, tenet, tiennent. <B) In Old
French, as stated above, te instead of i trom a occurs after a palatal
(which, if a consonant, often split into 1 with a dental): the diph-
thong thus appears in several forms of many verbs of the i»t con-
jugation — preier ("prei-ter, precdre), venper (rindtcdre), laiisier
(tax&re), aidter (adjul&rc). At the close of the Old French period,
those verbs in which the stem ends in a dental replace te by the e
of other verbs — Old French latsster, aidier. taissiez (laxdtis). aidiez
(adjuuUis); Modern French lamer, aider, latsscz. aide*, by analogy
of aimer, aimet. The older forms generally remain in Picard—
laissier, aidier. (9) The addition olr to the 1st sing, pres. ind.
of all verbs of the first conjugation is rare before the 13th century,
bat » usual in the 15th; it is probably due to the analogy of the
third person — Old French ckanl (idntd), aim (ami*): Modern French
ckante, aim*. (10) In the 13th century s is occasionally added to the
1st pen. sing., except those ending in e ( »*) and ai. and to the 2nd
sing, of imperatives; at the close of the 16th century this becomes
the rule, and extends to imperfects and conditionals in ote after the
loss of their e. It appears to be due to the inlluencc of the 2nd pcrs.
sing.— Old French vend (vendd and vende), vendoie (vendibam), parti
{par dot), ting (tenni); Modern French vends, tendais, partis. Urn;
and donn* (don&) in certain cases becomes donnts. (11) The 1st and
and plur. of the pres. subj.. which in Old French were generally
similar to those of the indicative, gradually take an t before thorn,
which is the rule after the 16th century— Old French perdons (per-
ddmus), perde* (perd&tis) ; Modern French perdions, perdiez, appar-
ently by analogy of the imp. ind. (12) The loss in Late Old French
of anal s, t, &c, when preceding another consonant, caused many
words to have in reality (though often concealed by orthography)
double forms of inflection — one without termination, the other with.
Thus in the 16th century the 2nd sing. pres. ind. dors (do mils) and
the 3rd dart (dormit) were distinguished as dbrz and dbrt when before
a vowel, as ddrs and dbrt at the end of a sentence or line of poetry,
but ran together as dor when followed by a consonant. Still later,
the loss of the el further
reduced the a 1, so that
the actual Frei 1 is shown
by the custom of an im-
mediately folic ly appear.
Even here th< tificial or
delusive, some ie popular
language oftci iserting a
dinerent one. naccented
final syllables it not the
distinctive for generally
ditinguished a pert and
pir*\
(u.) Substantives.— "(i) In Early Old French (as in Provencal) there
are two main declensions, the masculine and the feminine; with a
few exceptions the former ditinguishes nominative and accusative
ia both numbers, the latter in neither. The nom. and ace. sing.
aid ace. plur. mas. correspond to those of the Latin 2nd or ;jrd
declension, the nom. plur. to that of the 2nd declension. The sing,
fern, corresponds to the nom. and ace of the Latin 1st declension,
or to the ace. of the 3rd ; the plur. fern, to the ace. of the 1st declcn-
■00* or to the nom. and ace. of the 3rd. Thus masc tors (taurus),
let* Qatr5); tor (taurum), laron (latrdnem); tor (taurl), laron (latrdnl
for -nil); tors (taurds). larons (latrdnis); but fem. only ele (dta and
tint), Mor (fldrem) ; eJes (dlds), fiors (flirts nom. and ace.). About
the end of the nth century feminincs not ending in e~» take, by
taalogy of the masculines, s in the nom. sing., thus distinguishing
aom. Jtors from ace. flor. A century later, masculines without s
m the nom. sing, take this consonant by analogy of the other mascu-
fines, giving teres as nom. similar to tors. In Anglo-Norman the
accusative forms very early begin to replace the nominative, and
soon supersede them, the language following the tendency of con-
temporaneous English. In continental French the declension-system
was preserved murh longer, and did not break up till the 14th
century, though ace. forms an* occasionally substituted for nom.
(rarely nom. for ace.) In-fore that due. It must be noticed, however,
that in the current language the reduction of the declension to one
case (generally the arrusanve) per number appears much earlier
than in the language of literature proper and poetry; Froissart, for
instance, c. 1400, in his poetical works is much more careful of the
declension than in his Chronicles. In the 15th century the modern
system of one case is fully established: the form kept is almost
always the accusative (ting, without s, plural with s), nut in a few
words, such zsfils (fitius), sarur (soror), pastre (potior), ami in proper
names such a» Georges, Cities, Ac, often used as vocative (therefore
with the form of nom.): the nom. survives in the sing. Occasionally
both forms e\i«.t, in different senses — sire (senior) and seigneur
(seniorrm), on (homd) and komme (hominem). (2) Latin neuters are
generally masculine in Old French, and inflected according to their
analogy, as cuts (carl us for caelum num.), del (caelum ace), ciel (caell
for eaela nom.), dels (carlos for caela ace); but in some cases the
form of the Latin neuter is presrrved, as in eors, now corps, Lat.
corpus: tens, now temps. Lit. tern pus. Many neuters I0-1O their
singular form ami treat the plural as a feminine singular, as in the
related languages — mervetlle (m\rCibilia),feuille (folia). Hut in a few
words the neuter plural termination is used, as in Italian, in its
primitive sen<e— earre (carta, which exists as well an catti), pair*
UmI. pa rio); Modern French chars, paires. (3) In Old French the
inflectional s often causes phonetic changes in the stem; thus palatal
/ before s takes / after it, ami licromes dental /, which afterwards
changes to a or drops—// (f ilium and fitii) with palatal /, htz (fitius
and filiOs), afterwards fiz, with r»fs (preserved in Engliih titz),
and then fis, as now (spelt .jiii). Many consonants before s, as the
/ of Jiz, disappear, and / is vocalized— e// (vivum), mat (malum),
nominative sing, and ace. plur. vis, ma us (earlier mats). These forms
of the plural are retained in the loth century, though often ety-
mologically spelt with the consonant of the singular, as in vifs,
pronounced vis: but in Late Modern French many of them dis-
appear, vifs. with f sounded as in the singular, being the plural
01 vif. bats (formerly baux) that of bat. In many words, as ckanl
(cant its) and champs (earn bis) with silent / and p (Old French chans
in both rases), maux (Old French mats, sing, mat), veux (ocutos.
Old French eriz, sing, ail) the old change in the stem is kept. Some-
time*, as in acitx Uaeldx) and dels, the old traditional and the modern
analogical forms coexist, with different meanings, (x) The modern
lots of final s (except when kept as s before a vowel) has seriously
modified the Frenrh declension, the singulars fort (fdr) ami forte
(fort) being generally undistinguishable from their plurals forts and
fortes. The subsequent loss of * in finals has not affected the relation
between sing, and plur. forms; but with the frequent recoining of
the plural forms on the singular present Modern French has very
often no distinction between sing, and plnr., except before a vowel.
Such plurals as maux have always been distinct from their singular
mat; in those whose singular ends in s there never was any dis-
tinction. Old French taz (now spelt lacs) corresponding to laqveus,
laqveum, hovel and laqveds.
(iii.) Adurtives. — (1) The terminations of the cases and numbers
with their plurals amert and amtrts, have run together.
no
FRENCH LITERATURE
(f) Derivation— tfosi' 6t the Old French prefixes and suffixes
are descendants of Latin ones, but a few are Teutonic {ard —hard),
and some arc later borrowings from Latin (arte, afterwards aire,
from drium). In Modern French many old affixes are hardly used
for forming new words; the inherited ier {drium) is yielding to
the borrowed aire, the popular centre {contra) to the learned aiiti
(Greek), and the native it (atom) to the Italian ode. The suffixes
of many words have been assimilated to more common ones;
thus sot filer {singtddrem) is now sanglicr.
(g) Syntax. — Old French syntax, gradually changing from
the loth to the 14th century, has a character of its own, distinct
from that of Modern French; though when compared with
Latin syntax it appears decidedly modern.
;ij The general formal distinction between nominative and
accusative is the chief feature which causes French syntax to re-
semble that of Latin and differ from that of the modern language;
and as the distinction had to be replaced by a comparatively fixed
word-order, a serious loss of freedom ensued. If the forms are
modernized while the word-order is kept, the Old French I'areketesque
ue puetjWchir ii reis llenris (Latin arckiepiscopum non potest JUctere
rex Uenricus) assumes a totally different meaning — I' or chew que ne
peutfiichtr le roi Henri. (2) The replacement of the nominative form
of nouns by the accusative is itself a syntactical feature, though
treated above under inflection. A more modern instance is exhibited
by the personal pronouns, which, when not immediately the subject
of a verb, occasionally take even in Ok) French, and regularly in
the 16th century, the accusative form ; the Old French je qut sui
(ego qsl sum) becomes moi qui suis, though the older usage survives
in the legal phrase je, sousstgni. ...(}) The definite article is now
required in many cases where Old trench dispenses with it— j*
cunquis Engleterre, suffrir mort (as Modern French avoir faint);
Modern French I' A ngleterre, la mort. (4) Old French had distinct pro-
nouns for " this " and " that " — test {cue istum) and eel {ecu ilium),
with their cases. Both exist in the 16th century, but the present
language employs cet as adjective, eel as substantive, in both mean-
ings, marking the old distinction by affixing the adverbs ci and 16\
— cet homme-ci, cet homnte-la ; celui-ci, celut-id. (5) In Old French,
the vertul terminations being clear, the subject pronoun is usually
not expressed — si ferai {sic facere kabeo'), est durs (durus est), que
{eras {quid facere habes)? In the 16th century the use of the pronoun
» general, and is now universal, except in one or two impersonal
8hra«es, as n'importe, pen s'en faut. (6) The present participle in
ild French in its uninfected form coincided with the gerund {amant
mamantem and amandd), and in the modern language has been re-
g laced by the latter, except where it has become adjectival; the
Id French complaingnans leur dolours (Latin plangentis) is now
plaignant Irurs douleurs (Latin tlangtndd). The now extinct use of
estre with the participle present lor the simple verb is not uncommon
in Old French down to the 16th century— «*/ disans {sunt dicentes) —
Modern French 1/5 disent (as English they are saying). (7) In present
Modern French the preterite participle when used with avoir to form
verb-tenses is invariable, except when the object precedes (an
exception now vanishing in the conversational language)— j'ai
icrit Us tettres, les lettres que j'ai (crites. In Old French down to the
16th century, formal concord was more common (though by no
means necessary), partly because the object preceded the parti-
ciple much oftcner than now— ad la culur muie {habet coldrem mutd-
tam), ad faite sa venjancc, les turs ad rend
|ust quoted will serve as specimens of the
word-order— the object standing either bef
between them, or alter both. The predicai
before or after the verb — halt sunt li put (I
grant, fa) In Old French ne (Early Old
suffices for the negation without pas {passi
mie {mUam, now obsolete), though these
ue sui lis sire {je ne suis pas ton seigneur)
%' aura pas autre femme). In principal semer
me by itself only in certain cases— je ne pi
The slight weight as a negation usually at
several originally positive word* to take a
} Latin rem) now meaning " nothing " as we
n Old French interrogation was expressed v
pronouns by putting them after the verb— est Saul entre les pro-
phetesf In Modern French the pronominal inversion (the sub-
stantive being prefixed) or a verbal periphrasis must be used — Saul
est-il t or est-ee que Saul est?
(h) Summary.— Looking at the internal history of the French
language as a whole, there is no such strongly marked division as
exists between Old and Middle English, or even between Middle
and Modern English. Some of the most important changes are
Suite modern, and are concealed by the traditional orthography;
nt, even making allowance for this, the difference between French
of the f ith century and that of the 20th is less than that between
English of the same dares. The most important change in itself
and for it* effects ispmbahly that which is usually made the division
oetweea Old and Modern French, the iocs 0/ the formal dtftinrtfo*
L ip*ts»
of the
logyia
isdfr
ialects.
dodera
e other
iphUo-
nd the
ionised
ittered
• many
kw-i
Paris,
bangm
1 useful
ts Alt-
'.IS*;
est old
lagehi
fines i
A.F.
buqu'i
ounds:
! VOls.
tbered
MMOftt
• 190a.
2) was
d's U
Early
>vols..
e ceo*
I often
French
EZsssg*
oral
sy the
e first,
: ben
((with
i Zed-
) and
infer*
Ktions
illy in
'the
. The
beisg
: (die-
: must
patois
n and
haft
MO
reoeb
lid to
Dana*
■tiny
ndit
leccrjr
land
atute
intry,
mta
CC.M
a few
Lata
«torj
itsdf
4SON5 DE CESTEJ
FRENCH LITERATURE
in
icd a sufficiently independent form to deserve to be called
- language. This time it is indeed impossible exactly to
nine, and the period at which literary compositions, as
guished from mere conversation, began to employ the new
e is entirely unknown. As early as the 7th century the
a Romana, as distinguished from Latin and from Teutonic
U, is mentioned, and this Lingua Romana would be of
ity used for purposes of clerical admonition, especially in
>unlry districts, though we need not suppose that such
sses had a very literary character. On the other hand,
ention, at early dates, of certain cantilena* or songs com-
in the vulgar language has served for basis to a super-
ure of much ingenious argument with regard to the highly
sting problem of the origin of the Chansons d* Geste, the
it and one of the greatest literary developments of northern
h. It is sufficient in this article, where speculation would
: of place, to mention that only two such cantilenae actually
and that neither is French. One of the 9th century, the
of Saucourt," is in a Teutonic dialect ; the other, the " Song
Faron," is of the 7th century, but exists only in Latin
the construction and style of which present traces of trans-
lation from a poetical and vernacular original. As far
as facts go, the most ancient monuments of the written
French language consist of a few documents of very
various character, ranging in date from the oth to the
century. The oldest gives us the oaths interchanged at
burg in 842 between Charles the Bald and Louis the German,
est probably in date and the first in literary merit is a short
celebrating the martyrdom of St Eulalia, which may be
as the end of the 9th century, and is certainly not younger
he beginning of the 10th. Another, the Life of St Lcgcr, in
ctosyliabic lines, is dated by conjecture about 975. The
sion indeed of these short and fragmentary pieces is of
philological than literary interest, and belongs rather to
sad of French language. They are, however, evidence of
ogress which, continuing for at least four centuries, built up
wy instrument out of the decomposed and reconstructed
of the Roman conquerors, blended with a certain limited
it of contributions from the Celtic and Iberian dialects of
iginal inhabitants, the Teutonic speech of the Franks, and
iental tongue of the Moors who pressed upwards from Spain.
I these foreign elements bear a very small proportion to the
at of Latin; and as Latin furnished the greater part of the
ulary and the grammar, so did it also furnish the principal
• and helps to literary composition. The earliest French
cation is evidently inherited from that of the Latin hymns
church, and for a certain time Latin originate were followed
choice of literary forms. But by the nth century it is
bly certain that dramatic attempts were already being
in the vernacular, that lyric poetry was largely cultivated,
iws, charters, and such-like documents were written, and
ommentators and translators busied themselves with re-
t subjects and texts. The most important of the extant
tents, outside of the epics presently to be noticed, has of
late been held to be the Life of Saint Alexis, a poem
of 625 decasyllabic lines, arranged in five-line stanzas,
each of one assonance or vowel-rhyme, which may be
ly as 1050. But the most important development of the
cntury, and the one of which we are most certain, is that
ch we have evidence remaining in the famous Chanson de
i, discovered in a manuscript at Oxford and first published
7. This poem represents the first and greatest development
mch literature, the chansons de geste (this form is now
red to that with the plural gestcs). The origin of these
has been hotly debated, and it is only recently that the
lance which they really possess has been accorded to them,
ct the less remarkable in that, until about 1820, the epics
ient France were unknown, or known only through late
Isfigured prose versions. Whether they originated in the
or the south is a question on which there have been more
me or two revolutions of opinion, and will probably be
still, but which need not be dealt with here. We possess
in round numbers a hundred of these chansons. Three only of
them are in Provencal. Two of these, Fcrabras and Bclonnet
d'Hanstonne, arc obviously adaptations of French originals.
The third, Girartx de Rossilho (Gerard de Roussillon), is un-
doubtedly Provencal, and is a work of great merit and originality,
but its dialect is strongly tinged with the characteristics of the
Langue d'Oll, and its author seems to have been a native of the
debatable land between the two districts. To suppose under
these circumstances that the Provencal originals of the hundred
others have perished seems gratuitous. It is sufficient to say
that the chanson dc geste, as it is now extant, is the almost
exclusive property of northern France. Nor is there much
authority for a supposition that the early French poets merely
versified with amplifications the stories of chroniclers. On the
contrary, chroniclers draw largely from the chansons, and the
question of priority between Roland and the pseudo-Turpin,
though a hard one to determine, seems to resolve itself in favour
of the former. At most we may suppose, with much probability,
that personal and family tradition gave a nucleus for at least
the earliest.
Chansons de Geste. — Early French narrative poetry was
divided by one of its own writers, Jean Bodel, under three head*
—poems relating to French history, poems relating to -~^^
ancient history, and poems of the Arthurian cycle jj^SHS*
(AfoJiires de France, de Brctagne, et de Rome). To the
first only is the term chansons de geste in strictness applicable
The definition of it goes partly by form and partly by matter
A chanson dc geste must be written in verses either of ten or
twelve syllables, the former being the earlier. These verses have
a regular caesura, which, like the end of a line, carries with it
the licence of a mute e. The lines are arranged, not in couplets
or in stanzas of equal length, but in laisses or tirades, consisting
of any number of lines from half a dozen to some hundreds.
These are, in the earlier examples assonanced, — that is to say,
the vowel sound of the last syllables is identical, but the con-
sonants need not agree. Thns, for instance, the final words of a
tirade of Amis et A miles (II. 190-206) are erbe, noitrellc, sclles,
nouvdles, trover sent, arrestent, guerre, cortege. Sometimes the
tirade is completed by a shorter line, and the later chansons are
regularly rhymed. As to t he subject . a chanson dc gest e must be
concerned with some event which is, or is supposed to be,
historical and French. The tendency of the trouv&res was con-
stantly to affiliate their heroes on a particular geste or family.
The three chief gestes are those of Charlemagne himself, of Doon
de Maycnce, and of Garin de Monglanc; but there arc not a
few chansons, notably those concerning the Lorrainers, and the
remarkable series sometimes called the Chcralur au Cygne, and
dealing with the crusades, which lie outside these groups. By
this joint definition of form and subject the chansons de geste
are separated from the romances of antiquity, from the romances
of the Round Table, which are written in octosyllabic couplets,
and from the romans d'aventures or later fictitious tales, some of
which, such as Brun de la Montaigne, are written in pure chanson
form.
Not the least remarkable point about the chansons de geste
is their vast extent. Their number, according to the strictest
definition, exceeds 100, and the length of each chanson v«faB»
varies from 1000 lines, or thereabouts, to 20,000 or mm4
even 30,000. The entire mass, including, it may be **%!Z*!£L
supposed, the various versions and extensions of each tar ^ e * C9%
chanson, is said to amount to between two and three million
lines; and when, under the second empire, the publication of the
whole Carolingian cycle was projected, it was estimated, taking
the earliest versions alone, at over 300,000. The successive
developments of the chansons de geste may be illustrated by the
fortunes of Huon de Bordeaux, one of the most lively, varied
and romantic of the older epics, and one which is interesting
from the use made of it by Shakespeare, Wieland and Weber.
In the oldest form now extant, though even this is probably not
the original, Huon consists of over 10,000 lines. A subsequent
version contains 4000 more; and lastly, in the, ia\S\ tw\wj >
a later poet has ampUfved vnt Ywu& \a \tat «s\«uv <& v> ,c*»\\ww
112
FRENCH LITERATURE
(ARTHURIAN ROKAMCBB
When this point had been reached, Huon began to be turned into
prose, was with many of his fellows published and republished
during the 15th and subsequent centuries, and retains, in the
form of a roughly printed chap-book, the favour of the country
districts of France to the present day. It is not, however, in the
later versions that the special characteristics of the chansons
de geste are to be looked for. Of those which we possess, one and
one only, the Chanson de Roland, belongs in its present form
to the 1 1 th century. Their date of production extends, speaking
roughly, from the nth to the 14th century, their palmy days were
the nth and the 12th. After this latter period the Arthurian
romances, with more complex attractions, became their rivals,
and induced their authors to make great changes in their style
and subject. But for a lime they reigned supreme, and no better
instance of their popularity can be given than the fact that
manuscripts of them exist, not merely in every French dialect,
but in many cases in a strange macaronic jargon of mingled
French and Italian. Two classes of persons were concerned in
them. There was the trouvere who composed them, and the
jongleur who carried them about in manuscript or in his memory
from castle to castle amd sang them, intermixing frequent appeals
to his auditory for silence, declarations of the novelty and the
strict copyright character of the chanson, revilings of rival
minstrels, and frequently requests for money in plain words.
Not a few of the manuscripts which we now possess appear to
have been actually used by the jongleur. But the names of the
authors, the trouveres who actually composed them, are in very
few cases known, those of copyists, continuators, and mere
possessors of manuscripts having been often mistaken for them.
The moral and poetical peculiarities of the older and more
authentic of these chansons are strongly marked, though perhaps
not quite so strongly as some of their encomiasts have contended,
and as may appear to a reader of the most famous of them, the
Chanson de Roland, alone. In that poem, indeed, war and
religion are the sole motives employed, and its motto might
be two lines from another of the finest chansons (Aliscans,
161-162): —
" Dist a Bertran : * N'avons mais nul losir.
Tant kc vivons alons paiens ferir.'
In Roland there is no love-making whatever, and the hero's
betrothed " la belle Aude " appears only in a casual gibe of her
brother Oliver, and in the incident of her sudden death at the
news of Roland's fall. M. Leon Gautier and others have drawn
the conclusion that this stern and masculine character was a
feature of all the older chansons, and that imitation of the
Arthurian romance is the cause of its disappearance. This
seems rather a hasty inference. In Amis et A miles, admittedly
a poem of old dale, the parts of Belliccnt and Lubias are
prominent, and the former is demonstrative enough. In Aliscans
the part of the Countess Guibourc is both prominent and heroic,
and is seconded by that of Queen Blancheflor and her daughter
Aelis. We might also mention Oriabel in J our dans de Blaivies
and others. But it may be admitted that the sex which fights and
counsels plays the principal part, that love adventures arc not
introduced at any great length, and that the lady usually spares
her knight the trouble and possible indignities of a long wooing.
The characters of a chanson of the older style are somewhat
uniform. There is the hero who is unjustly suspected of guilt or
sore beset by Saracens, the heroine who falls in love with him,
the traitor who accuses him or delays help, who is almost always
of the lineage of Ganeion, and whose ways form a very curious
study. There are friendly paladins and subordinate traitors;
there is Charlemagne (who bears throughout the marks of the
epic king common to Arthur and Agamemnon, but is not in the
earlier chanson Ihc incapable and venal dotard which he becomes
in the later), and with Charlemagne generally the duke Naimes
of Bavaria, the cne figure who is invariably wise, brave, loyal
and generous. In a few chansons there is to be added to these a
very interesting class of personages who, though of low birth or
condition, yet rescue the high-born knights from their enemies.
Such are Rsunoan in Aliscans, Gautier in Gaydon, Robastre in
Ttyrey, Vaivcher in Afocoire. These subjects, uniform rather
than monotonous, are handled with great uniformity if not
monotony of style. There are constant repetitions, and it some-
times seems, and may sometimes be the case, that the teat ba
mere cento of different and repeated versions. But the verse is
generally harmonious and often stately. The recurrent asson-
ances of the endless tirade soon impress the ear with a gmlehd
music, and occasionally, and far more frequently than might be
thought, passages of high poetry, such as the magnificent Gran
dod par la mart de RoUant, appear to diversify the course of the
story. The most remarkable of the chansons are Roland,
Aliscans, Gerard de Roussillon, Amis el AmiUs, Raoul de Cambrei,
Garin le Loheradn and its sequel Les quatre Fils Aymon, Let Saisnes
(recounting the war of Charlemagne with Witckind), and lastly,
Le Chevalier au Cygne, which is not a single poem but a terns,
dealing with the earlier crusades. The most remarkable tramp h
that centring round William of Orange, the historical or half-
historical defender of the south of France against Mahommedaa
invasion. Almost all the chansons of this group, from the lone-
known Aliscans to the recently printed Chance* de Wtitame,
are distinguished by an unwonted personality of interest, as well
as by an intensified dose of the rugged and martial poetry which
pervades the whole class. It is noteworthy that one chanson
and one only, Floovont, deals with Merovingian times. But the
chronology, geography, and historic facts of nearly all are, it is
hardly necessary to say, mainly arbitrary.
Arthurian Romances.— The second class of early French epics
consists of the Arthurian cycle, the Ma tier e de Bretagne, the
earliest known compositions of which are at least a century
junior to the earliest chanson de geste, but which soon succeeded
the chansons in popular favour, and obtained a vogue both wider
and far more enduring. It is not easy to conceive a greater
contrast in form, style, subject and sentiment than is presented
by the two classes. In both the religious sentiment is prominent,
but the religion of the chansons is of the simplest, not to any of the
most savage character. To pray to God and to kill bis enemies
constitutes the whole duty of man. In the romances the mystical
element becomes on the contrary prominent, and furnishes, is
the Holy Grail, one of the most important features. In the Carle-
vingian knight the courtesy and clemency which we have leant
to associate with chivalry are almost entirely absent The
gentix ber contradicts, jeers at, and execrates his sovereign and
his fellows with the utmost freedom. He thinks nothing of strike
ing his cortoise moullier so that the blood runs down ber tier lis.
If a servant or even an equal offends him, he will throw the
offender into the fire, knock his brains out, or set his whisker*
ablaze. The Arthurian knight is far more of the modern model
in these respects. But his chief difference from his predecessor
is undoubtedly in his amorous devotion to his beloved, who,
if not morally superior to Bdlicent, Floripas, Esclairmonde, and
the other Carlovingian heroines, is somewhat less forward. Eves
in minute details the difference is strongly marked. The romances
are in octosyllabic couplets or in prose, and their language is
different from that of the chansons, and contains much fewer of
the usual epic repetitions and stock phrases. A voluminous con-
troversy has been held respecting the origin of these differences,
and of the story or stories which were destined to receive suck
remarkable attention. Reference must be made to the article
Arthurian Legend for the history of this controversy and for
an account of its present state. This state, however, and all
subsequent states, are likely to be rather dependent upon opinica
than upon actual knowledge. From the point of view of the
general historian of literature it may not be improper here to give
a caution against the frequent use of the word " proven " in such
matters. Very little in regard to early literature, except the
literary value of the texts, is ever susceptible of proof; although
things may be made more or less probable. What we are at present
concerned with, however, is a body of verse and prose composed
in the latter part of the 12th century and later. The earliest
romances, the Saint Graal, the Quite du Saint Craal, Josef*
tVArimathie and Merlin bear the names of Walter Map and
Robert de Borron. Artus and part at least of Lancelot du Let
(the whole of which has been by turns attributed and denied to
ROMANS D'AVENTURESJ
FRENCH LITERATURE
"3
Walter Map) appear to be due to unknown authors. Tristan
came later, and has a stronger mixture of Celtic tradition. At
the same time as Walter Map, or a little later, Chretien (or
Chrestien) de Troyes threw the legends of the Round Table
Into octosyllabic verse of a singularly spirited and picturesque
character. The chief poems attributed to him are the Chevalier
an Lyon (Sir Ewain of Wales), the Clsetalicr a la Char die (one
of the episodes of Lancelot), Eric el Enide, Tristan and Percitale.
These poems, independently of their merit, which is great, had
■a extensive literary influence. They were translated by the
German minnesingers. Wolfram von Eschenbach, Gottfried of
Strassburg, and others. . With the romances already referred
to, which are mostly in prose, and which by recent authorities
have been put later than the verse talcs which used to be post-
puc-H ».j them, Chretien's poems complete the early forms of
the Arthurian story, and supply the matter of it as it is best
known to English readers in Malory's book. Nor docs that book,
though far later than the original forms, convey a very false
impression of the characteristics of the older romances. Indeed,
the Arthurian knight, his character and adventures, are 50 much
better known than the heroes of the Carlovingian chanson that
there is less need to dwell upon them. They had, however, as has
been already pointed out, great influence upon their rivals, and
their comparative fertility of invention, the much larger number
of their dramatis personac, and the greater variety of interests to
which they appealed, sufficiently explain their increased popu-
larity. The ordinary attractions of poetry are also more largely
present in them than in the chansons; there is more description,
more life, and less of the mere chronicle. They have been accused
of relaxing morality, and there is perhaps some truth in the
charge. But the change is after all one rather of manners than
of morals, and what is lost in simplicity is gained in refinement.
Doom de Hayenee is a late chanson, and Lancelot du Lac is an early
romance. But the two beautiful scenes, in the former between
Doon and Nicolctte, in the latter between Lancelot, Galahault,
Guinevere, and the Lady of Malchaut, may be compared as
instances of the attitude of the two classes of poets towards the
sum subject.
Romances of Antiquity. — There is yet a third class of early
narrative poems, differing from the two former in subject, but
agreeing, sometimes with one sometimes with the other in form.
These are the classical romances — the Matiere de Rome — which
are not much later than those of Charlemagne and Arthur.
The chief subjects with which their authors busied themselves
were the conquests of Alexander and the siege of Troy, though
ether classical stories come in. The most remarkable of all is t he
romance of Alixandre by Lambert the Short and Alexander of
Bernay. It has been said that the excellence of the twelve-
syllabled verse used in this romance was the origin of the term
alexandrine. The Trojan romances, on the other hand, are
chiefly in octosyllabic verse, and the principal poem which
treats of them is the Roman de Troie of Benoit de Sainte More.
Both this poem and Alixandre are attributed to the bat quarter
of the 1 2th century. The authorities consulted for these poems
were, as may be supposed, none of the best. Dares Phrygius,
Dictys Cretensis, the pseudo-Callisthenes supplied most of them.
But the inexhaustible invention of the trouvercs themselves was
the chief authority consulted. The adventures of Medea, the
wanderings of Alexander, the Trojan horse, the story of Thebes,
were quite sufficient to spur on to exertion the minds which had
been accustomed to spin a chanson of some 10,000 lines out of a
casual allusion in some preceding poem. • It is needless to say
that anachronisms did not disturb them. From first to last the
writers of the chansons had not in the least troubled themselves
with attention to any such matters. Charlemagne himself had
Us life and exploits accommodated to the need of every poet
who treats of him, and the same is the case with the heroes of
antiquity. Indeed, Alexander is made in many respects a proto-
type of Charlemagne. He is regularly knighted, he has twelve
peers, he holds tournaments, he has relations with Arthur, and
comes hi contact with fairies, he takes flights in the air, dives in
the sea and so forth. There is perhaps more avowed imagination
xi. 3
in these classical stories than in cither of the other divisions of
French epic poetry. Some of their authors even confess to the
practice of fiction, while the trouvercs of the chansons invariably
assert the historical character of their facts and personages, and
the authors of the Arthurian romances at least start from facts
vouched for, partly by national tradition, partly by the
authority of religion and the church. The classical romances,
however, are important in two different ways. In the first place,
they connect the early literature of France, however loosely, and
with links of however dubious authenticity, with the great history
and literature of t he past. They show a certain amount of scholar-
ship in their authors, and in their hearers they show a capacity
of taking an interest in subjects which are nut merely those
directly connected with the village or the tribe. The chansons
de gesle had shown the creative power and independent character
of French literature. There is. at least about the earlier ones,
nothing borrowed, traditional or scholarly. • They smack of the
soil, and they rank France among the very few countries which, in
this matter of indigenous growth, have yielded more than folk-
songs and fireside talcs. The Arthurian romances, less inde-
pendent in origin, exhibit a wider range of view, a greater
knowledge of human nature, and a more extensive command
of the sources of poetical and romantic interest. The classical
epics superadd the only ingredient necessary to an accomplished
literature — that is to say, the knowledge of what has been done
by other peoples and other literatures already, and the readiness
to take advantage of the materials thus supplied.
Romans a" A ventures. — These are the three earliest develop-
ments of French literature on the great scale. They led, however,
to a fourth, which, though later in date than all except their
latest forms and far more loosely associated as a group, is so
closely connected with them by literary and social considera-
tions that it had best be mentioned here. This is the rotnan
d'aventures, a title given to those almost avowedly fictitious
poems which connect themselves, mainly and centrally, neither
with French history, with the Round Table, nor with the heroes
of antiquity. These began to be written in the 13th century, and
continued until the prose form of fiction became generally pre-
ferred. The later forms of the chansons de geste and the Arthurian
poems might indeed be well called romans d'aventures them-
selves. Ungues Capet, for instance, a chanson in form and class of
subject, is certainly one of this latter kind in treatment; and
there is a larger class of semi-Arthurian romance, which so to
speak branches off from the main trunk. But for convenience
sake the definition we have given is preferable. The style and
subject of these romans d'aventures are naturally extremely
various. Cuillaume de Polemic deals with the adventures of a
Sicilian prince who is befriended by a wcre-wolf; Le Roman de
Vescoufte, with a heroine whose ring is carried off by a sparrow-
hawk {escouflc), like Prince Camaralzaman's talisman; Cuy of
Warwick, with one of the most famous of imaginary heroes;
Meraugis de PortUguex is a sort of branch or offshoot of the
romances of the Round Table; CUomadcs, the work of the
trouvcrc Adcnes le Roi, who also rchandled the old chanson
subjects of Ogier and Bcrte aux grans pits, connects itself once
more with the Arabian Nights as well as with Chaucer forwards
in the introduction of a flying mechanical horse. There is, in
short, no possibility of classifying their subjects. The habit of
writing in gcslcs, or of necessarily connecting the new work with
an older one, had ceased to be binding, and the instinct of fiction
writing was free; yet those romans d'aventures do not rank quite
as high in literary importance as the classes which preceded them.
This undervaluation arises rather from a lack of originality and
distinctness of savour than from any shortcomings in treatment.
Their versification, usually octosyllabic, is pleasant enough; but
there is not much distinctness of character about them, and their
incidents often strike the reader with something of the sameness,
but seldom with much of the nalvet6, of those of the older poems.
Nevertheless some of them attained to a very high popularity,
such, for instance, as the Parttncpex de Blois of Denis Pyramus,
which has a motive drawn from the story of Cu pid and Psyche
and the charming Flout et BUMcheJLcw, vjraitat ^» <& «.
la,
11+
FRENCH LITERATURE
(FAHUAUI
Christian prince and a Saracen slave-girL With them may be
connected a certain number of early romances and fiction* of
various dates in prose, none of which can vie in charm with
Autos sin et NicoltlU (13th century), an exquisite literary pre-
sentment of medieval sentiment in its most delightful form.
In these classes may be said to be summed up the literature of
feudal chivalry in France. They were all, except perhaps the last,
- Mnt composed by one class of persons, the trouveres, and
th*nsut+ performed by another, the jongleurs. The latter,
Jtffc* •* indeed, sometimes presumed to compose for himself,
**|y and was denounced as a Iroveor batard by the indignant
members of the superior caste. They were all originally
intended to be performed in the paints marberin of the baron to
an audience of knights and ladies, and, when reading became
more common, to be read by such persons. ' They dealt therefore
chiefly, if not exclusively, with the class to whom they were
addressed. The bourgeois and the villain, personages of political
nonentity at the lime of their early composition, come in for
far slighter notice, although occasionally in the few curious
instances we have mentioned, and others, persons of a class
inferior to the seigneur play an important part. The habit of
private wars and of insurrection against the sovereign supply
the motives of the chanson dc geste, the love of gallantry,
adventure and foreign travel those of the romances Arthurian
and miscellaneous None of these motives much affected the
lower classes, who were, with the early developed temper of the
middle- and lower-class Frenchman, already apt to think and
speak cynically enough of tournaments, courts, crusades and
the other occupations of the nobility. The communal system
was springing up, the towns were receiving royal encouragement
as a counterpoise to the authority of the nobles. The corruptions
and maladministration of the church attracted the satire rather
of the citizens and peasantry who suffered by them, than of the
nobles who had less to fear and even something to gain.
JjJUj*' On the other hand, the gradual spread of learning,
itatt. inaccurate and ill-digested perhaps, but still learning,
not only opened up new classes of subjects, but opened
them to new classes of persons. The thousands of students who
flocked to the schools of Paris were not all princes or nobles.
Hence there arose two new classes of literature, the first consisting
of the embodiment of learning of one kind or other in the vulgar
tongue. The other, one of the most remarkable developments of
sportive literature which the world has seen, produced the second
indigenous literary growth of which France can boast, namely,
the fabliaux, and the almost more remarkable work which is an
immense conglomerate of fabliaux, the great beast-epic of the
Roman de Renart.
Fabliaux. — There are few literary products which have more
originality and at the same time more diversity than the fabliau.
The epic and the drama, even when they are independently
produced, are similar in their main characteristics all the world
over. But there is.nothing in previous literature which exactly
corresponds to the fabliau. It comes nearest to the Aesopic fable
and its eastern origins or parallels. But differs from these
in being less allegorical, less obviously moral (though a moral
of some sort is usually if not always enforced), and in having
a much more direct personal interest. It is in many degrees
further removed from the parable, and many degrees nearer to
the novel. - The story is the first thing, the moral the second,
and the latter is never suffered to interfere with the former.
These observations apply only to the fabliaux, properly so called,
but the term has been used with considerable looseness. The
collectors of those interesting pieces, Barbazan, Meon, Le Grand
d'Aussy, have included in their collections large numbers of
miscellaneous pieces such as dils (rhymed descriptions of various
objects, the most famous known author of which was Baudouin
de Condi, 13th century), and dibais (discussions between two
persons or contrasts of the attributes of two things), sometimes
even short romances, farces and mystery plays. Not that the
fable proper— the prose classical beast-story of " Aesop "—
mas neglected. Marie de France — the poetess to be mentioned
M£Min /or her more strictly poetical work— is the most literary
of not a few writers who composed what were often, after the
mysterious original poet, named Ysopets. Aesop', Pnaednu,
Babrius were translated and imitated in Latin and in the verna-
cular by this class of writer, and some of the best known of
"fablers" date from this time. The fabliau, on the other
hand, according to the best definition of it yet achieved, a
" the recital, generally comic, of a real or possible incident
occurring in ordinary human life/' The comedy, it may be added,
is usually of a satiric kind, and occupies itself with every class
and rank of men, from the king to the villain. There is no Unit
to the variety of these lively verse-tales, which axe invariably
written in eight-syllabled couplets. Now the subject is the mis-
adventure of two Englishmen, whose ignorance of the French
language makes them confuse donkey and lamb; now it is the
fortunes of an exceedingly foolish knight, who has an amiable
and ingenious mother-in-law; now the deserved sufferings of
an avaricious or ill-behaved priest; now the bringing of as
ungrateful son to a better mind by the wisdom of babes and
sucklings. Not a few of the Canterbury Tales are taken directly
from fabliaux; indeed, Chaucer, with the possible exception of
Prior, is our nearest approach to a fabliau-writer. At the other
end of Europe the prose novels of Boccaccio and other Italian
tale-tellers are largely based upon fabliaux. But their influence
in their own country was the greatest. They were the first
expression of the spirit which has since animated the most
national and popular developments of French literature. Simple
and unpretending as they are in form, the fabliaux ^""ffffiyr
not merely the Cent Nouvelles Nouvelles and the Heptamerom,
L'Avocat PaUlin, and Ponia gruel, but also L' A pare and the
Roman comique, Gil Bias and Candida, They indeed do more
than merely prophesy the spirit of these great performances
—they directly lead to them. The prose-tale and the farce are
the direct outcomes of the fabliau, and the prose-tale and the
farce once given, the novel and the comedy inevitably follow.
The special period of fabliau composition appears to have been
the rath and 13th centuries. ' It signifies on the one side the
growth of a lighter and more sportive spirit than had j*^
yet prevailed, on another the rise in importance of saw*
other and lower orders of men than the priest and the f*S*
noble, on yet another the consciousness on the part
of these lower orders of the defects of the two privileged «
and of the shortcomings of the system of polity tin '
these privileged classes enjoyed their privileges. There is, how-
ever, in the fabliau proper not so very much of direct satire, Urn
being indeed excluded by the definition given above, and by the
thoroughly artistic spirit in which that definition is observed.
The fabliaux are so numerous and so various that ft is difficmU
to select any as specially representative. We may, however,
mention, both as good examples and as interesting from their
subsequent history, Le Vair Paljroi, treated in F " g l; * h by Leigh
Hunt and by Peacock; Le VUain Mire, the original consciously
or unconsciously followed in Le Medeein malgr4 Im; La Rm
d'Angleterre et le jongleur d'£li; La kouce partie; U Sat Cuemdm,
an indecorous but extremely amusing story; Let deux bardems
ribaus, a dialogue between two jongleurs of great literary interest,
containing allusions to the chansons de geste and romances saox
in vogue; and Le vilain qui conquisi paradis far plait, one of the
numerous instances of what has unnecessarily puzzled modern,
the association in medieval times of sincere and unfeigned faith
with extremely free handling of its objects. This lightheartcd-
ness in other subjects sometimes bubbled over into the /straw,
an almost pure nonsense-piece, parent of the later ompkiganri,
Roman de Renart.— If the fabliaux are not remarkable for
direct satire, that element is supplied in more than compensat-
ing quantity by an extraordinary composition which is closely
related to them. Le Roman de Renart, or History of Reynard Ik
Fox, is a poem, or rather series of poems, which, from the end of
the 12th to the middle of the 14th century, served the ckiteo
poets of northern France, not merely as an outlet for literary
expression, but also as a vehicle of satirical comment, — now 00
the general vices and weaknesses of humanity, now on the usual
corruption* la church and state, now on the various historical
KAKLV LVKIQ
FRENCH LITERATURE
"5
events which occupied public attention from tine to time. The
enormous popularity of the subject is shown by the long vogue
which it had, and by the empire which it exercised over genera-
tions of writers who differed from each other widely in style and
temper. Nothing can be farther from the allegorical erudition,
Che political diatribes and the sermonising moralities of the
authors of Reuari le Centre-fail than the sly naivete 1 of the writers
of the earlier branches. Yet these and a long and unknown
series of intermediate bards the fox-king pressed into his service,
and it is scarcely too much to say that, during the two centuries
of his reign, there was hardly a thought in the popular mind
which, as it rose to the surface, did not find expression in an
addition to the huge cycle of Renart.
We shall not deal with the controversies which have been
raised as to the origin of the poem and its central idea. The
latter may have been a travestie of real persons and actual
events, or it may (and much more probably) have been an
expression of thoughts and experiences which recur in every
generation. France, the Netherlands and Germany have
contended for the honour of producing Renart; French, Flemish,
German and Latin for the honour of first describing him. It is
sufficient to say that the spirit of the work seems to be more
that of the borderland between France and Flanders than of any
other district, and that, wherever the idea may have originally
arisen, it was incomparably more fruitful in France than in
any other country. The French poems which we possess on the
subject amount in all to nearly 100,000 lines, independently
of mere variations, but including the different versions of Renart
le Centre-fail. This vast total is divided into four different
poems The most ancient and remarkable is that edited by
If eon under the title of Roman du Renart, and containing, with
tome additions made by M. Chabaille, 37 branches and about
32,000 lines. It must not, however, be supposed that this total
forms a continuous poem Like the Aeneid or Paradise Lost.. Part
was pretty certainly written by Pierre de Saint-Cloud, but he
was not the author of the whole. On the contrary, the separate
branches are the work of different authors, hardly any of whom
are known, and, but for their community of subject and to some
extent of treatment, might be regarded as separate poems.
The history of Renart, his victories over Isengrim, the wolf,
Brain, the bear, and his other unfortunate rivals, his family
affection, his outwitting* of King Noble the Lion and all the
rest, are too well known to need fresh description here. It is
perhaps in the subsequent poems, though they are far less known
sad much less amusing, that the hold which the idea of Renart
had obtained on the mind of northern France, and the ingenious
uses to whkh it was put, are best shown. The first of these
s> be Courcnnetnenl Renart, a poem of between 3000 and 4000
Sues, attributed, on no grounds whatever, to the poetess Marie
de France, and describing how the hero by his ingenuity got
himself crowned king. This poem already shows signs of direct
moral application and generalizing. These are still more apparent
hi Renart It Nouvd, a composition of some 8000 lines, finished
in the year 1288 by the Fleming Jacquemart Gielee. Here the
personification, of which, in noticing the Roman de la rose, we
shall soon have to give extended mention, becomes evident.
Instead of or at least beside the lively personal Renart who
used to steal sausages, set Isengrim fishing with his tail, or make
ate of Chanticleer's comb for a purpose for which it was certainly
never intended, we have Renardie, an abstraction of guile and
hypocrisy, triumphantly prevailing over other and better
qualities. Lastly, as the Roman de la rose of William of Lorris
is paralleled by Renart le Nouvel, so its continuation by Jean de
Meting ** paralleled by the great miscellany of Renart le Contre-
feM, which, even in its existing versions, extends to fully 50,000
fines. Here we have, besides floods of miscellaneous erudition
and discourse, political argument of the most direct and im-
portant kind. The wrongs of the lower orders are bitterly urged.
They are almost openly incited to revolt; and it is scarcely too
ouch to say, as M. Lenient has said, that the closely following
Jacquerie is but a practical carrying out of the doctrines of the
anonymous satirists of Renart k Cmtn-JaiS, one 0/ whom (if
indeed there was more than one) appears to have been a clerk
of Troves.
Early Lyric Poetry.— Side by side with these two forms of
literature, the epics and romances of the higher classes, and the
fabliau, which, at least in its original, represented rather the
feelings of the lower, there grew up a third kind, consisting of
purely lyrical poetry. The song literature of medieval France
is extremely abundant and beautiful. From the 12th to the
15th century it received constant accessions, some signed, some
anonymous, some purely popular in their character, some the
work of more learned writers, others again produced by members
of the aristocracy. Of the latter class it may fairly be said that
the catalogue of royal and noble authors boasts few if any names
superior to those of Thibaut de Champagne, king of Navarre
at the beginning of the 13th century, and Charles d'Orleans, the
father of Louis XII., at the beginning of the 15th. Although
much of this lyric poetry Is anonymous, the more popular part
of it almost entirely so, yet M. Paulin Paris was able to enumerate
some hundreds of French chansonniers between the nth and the
13th century. The earliest song literature, chiefly known in the
delightful collection of Bartsch {Altframosiscke Romansen und
Pastourellen), is mainly sentimental in character. The collector
divides it under the two heads of romances and pastourelles,
the former being usually the celebration of the loves of a noble
knight and maiden, and recounting how Belle Doette or Eglantine
or Oriour sat at her windows or in the tourney gallery, or em-
broidering silk and samite in her chamber, with her thoughts
on Gerard or Guy or Henry,— the latter somewhat monotonous
but narve and often picturesque recitals, very often in the first
person, of the meeting of an errant knight or minstrel with a
shepherdess, and his cavalier but not always successful wooing.
With these, some of which date from the 12th century, may be
contrasted, at the other end of the medieval period, the more
varied and popular collection dating in their present form from
the 15th century, and published in 1875 by M. Gaston Paris.
In both alike, making allowance for the difference of their age
and the state of the language, may be noticed a charming lyrical
faculty and great skill in the elaboration of light and suitable
metres. Especially remarkable is the abundance of refrains of
an admirably melodious kind. It is said that more than 500 of
these exist. Among the lyric writers of these four centuries
whose names are known may be mentioned Audefroi le Bastard
(1 ath century), the author of the charming song of Belle
Idoine, and others no way inf erior,Quesnes de Bethune, i^JSartL
the ancestor of Sully, whose song-writing inclines
to a satirical cast in many instances, the Vidame de Chartres,
Charles d'Anjou, King John of Bricnne, the chitelain de Coucy,
Gace Brusle, Colin Muset, while not a few writers mentioned
elsewhere— Guyot de Provins, Adam de la Halle, Jean Bodd
and others — were also lyrists. But none of them, except perhaps
Audefroi, can compare with Thibaut IV. (1201-1253),
who united by his possessions and ancestry a connexion JJJj**
with the north and the south, and who employed the psgm.
methods of both districts but used the language of the
north only. Thibaut was supposed to be the lover of Blanche
of Castile, the mother of St Louis, and a great deal of his verse
is concerned with his love for her. But while knights and nobles
were thus employing lyric poetry in courtly and sentimental
verse, lyric forms were being freely employed by others, both of
high and low birth, for more general purposes. Blanche and
Thibaut themselves came in for contemporary lampoons, and both
at this time and in the times immediately following, a cloud of
writers composed light verse, sometimes of a lyric sometimes of a
narrative kind, and sometimes in a mixture of both. By far the
most remarkable of these is Rutebceuf (a name which -^^^
is perhaps a nickname), the first of a long series of
French poets to whom in recent days the title Bohemian has
been applied, who passed their lives between gaiety and misery,
and celebrated their lot in both conditions with copious verse.
Rutebceuf is among the earliest French writers who tell us their
personal history and make oecvmal vpojetV*. 'rtaxVttaR&x**.
confine himseU lo Omss*. rU oi«cos**i>taYfcftAT<s *\\ae>>&sM*
nb
FRENCH LITERATURE [satiric and jmmcxk
Upbraids the nobles for their desertion of the Latin empire of
Constantinople, considers the expediency of crusading, inveighs
against the religious orders, and takes part in the disputes
between the pope and the king. lie composes pious poetry too,
and in at least one poem takes care to distinguish between the
church which he venerates and the corrupt churchmen whom
he lampoons. Besides Rutcboeuf the most characteristic figure
of his class and time (about the middle of the 13th century) is
Adam de la Halle, commonly called the Hunchback
2»Hm£ °* Arras. The earlier poems of Adam are of a senti-
mental character, the later ones satirical and somewhat
ill-tempered. Such, for instance, is his invective against his
native city. But his chief importance consists in his jeux, the
Jen de iafeuillie, the Jeu de Robin et Marion, dramatic composi-
tions which led the way to the regular dramatic form. Indeed
the general tendency of the 13th century is to satire, fable and
farce, even more than to serious or sentimental poetry. We
fjfc _ should perhaps except the his, the chief of which
are known under the name of Marie de France. These
lays arc exclusively Breton in origin, though not in application,
and the term seems originally to have had reference rather to
the music to which they were sung than to the manner or matter
of the pieces. Some resemblance to these lays may perhaps be
traced in the genuine Breton songs published by M. Luzel. The
subjects of the lais are indifferently taken from the Arthurian
cycle, from ancient story, and from popular tradition, and, at
any rate in Marie's hands, they give occasion for some passionate,
and in the modern sense really romantic, poetry. The most
famous of all is the Lay of the Honeysuckle, traditionally assigned
to Sir Tristram.
Satiric and Didactic Works. — Among the direct satirists of
the middle ages, one of the earliest and foremost is Guyot de
Provins, a monk of Clairvaux and Cluny, whose Bible, as he calls
it, contains an elaborate satire on the time (the beginning of the
13th century), and who was imitated by others, especially
Huguesde Br6gy. The same spirit soon betrayed itself in curious
travesties of the romances of chivalry, and sometimes invades
the later specimens of these romances themselves. One of the
earliest examples of this travesty is the remarkable composition
entitled A udigier. This poem, half fabliau and half romance, is
not so much an instance of the heroi-coraic poems which after-
wards found so much favour in Italy and elsewhere, as a direct
and ferocious parody of the Carlovingian epic. The hero Audigier
is a model of cowardice and disloyalty, his father and mother,
Turgibus and Rainberge, are deformed and repulsive. The
exploits of the hero himself are coarse and hideous failures, and
the whole poem can only be taken as a counterblast to the spirit
of chivalry. Elsewhere a trouverc, prophetic of Rabelais,
describes a vast battle between all the nations of the world,
the quarrel being suddenly atoned by the arrival of a holy man
Rearing a huge flagon of wine. Again, we have the history of a
solemn crusade undertaken by the citizens of a country town
against the neighbouring castle. As erudition and the fancy for
allegory gained ground, satire naturally availed itself of the
opportunity thus afforded it; the disputes of Philippe le Bel
with the pope and the Templars had an immense literary
influence, partly in the concluding portions of the Renart, partly
in the Roman de la rose, still to be mentioned, and partly in other
satiric allegories of which the chief is the romance of Fauvcl,
attributed to Francois de Rues. The hero of this is an allegorical
personage, half man and half horse, signifying the union of bestial
degradation with human ingenuity and cunning. Fauvel (the
name, it may be worth while to recall, occurs in Langland) is
a divinity in his way. All the personages of state, from kings and
popes to mendicant friars, pay their court to him.
But this serious and discontented spirit betrays itself also
in compositions which are not parodies or travesties in form.
One of the latest, if not absolutely the latest (for
Cuvelier's still later Chroniquc de DuGuesdini$on\ya.
most interesting imitation of the chanson form adapted
to recent events), of the chansons de geste is Baudonin
deS&mrt, one of the- members of the great romance or cyck ol
romances dealing with the crusades, end entitled Le Chevalier as
Cygne. Baudouin de Stbourc dates from the early years of the
14th century. It is strictly a chanson de geste in form, and ako
in the general run of its incidents. The hero is dispossesses of
his inheritance by the agency of traitors, fights his battle with
the world and its injustice, and at last prevails over his enemy
Gaufrois, who has succeeded in obtaining the kingdom of Fries*
land and almost that of France. Gaufrois has as bis assisUnu
two personages who were very popular in the poetry of the
time, — via^ the Devil, and Money, These two sinister figures
pervade the fabliaux, tales and fantastic literature generally
of the time. M. Lenient, the historian of French satire, has weO
remarked that a romance as long as the Renort might be soon out
of the separate short poems of this period which have the Devil
for hero, and many of which form a very interesting transition
between the fabliau and the mystery. But the Devil is in one
respect a far inferior hero to Renart. He has an adversary in the
Virgin, who constantly upsets his best-laid schemes, and who
docs not always treat him quite fairly. The abuse of usury at
the time, and the exactions of the Jews and Lombards, were
severely felt, and Money itself, as personified, figures largely is
the popular literature of the time.
Roman de ia Rose. — A work of very different importance from
all of these, though with seeming touches of the same spirit,
a work which deserves to take rank among the most
important of the middle ages, is the Roman de la rose,
— one of the few really remarkable books which is
the work of two authors, and that not in collaboration but in
continuation one of the other. The author of the earlier part was
Guillaume de Lorris,who lived in the first half of the 13th century;
the author of the later part was Jean de Meung, who was bora
about the middle of that century, and whose part in the Roman
dates at least from its extreme end. This great poem exhibit* ia
its two parts very different characteristics, which yet go to make
up a not inharmonious whole. It is a love poem, and yet it is
satire. But both gallantry and raillery are treated in an entirely
allegorical spirit; and this allegory, while it makes the poem
tedious to hasty appetites of to-day, was exactly what gave it
its charm in the eyes of the middle ages. It might be described
as an Ars amoris crossed with a Quodlibeta. This mixture
exactly hit the taste of the time, and continued to hit it for two
centuries and a half. When its obvious and gallant meaning was
attacked by moralists and theologians, it was easy to quote the
example of the Canticles, and to furnish esoteric explanations of
the allegory. The writers of the x6th century were never tired
of quoting and explaining it. Antoine de Baif , indeed, gave the
simple and obvious meaning, and declared that " La rose e'est
d'amours le guerdon gracieux "; but Marot, on the other hand,
gives us the choice of four mystical interpretations, — the rose
being either the state of wisdom, the state of grace, the state of
eternal happiness or the Virgin herself. We cannot here analyse
this celebrated poem. It is sufficient to say that the lover meets
all sorts of obstacles in his pursuit of the rose* thongh he has for
a guide the metaphorical personage Bel-AccueiL The early part,
which belongs to William of Lorris, is remarkable for its gracious
and fanciful descriptions. Forty years after Lorris 's
death, Jean de Meung completed it in an entirely
different spirit. He keeps the allegorical form, and
indeed introduces two new personages of importance, Nature and
Faux-semblant. In the mouths of these personages and of
another, Raison, he puts the most extraordinary mixture of
erudition and satire. At one time we have the history of classical
heroes, at another theories against the hoarding of money, about
astronomy, about the duty of mankind to increase and multiply.
Accounts of the origin of loyalty, which would have cost the poet
his head at some periods of history, and even communistic ideas,
arc also to be found here. In Faux-semblant we have a real
creation of the theatrical hypocrite. All this miscellaneous
and apparently incongruous material in fact explains the success
of the poem. It has the one characteristic which has at all times
secured the popularity of great works of literature. It holds
ibemu^otupnimiyasidluu^rUjiuage. As we find in Rabelais
UtLY DRAMA]
FRENCH LITERATURE
"7
ie characteristic* of' the Renaissance, in Montaigne those of
e sceptical reaction from Renaissance and reform alike, in
[aliere those of the society of France after Richelieu had tamed
id levelled it, in Voltaire and Rousseau respectively the two
pects of the great revolt,— so there are to be found in the Roman
latest the characteristics of the later middle age, its gallantry,
i mysticism, its economical and social troubles and problems,
i scholastic methods of thought, its naive acceptance as science
everything that is written, and at the same time its shrewd
id indisc rimin a t e criticism of much that the age of criticism
is accepted without doubt or question. The Roman de la rose,
• might be supposed, set the example of an immense literature of
legorical poetry, which flourished more and more until the
mama nee. Some of these poems we have already mentioned,-
one will have to be considered under the head of the 15th
stturv. But, as usually happens in such cases and was certain
1 happen in this case, the allegory which has seemed tedious to
any, even in the original, became almost intolerable in the
ajority of the imitations.
We have observed that, at least in the later section of the
idela rose, there is observable a tendency to import into
the poem indiscriminate erudition. This tendency is
now remote from our poetical habits; but in its own
day it was only the natural result of the use of poetry
for all literary purposes. It was many centuries
sfore prose became recognised as the proper vehicle for instroc-
on, and at a very early date verse was used as well for educa-
ooal and moral as for recreative and artistic purposes. French
as* was the first born of all literary mediums in modern Euro-
•an speech, and the resources of ancient learning were certainly
* less accessible in France than in any other country. Dante,
1 his De ndgari cloquio, acknowledges the excellence of the
idactic writers of the Langue d'OiL We have already alluded
> the Bestiary of Philippe de Thaun, a Norman trouvdre who
ved and wrote in England during the reign of Henry Bcaudcrc.
esides the Bestiary, which from its dedication to Queen Adela
ss been conjectured to belong to the third decade of the 12th
»tury, Philippe wrote also in French a Liber de creaturis, both
erks being translated from the Latin. These works of mystical
nd apocryphal physics and zoology became extremely popular
1 the succeeding centuries, and were frequently imitated.
i moralizing turn was also given to them, which was much
dped by the importation of several miscellanies of Oriental
riajn, partly tales, partly didactic in character, the most celc-
rated of which is the Roman des sept sages, which, under that
itle and the variant of Dolopalhos, received repeated treatment
com. French writers both in prose and verse. The odd notion
{ an Ovide moralist used to be ascribed to Philippe de Vitry,
tshop of Meaux (1 291 ^1391?), a person complimented by
etrarch, but is now assigned to a certain Chretien Legonais.
ut, too, soon demanded exposition in verse, as well as science,
lie favourite pastime of the chase was repeatedly dealt with,
otably in the Rot Modus (1325), mixed prose and verse; the
Teiuits de la chasse (1387), of Gaston dc Foix, prose; and the
Preset de Venerie of Hardouin (1304), verse. Very soon didactic
trse extended itself to all the arts and sciences. Vegetius and
is military precepts had found a home in French octosyllables
s early as the 12th century; the end of the same age saw the
ercmonies of knighthood solemnly versified, and napes (maps)
!» mande also soon appeared. At last, in 1 245, Gautier of Metz
ranslated from various Latin works into French verse a sort
if encyclopaedia, while another, incongruous but known as
VI magi du monde, exists from the same century. Profane
taowledge was not the only subject which exercised didactic
nets at this time. Religious handbooks and commentaries on
he scriptures were common in the 13th and following centuries,
ud, under the title of Casloiements, Enseignements and Doetri-
\omx, moral treatises became common. The most famous of
hese, the Castoiement d y un pcre a sonJUs, falls under the class,
dready mentioned, of works due to oriental influence, being
terived from the Indian Panchaiairtra. In the 14th century the
auuence of the Roman de la rose helped to render moral verse
frequent and popular. The same century, moreover, which
witnessed these developments of well-intentioned if not always
judicious erudition witnessed alsoaconsiderable change
in lyrical poetry. Hitherto such poetry had chiefly ijfl? ^
been composed in (he melodious but unconstrained ytrJL
forms of the romance and the pastourelle. In the
14th century the writers of northern France subjected themselves
to severer rules. In this age arose the forms which for so long
a time were to occupy French singers,— the ballade, the rondeau,
the rondel, the triolet, the chant royal and others. These
received considerable alterations as time went on. We possess
not a few Artes poUicae, such as that of Eustache Deschamps
at the end of the 14th century, -that formerly ascribed to Henri
de Croy and now to Molinet at the end of the 15th, and that
of Thomas Sibilet in the 16th, giving particulars of them, and
these particulars show considerable changes. Thus the term
rondeau, which since Villon has been chiefly limited to a poem of
IS lines, where the oth and x 5th repeat the first words of the first,
was originally applied both to the rondel, a poem of 13 or 14
lines, where the first two are twice repeated integrally, and to the
triolet, one of 8 only, where the first line occurs three times
and the second twice. The last is an especially popular metre,
and is found where we should least expect it, in the dialogue
of the early farces, the speakers making up triolets between them.
As these three forms are closely connected, so are the ballade
and the chant royal, the latter being an extended and more
stately and difficult version of the former, and the characteristic
of both being the identity of rhyme and refrain in the several
stanzas. It is quite uncertain at what time these fashions were
first cultivated, but the earliest poets who appear to have prac-
tised them extensively were born at the close of the 13th and the
beginning of the 14th centuries. Of these Guillaume de Machault
(c. 1300-1380) is the oldest. He has left us 80,000 verses,
never yet completely printed. Eustache Deschamps (c. 1340-
c. 14x0) was nearly as prolific, but more fortunate as more
meritorious, the Societedes anciens Textes having at last provided
a complete edition of him. Froissart the historian (1333-14x0)
was also an. agreeable and prolific poet. Deschamps, the most
famous as a poet of the three, has left us nearly 1200 ballades
and nearly 900 rondeaux, besides much other verse all manifest-
ing very considerable poetical powers. Less known but not less
noteworthy, and perhaps the earliest of all, is Jehannot de Lescure),
whose personality is obscure, and most of whose works are lost,
but whose remains are full of grace. Froissart appears to have
had many countrymen in Hainault and Brabant who devoted
themselves to the art of versification; and the Liwre des cent
ballades of the Marshal Boucicauk (1366-142 1) and his friends —
c. 1300— shows that the French gentleman of the 14th century
was as apt at the ballade as his Elizabethan peer in England
was at the sonnet.
Early Drama. — Before passing to the prose writers of the
middle ages, we have to take some notice of the dramatic
productions of those times— productions of an ex-
tremely interesting character, but, like the immense 4f«*vstt
majority of medieval literature, poetic in form. The tntac**.
origin or the revival of dramatic composition in France
has been hotly debated, and it has been sometimes contended
that the tradition of Latin comedy was never entirely lost, but
was handed on chiefly in the convents by adaptations of the
Terentian plays, such as those of the nun Hroswitha. There
is no doubt that the mysteries (subjects taken from the sacred
writings) and miracle plays (subjects taken from the legends of
the saints and the Virgin) are of very early date. The mystery
of the Foolish Virgins (partly French, partly Latin), that of
Adam and perhaps that of Daniel, are of the 12th century,
though due to unknown authors. Jean Bodcl and Ruteboeuf,
already mentioned, gave, the- one that of Saint Nicolas at the
confines of the 12th and 13th, the other that of Tktopkile later
in the 13th itself. But the later moralities, soties, and farces
•seem to be also in part a very probable development of the
simpler and earlier forms of the fabliau and of the tenson or leu-
parti, a poem in simple, aiifofpit iiro&'nsie&Y^Xtf^xxw^^aiaxfc
n8
FRENCH LITERATURE
Ifsoss momr
and trouveres. The fabliau has been sufficiently dealt with
already. It chiefly supplied the subject; and some miracle-
plays and farces are little more than fabliaux thrown into
dialogue. Of the jeux-partis there are many examples, varying
from very simple questions and answers to something like regular
dramatic dialogue; even short romances, such as Aucassin el
NicoUlte, were easily susceptible of dramatization. But the
Jeu delafeuiUie (& JemilUe) of Adam de la Halle seems to be
the earliest piece, profane in subject, containing something more
than mere dialogue. The poet has not indeed gone far for his
subject, for he brings in his own wife, father and friends, the
interest being complicated by the introduction of stock characters
(the doctor, the monk, the fool), and of certainfairies— personages
already popular from the later romances of chivalry. Another
piece of Adam's, Le Jeu de Robin et Marten, also already alluded
to, is little more than a simple throwing into action of an ordinary
pastoureUe with a considerable number of songs to music Never-
theless later criticism has seen, and not unreasonably, in these
two pieces the origin in the one case of farce, and thus indirectly
of comedy proper, in the other of comic opera.
For a long time, however, the mystery and miracle-plays
remained the staple of theatrical performance, and until the
13th century actors as well as performers were more or less taken
from the clergy. It has, indeed, been well pointed out that the
offices of the church were themselves dramatic performances,
and required little more than development at the hands of the
mystery writers. The occasional festive outbursts, such as the
Feast of Fools, that of the Boy Bishop and the rest, helped on
the development. The variety of mysteries and miracles was
very great. A single manuscript contains forty miracles of the
Virgin, averaging from 1200 to 1500 lines each, written in octo-
syllabic couplets, and at least as old as the 14th century, most
of them perhaps much earlier. The mysteries proper, or plays
uken from the scriptures, are older stilt Many of these are
exceedingly long. There is a Mystere de VAncien Testament,
which extends to many volumes, and must have taken weeks
to act in its entirety. The Mystere de la Passion, though not
quite so long, took several days, and recounts the whole history
of the gospels. The best apparently of the authors of these
pieces, which are mostly anonymous, were two brothers, Arnoul
and Simon Grehan (authors of the Actes des ap&tres, and in the
first case of the Passion), c. 1450, while a certain Jean Michel
(d. 1493) is credited with having continued the Passion from
30,000 lines to 50,000. But these performances, though they
held their ground until the middle of the 16th century and
extended their range of subject from sacred to profane history —
legendary as in the Destruction de Troie, contemporary as in the
p^^^ Siege d'OrUans—mxt soon rivalled by the more profane
c rmmSm performances of the moralities, the farces and the
soties. The palmy time of all these three kinds is
the 15th century, while the Confrerie de la Passion itself, the
special performers of the sacred drama, only obtained the licence
constituting it by an ordinance of Charles VI. in 1402. In order,
however, to take in the whole of the medieval theatre at a glance,
we may anticipate a little. The Confraternity was not itself
the author or performer of the prof aner kind of dramatic perform-
ance. This latter was due to two other bodies, the clerks of the
Bazoche and the Enfans sans Soud. As the Confraternity was
chiefly composed of tradesmen and persons very similar to Peter
Quince and his associates, so the clerks of the Bazoche were
members of the legal profession of Paris, and the Enfans sans
Soud were mostly young men of family. The morality was the
special property of the first, the sotie of the second. But as the
moralities were sometimes decidedly tedious plays, though by
no means brief, they were varied by the introduction of farces,
of which the jeux already mentioned were the early germ, and of
which L'Avocat PatoUn, dated by some about 1465 and certainly
about aoo years subsequent to Adam de la Halle, is the most
famous example.
The morality was the natural result on the stage of the immense
literary popularity of allegory in the Roman de la rose and its
imitsuaoa. There is hardly an abstraction, a virtue, a vice, a
disease, or anything else of the kind, which does not figure ia
these compositions. There is Bien Advise and Mai Advise, the
good boy and the bad boy of nursery stories, who fall jMig— ^^
in respectively with Faith, Reason and Humility, and
with Rashness, Luxury and Folly. There is the hero Mange-
Tout, who is invited to dinner by Banquet, and meets ana
dinner very unpleasant company in Colique, Goutte and Hydre-
pisie. Hbnte-de-dire-ses-Peches might seem an anti ci pa t ion of
Puritan nomenclature to an English reader who did not re-
member the contemporary or even earlier personae of Langhnd'a
poem. Some of these moralities possess distinct dramatic merit;
among these is mentioned Its Blospkimateurs, an early and re*
markable presentation of the Don Juan story. But their general
character appears to be gravity, not to say dullness. The Enfant
sans Souci, on the other hand, were definitely aafiriral, and
nothing if not amusing. The chief of the society was entitled
Prince des Sots, and his crown was a hood decorated „ a
-with asses' ears. The sotie was directly satirical, and
only assumed the guise of folly as a stalking-borse for shooting
wit. It was more Aristophanic than any other modem form of
comedy, and like its predecessor, it perished as a result of us
political application. Encouraged for a moment as a political
engine at the beginning of the 16th century, it was soon absolutely
forbidden and put down, and had to give place in one direction
to the lampoon and the prose pamphlet, in another to forms of
comic satire more general and vague in their scope. The farce,
on the other hand, having neither moral purpose nor political
intention, was a purer work of art, enjoyed a wider range of sub-
ject, and was in no danger of any permanent extinction. Farcical
interludes were interpolated in the mysteries themselves; short
farces introduced and rendered palatable the moralities, while
the sotie was itself but a variety of farce, and all the kinds were
sometimes combined in a sort of tetralogy. It was a short
composition, 500 verses being considered sufficient, while the
morality might run to at least xooo verses, the miracle-play to
nearly double that number, and the mystery to some 40*000 or
50,000, or indeed to any length that the author could find ia Us
heart to bestow upon the audience, or the audience In their
patience to suffer from the author. The number of persons and
societies who acted these performances grew to be very large,
being estimated at more than 5000 towards the end of the 15th
century. Many f a nt ast i c personages came to join the Prince da
Sots, such as the Empereur de Galilee, the Princes de r&zffle,
and des Nouveaux Maries, the Roi de ffipinette, the Recteur
des Fous. Of the pieces which these societies represented one
only, that of Mattre Patdin, is now much known; but 1
are almost equally amusing. Patdin itself has an
number of versions and editions. Other farces are too 1
to attempt to classify; they bear, however, in their subjects,
as in their manner, a remarkable resemblance to the fabhau,
their source. Conjugal disagreements, the unpleasantness of
mothers-in-law, the shifty or, in the earlier stages, clumsy valet
and chambermaid, the mishaps of too loosely given ecclesiastics,
the abuses of relics and pardons, the extortion, violence, and
sometimes cowardice of the seigneur and the soldiery, the cor-
ruption of justice, its delays and its pompous apparatus, supply
the subjects. The treatment is rather narrative than dramatic
in most cases, as might be expected, but makes up by the liveli-
ness of the dialogue for the deficiency of elaborately planned
action and interest. All these forms, it will be observed, are
directly or indirectly comic. Tragedy in the middle ages is
represented only by the religious drama, except for a brief period
towards the decline of that form, when the " profane " mysteries
referred to above came to be represented. These were, however,
rather "histories," in the Elizabethan sense, than tragedies
proper.
Prose History.— In France, as- In all other countries of whose
literary developments we have any record, literature in prose
is considerably later than literature in verse. We have
certain glosses or vocabularies possibly dating as far cSnmtkt.
back as the 8th or even the 7th century; we have the
Stsassburg oaths, akeedy described, of the oth.and.a commentary
tJTft CENTURY]
FRENCH LITERATURE
"9
on the prophet Jonas which fa probably as early. In the xoth
century there are some charters and muniments In the verna-
cular; of the nth the laws of William the Conqueror are the
most important document; while the Assises de Jerusalem of
Godfrey of Bouillon date, though not in the form in which we now
possess them, from the same age. The 12th century gives us
certain translations of the Scriptures, and the remarkable
Arthurian romances already alluded to; and thenceforward
French prose, though long less favoured than verse, begins to
grow in importance. History, as is natural, was the first subject
which gave it a really satisfactory opportunity of developing its
powers. For a time the French chroniclers contented themselves
with Latin prose or with French verse, after the fashion of Wace
and the Belgian, Philippe Mouskes ( 1 3 r 5-1 283). These, after a
fashion universal in medieval times, began from fabulous or
merely literary origins, and just as Wyntoun later carries back
the history of Scotland to the terrestrial paradise, so does
Mouskes start that of France from the rape of Helen. But soon
prose chronicles, first translated, then original, became common;
the earliest of all is said to have been that of the pseudo-Turpin,
which thus recovered in prose the language which had originally
clothed it in verse, and which, to gain a false appearance of
authenticity, it had exchanged still earlier for Latin. Then came
French selections and versions from the great series of historical
compositions undertaken by the monks of St Denys, the so-called
Grandes Chroniques de France from the date of 1274, when they
first took form in the hands of a monk styled Primat, to the reign
of Charles V., when they assumed the title just given. But the
first really remarkable author who used French prose as a vehicle
of historical expression is Geoffroi de Villehardouin, marshal of
Champagne, who was born rather after the middle of the 12th
century, and died in Greece in 1 21 2. Under the title of ConquHe
de ConstantinoUe Villehardouin has left us a history
l^,^ of the fourth crusade, which has been accepted by all
competent judges as the best picture extant of feudal
chivalry in its prime. The ConquHe de Constantinople has been
well called a chanson de geste in prose, and indeed in the sur-
prising nature of the feats it celebrates, in the abundance of detail,
and in the vivid and picturesque poetry of the narration, it
equals the very best of- the chansons. Even the repetition of
the same phrases which is characteristic of epic poetry repeats
hself in this epic prose; and as in the chansons so in Villehardouin,
few motives appear but religious fervour and the love of fighting,
though neither of these excludes a lively appetite for booty and
a constant tendency to disunion and disorder. Villehardouin
was continued by Henri de Valenciennes, whose work is less
remarkable, and has more the appearance of a rhymed chronicle
thrown into prose, a process which is known to have been
actually applied in some cases. Nor Is the transition from
Villehardouin to Jean de Joinville (considerable in point of time,
for Joinville was not born till ten years after Yillehardouin's
death) in point of literary history immediate. The rhymed
chronicles of Philippe Mouskes and Guillaume Guiart belong to
this interval; and in prose the most remarkable works are the
Ckronique de Reims, a well-written history, having the interesting
characteristics of taking the lay and popular side, and the great
compilation edited (in the modern sense) by Baudouin d'Avesnes
^^^■^ (12x3-1289). Joinville (? 1 224-13x7), whose special
*"••* subject is the Life of St Louis, is far more modern than
even the half-century which separates him from Villehardouin
would lead us to suppose, liicre is nothing of the knight-
errant about him personally, notwithstanding his devotion to his
hero. Our Lady of the Broken Lances is far from being his
favourite saint. He is an admirable writer, but far less simple
than Villehardouin; the good King Louis tries in vain to make
him share his own rather high-flown devotion. Joinville is shrewd,
practical, there is even a touch of the Voltaircan about him;
but he, unlike his predecessor, has political ideas and antiquarian
curiosity, and his descriptions are often very creditable pieces of
deliberate literature.
It is very remarkable that each of the three last centuries
o) feudalism should have had one specially and extraordinarily
gifted chronicler to describe it. What Villehardouin is to the
1 2th and Joinville to the 13th century, that Jean Froissart
0337-Uio) » to the 14th. His picture is the most -
famous as it fa the most varied of the three, but it has "•"■■*
special drawbacks as well as special merits. French critics have
indeed been scarcely fair to Froissart, because of his early
partiality to our own nation in the great quarrel of the time,
forgetting that there was really no reason why he as a Hainaulter
should take the French side. But there fa no doubt that if the
duty of an historian fa to take in all the political problems of
his time, Froissart certainly comes short of it. Although the
feudal state in which knights and churchmen were alone of
estimation was at the point of death, and though new orders of
society were becoming important, though the distress and
confusion of a transition state were evident to all, Froissart
takes no notice of them. Society is still to him all knights and
ladies, tournaments, skirmishes and feasts. He depicts these,
not like Joinville, still less like Villehardouin, as a sharer in them,
but with the facile and picturesque pen of a sympathizing literary
onlooker. As the comparison of the ConquHe de Constantinople
with a chanson de geste fa inevitable, so fa that of Frofasartt
Chronique with a roman d'aventures.
For Provencal Literature see the separate article under that
beading.
zpk Century.— The 15th century holds a peculiar and some-
what disputed position in the history of French literature, as,
indeed, it does in the history of the literature of all Europe,
except Italy. It has sometimes been regarded as the final stage
of the medieval period, sometimes as the earliest of the modern,
the influence of the Renaissance in Italy already filtering through.
Others again have taken the easy step of marking it as an age
of transition. There is as usual truth in all these views.
Feudality died with Froissart and Eustache Dcschamps. The
modern spirit can hardly be said to arise before Rabelais and
Ronsard. Yet the 15th century, from the point of view of
French literature, fa much more .remarkable than its historians
have been wont to confess. It has not the strongly marked and
compact originality of some periods, and it furnishes only one
name of the highest order of literary interest; but it abounds
in names of the second rank, and the very difference which
exists between their styles and characters testifies to the existence
of a large number of separate forces working in their different
manners on different persons. Its theatre we have already
treated by anticipation, and to it we shall afterwards recur. It
was the palmy time of the early French stage, and all the dramatic
styles which we have enumerated then came to perfection. Of
no other kind ot literature can the same be said. The century
which witnessed the invention of printing naturally devoted
itself at first more to the spreading of old literature than to the
production of new. Yet as it perfected the early drama, so it
produced the prose tale. Nor, as regards individual and single
names, can the century of Charles d'Orlcans, of Alain Chartier, of
Christine de Pisan, of Coquillart, of Cornines, and, above all, of
Villon, be said to lack illustrations.
First among the poets of the period falls to be mentioned the
shadowy personality of Olivier Bassclin. Modern criticism
has attacked the identity of the jovial miller, who
was once supposed to have written and perhaps JJJ
invented the songs called vaux de vire, and to have
also carried on a patriotic warfare against the English. But
though Jean le rToux may have written the poems published
under Basselin's name two centuries later, it is taken as certain
that an actual Olivier wrote actual vaux de vire at the beginning
of the i$th century. About Christine de Pisan (1363-1430) and
Alain Chartier (J392-C. 1430) there is no such doubt. Christine
was the daughter of an Italian astrologer who was patronized by
Charles V. She was born in Italy but brought up in France, and
she enriched the literature of her adopted country __
with much learning, good sense and patriotism. She
wrote history, devotional works and poetry; and
though her literary merit is not of the highest, it fa vtrj fatfaRb.
despicable. Alain Ctaxtoi » VsX Yaawu \& rotax*. ra&axsArt
120
the story of Margaret of Scotland's Kiss, was a writer of a some-
what similar character. In both Christine and Chartier there is
a great deal of rather heavy moralizing, and a great deal of rather
pedantic erudition. But it is only fair to remember that the
intolerable political and social evils of the day called for -a good
deal of moralizing, and that it was the function of the writers
of this time to fill up as well as they could the scantily filled
vessels of medieval science and learning. A very different
^ person is Charles d'Orlcans (1301-1465), one of the
Jjjj&ia. greatest of grands seigneurs, for he was the father
of a king of France, and heir to the duchies o£ Orleans
and Milan. Charles, indeed, if not a Roland or a Bayard, was an
admirable poet. He is the best-known and perhaps the best
writer of the graceful poems in which an artificial versification
is strictly observed, and helps by its recurrent lines and modulated
rhymes to give to poetry something of a musical accompaniment
even without the addition of music properly so called. His ballades
are certainly inferior to those of Villon, but his rondels are un-
equalled. For fully a century and a half these forms engrossed
the attention of French lyrical poets. Exercises in them were
produced in enormous numbers, and of an excellence which has
only recently obtained full recognition even in France. Charles
d'Orleans is himself sufficient proof of what can be done in them
in the way of elegance, sweetness, and grace which some have
unjustly called effeminacy. But that this effeminacy was no
natural or inevitable fault of the ballades and the rondeaux
was fully proved by the most remarkable literary figure of the
15th century in France. To Francois Villon (1431-1463 ?),
vaoMm as to other great single writers, no attempt can be
made to do justice in this place. His remarkable
life and character especially lie outside our subject. But he is
universally .recognized as the most important single figure of
French literature before the Renaissance. His work is very
strange in form, the undoubtedly genuine part of it consisting
merely of two compositions, known as the great and little
Testament, written in stanzas of eight lines of eight syllables
each, with lyrical compositions in ballade and rondeau form
interspersed. Nothing in old French literature can compare
with the best of these, such as the "Ballade des dames du
temps jadis," the " Ballade pour sa mire," " La Grosse Margot,"
" Les Regrets de la belle Heaulmiere," and others; while the
whole composition is full of poetical traits of the most extra-
ordinary vigour, picturesqueness and pathos. Towards the end
of the century the poetical production of the time became very
large. The artificial measures already alluded to, and others
far more artificial and infinitely less beautiful, were largely
practised. The typical poet of the end of the 15th century is
Guillaume Cr&in (d. 1525), who distinguished himself by writing
verses with punning rhymes, verses ending with double or treble
repetitionsof thesame sound, and many other tasteless absurdities,
in which, as Pasquier remarks, " il perdit toutc la grace et la
CriUUt liberte* de la composition." The other favourite
direction of the poetry of the time was a vein of
allegorical moralizing drawn from the Raman de la rose through
the medium of Chartier and Christine, which produced " Castles
of Love," " Temples of Honour,"and such like. The combination
of these drifts in verse-writing produced a school known in
literary history, from a happy phrase of the satirist Coquillart
(v.t w/.}, as the " GrandsRhe'toriqueurs." Thechief of these besides
Crltin were Jean Molinet (d. 1507); Jean Meschinot (c. 1420-
1491), author of the Lunettes des princes', Florimond Robertet
(d. 1522); Georges Chastcllain (1404-1475)1 to be mentioned
again; and Octavien de Saint-Gelais (1466-1502), father of a
better poet than himself. Yet some of the minor poets of the
time arc not to be despised. Such are Henri Baude ( 1430-1490) , a .
less pedantic writer than most, Martial d'Auvergne (1440-1508),
whose principal work is VAmant rendu cordelier au service de
Vamour, and others, many of whom formed part of the poetical
court which Charles d'Orleans kept up at Blois after his release.
While the serious poetry of the age took this turn, there was
no lack of lighter and satirical verse. Villon, indeed, were it
not Jar the depth and pathos of his poetical sentiment, might
FRENCH LITERATURE
(ignrCENTURY
be claimed as a poet of the lighter order, and the patriotic
diatribes against the English to which we have alluded easily
passed into satire. The political quarrels of the latter part of
the century also provoked much satirical composition. The
disputes of the Bien Public and those between Louis XL and
Charles of Burgundy employed many pens. The most remark-
able piece of the light literature of the first is " Les Anes Volants,"
a ballad on some of the early favourites of Louis. The battles
of France and Burgundy were waged on paper between Gilts
des Ormes and the above-named Georges Chattels in, typical
representatives of the two styles of 15th-century poetry already
alluded to— Des Ormes being the lighter and more graceful
writer, Chastelain a pompous and learned aUegorist, The most
remarkable representative of purely light poetry outside the
theatre is Guillaume Coquillart (1421-1510), a lawyer ca^
of Champagne, who resided for the greater part of his 2*
life in Reims. This city, like others, suffered from the
pitiless tyranny of Louis XI. The beginnings of the standing
army which Charles VII. had started were extremely unpopular,
and the use to which his son put them by no means removed
this unpopularity. Coquillart described the military man of the
period in his Monologue du gendarme cassS. Again, when the
king entertained the idea of unifying the taxes and laws of the
different provinces, Coquillart, who was named commissioner for
this purpose, wrote on the occasion a satire called La Droits
nouvcaux. A certain kind of satire, much less good-tempered
than the earlier forms, became indeed common at this epoch.
M. Lenient has well pointed out that a new satirical personifica-
tion dominates this literature. It is no longer Renart with ha
cynical gaiety, or the curiously travestied and almost amiable
Devil of the Middle Ages. Now it is Death as an incident ever
present to the imagination, celebrated in the thousand repetitions
of the Danse Macabre, sculptured all over the buildings of the
time, even frequently performed on holidays and in public With
the usual tendency to follow pattern, the idea of the " dance ■
seems to have been extended, and we have a Dansi amx aweugla
(1464) from Pierre Michaut, where the teachers are fortune,
love and death, all blind. All through the century, too, anony-
mous verse of the lighter kind was written, some of it of great
merit.. The folk-songs already alluded to, published by Gaston
Paris, show one side of this composition, and many of the pieces
contained In M. de Montaiglon's extensive Recucil des anciennes
poisies JranQaises exhibit others.
The 1 5th century was perhaps more remarkable for its achieve-
ments in prose than in poetry. It produced, indeed, no prose
writer of great distinction, except Comines; but it witnessed
serious, if not extremely successful, efforts at prose composition.
The invention of printing finally substituted the reader for the
listener, and when this substitution has been effected, the main
inducement to treat unsuitable subjects in verse is gone. The
study of the classics at first hand contributed to the same end.
As early as 1458 the university of Paris had a Greek professor.
But long before this time translations in prose had been made.
Pierre Bercheure (Bersuire) (1290-1352) had already translated
Livy. Nicholas Oresme (c. 1334-138 2), the tutor of Charles V.,
gave a version of certain Aristotelian works, which enriched
the language with a large number of terms, then strange enough,
now familiar. Raoul de Prcsles (13 16-1383) turned into French
the De civitate Dei of St Augustine. These writers or others
composed Le Songe du vergUr, an elaborate discussion of the
power of the pope. The famous chancellor, Jean Charlier or
Gerson (1363-1429)) to whom the Imitation has among so maoy
others been attributed, spoke constantly and wrote often in the
vulgar tongue, though he attacked the most famous and popular
work in that tongue, the Roman de la rose, Christine de Fisan
and Alain Chartier were atieast as much prose writers as poets;
and the latter, while he, like Gerson, dealt much with the reform
of the church, used in his Quadriloge invectij really forcible
language for the purpose of spurring on the nobles of France
to put an end to her sufferings and evils. These moral and
didactic treatises were but continuations of others, which for
convenience sake we have hitherto left unnoticed Though
CENTURY]
FRENCH LITERATURE
121
was in the centuries prior to the 15th the favourite medium
erary composition, it was by no means the only one; and
and educational t rcatises— some referred toabove— already
d in pedestrian phrase. Certain household books (Litres de
1) have been preserved, some of which date as far back
i 13th century. These contain not merely accounts, but
r chronicles, receipts and the like. Accounts of travel,
ally to the Holy Land, culminated in the famous Voyage
ndeville which, though it has never been of so much import-
in French as in English, perhaps first took vernacular
in the French tongue. Of the 14th century, we have a
gier de Paris, intended for the instruction of a young wife,
1 large number of miscellaneous treatises of art, science
ooraKty, while private letters, mostly as yet unpublished,
n considerable numbers, and are generally of the moralizing
cter; books of devotion, too, are naturally frequent.
: the most important divisions of medieval energy in prose
ash ion are the spoken exercises of the pulpit and the bar.
The beginnings of French sermons have been much
discussed, especially the question whether St Bernard,
J" whose discourses we possess in ancient, but doubtfully
contemporary French, pronounced them in that
ige or in Latin. Towards the end of the 12th century,
per, the sermons of Maurice de Sully (1160-1106) present
rat undoubted examples of homiletics in the vernacular,
ley are followed by many others— so many indeed that the
century alone counts 261 sermon-writers, besides a large
jf anonymous work. These sermons were, as might indeed
KCted, chiefly cast in a somewhat scholastic form — theme,
urn, development, example and peroration following
ular order. The 14th-century sermons, on the other hand,
as yet been little investigated. It must, however, be
ibered that this age was the most famous of all for its
stic illustrations, and for the early vigour of the Dominican
ranciscan orders. With the end of the century and the
ling of the 15th, the importance of the pulpit begins to
. Tne early years of the new age have Gerson for their
entative, while the end of the century sees the still more
a names of Michel Menot (1450-1518), Olivier Maillard
jo -1502), and Jean Rauhn (1443-1514), all remarkable
i practice of a vigorous and homely style of oratory, recoil-
fore no aid of what we should nowadays style buffoonery,
lanifesting a creditable indifference to the indignation of
palities and powers. Louis XI. is said to have threatened
>w Maillard into the Seine, and many instances of the bold-
I these preachers and the rough vigour of their oratory
xeti preserved. Froissart had been followed as a chronicler
guerrand de Monstrelet (c. 1300-1453) and by the historio-
trs of the Burgundian court, Chastelain, already mentioned,
interesting Ckroniqne de Jacques de Lalaing is much the
ittractivc part of his work, and Olivier de la March*. The
ir and chronicle writers, who were to be of so much import-
in French literature, also begin to be numerous at this
L Juvenal des Ursins (138&-1473), an anonymous bourgeois
ris (two such indeed), and the author of the Ckronique
tteuse, may be mentioned as presenting the character of
e observation and record which has distinguished the
jver since. Jean le maire de (not des) Beiges (1473-c. 1525)
istoriographer to Louis XII. and wrote Illustrations des
r. But Comines (144 5-1 500) is no imitator of Froissart
or of any one else. The last of the quartette of great
"* French medieval historians, he docs not yield to any
three predecessors in originality or merit, but he is very
mt from them. He fully represents the mania of the time
itecraft, and his book has long ranked with that of Machia-
is a manual of the art, though he has not the absolutely
mral character of the Italian. His memoirs, considered
y as literature, show a style well suited to their purport,—
indeed, brilliant or picturesque, but clear, terse and
uglily well suited to the expression of the acuteness, observa-
nd common sense of their author.
i pros* Moot content with the domain oimriom Hterature.
It had already long possessed a respectable'position as a vehicle
of romance, and the end of the 14th and the beginning of the
15th centuries were pre-eminently the time when
the epics of chivalry were re-edited and extended in JJ* c Jf*
prose. Few, however, of these extensions offer much /vw^rfte*.
literary interest. On the other band, the best prose of
the century, and almost the earliest which deserves the title of
a satisfactory literary medium, was employed for the telling
of romances in miniature. The Cent Nouvdles Nouvdles is
undoubtedly the first work of prose belles-lettres in French,
and the first, moreover, of a long and most remarkable class
of literary work in which French writers may challenge all
comers with the certainty of victory— the short prose tale
of a comic character. This remarkable work has usually been
attributed, like the somewhat similar but later Heptamtron,
to a knot of literary courtiers gathered round a royal personage,
in this case the dauphin Louis, afterwards Louis XI. Some
evidence has recently been produced which seems to show that
this tradition, which attributed some of the tales to Louis
himself, is erroneous, but the question is still undecided. The
subjects of the Cent Nouvdles Nouvelles are by no means new.
Tbey are simply the old themes of tne fabliaux treated in the
old way. The novelty is in the application of prose to such a
purpose, and in the crispness, the fluency and the elegance of
the prose used. The fortunate author or editor to whom these
admirable tales have of late been attributed is Antoine de la
Salle (1308-1461), who, if this attribution and certain Aatntam
others be correct, must be allowed to be one of the ^ ta
most original and fertile authors of early French litera- SaMm.
turc. La Salle's one acknowledged work is the story
of Petit J than de Saintri, a short romance exhibiting great com-
mand of character and abundance of delicate draughtsmanship.
To this not only the authorship, part-authorship or editorship
of the Cent NoxteUes Nouvelles has 'been added; but the still
more famous and important work of L'Avocat Patelin has been
assigned by respectable, though of course conjecturing, authority
to the same paternity. The generosity of critics towards La
Salle has not even stopped here. A fourth masterpiece of the
period, Les Quinxe Joies de manage, has also been assigned
to him. This last work, like the other three, is satirical in subject,
and shows for the time a wonderful mastery of the language*
Of the fifteen joys of marriage, or, in other words, the fifteen
miseries of husbands, each has a chapter assigned to it, and each
is treated with the peculiar mixture of gravity and ridicule which
it requires. All who have read the book confess its infinite wit
and the grace of its style. It is true that it has been reproached
with cruelty and with a lack of the moral sentiment. But
humanity and morality were not the strong point of the 15th
century. There is, it must be admitted, about most of its
productions a lack of poetry and a lack of imagination, produced,
it may be, partly by political and other conditions outside litera-
ture, but very observable in it. The old forms of literature
itself had lost their interest, and new ones possessing Ja fi mmct
strength to last and power to develop themselves oftm*
had not yet appeared. It was impossible, even if the Rtari*
taste for it had survived, to spin out the old themes • M0 *
any longer. But the new forces required some time to set (o
work, and to avail themselves of the tremendous weapon which
the press had put into their hands. When these things had
adjusted themselves, literature of a varied and vigorous kind
became once more possible and indeed necessary, nor did it
take long to make its appearance.
i6tk Century.— In no country was the literary result of the
Renaissance more striking and more manifold than in France.
The double effect of the study of antiquity and the religious
movement produced an outburst of literary developments of the
most diverse kinds, which even the fierce and sanguinary civil
dissensions of the Reformation did not succeed in checking.
While the Renaissance in Italy had mainly exhausted its effects
by the middle of the 16th century, while in Germany those effects
only paved the way lor a iA\touai\&\jtt%Xxa« % %&& SA."&Rft.>fcKu**
selves greatly oonlribtte tkw^^ro^^^aa^xA\^^»'«^
122
till the extreme end of the period that a great literature was
forthcoming— in France almost the whole century was marked
by the production of capital works in every branch of literary
effort. Not even the 17th century, and certainly not the 18th,
can show such a group of prose writers and poets as is formed
by Calvin, St Francis de Sales, Montaigne, du Vair, Bodin,
d'Aubigne', the authors of the Satire Menippie, Monluc,
Brant6me, Pasquier, Rabelais, des Periera, Herberay des Essarts,
Amyot, Gamier, Marot, Ronsard and the rest of the " Plliade,"
and finally Regnier. These great writers are not merely remark-
able for the vigour and originality of their thoughts, the freshness,
variety and grace of their fancy, the abundance of their learning
and the solidity of their arguments in the cases where argument
is required. Their great merit is the creation of a language and
a style able to give expression to these good gifts. The foregoing
account of the medieval literature of France will have shown
sufficiently that it Is not lawful to despise the literary capacities
and achievements of the older French. But the old language,
with all its merits, was ill-suited to be a vehicle for any but
the simpler forms of literary composition. Pleasant or affecting
tales could be told in it with interest and pathos. Songs of charm-
ing naivcti and grace could be sung; the requirements of the
epic and the chronicle were suitably furnished. But it was barren
of the terms of art and science; it did not readily lend itself to
sustained eloquence, to impassioned poetry or to logical discus-
sion. It had been too long accustomed to leave these things to
Latin as their natural and legitimate exponent, and it bore
marks of its original character as a lingua notice, a tongue suited
for homely conversation, for folk-lore and for ballads, rather than
for the business of the forum and the court, the speculations of
the study, and the declamation of the theatre. Efforts had indeed
been made, culminating in the heavy and tasteless erudition of
the schools of Chartier and Crttin, to supply the defect; but
it was reserved for the xotb century completely to efface it.
The series of prose writers from Calvin to Montaigne, of poets
from Marot to Regnier, elaborated a language yielding to no
modem tongue in beauty, richness, flexibility and strength,
a language which the reactionary purism of succeeding genera-
tions defaced rather than improved, and the merits of which have
in still later days been triumphantly vindicated by the confession
and the practice of all the greatest writers of modem France.
i6tk-Century Poetry.— The first few years of the 16th century
were naturally occupied rather with the last developments of
the medieval forms than with the production of the new model.
The clerks of the Baaoche and the Confraternity of the Passion
still produced and acted mysteries, moralities and farces. The
poets of the " Grands Rlie* toriqueurs " school still wrote elaborate
allegorical poetry. Chansons de geste, rhymed romances and
fabliaux had long ceased to be written. But the press was
multiplying the contents of the former in the prose form which
they had finally assumed, and in the Cent NouvelUs NouvelUs
there already existed admirable specimens of the short prose tale.
There even were signs, as in some writers already mentioned and
in Roger de Colltrye, a lackpenny but light-hearted singer of
the early part of the century, of definite enfranchisement in
verse. But the first note of the new literature was sounded by
Man*. ClemCnt Marot (1406/7-1544). The son of an elder
poet, Jehan des Mares called Marot (1463-1523),
Clement at first wrote, like his father's contemporaries, allegorical
and mythological poetry, afterwards collected in a volume with
a charming title, V Adolescence cUmentim, It was not till he was
nearly thirty years old that his work became really remarkable.
From that time forward till his death, about twenty years after-
wards, be was much involved in the troubles and persecutions
of the Huguenot party to which he belonged; nor was the pro-
tection of Marguerite d'Angouleme, the .chief patroness of
Huguenots and men of letters, always efficient. But his troubles,
so far from harming, helped his literary faculties; and his epistles,
epigrams, Masons (descendants of th- medieval dits) t and coq-&-
Vlne became remarkable for their easy and polished style, their
Mg*t mud graceful wit, and a certain elegance which had not as
wW bcea even attempted in an/ modem tongue, though the
FRENCH LITERATURE
U6TH-CENTURY POfiUY
Italian humanists had not been far from it in some of their
Latin compositions. Around Marot arose a whole school of
disciples and imitators, such as Victor Brodeau (1470?-! 540),
the great authority on rondeaux, Maurice Sceve, a fertile author
of blasons, Sakl, Marguerite herself (1492-1549), of whom more
hereafter, and Mellin de Saint Gelais (1401-155S). The last,
son of the bishop named above, is a courtly writer of occasional
pieces, who sustained as well, as he could the style morotiqiu
against Ronsard, and who has the credit of introducing the
regular sonnet into French. But the inventive vigour of the age
was so great that one school had hardly become popular before
another pushed it from its stool, and even of the MarotisU
just mentioned Sceve and Salel are often regarded as chief and
member respectively of a Lyonnese coterie, intermediate between
the schools of Marot and of Ronsard, containing other members
of repute such as Aatoine Heroel and Charles Fontaine and
claiming Louise Labe* (v. inf.) herself. Pierre de a^mam*.
Ronsard (1524-1585) was the chief of this latter. At
first a courtier and a diplomatist, physical disqualification made
him change his career. He began to study the classics under
Jean Daurat (1508-1588), and with his master and five other
writers, Etienne Jodelle (1532-1573). Remy Belleau (i5*8~i577),
Joachim du Bellay (1525-1560), Jean Antoine de Balf (1532-
1589), and Pontus de Tyard (d. 1605, bishop of Chalons-sur*
Saone), composed the famous " Pleiade." The object of toil
band was to bring the French language, in vocabulary, __
constructions and application, on a level with the
classical tongues by borrowings from the latter. They
would have imported the Greek licence of compound words,
though the genius of the French language is but little adapted
thereto; and they wished to reproduce in French the regular
tragedy, the Pindaric and Horatian ode, the Virgilian epic, &c
But it is an error (though one which until recently was very
common,- and which perhaps requires pretty thorough study of
their work completely to extirpate it) to suppose that they
advocated or practised indiscriminate borrowing. On the con*
trary both in du Bellay 'a famous manifesto, the Dtjfenst at ill auiro*
lion de la langue franchise, and in Ronsard 's own work, caution
and attention to the genius and the tradition of French are
insisted upon. Being all men of the highest talent, and not a
few of them men of great genius, they achieved much that they
designed, and even where they failed exactly to achieve it, they
very often indirectly produced results as important and more
beneficial than those which they intended. Their ideal of a
separate poetical language distinct from that intended for prose
use was indeed a doubtful if not a dangerous one. But it is
certain that Marot, while setting an example of elegance and
grace not easily to be imitated, set also an example of trivial and,
so to speak, pedestrian language which was only too writable.
If France was ever to possess a literature containing something
besides fabliaux and farces, the tongue must be enriched and
strengthened. This accession of wealth and vigour it received
from Ronsard and the Ronsardists. Doubtless they went too far
and provoked to some extent the reaction which Malherbe led.
Their importations were sometimes unnecessary. It is almost
impossible to read the Franciade of Ronsard, and not too easy
to read the tragedies of Jodelle and Gamier, fine as the latter are
in parts. But the best of Ronsard's sonnets and odes, the finest
of du Bellay 's Antiquitis de Rome (translated into English by
Spenser), the exquisite Vanneur of the same author, and the
Avril of Belleau, even the finer passages of d'Aubigne" and du
Bartas, are not only admirable in themselves, and of a kind not
previously found in French literature, but are also such thing!
as could not have been previously found, for the simple reason
that the medium of expression was wanting. They constructed
that medium for themselves, and no force of the reaction which
they provoked was able to undo their work. Adverse criticism
and the natural course of time rejected much that they had added.
The charming diminutives they loved so much went out of
fashion; their compounds (sometimes it must be confessed,
justly) had their letters of naturalization promptly cancelled;
many a tuft** uojtc&tt* tatatt»%tamft which could tmn
CENTURY DRAMA]
FRENCH LITERATURE
123
pedigree to the earliest ages of French literature, but.
bore an unfortunate likeness to the new-comers, was
ibed. B ut for all that no language has ever had its destiny
iced more powerfully and more beneficially by a small
y clique than the language of France was influenced by the
tie and disciples of that Ronsard whom for two centuries
the fashion to deride and decry.
a sketch such as the present it is impossible to gfve a
ite account of individual writers, the more important of
whom will be found treated under their own names.
J" The effort of the " Pleiade " proper was continued and
shared by a considerable number of minor poets,
of them, as has been already noted, belonging to different
1 and schools. Olivier de Magny (d. 1560) and Louise
[b. 1526) were poets and lovers, the lady deserving far the
* rank iri literature. There is more depth of passion in the
gs of "La Belle Cordiere," as this Lyonnese poetess
tiled, than in almost any of her contemporaries. Jacques
emu (1 J27-1 555) scarcely deserves to be called a minor poet,
is less than the usual hyperbole in the contemporary
irison of him to Catullus, and he reminds an Englishman
> school represented nearly a century later by Carew,
ilph and Suckling. The title of a part of his poem —
rdises amoureuses de Vadnir$t—fa characteristic both of
fe and of the time. Jean Doublet (c 1 5 28-c. 1 580), Amadis
1 (c 1530-1585), and Jean de la Taille (1 540-1608) deserve
mi at least as poets, but two other writers require a longer
n. Guillaume de Salluste, seigneur du Bartas ( 1 544-*! 590),
whom Sylvester's translation, Milton's imitation, and
the copious citations of Southey*s Doctor, have
known if not familiar in England, was partly a disciple
utly a rival of Ronsard. His poem of Judith was eclipsed
better-known La Dveine Sepmaine or epic ot the Creation.
otas was a great user and abuser of the double compounds
i to above, but his style possesses much stateliness, and has
lUar solemn eloquence which he shared with the other
1 Calvinists, and which was derived from the study partly
vinand partly of the Bible. Theodore Agrippa d'Aubigne
(1552-1630), like du Bartas, was a Caivinist. His
genius was of a more varied character. He wrotesonnets
and odes as became a Ronsardist, but his chief poetical
f the satirical poem of Les Tragiaues, in which the author
1 the factions, corruptions and persecutions of the time,
1 which there are to be found alexandrines of a strength,
and original cadence hardly to be discovered elsewhere,
n Corneille and Victor Hugo. Towards the end of the
y, Philippe Desportes (1546-1606) and Jean Bertaut
•i6ti), with much enfeebled strength, but with a certain
continue the Ronsardising tradition. Among their con-
raries must be noticed Jean Passerat (1534-1602), a writer
cb wit and vigour and rather resembling Marot than
rd, and Vauquelin de la Fresnaye (1 536-1607), the author
nimble Art pottica and of the first French satires which
ly bear that title. Jean le Houx (fl. c. 1600) continued,
:e or invented the vaux de vire, commonly known as the
of Olivier Basselin, and already alluded to, while a still
r and more eccentric verse style was cultivated by £tienne
trot des Accords (1540-1590), whose epigrams and other
were collected under odd titles. Les Bigarrures, Les Touches,
K curious pair are Guy du Faur de Pibrac (1520-1584) and
Mathieu (b. x 563) , authors of moral quatrains, which were
by heart in the schools of the time, replacing the distkhs
t grammarian Cato, which, translated into French, had
I the same purpose in the middle ages,
i nephew of Desportes, Mathurin Regnier (1573-16x3),
1 the end, and at the same lime perhaps the climax, of the
p> poetry of the century. A descendant at once of the
older Gallic spirit of Villon and Marot, in virtue of bis
inmate acuteness. terseness and wit. of the school of Ronsard
1 erudition, his command of language, and his scholarship,
er is perhaps the best representative of French poetry at
itical Urns when it bad got together aU its materials, bad
lost none of its native vigour and force, and had not yet sub-
mitted to the cramping and numbing rules and restrictions which
the next century introduced. The satirical poems of Regnier, and
especially the admirable epistle to Rapin, in which he denounces
and rebuts the critical dogmas of Malherbe, are models of nervous
strength, while some of the elegies and odes contain expression
not easily to be surpassed of the softer feelings of affection ahd
regret. No poet has had more influence on the revival of French
poetry in the last century than Regnier, and he had imitators
in his own time, the chief of whom was Courval-Sonnet (Thomas
Sonnet, sieur de Cburval) (1577-1635), author of satires of some
value for the history of manners.
i6tk-Century Drama. — The change which dramatic poetry
underwent during the 16th century was at least as remarkable
as that undergone by poetry proper. The first half of the period
saw the end of the religious mysteries, the licence of which had
irritated both the parliament and the clergy. Louis XII., at
the beginning of the century, was far from discouraging the dis-
orderly but popular and powerful theatre in which the Confra-
ternity of the Passion, the clerks of the Baxoche, and the Enfans
sans souci enacted mysteries, moralities, soties and farces.
He made them, indeed, an instrument in his quarrel with the
papacy, just as Philippe k Bel had made use of the allegorical
poems of Jehan de Meung and his fellows. Under his patronage
were produced the chief works of Gringore or Gringoire (e. 1480-'
« 547)i by far the most remarkable writer of this class of composi-
tion. His Prince des sots and his Mystire de St Louis are among"
the best of their kind. An enormous volume of composition of
this class was produced between 1500 and 155a One morality
by itself, V Homme juste et Vhomme mondain, contains some
36,000 lines. But in 1 548, when the Confraternity was formally
established at the Hotel de Bourgogne, leave to play sacred
subjects was expressly refused it. Moralities and soties dragged
on under difficulties till the end of the century, and the farce,
which is immortal, continually affected comedy. But the effect
of the Renaissance was to sweep away all other vestiges of the
medieval drama, at least in the capital. An entirely new class
of subjects, entirely new modes of treatment, and a different
kind of performers were introduced. The change naturally
came from Italy. In the close relationship with that country
which France had during the early years of the century, Italian
translations of the classical masterpieces were easily imported.
Soon French translations were made afresh of the Electro, the
Hecuba, the I phi tenia in AuUs, and the French humanists
hastened to compose original tragedies on the classical model,
especially as exhibited in the Latin tragedian Seneca. It was
impossible that the " Pleiade " should not eagerly seixe such an
opportunity of carrying out its principles, and one of its members,
Jodelle (1 53 s-i 573), devoting himself mainly to dramatic,
composition, fashioned at once the first tragedy, jtmfar
Cliopatre, and the first comedy, Eugene, thus setting; tngpiy
the example of the style of composition which for two «**
centuries and a half Frenchmen were to regard as the « M »4 r *
highest effort of literary ambition. The amateur performance
of these dramas by Jodelle and his friends was followed by a
Bacchic procession after the manner of the ancients, which caused
a great deal of scandal, and was represented by both Catholics
and Protestants as a pagan orgy. The CUopdtre is remarkable
as being the first French tragedy, nor is it destitute of merit.
It is curious that in this first instance the curt antithetic
ortxpuvOla, which was so long characteristic of French plays and
plays imitated from them, and which Butler ridicules in his
Dialogue of Cat and Puss, already appears. There appears also
the grandiose and smooth but stilted declamation which came
rather from the imitation of Seneca than of Sophocles, and the
tradition of which was never to be lost. CUopdtre was followed
by Didon, which, unlike its predecessor, is entirely in alexandrines,
and observes the regular alternation of masculine and feminine
rhymes. Jodelle was followed by Jacques Grevin ( x 540 ?- 1 570)
with a Uort de Ctsar, which shows an improvement in tragic art,
and two still better comedies, Les xtoaltis %xA La TttonritaiVs
JeaateUTtd\kUSAC*-ifra\*>^Tav^*^^
124
FRENCH LITERATURE
dfimCENTpRY FICTION
towards the accepted French dramatic pattern in his Soatf
furicux and his Corrivaux, Jacques, his brother (1541-1562), and
Jean de la Plruse (1520-1554), who wrote a M6d6e. A very
- . -^ different poet from all these is Robert Gamier (1545-
1601). Gamier is the first tragedian who deserves a
place not too (ar below Rotrou, Cocneille, Racine, Voltaire, and
Hugo, and who may be placed in the same class with them. He
chose his subjects indifferently from classical, sacred and medieval
literature. Stdicie, a play dealing with the capture of Jerusalem
by Nebuchadnezzar, is held to be his masterpiece, and Bradamanle
deserves notice because it is the first tragi-comedy of merit in
French, and. because the famous confidant here makes his first
appearance. Gander's successor, Antoine de Monchretien or
Montchrestien (e. 1576-162 1), set the example of dramatizing
contemporary subjects. His masterpiece is L'/uossaisc, the
first of many dramas on the fate of Mary, queen of Scots. While
tragedy thus clings closely to antique models, comedy, as might
be expected in the country of the fabliaux. Is more independent.
Italy had already a comic school of some originality, and the
French farce was too vigorous and lively a production to permit
of its being entirely overlooked. The first comic writer of great
tr ^ merit was Pierre Larivey (c. 1550-*. 1612), an Italian
by descent. Most if not all of his plays are founded
on Italian originals, but the translations or adaptations are made
with the greatest freedom, and almost deserve the title of original
works. The style is admirable, and the skilful management
of the action contrasts strongly with the languor, the awkward
adjustment, and the lack of dramatic interest found in con-
temporary tragedians. Even Molicre found something to use in
Larivey.
i6th-Cenlury Prose Fiction, — Great as is the importance of
the 1 6th century in the history of French poetry, its import-
ance in tt>e history of French prose is greater still. In poetry
the middle ages could fairly hold their own with any of the ages
that have succeeded them. The epics of chivalry, whether of the
cycles of Charlemagne, Arthur, or the classic heroes, not to
mention the miscellaneous romans d'a ventures, have indeed
more than held their own. Both relatively and absolutely the
Franciade of the x6th century, the PuceUe of the 27th, the
Henriade of the 18th, cut a very poor figure beside Roland and
Percnale, Gerard de Roussiilon, and Parlkcnopex de Bids. The
romances, ballads and pastourelles, signed and unsigned, of
medieval France were not merely the origin, but in some respects
the superiors, of the lyric poetry which succeeded them. Thibaut
de Champagne, Charles d'Orleans and Villon need not veil
their crests in any society of bards. The charming forms of the
rondel, the rondeau and the ballade have won admiration from
every competent poet and critic who has known them. The
fabliaux give something more than promise of La Fontaine,
and the two great compositions of the Reman du Rtnarl and
the Roman de la rese, despite their faults and their alloy, will
always command the admiration of all persons of taste and
judgment who take the trouble to study them. But while
poetry had in the middle ages no reason to blush for her French
representatives, prose (always the younger and less forward
sister) had far less to boast of. With the exception of chronicles
and prose romances, no prose works of any real importance can
be quoted before the end of the 15th century, and even then the
chief If not the only place of importance must be assigned to the
Cent SeuveUes Nouvdlcs, a work of admirable prose, but neces-
sarily light in character, and not yet demonstrating the efficacy
of the French language as a medium of expression for serious and
weighty thought. Up to the time of the Renaissance and the
consequent reformation, Latin had, as we have already remarked,
been considered the sufficient and natural organ for this expres-
sion. In France as in other countries the disturbance in religious
thought may undoubtedly claim the glory of having repaired
this disgrace of the vulgar tongue, and of. having fitted and
taught it to express whatever, thoughts the theologian, the
Historian, the philosopher, the politician and the savant bad
occasion to utter. But the use of prose as a vehicle for lighter
r mat more continuous with tbe literature that preceded,
and serves as a natural transition from poetry and the drama
to history and science. Among the prose writers, therefore,
of the 16th century we shall give the first place to the novdisu
and romantic writers.
Among these there can be no doubt of the precedence, in
every sense of the word, of Francois Rabelais (e, 1400-1553),
the one French writer (or with MoUere one of tbe two gkiii*
whom critics the least inclined to appreciate the
characteristics of French literature have agreed to place among
the few greatest of the world. With an immma* erudition
representing almost the whole of the knowledge of his time,
wjth an untiring faculty of invention, with the judgment of a
philosopher, and the common sense of a man of the world, with
an observation that let no characteristic of the time pass un-
observed, and with a tenfold portion of the special GaHic gift
of good-humoured satire, Rabelais united a height of speculation
and depth of insight and a vein of poetical imagination rarely
found in any writer, but altogether portentous whets taken in
conjunction with his other characteristics. His great work has
been taken for an exercise of transcendental philosophy, for 1
concealed theological polemic, for an allegorical history of Ian
and that personage of his time, for a merely literary utterance,
for an attempt to tickle the popular ear and taste. It b all of
these, and it is none— all of them in parts, none of them in
deliberate and exclusive intention. It may perhaps be called
the exposition and commentary of all the thoughts, feelingi,
aspirations and knowledge of a particular time and nation put
forth in attractive literary form by a man who for once combined
the practical and the literary spirit, the power of knowledge and
the power of expression. The work of Rabelais is the minor
of the x6th century in France, reflecting at once its cctndinesi
and its uncomeliness, its high aspirations, its voluptuous tastes.
its political and religious dissensions, its keen criticism, its
eager appetite and hasty digestion of learning, its gleams of poetry,
and its ferocity of manners. In Rabelais we can divine the
" Pleiade " and Marot, the Cymbalmm mrnndi and Montaigne,
Amyot and tbe Amodis, even Calvin and Duperron.
It was inevitable that such extraordinary works as Gergenlm
and Pantagruel should attract special imitators in the direction
of their outward form. It was also inevitable that this imitation
should frequently fix upon these Rabelaisian characteristics
which are least deserving of imitation, and most likely to be
depraved in tbe hands of imitators. It fell within the plan of
the master to indulge in what has been called JeJresie, the
huddling together, that is to say, of a medley of language and
images which Is best known to English readers in the -not always
successful following of Sterne. It pleased him also to disguise
his naturally terse, strong and nervous style in a burlesque
envelope of redundant language, partly ironical, partly the result
of superfluous erudition, and partly that of a certain childish
wantonness and exuberance, which is one of his raciest and
pleasantest characteristics. In both these points he was some-
what corruptly followed. But fortunately the romantic*!
writers of the 16 th century had not Rabelais for their sole model,
but were also . influenced by the simple and straightforward
style of the Cent Nowtllcs Nouvclles. The joint influence give
us some admirable work. Nicholas of Troyes, a saddler of
Champagne, came too early (his Grand Parangon des mueetta
nouvelks appeared in 1536) to copy Rabelais. But Noel da
Fail (d. c. 1585?), a judge at Rennes, shows the double influence
in his Propos msHqurs and Conies d' Extra pel, both of which,
especially the former, are lively and well-written pictures of
contemporary life and thought, as the country magistrate
actually saw and dealt with them. In 1558, however, appeared
two works of far higher literary and social interest. These are
the Hcpiamirtm of the queen of Navarre, and the Conies el
jeycux devis of Bona venture des Per iers (c. 1 500-1 544) .
Des Periers, who was a courtier of Marguerite's, has perttn.
sometimes been thought to have had a good deal
to do with the first-named work as well as with tbe second,
and was. also the author of a curious Ludanic satire, strongly
sceptical in cast, the CymkUum mundi. Indeed, not merely
xktury historians) FRENCH LITERATURE
125
cen's prose works, but also the poems gracefully entitled
arguerUes dc la Marguerite, are often attributed to the
f men whom the sister of Francis I. gathered round
However this may be, some single influence of power
1 to give unity and distinctness of savour evidently
presided over the composition of the Heplamiron.
J" Composed as it is on the model of Boccaccio, its tone
and character are entirely di He rent, and few works
1 more individual charm. The Teles of des Pcricrs are
r, simpler and more homely; there is more wit in them
sa refinement. But both works breathe, more powerfully
« than any others, the peculiar mixture of cultivated
oetkal voluptuousness with a certain religiosity and a
ut spirit of action which characterizes the French Renais-
Later in time, but too closely connected with Rabelais
land spirit to be here omitted, came the Moyen dt parvenir
salde de VcrviUe ( i558?-i6i 2?), a singular /a/raj*f, uniting
isdom, learning and indecency, and crammed with anec-
vhich are always amusing though rarely decorous,
lie same time a fresh vogue was given to the chivalric
ce by Herberay *s translation of A madis de Gaula. French
writers have supposed a French original for the
A mad is in some lost roman d'aventures. It is of course
impossible to say that this is not the case, but there
one tittle of evidence to show that it is. At any rate
ventures of Amadis were prolonged in Spanish through
tion after generation of his descendants. This vast work
ay des Essarts in 1540 undertook to translate or rc-
te, but it was not without the assistance of several followers
xe task was completed. Southey has charged Herberay
omapting the simplicity of the original, a charge which
>t concern us here. It is sufficient to say that the French
1 is an excellent piece of literary work, and that Herberay
a no mean place among the fathers of French prose,
ok had an immense popularity; it was translated into
ortign languages, and for some time it served as a favourite
I book for foreigners studying French. Nor is it to be
d that the romancers of the Scudcry and Calprcnedc
1 the next century were much more influenced both for
nd harm by these Amadis romances than by any of the
tales of chivalry.
Century Historians, — As in the case of the tale-tellers,
lat of the historians, the writers of the 16th century had
>ns to continue. It is doubtful indeed whether many of
an risk comparison as artists with the great names of
xdouin and Joinville, Froissart and Comines. The x6th
f, however, set the example of dividing the functions
chronicler, setting those of the historian proper on one
ad of the anecdote-monger and biographer on the other.
forts at regular history made in this century were not of
best value. B ut on the other hand the practice of memoir-
;, in which the French were to excel every nation in the
and of literary correspondence, in which they were to
ven their memoirs, was solidly founded.
of the earliest historical writers of the century was Claude
ssel (1450-15^0), whose history of Louis XII. aims not
essfully at style. Dc Thou (1553-161 7) wrote in Latin,
guard de Girard, sieur du I la ilia n (1 537-1610), composed
aire de France on Thucydidcan principles as transmitted
h the successive mediums of Polybius, Guicciardini and
, Aemilius. The instance invariably quoted, after Thierry,
Haillan's method is his introduction, with appropriate
es, of two Merovingian statesmen who argue out the
e merits of monarchy and oligarchy on the occasion of
ction of Fharamond. Besides du Haillan, la Popelinicre
lo-x6oS), who less ambitiously attempted a history of
: during his own time, and expended immense labour
collection of information and materials, deserves mention,
re is no such poverty of writers of memoirs. Robert
Mark, du Bcllay, Marguerite de Valois (the youngest or
Marguerite, first wife of Henri IV., 1553-16x5), Villars,
nes, La Tour d'Auvergne, and many others composed.
commentaries and autobiographies. The well-known and very
agreeable Ilistoirc du gen til seigneur de Bayart (1524) is by
an anonymous " Loyal Servileur." Vincent Carloix (fl. 1550),
the secretary of the marshal de Vicllevillc, composed some
memoirs abounding in detail and incident. The Lcttres of
Cardinal d'Ossat (1 536-1604) and the Negotiations of Pierre
Jeannin (1540-16 2 2) have always had a high place among
documents of their kind. But there arc four collections of
memoirs concerning this time which far exceed all others in
interest and importance. The turbulent dispositions of the time,
the loose dependence of the nobles and even the smaller gentry
on any single or central authority, the rapid changes of political
situations, and the singularly active appetite, both for pleasure
and for business, for learning and for war, which distinguished
the French gentleman of the x6th century, place the memoirs
of Francois de Lanoue (1531-1501), Blaise de Mon[t]luc (1503-
I577)i Agrippa d'Aubigne" and Pierre dc Bourdcillc|s] Brantftme
(1 540-1614) almost at the head of the literature of their class.
The name of Brant6me is known to all who have the least
tincture of French literature, and the works of the others are not
inferior in interest, and perhaps superior in spirit and conception,
to the Dames Galantes, the Grands Capitaines and the Hommcs
illustres. The commentaries of Montluc, which Henri Quatrc is
said to have called the soldier's Bible, are exclusively military
and deal with affairs only. Montluc was governor in Guiennc,
where he repressed the savage Huguenots of the south with a
savagery worse than their own. He was, however, a partisan
of order, not of Catholicism. He hung and shot both parties
with perfect impartiality, and refused to have anything to do
with the massacre of St Bartholomew. Though he was a man
of no learning, his style is excellent, being vivid, flexible and
straightforward. Lanoue, who was a moderate in politics, has
left his principles reflected in his memoirs. D*Aubign6, so often
to be mentioned, gives the extreme Huguenot side as opposed
to the royalist partisanship of Montluc and the via media of
Lanoue. Brantome, on the other hand, is quite free Brmatdmt*
from any political or religious prepossessions, and,
indeed, troubles himself very little about any such matters.
He is the shrewd and somewhat cynical observer, moving
through the crowd and taking note of its ways, its outward
appearance, its heroisms and its follies. It is really difficult
to say whether the recital of a noble deed of arms or the telling
of a scandalous story about a court lady gave him the most
pleasure, and impossible to say which he did best. Certainly
he had ample material for both exercises in the history of his
time.
The branches of literature of which we have just given an
account may be fairly connected, from the historical point of
view, with work of the same kind that went before as well as
with work of the same kind that followed them. It was not so
with the literature of theology, law, politics and erudition, which
the 1 6th century also produced, and with which it for the first
time enlarged the range of composition in the vulgar tongue.
Not only had Latin been invariably adopted as the language
of composition on such subjects, but the style of the treatises
dealing with such matters had been traditional rather than
original. In speculative philosophy or metaphysics proper even
this century did not witness a great development; perhaps,
indeed, such a development was not to be expected until the
minds of men had in some degree settled down from their agitation
on more practical matters. It is not without significance that
Calvin (1 509-1 564) is the great figure in serious French prose
in the first half of the century, Montaigne the corresponding
figure in the second half. After Calvin and Montaigne weexpect
Descartes.
i6th-Ccniury Theologians. — In France, as in all other countries,
the Reformation was an essentially popular movement, though
from special causes, such as the absence of political catrla.
homogeneity, the nobles took a more active part both
with pen and sword in it than was the case in England. But the
great textbook of the French Reformation was not tta. nrafc.
ofanynobk. ]eaaCa\>Ati^littUl\iUonoi\>wC\wrw^ats^A 5 w^«A
126
FRENCH LITERATURE
fMOItALttTS AXD
is a book equally remarkable in matter and in form, in circum-
stances and in result. It is the first really great composition
in argumentative French prose. Its severe logic and careful
arrangement had as much influence on the manner of future
thought, both in France and the other regions whither its wide-
spread popularity carried it, as its style had on the expression
of such thought. It was the work of a man of only seven-and-
twenty, and it is impossible to exaggerate the originality of its
manner when we remember that hardly any models of French
prose then existed except tales and chronicles, which required
and exhibited totally different qualities of style. It is indeed
probable that had not the Institution been first written by its
author in Latin, and afterwards translated by him, it might have
had less dignity and vigour; but it must at the same lime be
remembered that this process of composition was at least equally
likely, in the hands of any but a great genius, to produce a heavy
and pedantic style neither French nor Latin in character. Some-
thing like this result was actually produced in some of Calvin's
minor works, and still more in the works of many of his followers,
whose lumbering language gained for itself, in allusion to their
exile from France, the title of " style rcfugic." Nevertheless,
the use of the vulgar tongue on the Protestant side, and the
possession of a work of such importance written therein, gave
the Reformers an immense advantage which their adversaries
were some time in neutralizing. Even before the Institution,
Lef&vrc d'£taplcs (1455-1537) and Cuillaume Farel (1480-1565)
saw and utilized the importance of the vernacular. Calvin
(1509-1564) was much helped by Pierre Viret (1511-1571), who
wrote a large number of small theological and moral dialogues,
and of satirical pamphlets, destined to captivate as well as to
instruct the lower people. The more famous Beza (Theodore de
Bezc) ( 1 519-1605) wrote chiefly in Latin, but he composed in
French an ecclesiastical history of the Reformed churches and
some translations of the Psalms. Marnix de Sainte Aldcgonde
(1 530-1 593), a gentleman of Brabant, followed Viret as a satirical
pamphleteer on the Protestant side. On the other hand, the
Catholic champions at first affected to disdain the use of the
vulgar tongue, and their pamphleteers, when they did attempt
it, were unequal to the task. Towards the end of the century
a more decent war was waged with Philippe du Plessis Mornay
(1540-1623) on the Protestant side, whose work is at least as
much directed against freethinkers and enemies of Christianity
in general as against the dogmas and discipline of Rome. His
adversary, the redoubtable Cardinal du Perron (1556-1618),
who, originally a Calvinist, went over to the other side, employed
French most vigorously in controversial works, chiefly with
reference to the eucharist. Du Perron was celebrated as the first
controversialist of the time, and obtained dialectical victories
over all comers. At the same time the bishop of Geneva, St
Francis of Sales (1567-1622), supported the Catholic side, partly
by controversial works, but still more by his devotional writings.
The Introduction to a Devout Life, which, though actually
published early in the next century, had been written some time
previously, shares with Calvin's Institution the position of the
most important theological work of the period, and is in remark-
able contrast with it in style and sentiment as well as in principles
and plan. It has indeed been accused of a certain effeminacy,
the appearance of which is in all probability mainly due to this
very contrast. The 16th century docs not, like the 17th, dis-
tinguish itself by literary exercises in the pulpit. The furious
preachers of the League, and their equally violent opponents,
have no literary value.
16th-century Moralists and Political Writers.— -The religious
dissensions and political disturbances of the time could not fail
to exert an influence on ethical and philosophical
thought. Yet, as we have said, the century was
not prolific of pure philosophical speculation. The
scholastic tradition, though long sterile, still survived, and with
it the habit of composing in Latin all works in any way connected
with philosophy. The Logic of Ramus in 1555 is cited as the
first departure from this rule. Other philosophical works are
few, tad chiefly express the doubt and the freethinking which
were characteristic of the time. This doubt assumes the fond
of positive religious scepticism only in the Cymbalum unmdi of
Bona venture des Periers.a remarkable series of dialogues which
excited a great storm, and ultimately drove the author to commit
suicide. The Cymbalum mundi is a curious anticipation of the
x8th century. The literature of doubt, however, was to receive
its principal accession in the famous essays of Michel Eygueu,
seigneur de Montaigne (1533-1592). It would be a mistake to
imagine the existence of any sceptical propaganda in this charm*
ing and popular book. Its principle is not scepticism but egotism;
and as the author was profoundly sceptical, thisquality necessarily
rather than intcntionallyappears. Wehavehere todralonly very
superficially with this as with other famous books, but ft cannot
be doubted that it expresses the mental attitude of the latter
part of the century as completely as Rabelais expresses the mental
attitude of the early part. There is considerably less vigour and
life in this attitude. Inquiry and protest have given way to a
placid conviction that there is not much to be found out, and
that it docs not much matter; the erudition though abundant
is less indiscriminate, and is taken -in and given out with less
gusto; exuberant drollery has given way to quiet irony; and
though neither business nor pleasure is decried, both are regarded
rather as useful pastimes incident to the life of man than with
the eager appetite of the Renaissance. From the purely literary
point of view, the style is remarkable from its absence of pedantry
in construction, and yet for its rich vocabulary and picturesque
brilliancy. The follower and imitator of Montaigne, Pierre
Charron (1541-1603), carried his master's scepticism to a some-
what more positive degree. His principal book, De la sagesse,
scarcely deserves the comparative praise which Pope has given
it. On the other hand GuiHaume du Vair (1556-1621), a lawyer
and orator, takes the positive rather than the negative side in
morality, and regards the vicissitudes in human affairs from the
religious and theological point of view in a series of works
characterized by the special merit of the style of great orators.
The revolutionary and innovating instinct which showed itself
in the 16th century with reference to church government and
doctrine spread naturally enough to political matters. The
intolerable disorder of the religious wars naturally set the
thinkers of the age speculating on the doctrines of government
in general. The favourite and general study of antiquity helped
this tendency, and the great accession of royal power in all the
monarchies of Europe invited a speculative if not a practical re-
action. The persecutions of the Protestants naturally provoked
a republican spirit among them, and the violent antipathy
of the League to the houses of Valois and Bourbon made its
partisans adopt almost openly the principles of democracy and
tyrannicide.
The greatest political writer of the age is Jean Bodin (1530-
1596), whose Ripublique is founded partly on speculative con-
siderations like the political theories of the ancients, __
and partly on an extended historical inquiry. Bodin,
like most lawyers who have taken the royalist side, is for unlimited
monarchy, but notwithstanding this, he condemns religious
persecution and discourages slavery. In his speculations on the
connexion between forms of government and natural causes,
he serves as a link between Aristotle and Montesquieu. On the
other hand, the causes which we have mentioned made a large
number of writers adopt opposite conclusions. £tienne de la
Bottie (1530-1563), the friend of Montaigne's youth, composed
the Contra un or Discours de la servitude volontaire, a protest
against the monarchical theory. The boldness of the protest
and the affectionate admiration of Montaigne have gives
_ la Boltic a much higher reputation than any extant work of his
actually deserves. The Contre un is a kind of prize essay, full of
empty declamation borrowed from the ancients, and showing no
grasp of the practical conditions of politics. Not much more
historically based, but far more vigorous and original, is the
Franco-Gallia of Francois Hotmann (1 524-1500), a work which
appeared both in Latin and French, which extols the authority
of the states-general, represents them as direct successors of the
political institutions of Gauls and Franks, and maintains the
POLITICAL WRITERS)
FRENCH LITERATURE
127
right of insurrection. In the lest quarter of the century political
animosity knew no bounds. The Protestants beheld a divine
instrument in Foltrot de Mire, the Catholics in Jacques Clement.
The Latin treatises of Hubert Languet (1518-1581) and Buchanan
formally vindicated— the first, like Hotmann, the right of re-
bellion based on an original contract between prince and people,
the second the right of tyrannicide. Indeed, as Montaigne
confesses, divine authorization for political violence was claimed
and denied by both parties according as the possession or the
expectancy of power belonged to each, and the excesses of the
preachers and pamphleteers knew no bounds.
Every one, however, was not carried away. The literary
menu of the chancellor Michel de lHopital (1507-1573) are not
very great, but his efforts to promote peace and moderation were
unerasing, On the other side Lanoue, with far greater literary
gifts, pursued the same ends, and pointed out the ruinous
consequences of continued dissension. Du Plessis Mornay took
a part in political discussion even more important than that
which he bore in religious polemics, and was of the utmost service
to Henri Quatre in defending his cause against the League, as
was also Hurault, another author of state papers. Du Vair,
already mentioned, powerfully assisted the same cause by his
successful defence of the Salic law, the disregard of which by the
Leaguer states-general was intended to lead to the admission of
the Spanish claim to the crown. But the foremost work against
a^ the League was the famous Satin Menippte (1504),
jjfijpj^ in a literary point of view one of the most remarkable
of political books. The MSnippie was the work of no
single author, but was due, it is said, to the collaboration of five,
Pierre Leroi, who has the credit of the idea, Jacques Gillot,
Ftorent Chre'tien, Nicolas Rapin (1541-1596) and Pierre Pithou
(1 530-1596), with some assistance in verse from Passerat and
Gilks Durand. The book is a kind of burlesque report of the
meeting of the states-general, called for the purpose of supporting
the views of the League in 1593. It gives an account of the
procession of opening, and then we have the supposed speeches
of the principal characters — the due de Mayenne, the papal
legate, the rector of the university (a ferocious Leaguer) and
others. But by far the most remarkable is that attributed to
Claude d'Aubray^ the leader of the Tiers £tat, and said to be
written by Pithou, in which all the evils of the time and the
nalpractices of the leaders of the League are exposed and
branded. The satire is extraordinarily bitter and yet perfectly
pod-humoured. It resembles in character rather that of
Butler, who unquestionably imitated it, than any other. The
style is perfectly suited to the purpose, having got rid of almost
ill vestiges of the cumbrousness of the older tongue without
losing its picturesque quaintnoss. It is no wonder that, as we are
told by contemporaries, it did more for Henri Quatre than all
other writings in his cause. In connexion with politics some
ovation of legal orators and writers may be necessary. In 1539
the ordinance of Villers-Cotterets enjoined the exclusive use of
the French language in legal procedure. The bar and bench of
France during the century produced, however, besides those
Barnes already mentioned in other connexions, only one deserving
of special notice, that of £tienne Pasquier (1520-1615), author
of a celebrated speech against the right of the Jesuits to take
part in public teaching. This he inserted in his great work,
imkercAes de la France, a work dealing with almost every
aspect of French history whether political, antiquarian or
Eterary.
l6tM-Cenhtry Savants.— One more division, and only one,
last of scientific" and learned writers pure and simple, remains.
Much of the work of this kind during the period was naturally
done in Latin, the vulgar tongue of the learned. But in France,
as in other countries, the study of the classics led to a vast
number of translations, and it so happened that one of the
translators deserves as a prose writer a rank among the highest.
Many of the authors already mentioned contributed to the
literature of translation. £es Pcriers translated the Platonic
dialogue Lysis, la Boetie some works of Xenophon and Plutarch,
in Vakil* Dtxtrtna, the In Qesi pMontem and the ProUibm. I
Salel attempted the Iliad, Belleau the false Anacreon, Baif some
plays of Piautus and Terence. Besides these Letevre d'£taples
gave a version of the Bible, Saliat one of Herodotus, and Louis
Leroi (15x0-1577), not to be confounded with the part author
of the Utnippec* many works of Plato, Aristotle and other Greek
writers. But while most if not all of these translators owed the
merits of their work to their originals, and deserved, much more
deserve, to be read only by those to whom those originals are
sealed, Jacques Amyot (1513-1 503), bishop of Auxerre, Am9uL
takes rank as a French classic by his translations * mjvu
of Plutarch, Longus and Heliodorus. The admiration which
Amyot excited in his own time was immense. Montaigne
declares that it was thanks to him that his contemporaries
knew how to speak and to write, and the Academy in the next
age, though not too much inclined to honour its predecessors,
ranked him as a modeL His Plutarch, which had an enormous
influence at the time, and coloured perhaps more than any
classic the thoughts and writings of the x6th century, both in
French and English, was then considered his masterpiece. Now-
adays perhaps, and from the purely literary standpoint, that
position would be assigned to his exquisite version of the ex-
quisite story of Daphnis and Chloe. It is needless to say
that absolute fidelity and exact scholarship are not the pre-
eminent merits of these versions. They are not philological
exercises, but works of art.
On the other hand, Claude Fauchet (1 530-1601) in two anti-
quarian works, Antiquitis gauloises et franchises and UOritint de
la tongue et de la poisie franchise, displays a remarkable critical
faculty in sweeping away the fables which had encumbered
history. Fauchet had the (for his time) wonderful habit of
consulting manuscripts, and we owe to him literary notices of
many of the trouveres. At the same time Francois Grud6, sieur
de la Croix du Maine (1552-1592), and Antoine Duverdier
(1 544-1600) founded the study of bibliography in France.
Pasquier's Rcckcrtkes, already alluded to, carries -out the prin-
ciples of Fauchet independently, and besides treating the history
of the past in a true critical spirit, supplies us with voluminous
and invaluable information on contemporary politics and litera-
ture. He has, moreover, the merit which Fauchet had not, of
being an excellent writer. Henri Estienne [Stephanus] (1528-
1508) also deserves notice in this place, both for certain treatises
on the French language, full of critical crotchets, and also for
his curious Apologie pour Herodotc, a remarkable book not
particularly easy to class. It consists partly of a defence of its
nominal subject, partly of satirical polemics on the Protestant
side, and is filled almost equally with erudition and with the
buffoonery and fatrasie of the time. The book, indeed, was
much too Rabelaisian to suit the tastes of those in whose defence
it was composed.
The 16th century is somewhat too early for us to speak of
science, and such science as was then composed falls for the
most part outside French literature. The famous potter,
Bernard Palissy (15 10-1500), however, was not much less
skilful as a fashioner of words than as a fashioner of pots, and
his description of the difficulties of his experiments in enamelling,
which lasted sixteen years, is well known. The great surgeon
Ambrose Pare" (c. 15 10- 1500) was also a writer, and his descrip-
tions of his military experiences at Turin, Metz and elsewhere
have all the charm of the 16th-century memoir. The only other
writers who require special mention are Olivier de Series (1530-
1619), who composed, under the title of Thidtre d'agriculture, a
complete treatise on the various operations of rural economy,
and Jacques du Fouilloux (1521-2580), who wrote on hunting
(La VentrU). Both became extremely popular and were fre-
quently reprinted.
rjth-Ccnlury Poetry.— It is not always easy or possible to make
the end or the beginning of a literary epoch synchronize exactly
with historical dates. It happens, however, that for j^^^g^
once the beginning of the 17th century coincides
almost exactly with an entire revolution in French literature.
The change of direction and of critical standard given by Francois
dt Malhcrbt (1556-1618) to poetry was to last for two whole
128
FRENCH LITERATURE
[I7TB-CBKTORY pomr
centuries, and to determine, not merely the language and com-
plexion, but also the form of French verse during the whole of that
time. Accidentally, or as a matter of logical consequence (it
would not be proper here to attempt to decide the question),
poetry became almost synonymous with drama. It is true,
as we shall have to point out, that there were, in the early part
of the 17th century at least, poets, properly so called, of no con-
temptible merit. But their merit, in itself respectable, sank in
comparison with the far greater merit of their dramatic rivals.
Theophile de Viau and Racan, Voiturc and Saint-Amant cannot
lor a moment be mentioned in the same rank with Corneille.
It is certainly curious, if it is not something more than curious,
that this decline in poetry proper should have coincided with the
so-called reforms of Malherbe. The tradition of respect for this
elder and more gifted Boilcau was at one time all-powerful in
France, and, notwithstanding the Romantic movement, is still
strong. In rejecting a large number of the importations of the
Ronsardists, he certainly did good service But it is difficult to
avoid ascribing in great measure to his influence the origin of
the chief faults of modern French poetry, and modern French
in general, as compared with the older language. He pronounced
against "poetic diction" as such, forbado the overlapping
(enjambemeni) of verse, insisted that the middle pause should be
of sense as well as sound, and that rhyme must satisfy eye as
well as ear. Like Pope, he sacrificed everything to "correctness,"
and, unluckily for French, the sacrifice was made at a time when
no writer of an absolutely supreme order had yet appeared in the
language. With Shakespeare and Milton, not to mention scores
of writers 'only inferior to them, safely garnered, Pope and his
followers could do us little harm. Corneille and Molicrc unfortun-
ately came after Malherbe. Yet it would be unfair to t his writer,
however badly we may think of his influence, to deny him talent,
and even a certain amount of poetical inspiration. He had not
felt his own influence, and the very influences which he despised
and proscribed produced in him much tolerable and some admir-
able verse, though he is not to be named as a poet with Rcgnier,
who had the courage, the sense and the good taste to oppose
and ridicule his innovations. Of Malherbe's school, Honorat de
Bueil, marquis de Racan (1580-1670), and Francois de Maynard
(2582-2646) were the most remarkable. The former was a true
poet, though not a very strong one. Like his master, he is best
when he follows the models whom that master contemned.
Perhaps more than any other poet, he set the example of the
classical alexandrine, the smooth and melodious but monotonous
and rather effeminate measure which Racine was to bring to the
highest perfection, and which his successors, while they could not
improve its smoothness, were to make more and more monotonous
until the genius of Victor Hugo once more broke up its facile
polish, supplied its stiff uniformity, and introduced vigour,
variety, colour and distinctness in the place of its feeble sameness
and its pale indecision. But the vigour, not to say the licence,
of the 16th century could npt thus die all at once. In Theophile
de Viau (1592-26^6) the early years of the 17th century had their
Villon. The later poet was almost as unfortunate as the earlier,
and almost as disreputable, but he had a great share of poetical
and not a small one of critical power. The itoile enragie under
which he complains that he was born was at least kind to him
in this respect; and his readers, after he had been forgotten for
two centuries, have once more done him justice. Racan and
Theophile were followed in the second quarter of the century
by two schools which sufficiently well represented the tendencies
of each. The first was that of Vincent Voiture (2598-2648),
Isaac de Bcnseradc (2612-2692), and other poets such as Claude
de Maleville (1 597-1647), author of La Belle Madneusc, who were
connected more or less with the famous literary coterie of the
Hotel dc Rambouillet. Theophile was less worthily succeeded by
a class, it can hardly be called a school of poets, some of whom,
like Glrard Saint-Amant (1594-2660), wrote drinking songs
of merit and other light pieces; others, like Paul Scarron (1610-
1660) and Sarrasin (1603? 4? 5?- 1654), devoted themselves
rather to burlesque of serious verse. Most of the great dramatic
authors of the time also wrote miscellaneous poetry, and there
was even an epic school of the most singular kind, in ridkating
and discrediting which Boilcau for once did undoubtedly good
service. The Pucelle of Jean ChapHain (2 505-1674) , the unfor-
tunate author who was deliberately trained and educated for a
poet, who enjoyed for some time a sort of dictatorship in French
literature on the strength of his forthcoming work, and at whom
from the day of its publication every critic of French literature
has agreed to laugh, was the most famous and perhaps the worst
of these. But Georges de Scudery (1601-1667) wrote aa Alark,
the Pere le Moync (1602-2671) a Saiul Louis, Jcaa Desmareu
dc Saint-Sorlin (1595-1676), a dramatist and critic of some note,
a Clovis, and Saint-Amant a Moisc, which were not much belter,
though Theophile CauU'erixf his Grotesques has valiantly defended
these and other contemporary versifiers. And indeed it cannot
be denied that even the epics, especially Saint Louis, contain
flashes of finer poetry than France was to produce for more than
a century outside of the drama. Some of the lighter poets and
classes of poetry just alluded to also produced some remarkable
verse. The Pricieuses of the H6tel Rambouillet, with all their
absurdities, encouraged if they did not produce good literary
work. In their society there is no doubt that a great reformation
of manners took place, if not of morals, and that the tendency
to literature elegant and polished, yet not destitute of vigour,
which marks the 17th century, was largely developed aide by
side with much scandal-mongering and anecdotage. Many of the
authors whom these influences inspired, such as Voiture, Saint-
Evremond and others, have been or will be noticed. But even
such poets and wits as Antoinc Baudouin de Sencce (2643-1737).
Jean dc Segrais (1624-1701), Charles Faulure de Ris, sieur de
Charlcval (162 2-1693), Antoine Godeau (2605-2672), Jean Ogier
de Gombaud (1590-2666), arc not without interest in the history
of literature; while if Charles Cotin (1604-168 2) sinks below this
level and deserves Moli Ore's caricature of him as Trissotin in
Les Femmss savantes, Gillcs de Menage (2630-2692) certainly
rises above it, notwithstanding the companion satire of Vadius.
Menage's name naturally suggests the Ana which arose at this
time and were long fashionable, stores of endless gossip, some-
times providing instruction and often amusement. The Guir-
landc de Julie, in which most of the poets of the time celebrated
Julie d'Angcnncs, daughter of the marquise de Rambouillet, is
perhaps the best of all such albums, and Voiture, the typical poet
of the coterie, was certainly the best writer of vers dc socuti
who is known to us. The poetical war which arose between the
Uranistes, the followers of Voiture, and the Jobistes, those of
Benserade, produced reams of sonnets, epigrams and similar
verses. This habit of occasional versification continued long.
It led as a less important consequence to the rhymed Ckadtes of
Jean Lorct (d. 2665), which recount in octosyllabic verse of a
light and lively kind the festivals and court events of the early
years of Louis XIV. It led also to perhaps the most remarkable
non-dramatic poetry of the century, the Conies and Fables of
Jean de la Fontaine (1622-2695). No French writer is better
known than la Fontaine, and there is no need to dilate on his
merits. It has been well said that he completes Moliere, and that
the two together give something to French literature which no
other literature possesses. Yet la Fontaine is after all only a
writer of fabliaux, in the language and with the manners of his
own century.
All the writers we have mentioned belong more or less to the
first half of the century, and so do Valentin Conrart (2603-1675),
Antoine Fureticrc (1626-2688), Chapclle (Claude Emmanuel)
l'Huillicr (1626-1686), and others not worth special mention.
The latter half of the century is far less productive, and the
poetical quality of its production is even lower than the quantity.
In it Boilcau (2636-2722) is the chief poetical figure. Next to
him can only be mentioned Madame Dcsboulicres (2638-2694),
Guillaume de Brlbeuf (2628-2662), the translator of Lucan,
Philippe Quinault (2635-2688), the composer of opera libretti.
Boilcau's satire, where it has much merit, is usually borrowed
direct from Horace, He had a certain faculty as a critic of the
slashing order, and might have profitably used it if he had written
in prose. But ofliispcetryU must be said, not so much that it ii
17TH-CENTURY DRAMA!
FRENCH LITERATURE
129
bad, as that it is not, in strictness, poetry at all. and the same
is generally true of all those who followed him.
J7tk-Century Drama.— -We have already seen how the medieval
theatre wasiormed, and how in the second half of the 16th century
it met with a formidable rival in the classical drama of Jodelle
and Gamier. In 1588 mysteries had been prohibited, and with
the prohibition of the mysteries the Confraternity of the Passion
lost the principal part of its reason for existence. The other
bodies and societies of amateur actors had already perished, and
at length the Hdtel de Bourgogne itself, the home of the con-
fraternity, had been handed over to a regular troop of actors,
while companies of strollers, whose life has been vividly depicted
in the Roman comique of Scarron and the Capitaine Pracasse
of Theophile Gautier, wandered all about the provinces. The old
farce was for a time maintained or revived by Tabarin, a remark-
able figure in dramatic history, of whom but little is known.
The great dramatic author of the first quarter of the 17th century
was Alexandre Hardy (1569-163 1), who surpassed even Hcywood
^^ in fecundity, and very nearly approached the por-
IUiC,m tentous productiveness of Lope de Vega. Seven
hundred is put down as the modest total of Hardy's pieces, but
not much more than a twentieth of these exist in print. From
these latter we can judge Hardy. They are hardly up to the
level of the worst specimens of the contemporary Elizabethan
theatre, to which, however, they bear a certain resemblance.
Marston's Insatiate Countess and the worst parts of Chapman's
Bussy oVAmbois may give English readers some notion of them.
Yet Hardy was not totally devoid of merit. He imitated and
adapted Spanish literature, which was at this time to France
what Italian was in the century before and English in the century
after, in the most indiscriminate manner. But he had a consider-
able command of grandiloquent and melodramatic expression,
a sound theory if not a sound practice of tragic writing, and that
peculiar knowledge of theatrical art and of the taste of the
theatrical public which since his time has been the special posses-
sion of the French playwright. It is instructive to compare the
influence of his irregular and faulty genius with that of the regular
and precise Malhcrbe. From Hardy to Rotrou is, in point of
literary interest, a great step, and from Rotrou to Corneille a
greater. Yet the theory of Hardy only wanted the genius of
Rotrou and Corneille to produce the latter. Jean de Rotrou
(16x0-1650) has been called the French Marlowe, and there is
a curious likeness and yet a curious contrast between
Kttnm ' the two poets. The best parts of Rotrou's two best
plays, Venceslas and St Genes t, are quite beyond comparison
in respect of anything that preceded them, and the central
speech of the last-named play will rank with anything in
French dramatic poetry. Contemporary with Rotrou were
other dramatic writers of considerable dramatic importance,
most of them distinguished by the faults of the Spanish
school, its declamatory rodomontade, its conceits, and its
occasionally preposterous action. Jean de Schelandrc (d.
i6j5> has left us a remarkable work in Tyr et Sidjn, which
exemplifies in practice, as its almost more remarkable prefaco by
Francois Ogier defends in principle, the English-Spanish model.
Theophile de Viau in Pyratne ct Thisbi and in Pasiphai produced
s singular mixture of the classicism of Gamier and the extra-
vagancies of Hardy. Scudcry in V Amour tyrannique and other
plays achieved a considerable success. The Marianne of Tristan
(1601-1655) and the Sophonisbe of Jean de Mairet (1604- 1686)
are the chief pieces of their authors. Mairet resembles Marston
in something more than his choice of subject. Another dramatic
writer of some eminence is Pierre du Rycr (1606-1648). But
the fertility of France at this moment in dramatic authors
was immense; nearly 100 are enumerated in the first quarter
of the century. The early plays of Pierre Corneille
(1606-1684) showed all the faults of his contemporaries
combined with merits to which none of them except Rotrou,
and Rotrou himself only in part, could by claim. His first play
was UHUe, a comedy, and in Clilandre, a tragedy, he soon pro-
duced what may perhaps be not inconveniently taken, as the
typical piece of the school of Hardy. A full account of Corneille
may be found elsewhere. It is sufficient to say here that his
importance in French literature is quite as great in the way of
influence and example as in the way of intellectual excellence.
The Cid and the Menteur are respectively the first examples of
French tragedy and comedy which can be called modern. But
this influence and example did not at first find many imitators.
Corneille was a member of Richelieu's band of five poets. Of
the other four Rotrou alone deserves the title; the remaining
three, the prolific abbe de Boisrobert, Guillaume Coiletet (whose
most valuable work, a MS. Lives of Poets, was never printed, and
burnt by the Communards in 1871), and Claude de Lestoile
(1597-1651)) are as dramatists worthy of no notice, nor were they
soon followed by others more worthy. Yet before many years
had passed the examples which Corneille had set in tragedy and
in comedy were followed up by unquestionably the greatest comic
writer, and by one who long held the position of the greatest
tragic writer of France. Beginning with mere farces of the
Italian type, and passing from these to comedies still of an Italian
character, it was in Les Pricieuses ridicules, acted in 1659, that
Molicre (1623-1673), in the words of a spectator, hit M _, t _
at lost on " la bonne comfidic." The next fifteen years M9mt *
comprise the whole of his best known work, the finest expression
beyond doubt of a certain class of comedy that any literature
has produced. The tragic masterpieces of Racine o ae »^ m
(1630-1690) were not far from coinciding with the *■"■*■
comic masterpieces of Molicre, for, with the exception of the
remarkable aftergrowth of Esther and Athotie, they were produced
chiefly between 1667 and 1677. Both Racine and Molierc fall
into the class of writers who require separate mention. Here
we can only remark that both to a certain extent committed
and encouraged a fault which distinguished much subsequent
French dramatic literature. This was the too great individualiz-
ing of one point in a character, and the making the man or woman
nothing but a blunderer, a lover, a coxcomb, a tyrant and the
like. The very titles of French plays show this influence — they
are Le Grondttir, Lt Joueur, &c. The complexity of human
character is ignored. This fault distinguishes both Moliere and
Racine from writers of the very highest order; and in especial
it distinguishes the comedy of Molidre and the tragedy of Racine
from the comedy and tragedy of Shakespeare. In all probability
this and other defects of the French drama (which are not wholly
apparent in the work of Molierc and Corneille, are shown in
their most favourable light in those of Racine, and appear in all
their deformity in the successors of the latter) arise from tho
rigid adoption of the Aristotelian theory of the drama with its
unities and other restrictions, especially as transmitted by Horace
through Boilcau. This adoption was very much due to the in-
fluence of the French Academy, which was founded unofficially
by Conxort in 1620, which received official standing six years liter,
and which continued the tradition of Malhcrbe in
attempting constantly to school and correct, as the / uj*j»y < ,
phrase went, the somewhat disorderly instincts of
the early French stage. Even the Cid was formally censured
for irregularity by it. But it is fair to say that Francois H6d61in,
abbe d'Aubignac (1604-1676), whose Pratique du tktdtre is the
most wooden of the critical treatises of the time, was not an,
academician. It is difficult to say whether the subordination
of all other classes of composition to the drama, which has ever
since been characteristic of French literature, was or was not
due to the predilection of Richelieu, the main protector if not
exactly the founder of the Academy, for the theatre. Among
the immediate successors and later contemporaries of the three
great dramatists we do not find any who deserve high rank at
tragedians, though there are some whose comedies arc more than
respectable. It is at least significant that the restrictions im-
posed by the academic theory on the comic drama were far less
severe than those which tragedy had to undergo. The latter was
practically confined, in respect of sources of -attraction, to the
dexterous manipulation of the unities; the interest of a plot
attenuated as much as possible, and intended to produce, instead
of pity a mild sympathy, and instead of terror a mild alarm
(for the purists decided against Corneille that "admiration was not.
13°
FRENCH LITERATURE
(I7TS-CBNTURY FICTION
a tragic passion "); and lastly the composition of long tirades
of smooth but monotonous verses, arranged in couplets tipped
with delicately careful rhymes. Only Thomas Corneille (1625-
2709), the inheritor of an older tradition and of a great name,
deserves to be excepted from the condemnation to be passed on
the lesser tragedians of this period. He was unfortunate in
possessing his brother's name, and in being, like him-, too volumin-
ous in his compositions; but Comma, Ariane, Le ComH d' Essex,
axe not tragedies to be despised. On the other hand, the names of
Jean de Campistron (1656-1723) and Nicolas Pradon (1632-1698)
mainly serve to point injurious comparisons; Joseph Francois
Duchl (1668-1704) and Antoine La Fosse (1653-1708) are of still
less importance, and Quinault's tragedies are chiefly remarkable
because he had the good sense to give up writing them and to
take to opera. The general excellence of French comedy, on the
other hand, was sufficiently vindicated. Besides the splendid
sum of Moliere's work, the two great tragedians had each, in
Le Meuteur and Les Plaideurs $ set a capital example to their
successors, which was fairly followed. David Augustin de
Brucys (1640-17 23) and Jean Palaprat (1650-1721) brought out
once more the ever new Advocat Paleliu besides the capital
Grondeur already referred to. Quinaull and Campistron wrote
fair comedies. Florcnt Carton Dancourt (1661-1726), Charles
Riviere Dufresny (c. 1654-1724), Edmond Boursault (1638-1 701),
were all comic writers of considerable merit. But the chief comic
dramatist of the latter period of the 17th century was Jean
Francois Regnard (1655-1700), whose Joueur and Ltgaloirt
are comedies almost of the first rank.
17th-century Fiction.— In the department of literature which
comes between poetry and prose, that of romance-writing,
the 17th century, excepting one remarkable develop-
ment, was not very fertile. It devoted itself to so
many new or changed forms of literature that it had no
time to anticipate the modern novel Yet at the beginning
of the century one very curious form of romance-writing was
diligently cultivated, and its popularity, for the time immense,
prevented the introduction of any stronger style. It is remark-
able that, as the first quarter of the 17 th century was pre*
eminently the epoch of Spanish influence in France, the distinctive
satire of Cervantes should have been less imitated than the
models which Cervantes satirized. However this may be, the
romances of 1600 to 1650 form a class of literature vast, isolated,
and, perhaps, of "all such classes of literature most utterly
obsolete and extinct. Taste, affectation or antiquarian diligence
have, at one time or another, restored to a just, and sometimes
a more than just, measure of reputation most of the literary
relics of the past. Romances of chivalry, fabliaux, early drama,
Provencal poetry, prose chronicles, have all had, and deservedly,
their rehabilitators. But PoUxandre and CUopdtre, CUlie and
the Grand Cyrus, have been too heavy for all the industry and
energy of literary antiquarians. As we have already hinted,
the nearest ancestry which can be found for them is the romances
of the Amadis type. But the Amadis, and in a less degree its
followers, although long, are long in virtue of incident. The
romances of the CUlie type are long in virtue of interminable
discourse, moralizing and description. Their manner is not
unlike that of the Arcadia and the Eupkues which preceded them
in England; and they express in point of style the tendency
which simultaneously manifested itself all over Europe at this
period, and whose chief exponents were Gongora in Spain,
Marini in Italy, and Lyry in England. Everybody knows the
Carte <U Tendrt which originally appeared in CUlie, while most
people have heard of the shepherds and shepherdesses who
figure in the Astrie of Honor* D'Urfe (1 568-1625), on the borders
of the Iignon; but here general knowledge ends, and there is
perhaps no reason why it should go much further. It is suffi-
cient to say that Madeleine de Scudery (1607- 1701) principally
devotes herself in the books above mentioned to laborious
gallantry and heroism, La Calprcntde (1610-1663) in Cassandre
et Cliopdtre to something which might have been the historical
novel if it had -been constructed on a less preposterous scale,
sad Mjuin le Roy de. Combcrvilk (1600-1647) in PUexandn
to moralizings and theological discussions on Jansenist principles,
while Pierre Camus, bishop of Belky (1582-1652), in Palombe
and others, approached still nearer to the strictly religious story.
In the latter part of the century, the example of La Fontaine,
though he himself wrote in poetry, helped to recall the tale-
tellers of France to an occupation more worthy of them, more
suitable to the genius of the literature, and more likely to last
The reaction against the CUlie school produced first Madame de
Villedieu (Catherine Desjardins) (1632-1692), a fluent and
facile novelist, who enjoyed great but not enduring popularity.
The form which the prose tale took at this period was that of
the fairy story. Pcrrault (1628-1703) and Madame d'Aulnoy
(d. 1 705)composed specimens of this kind which have never ceased
to be popular since. Hamilton (1646-17 20), the author of the
well-known Mtmoires du comte de Gramcnl, wrote similar stories
of extraordinary merit in style and ingenuity. There is yet a
third class of prose writing which deserves to be mentioned. It
also may probably be traced to Spanish influence, that is to say,
to the picaresque romances which the 16th and 17th centuries
produced in Spain in large numbers. The most remarkable
example of this is the Roman comique of the burlesque writer
Scarron. The Roman bourpois of Antoine Furetiere (1610-1688)
also deserves mention as a collection of pictures of the life of the
time, arranged in the most desultory manner, but drawn with
great vividness, observation and skill. A remarkable writer who
had great influence on Molierc has also to be mentioned in this
connexion rather than in any other. Thus is Cyrano de Bergerac
(1610-1655), who, besides composing doubtful comedies and
tragedies, writing political pamphlets, and exercising the task
of literary criticism in objecting to Scarron 's burlesques, produced
in his Hisloires comiqucs des Oats et empires de la luneet dm soleU,
half romantic and half satirical compositions, in which some
have seen the original of Gulliver's Travels, in which others have
discovered only a not very successful imitation of Rabelais,
and which, without attempting to decide these questions, may
fairly be ranked in the same class of fiction with the masterpieces
of Swift and Rabelais, though of course at an immense distance
below them. One other work, and in literary influence perhaps
the most remarkable of its kind in the century, remains. Madame
de Lafayette, Marie de la Vergne (1634-1692), the friend of La
Rochefoucauld and of Madame de Sevign6, though she did not
exactly anticipate the modern novel, showed the way to it in
her stories, the principal of which are Zaide and still more La
Princesse de Gives. The latter, though a long way from Manon
Lescaut, Clarissa, or Tom Jones, is a longer way still from Poles*
andre or the Arcadia. The novel becomes in it no longer a more
or less fictitious chronicle, but an attempt at least at the display
of character. La Princesse de Cleves has never been one of the
works widely popular out of their own country, nor perhaps
does it deserve such popularity, for it has more grace than
strength; but as an original effort in an important direction
its historical value is considerable. But with this exception,
the art of fictitious prose composition, except on a small scale,
is certainly not one in wtucb the century excelled, nor are any
of the masterpieces which it produced to be ranked in this dass.
ijthrCenlmy Prose. — If, however, this was the case, it cannot
be said that French prose as a whole was unproductive at this
time. On' the contrary, it was now, and only now, jt a ^
that it attained the strength and perfection for which BatimctH
it has been so long renowned, and which has perhaps,
by a curious process of compensation, somewhat '
deteriorated since the restoration of poetry proper 4
in France. The prose Malherbe of French literature was Jean
Guez de Balzac (1 504-1654). The writers of the 17th century
had practically created the literary language of prose, but they
had not created a prose style. The charm of Rabelais, of Amyot,
of Montaigne, and of the numerous writers of tales and memoirs
whom we have noticed, was a charm of exuberance, of narvet6,
of picturesque effect— in short, of a mixture of poetry and prose,
rather than of prose proper. Sixteenth-century French prose
is a delightful instrument in the hands of men and women of
genius* but in th* hands of those who have not genius it is full
ITW-CENTURY HISTORY)
FRENCH LITERATURE
«3«
of defects, mud indeed is nearly unreadable. Now, prose is*
essentially an instrument of all work. The poet who has not
genius had better not write at all; the prose writer often may
and sometimes must dispense with this qualification. He has
need, therefore, of a suitable machine to help him to perform
his task, and this machine it is the glory of Balzac to have done
more than any other person to create. He produced himself
no great work, his principal writings being letters, a few discourses
and dissertations, and a work entitled Le Socrate chrtiien, a
sort of treatise on political theology. But if the matter of his
Work is not of the first importance, its manner isof a very different
value. Instead of the end leas diffuseness of the preceding century,
its ill-formed or rather unformed sentences, and its haphazard
periods, we find clauses, sentences and paragraphs distinctly
planned, shaped and balanced, a cadence introduced which is
rhythmical but not metrical, and, in short, prose which is written
knowingly instead of the prose which is unwittingly talked.
It has been well said of him that he " lent pour icrire "; and
such a man, it is evident, if he does nothing else, sets a valuable
example to those who. write because they have something to say.
Yoiture seconded Balzac without much intending to do so.
His prose style, also chiefly contained in letters, is lighter than
that of his contemporary, and helped to gain for French prose
the tradition of vivacity and sparkle which it has always
possessed, as well as that of correctness and grace.
I^th-Century History. — In historical composition, especially
in the department of memoirs, this period was exceedingly rich.
At last there was written, in French, an entire history of France.
The author was Francois Eudes de Mezeray (1610-1683), whose
work, though not exhibiting the perfection of style at which some
of his contemporaries had already arrived, and though still more
01 less uncritical, yet deserves the title of history. The example
was followed by a large number of writers, some of extended
works, some of histories in part. Mezeray himself is said to
have had a considerable share in the Histoire du roi Henri le
grand by the archbishop Pe*r£fixe (1605-1670); Louis Maimbourg
(16 10-1686) wrote histories of the Crusades and of the League;
Paul Pellisson (1624-1693) gave a history of Louis XIV. and a
more valuable Memoire in defence of the superintendent Fouquet.
Still later in the century, or at the beginning of the next, the
Fere d'Orleans (1 644-1 608) wrote a history of the revolutions
of England, the P£re Daniel (1640-1 7 28), like d'Orleans a
Jesuit, composed a lengthy history of France and a shorter one
on the French military forces. Finally, at the end of the period,
comes the great ecclesiastical history of Claude Fleury (1640-
1713) f * work which perhaps belongs more to the section of
erudition than to that of history proper. Three small treatises,
however, composed by different authors towards the middle
part of the century, supply remarkable instances of prose style
in its application to history. These are the Conjurations du
ctmte de Fiesaue, written by the famous Cardinal de Rctz
(1613-1679), the Conspiration de Walstcin of Sarrasin, and the
Conjuration des Espagnots contrt Venist, composed in 1672
by the abbe' de Saint-Rial (1639-169 2), the author of various
historical and critical works deserving less notice. These three
works, whose similarity of subject and successive composition
at short intervals leave little doubt that a certain amount of
intentional rivalry animated the two later authors, are among
the earliest and best examples of the monographs for which
French, in point of grace of style and lucidity of exposition,
has long been the most successful vehicle of expression among
European languages. Among other writers of history, as
distinguished from memoirs', need only be noticed Agrippa
d'Aubigoe, whose Histoire universclle closed his long and varied
sst of works, and Varillas (1624-1696), a historian chiefly
remarkable for his extreme untrust worthiness. In point of
memoirs and correspondence the period is hardly less fruitful
than that which preceded it. The Rigistres-Jonrnanx of Pierre
de l'&oilc (1540-161 1) consist of a dia-y something of the Pepys
I character, kept for nearly forty years by a person in high official
1 employment. The memoirs of Sully (1560-1641), published
Boder a curious title too long to quote, date also from this time.
Henri IV. himself has left a considerable correspondence,
which is not destitute of literary merit, though not equal to the
memoirs of bis wife. What are commonly called Richelieu's
Memoirs were probably written to his order; his Testament
politique may be his own. Henri de Rohan (1 570-1638) has not
memoirs of the first value. Both this and earner times found
chronicle in the singular Historiettes of Gedcon Tallemant des
Reaux (1610-1600), a collection of anecdotes, frequently scandal-
ous, reaching from the times of Henri IV. to those of Louis XIV.,
to which may be joined the letters of Guy Patin (1602-1676).
The early years of the latter monarch and the period of the
Fronde had the cardinal de Rctz himself, than whom no one
was certainly better qualified for historian, not to mention a
crowd of others, of whom we may mention Madame de Motce*
ville (x6ax-x68o), Jean Ittrault de Gourville (2625-1703),
Mademoiselle de Montpensaer ("La Grande Mademoiselle ")
(1627-1603), Conrart, Turenne and Mathieu Mole 1 (1584-1663),
Francois du Val, marquis de Fontenay-Mareuil (1504-1655),
Arnauld d'Andilly (1588-1670). From this time memoirs and'
memoir writers were ever multiplying. The queen of them
all is Madame de Sevigni (1626-1696), on whom, as on most of
the great and better-known writers whom we have had and shall
have to mention, it is impossible here to dwell at length. The
last half of the century produced crowds of similar but inferior
writers. The memoirs of Roger de Bussy-Rabutin (1618-1693)
(author of a kind of scandalous chronicle called Histoire amou-
reuse des Gaules) and of Madame dc Maintenon (2635-1719)
perhaps deserve notice above the others. But this was in truth
the style of composition in which the age most excelled. Memoir-
writing became the occupation not so much of persons who
made history, as was the case from Comines to Rctz, as of those
who, having culture, leisure and opportunity of observation,
devoted themselves to the task of recording the deeds of others,
and still more of regarding the incidents of the busy, splendid
and cultivated if somewhat frivolous world of the court, in which,
from the time of Louis XIV. '$ majority, the political life of the
nation and almost its whole history were centred. Many, if not
most; of these writers were women, who thus founded the cele-
brity of the French lady for managing her mother-tongue,
and justified by results the taste and tendencies of the blue-
stockings and prcacuses of the H6tcl RambouiUet and similar
coteries. The life which these writers saw before them furnished
them with a subject to be handled with the minuteness and care
to which they had been accustomed in the ponderous romances
of the ClilU type, but also with the wit and terseness hereditary
in France, and only temporarily absent in those ponderous
compositions. The efforts of Balzac and the Academy supplied
a suitable language and style, and the increasing tendency
towards epigrammatic moralizing, which reached its acme
in La Rochefoucauld (1663-1680) and La Bruydre (1639-1696),
added in most cases point and attractiveness to their writings.
rjth-Century Philosophers and Tftcologians.—To these moralists
we might, perhaps, not inappropriately pass at once. But it
seems better to consider first the philosophical and §f t§nmft9i
theological developments of the age, which must share
with its historical experiences and studies the credit of producing
these writers. Philosophy proper, as we have already had
occasion to remark, had hitherto made no use of the vulgar
tongue. The 16th century had contributed a few vernacular
treatises on logic, a considerable body of political and ethical
writing, and a good deal of sceptical speculation of a more or
less vague character, continued into our present epoch by such
writers as Francois de la Mothe le Vayer (1 588-1672), the last
representative of the orthodox doubt of Montaigne and Charron.
But in metaphysics proper it had not dabbled. The x 7th century,
on the contrary, was to produce in RcnS Descartes (1596-1650), at
once a master of prose style, the greatest of French philosophers,
and one of the greatest metaphysicians, not merely of France
and of the 17th century, but of all countries and times. Even
before Descartes there had been considerable and important
developments of metaphysical speculation in France. TKe futt.
eminent philosopher cA ¥ tench V»x\b >*»%* Yweus. c^iAfcB&. V\ W*
132
FRENCH LITERATURE [philosophers a theologians
1655). Gassendi devoted himself to the maintenance of a
modernised form of the Epicurean doctrines, but he wrote mainly,
if not entirely, in Latin. Another sceptical philosopher of a less
scientific character was the physicist Gabriel Naud£ (1600-1653),
who, like many others of the philosophers of the time, was
accused of atheism. But as none of these could approach
Descartes in philosophical power and originality, so also none
has even a fraction of his importance in the history of French
literature. Descartes stands with Plato, and possibly Berkeley
and Malebranche, at the head of all philosophers in respect of
style; and in his case the excellence is far more remarkable
than in others, inasmuch as he had absolutely no models, and
was forced in a great degree to create the language which he
used. The Discours ds la ntitkode is not only one of the epoch*
making books of philosophy, it is also one of the epoch-making
books of French style. The tradition of his clear and perfect
expression was taken up, not merely by his philosophical disciples,
but also by Blaise Pascal (1623- 1662) and the school of
Port Royal, who will be noticed presently. The very genius
of the Cartesian philosophy was intimately connected with
this clearness, distinctness and severity of style; and there is
something more than a fanciful contrast between these literary
characteristics of Descartes, on the one hand, and the elaborate
splendour of Bacon, the knotty and crabbed strength of Hoboes,
and the commonplace and almost vulgar slovenliness of Locke.
Of the followers of Descartes, putting aside the Port Royalists,
by far the most distinguished, both in philosophy and in literature,
„ . is Nicolas Malebranche (1638-17 15). His Recherche
de la viriii, admirable as it is for its subtlety and its
consecutivencss of thought, is equally admirable for
its elegance of style. Malebranche cannot indeed, like his great
master, claim absolute originality. But his excellence as a
writer is as great as, if not greater than, that of Descartes, and the
Recherche remains to this day the one philosophical treatise of
great length and abstruseness which, merely as a book, is delight-
ful to read — not like the works of Plato and Berkeley, because
of the adventitious graces of dialogue or description, but from
the purity and grace of the language, and its admirable adjust-
ment to the purposes of the argument. Yet, for all this, philo-
sophy hardly nourished in France. It was too intimately
connected with theological and ecclesiastical questions, and
especially with Jansenism, to escape suspicion and persecution.
Descartes himself was for much of his life an exile in Holland
and Sweden; and though the unquestionable orthodoxy of
Malebranche, the strongly religious cast of his works, and the
remoteness of the abstruse region in which be sojourned from
that of the controversies of the day, protected him, other followers
of Descartes were not so fortunate. Holland, indeed, became
a kind of dty of refuge for students of philosophy, though even
in Holland itself they were by no means entirely safe from
persecution. By far the most remarkable of French philosophical
gw;^ sojourners in the Netherlands was Pierre Bayle
(164 7-1 706), a name not perhaps of the first rank in
respect of literary value, but certainly of the first as regards
literary influence. Bayle, after oscillating between the two
confessions, nominally remained a Protestant in religion. In
philosophy he in the same manner osculated between Descartes
and Gassendi, finally resting in an equally nominal Cartesianism.
Bayle was, in fact, both in philosophy and in religion, merely
a sceptic, with a scepticism at once like and unlike that of
Montaigne, and differenced both by temperament and by circum-
stance—the scepticism of the mere student, exercised more or
less in all histories, sciences and philosophies, and intellectually
unable or unwilling to take a side. His st yle is hardly to be called
good, being diffuse and often inelegant. But his great dictionary,
though one of the most heterogeneous aicd unmethodical of
compositions, exercised an enormous influence. It may be
called the Bible of the x8th century, and contains in the germ
all the desultory philosophy, the ill-ordered scepticism, and the
critical but negatively critical acuteness of the Aufklttrung.
We have said that the philosophical, theological and moral
tendencies of the century, which produced, with the exception
of its dramatic triumphs, all its greatest literary works, axe almost
inextricably interminglecL Its earliest years, however, bear
in theological matters rather the complexion of the ._
previous century. Du Perron and St Francis of Saks liaftftL
survived until nearly the end of its first quarter, and the
most remarkable works of the latter bear the dates of 1608 and
later. It was not, however, till some years had passed, till the
counter-Reformation had reconverted the largest and most
powerful portion of the Huguenot party, and till the influence of
Jansenius and Descartes bad time to work, that the extraordinary
outburst of Gallican theology, both in pulpit and 1n press, took
place. The Jansenist controversy may perhaps be awarded the
merit of provoking this, as far as writing was concerned. The
astonishing eloquence of contemporary pulpit oratory may be set
down partly to the zeal for conversion of which du Perron and
de Sales had given the example, partly to the same taste of the
time which encouraged dramatic performances, for the sermon
and the tirade have much in common. Jansenius himself, though
a Dutchman by birth, passed much time in France, and it was
in France that he found most disciples. These disciples consisted
in the first place of the members of the society of Port Royal
des Champs, a coterie after the fashion of the time, but one which
devoted itself not to sonnets or madrigals but to devotional
exercises, study and the teaching of youth. This coterie early
adopted the Cartesian philosophy, and the Port Royal
Logic was the most remarkable popular hand-book
of that schooL In theology they adopted Jansenism,
and were in consequence soon at daggers drawn with the Jesuit*
according to the polemical habits of the time. The most dis-
tinguished champions on the Jansenist side were Jean Duvergier
de Hauranne, abbe" de St Cyran(i 581-1643), and Antoine Arnauld
(1 560-1619), but by far the most important literary results of the
quarrel were the famous Protincialcs of Pascal, or, to give them
their proper title, Lettrts Utiles d un provincial. ****»»
Their literary importance consists, not merely in their
grace of style, but in the application to serious discussion of the*
peculiarly polished and quiet irony of which Pascal is the greatest
master the world has ever seen. Up to this time com roversy had
usually been conducted either in the mere bludgeon fashion of
the Scaligerx and Saumaiscs — of which in the vernacular the
Jesuit Francois Garasse (1585-1631) had already contributed
remarkable examples to literary and moral controversy — or else
in a dull and legal style, or lastly under an envelope of Rabelaisian
buffoonery such as survives to a considerable extent in the
5o//>c Mtnippie. Pascal set the example of combining the use
of the most terribly effective weapons with good humour, good
breeding and a polished style. The example was largely
followed, and the manner of Voltaire and his followers in the 18th
century owes at least as much to Pascal as their method and
matter do to Bayle. The Jansenist s, attacked and persecuted by
the civil power, which the Jesuits had contrived to interest,
were finally suppressed. But the Provinciates had given them
an unapproachable superiority in matter of argument and
literature. Their other literary works were inferior, though still
remarkable. Antoine Arnauld (the younger, often called *' the
great ") (161 2-1604) and Pierre Nicole (1625-1605) managed
their native language with vigour if' not exactly with grace.
They maintained their orthodoxy by writings, not merely against
the Jesuits, but also against the Protestants such as the Pet-
pHuitt de la foi due to both, and the A pologie da Calholiqves
written by Arnauld alone. The latter, besides being responsible
for a good deal of the Logic (L'Ari de penser) to which we have
alluded, wrote also much of a Grammaire ginitale composed
by the Port Royalists for the use of their pupils; but his principal
devotion was to theology and theological polemics. To the latter
Nicole also -contributed Let Visionnaircs, Let lmaginatrts and
other works. The studious recluses of Port Royal also produced
a large quantity of miscellaneous literary work, to which full
justice has been done in Sainte-Beuve's well-known volumes.
tylh-Ctnlury Preacher 1.— -When we think of GalBean theology
during the 17th century, it is always with the famous pulpit
orators of the period that thought is most busied. Nor is this
17TH-CENTURY MORALISTS]
FRENCH LITERATURE
133
unjust, lor though the most prominent of them all, Jacques
Blnigne Bossuet (1627-1704) was remarkable as a writer of
matter Intended to be read, not merely as a speaker of matter
intended to be heard, this double character is not possessed
by most of the orthodox theologians of the time; and even
Bossuet, great as is his genius, is more of a rhetorician than of a
philosopher or a theologian. In no quarter was the advance of
culture more remarkable in France than in the pulpit. We have
already had occasion to notice the characteristics of French pulpit
eloquence in the 15th and 16th centuries. Though this was very
far from destitute of vigour and imagination, the political frenzy
of the preachers, and the habit of introducing anecdotic buf-
foonery, spoilt the eloquence of Maitlard and of Raulin, of
Boucher and of Rose. The powerful use which the Reformed
ministers made of the pulpit stirred up their rivals; the advance
in science and classical study added weight and dignity to the
matter of their discourses. The improvement of prose style and
language provided them with a suitable instrument, and the
growth of taste and refinement purged their sermons of grossness
and buffoonery, of personal allusions, and even, as the monarchy
became more absolute, of direct political purpose. The earliest
examples of this improved style were given by St Francis de
Sales and by Fcnouillct, bishop of Marseilles (d. 1652); but it
was not till the latter half of the century, when the troubles of
the Fronde had completely subsided, and the church was estab-
lished in the favour of Louis XIV., that the full efflorescence of
theological eloquence took place. There were at the time pulpit
orators of considerable excellence in England, and perhaps
Jeremy Taylor, assisted by the genius of the language, has
wrought a vein more precious than any which the somewhat
academic methods and limitations of the French teachers
allowed them to reach. But no country has ever been able
to show a more magnificent concourse of orators, sacred or
profane, than that formed by Bossuet, Fenelon (1651-1715),
Esprit FIcchier (1632-1710), Jules Mascaron (1634-170$),
Louis Bourdaloue (1632-1704), and Jean Baptiste Massillon
(1663-1742), to whom may be justly added the Protestant
divines, Jean Claude (16 10-1687) and Jacques Saurin (1677-1 730).
The characteristics of all these were different. Bossuet,
the earliest and certainly the greatest, was also the most
universal. He was not merely a preacher; he was, as wc have
said, a controversialist, indeed somewhat too much of a con-
troversialist, as his battle with Fenelon proved. He was a
philosophical or at least a theological historian, and his Discours
sur Vkistoire unircrsclU is equally remarkable from the point of
view of theology, philosophy, history and literature. Turning
to theological politics, he wrote his Politique lirte de Fecriture
ttinte, to theology proper his UidUations sur Us cvangilcs
and his dictations sur Us mysteres. But his principal work, after
all, is his Oraisons futtcbrcs. The funeral sermon was the special
oratorical exercise of the time. Its subject and character in-
vited the gorgeous if somewhat theatrical commonplaces, the
display of historical knowledge and parallel, and the moralizing
analogies, in which the age specially rejoiced. It must also be
noticed, to the credit of the preachers, that such occasions gave
them an opportunity, rarely neglected, of correcting the adulation
which was but too frequently characteristic of the period. The
spirit of these compositions is fairly reflected in the most famous
and often quoted of their phrases, the opening " Mes frcres, Dieu
Kul est grand " of Massillon's funeral discourse on Louis XIV.;
and though panegyric is necessarily by no means absent, it is
rarely carried beyond bounds. While Bossuet. made himself
chiefly remarkable in lu's sermons, and in his writings by an
almost Hebraic grandeur and rudeness, the more special character-
istics of Christianity, largely alloyed with a Greek and Platonic
Fisehm. s Pirit, displayed themselves in Fenelon. In pure
literature he is not less remarkable than in theology,
politics and morals. His practice in matters of style was admir-
able, as the universally known Ttiimaque sufficiently shows to
those who know nothing else of his writing. But his taste, both
in its correctness and its audacity, is perhaps more admirable
stilL Despite of Malherbc, Balzac, Boilean and the traditions
of nearly a century, be dared to speak favourably of Ronsard,
and plainly expressed his opinion that the practice of his own
contemporaries and predece ss ors had cramped and impoverished
the French language quite as much as they had polished or puri-
fied it The other doctors whom we have mentioned were mora
purely theological than the accomplished archbishop of Cambray.
Flechier is somewhat more archaic in style than Bossuet or
Fenelon, and he is also more definitely a rhetorician than either.
Mascaron has the older fault of prodigal and somewhat indis-
criminate erudition. But the two latest of the series, Bourdaloue
and Massillon, had far the greatest repute in their own time
purelyasorators,andpcrhapsdescrvedthispreference. The differ-
ence between the two repeated that between du Perron and de
Sales. Bourdaloue's great forte was vigorous argument and
unsparing denunciation, but he is said to have been lacking in
the power of influencing and affecting his hearers. His attraction
was purely intellectual, and it is reflected in his style, which is
dear and forcible, but destitute of warmth and colour. Massillon,
on the other hand, was remarkable for his pathos, and for his
power of enlisting and influencing the sympathies of his hearers.
Of minor preachers on the same side, Charles de la Rue, a Jesuit
(1643-1725), and the Pere Chcminais (1652-1680), according to a
somewhat idle form of nomenclature, "the Racine of the pulpit,"
may be mentioned. The two Protestant ministers whom we
have mentioned, though inferior to their rivals, yet deserve
honourable mention among the ecclesiastical writers of the
period. Claude engaged in a controversy with Bossuet, in
which victory b claimed for the invincible eagle of Means.
Saurin, by far the greater preacher of the two, long continued to
occupy, and indeed still occupies, in the libraries of French
Protestants, the position given to Bossuet and Massillon on the
other side.
ijtk-Ctnlury Moralists. — It is not surprising that the works
of Montaigne and Charron, with the immense popularity of the
former, should have inclined the more thoughtful minds in France
to moral reflection, especially as many other influences, both
direct and indirect, contributed to produce the same result.
The constant tendency of the refinements in French prose was
towards clearness, succinctness and precision, the qualities
most necessary in the moralist. The characteristics of the
prevailing philosophy, that of Descartes, pointed in the same
direction. It so happened, too, that the times were more favour-
able to the thinker and writer on ethical subjects than to the
speculator in philosophy proper, in theology or in politics.
Both the former subjects exposed their cultivators, as we have
seen, to the suspicion of unorthodoxy; and to political specula-
tion of any kind the rule of Richelieu, and still more that of
Louis XIV., were in the highest degree unfavourable. No
successors to Bodin and du Vair appeared; and even in the
domain of legal writings, which comes nearest to that of politics,
but few names of eminence are to be found.
Only the name of Omer-Talon (1595-1652) really illustrates
the legal annals of France at this period on the bench, and that
of Olivier Patru ( 1604- 1 681) at the bar. Thus it
happened that the interests of many different classes JJJJJ^f
of persons were concentrated upon moral izings, which writing.
took indeed very different forms in the hands of Pascal
and other grave and serious thinkers of the Jansenist complexion
ia theology, and in those of literary courtiers like Saint-£vremond
(16 13-1703) and La Rochefoucauld, whose chief object was to
depict the motives and characters prominent in the brilliant
and not altogether frivolous society in which they moved. Both
classes, however, were more or less tempted by the cast of their
thoughts and the genius of the language to adopt the tersest
and most epigrammatic form of expression possible, and thus
to originate the " penste " in which, as its greatest later writer,
Joubcrt, has said, " the ambition of the author is to put a
book into a page, a page into a phrase, and a phrase into a word."
The great genius and admirable style of Pascal are certainly
not less shown in his Pensies than in his Provinciates, though
perhaps the literary form of the former is les*%lvvV>v&$ta va\>\a»
than that of ita \attw . 1\* vtiCnni Vk mt» temk&tf^ V* \s*
»34
FRENCH LITERATURE
ftim-CEirrusy
subject and dominates it less. Nicole, a far inferior writer as
well as thinker, has also left a considerable number of Pensies,
which have about them something more of the essay and less
of the aphorism. They are, however, though not comparable
to Pascal, excellent in matter and style, and go far to justify
Bayle in calling their author " Tune des plus belles plumes de
I'Europe." In sharp contrast with these thinkers, who are
invariably not merely respecters of religion but ardently and
avowedly religious, who treat morality from the point of view
of the Bible and the church, there arose aide by side with them,
or only a little later, a very different group of moralists, whose
writings have been as widely read, and who have had as great
a practical and literary influence as perhaps any other class
of authors. The earliest to be born and the last to die of these
was Charles de Saint-Denis, seigneur de saint-£vremond(i6x3-
-.. 1703). Saint-£vremond was long known rather as a
2J£aio»#. conversational wit, some of whose good things were
handed about in manuscript, or surreptitiously printed
In foreign lands, than as a writer, and this is still to a certain
extent bis reputation. He was at teast as cynical as his still
better known contemporary La Rochefoucauld, if not more so,
and he had less intellectual force and less nobility of character.
put his wit was very great, and he set the example of the brilliant
societies of the next century. Many of Saint-£vremond's
printed works are nominally works of literary criticism, but
the moralizing spirit pervades all of them. No writer had a
greater influence on Voltaire, and through Voltaire on the
whole course of French literature after him. In direct literary
value, however, no comparison can be made between Saint-
£vremond and the author of the Sentences ei maximes morales.
Francois, due de la Rochefoucauld (16x3-1680), has other literary
claims besides those of this famous book. His Memoires
were very favourably judged by his contemporaries,
and they are still held to deserve no little praise even
among the numerous and excellent works of the kind which that
age of memoir-writers produced. But while the Memoires thus
invite comparison, the Maximes ei sentences stand alone. Even
allowing that the mere publication of detached reflections in
terse language was not absolutely new, it had never been carried,
perhaps has never since been carried, to such a perfection.
Beside La Rochefoucauld all other writers are diffuse, vacillating,
unfinished, rough. Not only is there in him never a word too
much, but there is never a word too little. The thought is always
fully expressed, not compressed. Frequently as the metaphor
of minting or stamping coin has been applied to the art of manag-
ing words, it has never been applied so appropriately as to the
maxims of La Rochefoucauld. The form of them is almost
beyond praise, and its excellencies, combined with their immense
and enduring popularity, have had a very considerable share in
influencing the character of subsequent French literature. Of
hardly less importance in this respect, though of considerably
less intellectual and literary individuality, was the translator
of Theophrastus and the author of the Caracteres, La Bruy&re.
Jean de la Bruyere (1645-1606), though frequently
epigrammatic, did not aim at the same incredible
terseness as the author of the Maximes. His plan did
not, indeed, render it necessary. Both in England and in France
there had been during the whole of the century a mania for
character writing, both of the general and Theophrastic kind, and
of the historical and personal order. The latter, of which our
own Clarendon is perhaps the greatest master, abound in the
French memoirs of the period: The former, of which the naive
sketches of Earle and Overbury are English examples, culminated
in those of La Bruytre, which are not only light and easy in
manner and matter, but also in style essentially amusing, though
instructive as well. Both be and La Rochefoucauld had an
enduring effect on the literature which followed them— an effect
perhaps superior to that exercised by any other single work in
French, except the Roman de la rose and the Essais of Montaigne.
17th-century Savants.— Of the literature of the 17th century
there only remains to be dealt with the section of those writers
*»bo devoted tbemseJvt* to scientific pursuit* or to antiquarian
erudition of one form or another. It was in this century that
literary criticism of French and in French first began to be largely
composed, and after this time we shall give h a separate heading.
It was very far, however, from attaining the excellence or
observing the form which it afterwards assumed. The institution
of the Academy led to various linguistic works. One of the
earliest of these was the Remarques of the Savoyard Claude
Favre de Vaugelas (1505-1650), afterwards re-edited by Thomas
Corneille. Pellisson wrote a history of the Academy itself when
it had as yet but a brief one. The famous Examcn du Cid was
an instance of the literary criticism of the time which was
afterwards represented by Rene* Rapin (1621-1689), Dominique
Bouhours (1628-1702) and Rene* de Bossu (1631-1680), while
Adrien BaUlet (1640-1706) has collected the largest thesaurus
of the subject in his Jugemens des savants. Boilcau set the
example of treating such subjects in verse, and in the latter part
of the century Reflexions, Discourses, Observations, and the like,
on particular styles, literary forms and authors, became exceed-
ingly numerous. In earlier years France possessed a numerous
band of classical scholars of the first rank, such as Scaliger and
Casaubon, who did not lack followers. But all or almost all this
sort of work was done in Latin, so that it contributed little to
French literature properly so-called, though the translations from
the classics of Nicolas Perrot d'Ablancourt (1606-1664) have
always taken rank among the models of French style. On the
other hand, mathematical studies were pursued by persons of
far other and far greater genius, and, taking from this time
forward a considerable position in education and literature in
France, had much influence on both. The mathematical dis-
coveries of Pascal and Descartes are well known. Of science
proper, apart from mathematics, France did not produce many
distinguished cultivators in this century. The philosophy of
Descartes was not on the whole favourable to such investigations,
which were in the next century to be pursued with ardour. Its
tendencies found more congenial vent and are more thoroughly
exemplified in the famous quarrel between the Ancients
and the Moderns. This, of Italian origin, was mainly
started in France by Charles Perrault (1628-1703),
who thereby rendered much less service to literature ****
than by his charming fairy tales. The opposite side JU
was taken by Boileau, and the fight was afterwards
revived by Antoine Houdar[d, t) de la Motte (1672-1 731), a
writer of little learning but much talent in various ways, and
by the celebrated Madame Dacier, Anne Lefevre (1654-1720).
The discussion was conducted, as is well known, without very
much knowledge or judgment among the disputants on the one
aide or on the other. But at this very time there were in France
students and scholars of the most profound erudition. We
have already mentioned Flcury and his ecclesiastical history.
But Fleury is only the last and the most popular of a race of
omnivorous and untiring scholars, whose labours have ever since,
until the modern fashion of first-band investigations came in,
furnished the bulk of historical and scholarly references and
quotations. To this century belong le Nain de Tillemont (1637-
1608), whose enormous Hisloire des empereurs and Memoires
pour servir a V hisloire ecdesiastique served Gibbon and a
hundred others as quarry; Charles Dufresne, seigneur de
Ducange (16x4-1688), whose well-known glossary was only one
of numerous productions; Jean Mabillon (1632-1707), one
of the most voluminous of the voluminous Benedictines; and
Bernard de Montfaucon (1655-1741), chief of all authorities of
the dry-as-dust kind on classical archaeology and art.
Opening of the i8lh Century.— The beginning of the x8th
century is among the dead seasons of French literature. All
the greatest men whose names had illustrated the early reign of
Louis XIV. in profane literature passed away long before him,
and the last if the least of them, Boileau and Thomas Corneille,
only survived into the very earliest years of the new age. The
political and military disasters of the last years of the reign were
accompanied by a state of things in society unfavourable to
literary development. The devotion to pure literature and philo-
sophy proper which Descartes and Corneille had inspired had
POETRY AND DRAMA)
FRENCH LITERATURE
»35
died out, and the devotion to physical science, to sociology,
and to a kind of free-thinking optimism which was to inspire
Voltaire and the Encyclopedists had not yet become fashionable.
Fendon and Malebranche still survived, but they were emphatic-
ally men of the last age, as was Massillon, though he lived till
nearly the middle of the century. The characteristic literary
figures of the opening years of the period are d'Aguesseau,
Fontenelle, Saint-Simon, personages in many ways interesting
and remarkable, but purely transitional in their characteristics.
Bernard le BovJcr de Fontenelle (1657-1757) is, indeed, perhaps
the most typical figure of the time. He was a dramatist, a
moralist, a philosopher, physical and metaphysical, a critic, an
historian, a poet and a satirist. The manner of his works is
always easy and graceful, and their matter rarely contemptible.
i8th-Ceniury Poetry. — The dispiriting signs shown during the
17th century by French poetry proper received entire fulfilment
in the following age. The two poets who were most prominent
at the opening of the period were the abbe de Chaulieu (1630-
1720) and the marquis de la Fare (1644-1712), poetical or rather
versifying twins who are always quoted together. They were
both men who lived to a great age, yet their characteristics are
rather those of their later than of their earlier contemporaries.
They derive on the one band from the somewhat trifling school
of Voiture, on the other from the Bacchic sect of Saint-Amant;
and they succeed in uniting the inferior qualities of both with
the cramped and impoverished though elegant style of which
Fenelon had complained. Their compositions are as a rule
lyrical, as lyrical poetry was understood after the days of Mai*
herbe — *hat is to say, quatrains of the kind ridiculed by Moliere,
and Pindaric odes, which have been justly described as made
up of alexandrines after the manner of Boileau cut up into shorter
or longer lengths. They were followed, however, by the one
poet who succeeded in producing something resembling poetry
in this artificial style, J. B. Rousseau (167 1-1741).
^ II|M<M Rousseau, who in some respects was nothing so little
asa religious poet, was neverthclessstrongly influenced,
as Marot had been, by the Psalms of David. His Odes and his
Cantates are perhaps less destitute of that spirit than the work
of any other poet of the century excepting Andre Chenier.
Rousseau was also an extremely successful epigrammatist,
having in this respect, too, resemblances to Marot. Le Franc
de Pompignan (1700-1784), to whom Voltaire's well-known
sarcasms are not altogether just, and Louis Racine (1692-1763),
who wrote pious and altogether forgotten poems, belonged to
the same poetical school; though both the style and matter of
Racine are strongly tinctured by his Port Royalist sympathies
and education. Lighter verse was represented in the 18th
century by the long-lived Saint-Aulaire (1643-1742), by Gcntil
Bernard ( 1 710-1 77s), by the abbe (afterwards cardinal) de Bernis
(1715-1794), by Claude Joseph Dorat (1734-1780)1 by Antoine
Benin (1752-1700) and by Evariste de Pamy (1753-1814), the
list the most vigorous, but all somewhat deserving the term
applied to Dorat of ver luisant du Parnasse. The jovial traditions
of Saint-Amant begat a similar school of anacreontic songsters,
which, represented in turn by Charles Francois Panard (1674-
1765), Charles Colle (1709-1783), Arraand Goufte (1 775-1845),
and Marc- Antoine-Madeleinc Desaugiers ( 1 7 7 2-1827 ), led directly
to the best of all such writers, Bcrangcr. To this class Rouget
de Lisle (i 760-1836) perhaps also belongs; though his most
famous composition, the Marseillaise, is of a different stamp.
Nor is the account of the light verse of the 18th century complete
without reference to a long succession of fable writers, who, in an
unbroken chain, connect La Fontaine in the 17th century with
Viennet in the 19th. None of the links, however, of this chain,
with the exception of Jean Pierre Florian (1750-1794) deserve
much attention. The universal faculty of Voltaire
(1694-1778) showed itself in his poetical productions
no less than in his other works, and it is perhaps not
least remarkable in verse. It is impossible nowadays to regard
the Henriade as anything but a highly successful prize poem,
but the burlesque epic of La Put die, discreditable as it may be
boo the moral point of view, is remarkable enough as literature.
The epistles and satires are among the best of their kind, the
verse tales are in the same way admirable, and the epigrams,
impromptus, and short miscellaneous poems generally are the
ne plus ultra of verse which is not poetry. The Anglomania
of the century extended into poetry, and the Seasons of Thomson
set the example of a whole library of tedious descriptive verse,
which in its turn revenged France upon England by producing
or helping to produce English poems of the Darwin schooL
The first of these descriptive performances was the Saisons
of Jean Francois de Saint-Lambert (17 16-1803), identical in
title with its model, but of infinitely inferior value. Saint-
Lambert was followed by Jacques Delille (1738-18 13) in Les
Jar dins, Antoine Marin le Mierre (17 23-1 793) in Les Pastes,
and Jean Antoine Roucher ( 745-1704) in Les Mots. Indeed,
everything that could be described was seised upon by these
describers. Delille also translated the Geortics, and for a time
was the greatest living poet of France, the title being only dis-
puted by Escouchard le Btun (1720-1807), a lyrist and ode
writer of the school of J. B. Rousseau, but not destitute of energy.
The only other poets until Ch£nier who deserve notice are
Nicolas Gilbert (1751- 1780)— the French Chatterton, or per-
haps rather the French Oldham, who died in a workhouse at
twenty-nine after producing some vigorous satires and, at the
point of death, an elegy of great beauty; Jacques Charles Louis
Clinchaut de Malfilatre (1732-2767), another short-lived poet
whose " Ode to the Sun " has a certain stateliness; and Jean
Baptiste Gresset (1 709-1777), the author of Ver-Vert and of other
poems of the lighter order, which are not far, if at all, below the .
level of Voltaire. Andr6 Ch£nier (1762-1794) stands cbinhr.
far apart from the art of his century, though the strong
chain of custom, and his early death by the guillotine, prevented
him from breaking finally through the restraints of its language
and its versification. Ch6nier, half a Greek by blood, was wholly
one in spirit and sentiment. The manner of his verses, the very
air which surrounds them and which they diffuse, are different
from those of the 18th century; and his poetry is probably the
utmost that its language and versification could produce. To
do more, the revolution which followed a generation after his
death was required.
i8th-Ccntury Drama. — The resultsof the cultivation of dramatic
poetry at this time were even less individually remarkable than
those of the attention paid to poetry proper. Here again the
astonishing power and literary aptitude of Voltaire gave value to
his attempts in a style which, notwithstanding that it counts
Racine among its practitioners, was none the less predestined
to failure. Voltaire's own efforts in this kind are indisputably at
successful as they could be. Foreigners usually prefer Mahomet
and Zaire to Bajawtl and Mithridate, though there is no doubt
that no work of Voltaire's comes up to Polyeucie and Rodogune,
as certainly no single passage in any of his plays can approach
the best passages of Cinna and Les Horaces. But the remaining
tragic writers of the century, with the singleexception of Crebillon
pert, are scarcely third-rate. C Jolyot de Crebillon (1674-1 76a)
himself had genius, and there are to be found in his work evidences
of a spirit which had seemed to die away with SaitU-Genest, and
was hardly to revive until Hernani. Of the imitators of Racine
and Voltaire, La Motte in Inisde Castro was not wholly unsuccess-
ful. Francois Joseph de la Grange-Chancel (1677-1758) copied
chiefly the worst side of the author of Britannkus, and Bernard
Joseph Saurin (1706-1781) and Pierre-Laurent de Belloy (1727-
1775) performed the same service for Voltaire. Le Mierre and La
Harpe, mentioned and to be mentioned, were tragedians; but
the Iphigtnie en Tauride of Guimond de la Touche (1725-1760)
deserves more special mention than anything of theirs. There
was an infinity of tragic writers and tragic plays in this century,
but hardly any others of them even deserve mention. The muse
of comedy was decidedly more happy in her devotees. Moliere
was a far safer if a more difficult model than Racine, and the
inexorable fashion which had bound down tragedy to a feeble
imitation of Euripides did not similarly prescribe an undeviating
adherence to Terence. Tragedy had never becu > has raurc&s
been since, any\\un&W\. *AtTO\&Vn>Tn«x\ttKnR&i- -*rt&*V^s*
136
FRENCH LITERATURE
(FICTION
<pi*r*).
•oil and native. Very early in the century Alain Rent le Sage
(1668-1747), in the admirable comedy of Turcaret, produced a
work not unworthy to stand by the side of all but his master's
best. Philippe Destouches (1680-1754) was also a fertile comedy
writer in the early years of the century, and in Le Gloriatx and
Le Philosophc marii achieved considerable success. As the age
went on, comedy, always apt to lay hold of passing events,
devoted itself to the great struggle between the Philosophes and
their opponents. Curiously enough, the party which engrossed
almost all the wit of France had the worst of it in this dramatic
portion of the contest, if in no other. The Mlckant of Gresset and
the Milromanie of Alexis Piron (1680-1773) were far superior
to anything produced on the other side, and the Philosophes of
Charles Palissot de Montenoy (1730-1814), though scurrilous
and broadly farcical, had a great success. On the other hand, it
was to a Philosophe that the invention of a new dramatic style
was due, and still more the promulgation of certain ideas on
dramatic criticism and construction, which, after being filtered
through the German mind, were to return to France and to
exercise the most powerful influence on its dramatic productions.
This was Denis Diderot (1713-1784), the most fertile
genius of the century, but also the least productive
in finished and perfect work. His chief dramas, the
Pils naturcl and the Pere de famille, are certainly not great
successes; the shorter plays, Est-U bont est-4l rnichant? and
La PUce el le prologue, are better. But it was his follower
Michel Jean Sldaine (1710-1707) who, in Le Philosophe sans le
. savoir and other pieces, produced the best examples of the bour-
geois as opposed to the heroic drama. Diderot is sometimes
credited or discredited with the invention of the Conttdie Larmoy-
ante, a title which indeed bis own plays do not altogether refuse,
but this special variety seems to be, in its invention, rather the
property of Pierre Claude Nivelle de la Chaussee (1692-1754).
Comedy sustained itself, and even gained ground towards the end
of the century; the Jeune Indienne of Nicolas Chamfort (1741-
1704), if not quite worthy of its author's brilliant talent in other
paths, is noteworthy, and so is the BUkI perdu of Joseph Francois
Edouard de Corsemblcu Desmahis (1722-1761), while at the
extreme limit of our present period there appears the remark-
able figure of Pierre Caron de Deaumarchais (1732-1709). The
Manage de Figaror and the Barbier de Seville are well known as
having had attributed to them no mean place among the literary
causes and forerunners of the Revolution. Their dramatic and
literary value would itself have sufficed to obtain attention for
them at any time, though there can be no doubt that their
popularity was mainly due to their political appositeness. The
most remarkable point about them, as about the school of
comedy of which Congreve was the chief master in England at
the beginning of the century, was the abuse and superfluity of
wit in the dialogue, indiscriminately allotted to all characters
alike. It is difficult to give particular*, but would be improper
to omit all mention, of such dramatic or quasi-dramatic work
as the libretti of operas, farces for performance at fairs and the
like. French authors of the time from Le Sage downwards
usually managed these with remarkable skill.
iSth-Century Fiction.— With prose fiction the case was alto-
gether different. We have seen how the short tale of a few
pages had already in the 16th century attained high if not the
highest excellence; how at three different periods the fancy for
long-winded prose narration developed itself in the prose re-
handlings of the chivalric poems, in the Atnadis romances,
and in the portentous recitals of Gombervifte and La Calprenede;
how burlesques of these romances were produced from Rabelais
to Scarron; and how at last Madame de Lafayette showed the
way to something like the novel of the day. If we add the fairy
story, of which Perrault and Madame d'Aulnoy were the chief
practitioners, and a small class of miniature romances, of which
Aucassin el Nicolette in the 13th, and the delightful Jehan de
Paris (of the 1 5th or 16th, in which a king of England is patriotic-
ally sacrificed) are good representatives, we shall have exhausted
the list. The 18th century was quick to develop the system
of the muthor of the Prhtcesse de C lives, but it did not abandon
the cultivation of the romance, that is to say, fiction dealing
with incident and with the simpler passions, in devoting itself
to the novel, that is to say. fiction dealing with the analysts
of sentiment and character. Le Sage, its first great novelist, in
his Diable boiteux and Gil Bias, went to Spain not merely for
his subject but also for his inspiration and manner, following
the lead of the picaroon romance of Rojas and Scarron. Like
Fielding, however, whom he much resembles, Le Sage mingled
with the romance of incident the most careful attention to char-
acter and the most lively portrayal of h, while his style and
language are such as to make his work one of the classics of
French literature. The novel of character was really founded
in France by the abb6 Prevost d'Exilles (1697-1763), the author
of Cleveland and of the incomparable Manon Lcscaul. The
popularity of this style was much helped by the immense vogue
in France of the works of Richardson. Side by side with it,
however, and for a time enjoying still greater popularity, there
flourished a very different school of fiction, of which Voltaire,
whose name occupies the first or all but the first place in every
branch of literature of hb time, was the most brilliant cultivator.
This was a direct development of the earlier 1 conic, and consisted
usually of the treatment, in a humorous, satirical, and not
always over-decent fashion, of contemporary foibles, beliefs,
philosophies and occupations. These tales are of every rank
of excellence and merit both literary and moral, and range from
the astonishing wit, grace and humour of Candide and Zadig
to the book which is Diderot's one hardly pardonable sin, and
the similar but more lively efforts of QvibxWon fils (1707- 1777).
These latter deeps led in their turn to the still lower depths
of La Clos and Louvet. A third class of 18th-century fiction
consists of attempts to return to the humorous fatrasie of the
16th century, attempts which were as much influenced by Sterne
as the sentimental novel was by Richardson. The Homme
aux quaronte tens of Voltaire has something of this character,
but the most characteristic works of the style are the Jacques
le fatalists of Diderot, which* shows it nearly at its best, and
the Compere Mathieu, sometimes attributed to Pigault-Lebrun
(17S3-1835), but no doubt in reality due to Jacques du Laurens
(1719-1707), which shows it at perhaps its worst. Another
remarkable story-teller was Cazotte (1710-1792), whoso Diable
amoureux displays much fantastic power, and connects itself
with a singular fancy of the time for occult studies and diablerie,
manifested later by the patronage shown to CagKostro, Mesmer,
St Germain and others. In this connexion, too, may perhaps
also be mentioned most appropriately Bestif de la Bretonne,
a remarkably original and voluminous writer, who was little
noticed by his contemporaries and successors for the best part
of a century. Restif, who was nicknamed the " Rousseau of
the gutter," Rousseau du ruisseau, presents to an English
imagination many of the characteristics of a non-moral Defoe.
While these various schools busied themselves more or less with
real life seriously depicted or purposely travestied, the great
vogue and success of Tilimaque produced a certain number of
didactic works, in which moral or historical information was
sought to be conveyed under a more or less thin guise of fiction.
Such was the Voyage du jeune Anacharsis of Jean Jacques
BartMlemy (1716-1705); such the Numa Pom pit i us and
Gonzahc de Cordoue of Florian (1755-1794), who also deserves
notice as a writer of pastorals, fables and short prose tales;
such the Bilisaire and Les Incas of Jean Francois Marmontel
(1723-1709).. Between this class and that of the novel of senti-
ment may perhaps be placed Paul ct Virginie.und La ChaumUn
indienne; though Bernardin de Saint-Pierre (1737-1814) should
more properly be noticed after Rousseau and as a moralist.
Diderot's fiction-writing has already been referred to more than
once, but his Rdigieuse deserves citation here as a powerful
specimen of the novel both of analysis and polemic; while his
undoubted masterpiece, the Ncveu de Ramcau, though very
difficult to class, comes under this head as well as under any
other. There are, however, two of the novelists of this age, and
of the most remarkable, who have yet to be noticed, and these
are the author ol Marianne and the author of Julie. We do
HISTORY]
FRENCH LITERATURE
137
not mention Pierre de Marivaux (1688-1763) in this connexion
as the equal of Jean Jacques Rousseau (17 12-1778), but merely
as being in his way almost equally original and equally remote
from any suspicion of school influence. He began with burlesque
writing, and was also the author of several comedies, of which
Les Fausses Confidences is the principal. But it is in prose fiction
that he really excels. He may claim to have, at least in the
opinion of his contemporaries, invented a style, though perhaps
the term marivaudage, which was applied to it, has a not alto-
gether complimentary connotation. He may claim also to have
invented the novel without a purpose, which aims simply at
amusement, and at the same time does not seek to attain that
end by buffoonery or by satire. Gray's definition of happiness,
" to lie on a sofa and read endless novels by Marivaux " (it is
true that be added Crebillon), is well known, and the production
of mere pastime by means more or less harmless has since become
so weil-recognized a function of the novelist that Marivaux, as
one of the earliest to discharge it, deserves notice. The name,
however, of Jean Jacques Rousseau is of far different
FrimwMii importance. His two great works, the Nouvelle
HtUOsc and £mile, are as far as possible from being
perfect as novels. But no novels in the world have ever had
such influence as these. To a great extent this influence was
due mainly to their attractions as novels, imperfect though they
may be in this character, but it was beyond dispute also owing
to the doctrines which they contained, and which were exhibited
in novel form.
Such are the principal developments of fiction during the
century; but it is remarkable that, varied as they were, and
excellent as was some of the work to which they gave rise, none
of these schools was directly very fertile in results or successors.
The period with which we shall next have to deal, that from
the outbreak of the Revolution to the death of Louis XVIII., is
curiously barren of fiction of any merit. It was not till English
influence began again to assert itself in the later days of
the Restoration that the prose romance began once more to be
written.
i8ih-Ceniury History.— It is not, however, in any of the
departments of beUes4etlres that the real eminence of the 18th
century as a time of literary production in France consists.
In all serious branches of study its accomplishments were, from
a literary point of view, remarkable, uniting as it did an extra-
ordinary power of popular and literary expression with an ardent
spirit of inquiry, a great speculative ability, and even a far more
considerable amount of laborious erudition than is generally
supposed. The historical studies and results of 18th-century
speculation in France are of especial and peculiar importance.
There is no doubt that what is called the science of history
dates from this time, and though the beginning of it is usually
assigned to the Italian Vico, its complete indication may perhaps
with equal or greater justice be claimed by the Frenchman
Turgot. Before Turgot, however, there were great names in
French historical writing, and perhaps the greatest of all is that
of Charles Secondat de Montesquieu (1680-1755). The three
principal works of this great writer are all historical and at the
same lime political in character. In the Lettrts persanes he
handled, with wit inferior to the wit of no other writer even in
that witty age, the corruptions and dangers of contemporary
morals and politics. The literary charm of this book— the
plan of which was suggested by a work, the Amusements struux
et comiques, of Dufresny (1648-1 7 24), a comic writer not destitute
of merit — is very great, and its plan was so popular as to lead
to a thousand imitations, of which all, except those of Voltaire
and Goldsmith, only bring out the immense superiority of the
original. Few things could be more different from this lively
and popular book than Montesquieu's next work, the Grandeur
et decadence des Romains, in which the same acutencss and
knowledge of human nature are united with considerable erudi-
tion^and with a weighty though perhaps somewhat grandiloquent
and rhetorical style. His third and greatest work, the Esprit
des his, is again different both in style and character, and such
defect* is it has are mm nothing when compared with the merits
of its fertility in ideas, its splendid breadth of view, and the
felicity with which the author, in a manner unknown before,
recognizes the laws underlying complicated assemblages of fact.
The style of this great work is equal to its substance; less light
than that of the Lettres, less rhetorical than that of the Grandeur
des Remains, it is still a marvellous union of dignity and wit.
Around Montesquieu, partly before and partly after him, is
a group of philosophical or at least systematic historians, of
whom the chief are Jean Baptiste Dubos (1670-1742), and G.
Bonnot de Mably (1700- 1785). Dubos, whose chief work is not
historical but aesthetic {Rifiexions sur la poisie et la peinture),
wrote a so-called Hist aire critique de Vttablisscmeut de la monarckk
franchise, which is as far as possible from being in the modern
sense critical, inasmuch as, in the teeth of history, and in order
to exalt the Tiers Hat, it pretends an amicable coalition of Franks
and Gauls, and not an irruption by the former. Mably (Observa-
tions sur I'hisUrirc de la France) bad a much greater influence
than either of these writers, and a decidedly mischievous one,
especially at the period of the Revolution. He, more than any
one else, is responsible for the ignorant and childish extolling
of Greek and Roman institutions, and the still more ignorant
depreciation of the middle ages, which was for a time character-
istic of French politicians. Montesquieu was, as we have said,
followed by Anne Robert Jacques Turgot (1 727-1781), whose
writings are few in number, and not remarkable for style, but
full of original thought. Turgot in his turn was followed by
Condorcet (1743- 1704), whose tendency is somewhat more
sociological than directly historical. Towards the end of the
period, too, a considerable number of philosophical histories
were written, the usual object of which was, under cover of a kind
of allegory, to satirize and attack the existing institutions and
government of France. The most famous of these was the
Histoire des Indes, nominally written by the Abb6 Guillaume
Thomas Francois Raynal (17 15-1796), but really the joint work
of many members of the Philosophe party, especially Diderot.
Side by side with this really or nominally philosophical school
of history there existed another and less ambitious school, which
contented itself with the older and simpler view of the science.
The Abbe Rent de Vertot (1655-1735) belongs almost as much
to the 17th as to the 18th century; but his principal works,
especially the famous Histoire des Chevaliers de Malte, date from
the later period, as do also the Rivolutions romaines. Vertot
is above all things a literary historian, and the well-known
" Mon siege est fait," whether true or not, certainly expresses
his system. Of the same school, though far more comprehensive,
was the laborious Charles Rollin (1661-1741), whose works in.
the original, or translated and continued in the case of the
Histoire rotnaine by Jean Baptiste Louis Crevier (1603-1765), >
were long the chief historical manuals of Europe. The president
Charles Jean Francois Henault (1 685-1 770), and Louis Pierre
Anquetil (1 723-1 806) were praiseworthy writers, the first of
French history, the second of that and much else. In the same
class, too, far superior as is his literary power, must be ranked
the historical works of Voltaire, Charles XII t Pierre le Grand,
&c. A very perfect example of the historian who is literary
first of all is supplied by Claude Carloman de Rulhicre (1735-
1701), whose Revolution en Russie en 1762 is one of the little
masterpieces of history, while his larger and posthumous work on
the last days of the Polish kingdom exhibits perhaps some of
the defects of this class of historians. Lastly must be mentioned
the memoirs and correspondence of the period, the materials
of history if not history itself. The century opened wi th the most
famous of all these, the memoirs of the due de Saint-Simon
(1675-1755), an extraordinary series of pictures of the court
of Louis XIV. and the Regency, written in an unequal and
incorrect style, but with something of the irregular excellence
of the great 16th-century writers, and most striking in the sombre
bitterness of its tone. The subsequent and less remarkable
memoirs of the century are so numerous that it is almost impos-
sible to select a few for reference, and altogether impossible t*
mention all. CM those btinxxi <y& \>\&>\k. Y£v*\aci >fc*. xaKtwsoa
of Madame de Su& W&* \>ni»»*i\ VjfcWvw^ * ^>«».-
138
FRENCH LITERATURE [philosophy and theouxw
Louis de Voyer, marquis d'Argenson (1604-1757)1 of Charles
Pinot Dudos (1704-1772), of Stephanie Fejicite' de Saint-Aubin,
Madame de Genlis (1 746-1830) , of Pierre Victor de Besenval
(1722-1791), of Madame Campan (1752-1822) and of the cardinal
de Bernis (1715-1794), may perhaps be selected for mention;
of those bearing on literary and private history, the memoirs
of Madame d'Epinay (1726-1783), those of Mathieu Marais
(1664-1737) the so-called Mhnoires secrets of Louis Petit de
Bachaumont (1600-1770), and the innumerable writings having
reference to Voltaire and to the Philosophe party generally.
Here, too, may be mentioned a remarkable class of literature,
consisting of purely private and almost confidential letters,
which were written at this time with very remarkable literary
excellence. As specimens may be selected those of Mademoiselle
Aisse" (1604-1757), which are models of easy and unaffected
tenderness, and those of Mademoiselle de Lespinasse (173 2-1 7 76)
the companion of Madame du Deffand and afterwards of
d'Alembert. These latter, in their extraordinary fervour and
passion, not merely contrast strongly with the generally languid
and frivolous gallantly of the age, but also constitute one of its
most remarkable literary monuments. It has been said of them
that they " burn the paper," and the expression is not exagger-
ated. Madame du Deffand 's (1607-1780) own letters, many of
which were written to Horace Walpole, are noteworthy in a very
different way. Of lighter letters the charming correspondence
of Diderot with Mademoiselle Voland deserves special mention.
But the correspondence, like the memoirs of this century, defies
justice to be done to it in any cursory or limited mention. In
this connexion, however, it may be well to mention some of the
most remarkable works of the time, the Confessions, Reveries,
and Promenades d'un solitaire of Rousseau. In these works,
especially in the Confessions, there is not merely exhibited
passion as fervid though perhaps less unaffected thap that of
Mademoiselle de Lespinasse — there appear in them two literary
characteristics which, if not entirely novel, were for the first time
brought out deliberately by powers of the first order, were for the
first time made the mainspring of literary interest, and thereby
set an example which for more than a century has been persist-
ently followed, and which has produced some of the finest
results of modern literature. The first of these was the elaborate
and unsparing analysis and display of the motives, the weaknesses
and the failings of individual character. This process, which
Rousseau unflinchingly performed on himself, has been followed
usually in respect to fictitious characters by his successors. The
other novelty was the feeling for natural beauty and the elaborate
description of it, the credit of which latter must, it has been
agreed by all impartial critics, be assigned rather to Rousseau
than to any other writer. His influence in this direction was,
however, soon taken up and continued by Bernardin de Saint-
Pierre, the connecting link between Rousseau and Chateaubriand,
some of whose works have been already alluded to. In particular
the author of Paul et Virginie set himself to develop the example
of description which Rousseau had set, and his word-paintings,
though less powerful than those of his model, are more abundant,
more elaborate, and animated by a more amiable spirit.
x8lk-Century Philosophy. — The Anglomania which distin-
guished the time was nowhere more stongly shown than in the
cast and direction of its philosophical speculations. As Montes-
quieu and Voltaire had imported into France a vivid theoretical
admiration for the British constitution and for British theories
in politics, so Voltaire, Diderot and a crowd of others popularized
and continued in France the philosophical ideas of Hoboes and
Locke and even Berkeley, the theological ideas of Bolingbroke,
Shaftesbury and the English deists, and the physical discoveries
of Newton. Descartes, Frenchman and genius as he was, and
though his principles in physics and philosophy were long clung
to in the schools, was completely abandoned by the more adven-
turous and progressive spirits. At no time indeed, owing to the
confusion of thought and purpose to which we have already
aitoded, was the word philosophy used with greater looseness
*Aaa at thJs time. Using it, as we have hitherto used it, in the
— "* *f metaphysics, the nujority d the Philosophes have very
little claim to their title. There were some who manifested,
however, an aptitude for purely philosophical argument, and one
who confined himself strictly thereto. Among these the most
remarkable are Julien Offroy de la Met trie (1700-1751) and
Denis Diderot. La Mettrie in his works L' Homme machine,
L' Homme piante, &c, applied a lively and vigorous imagination,
a considerable familiarity with physics and medicine, and a
brilliant but unequal style, to the task of advocating materialistic
ideas on the constitution of man. Diderot, in a series of early
works, Lettre sur les aveugles, Promenade d'un sceptique, Pcnstes
philosophiques, &c, exhibited a good acquaintance with philo-
sophical history and opinion, and gave sign in this direction,
as in so many others, of a far-reaching intellect. As in almost all
his works, however, the value of the thought is extremely unequal,
while the different pieces, always written in the hottest haste,
and never duly matured or corrected, present but few
specimens of finished and polished writing. Charles Bonnet
(1 720-1793), a Swiss of Geneva, wrote a large number of works,
many of which are purely scientific. Others, however, are more
psychological, and these, though advocating the materialistic
philosophy, generally in vogue, were remarkable for uniting
materialism with an honest adherence to Christianity. The
half mystical writer, Louis Claude de Saint-Martin (1743-1803)
also deserves notice. But the French metaphysician o£ the
century is undoubtedly £tienne Bonnot, abbe" de Cmmtm
Condillac (17 14-1780), almost the only writer of the
time in France who succeeded in keeping strictly to philosophy
without attempting to pursue his system to its results in 'ethics,
politics and theology. In the Traiti des sensations, the Essai
sur Vorigine des connaissances humaines and other works
Condillac elaborated and continued the imperfect sensationalism
of Locke. As his philosophical view, though perhaps more re-
stricted, was far more direct, consecutive and uncompromising
than that of the Englishman, so his style greatly exceeded
Locke's in clearness and elegance and as a good medium of
philosophical expression.
x8th-Century Theology. — To devote a section to the history of
the theological literature of the 18th century in France may
seem something of a contradiction; for, indeed, all or most of
such literature was anti-theological. The magnificent list of
names which the church had been able to claim on her side in
the 17th century was exhausted before the end of the second
quarter of the z8th with Massillon, and none came to fill their
place. Very rarely has orthodoxy been so badly defended as at
this time. The literary championship of the church was entirely
in the hands of the Jesuits, and of a few disreputable literary free-
lances like £lic Frtron (1710-1776) and Pierre Francois Guyot,
abbe" Desfontaines ( 1685-1 745) . The Jesuits were learned enough,
and their principal journal, that of TreVoux, was conducted with
much vigour and a great deal of erudition. But they were in the
first place discredited by the moral taint which has always hung
over Jesuitism, and in the second place by the persecutions of the
Jansenists and the Protestants, which were attributed to their
influence. But one single work on the orthodox side has pre-
served the least reputation; while, on the other hand, the names
of Pere Nonotte ( 1 71 1-1 793) and several of his fellows have been
enshrined unenviably in the imperishable ridicule of Voltaire,
one only of whose adversaries, the abbe* Antoine Gu6nee (1717-
1803), was able to meet him in the Lettres de qudqucs Juijs with
something like his own weapons. It has never been at all accur-
ately decided how far what may be called the scoffing ,
school of Voltaire represents a direct revolt against (<i
Christianity, and how far it was merely a kind of
guerilla warfare against the clergy. It is positively certain that
Voltaire was not an atheist, and that he did not approve of
atheism. But his Dictionnaire philosophiaue, which is typical of
a vast amount of contemporary and subsequent literature, con-
sists of a heterogeneous assemblage of articles directed against
various points of dogma and ritual and various characteristics
of the sacred records. From the literary point of view, it is one
of the most characteristic of all Voltaire's works, though it is
perhaps vol e&tiieAy \nt. Tta tasjitaary axtangtmeat, the light
wwALtsrs and politicians) FRENCH LITERATURE
«39
and lively style, the extensive but not always too accurate
_ erudition, and the somewhat captious and quibbling objections,
are intensely Voltairian. But there is little seriousness about it,
and certainly no kind of rancorous or deep-seated hostility.
With many, however, of Voltaire's pupils and younger contem-
poraries the case was altered. They were distinctively atheists
and anti-supernaturalists. The atheism of Diderot, unquestion-
ably the greatest of them all, has been keenly debated; but in
the case of ftienne Damilaville (1733-1768), Jacques Andre 1
Naigeon (1738-1810), Paul Henri Dietrich, baron d'Holbach,
and others there is no room for doubt. By these persons a
great massof atheistic and anti-Christian literature was composed
and set afloat. The characteristic work of this school, its last
word indeed, is the famous Systeme de la nature,
attributed to Holbach (1733-1789), but known to be,
• in part at least , the work of Diderot . In this remark-
able work, which caps the climax of the metaphysical
materialism or rather nihilism of the century, the atheistic
position is dearly put. It made an immense sensation ; and it so
fluttered not merely the orthodox but the more moderate free-
thinkers, that Frederick of Prussia and Voltaire, perhaps the
most singular pair of defenders that orthodoxy ever had, actually
set themselves to refute it. Its style and argument are very
unequal, as books written in collaboration are apt to be, and
especially books in which Diderot, the paragon of inequality,
had a hand. But there is an almost entire absence of the hetero-
geneous assemblage of anecdotes, jokes good and bad, scraps of
accurate or inaccurate physical science, and other incongruous
matter with which the Philosophes were wont to stuff their
works; and lastly, there is in the best passages a kind of sombre
grandeur which recalls the manner as well as the matter of
Lucretius. It is perhaps well to repeat, in the case of so notorious
a book, that this criticism is of a purely literary and formal
character; but there is little doubt that the literary merits of
the work considerably assisted its didactic influence. As the
Revolution approached, and the victory of the Philosophe
party was declared, there appeared for a brief space a group of
cynical and accomplished phrase-makers presenting some simi-
larity to that of which, a hundred years before, Saint-Evremond
was the most prominent figure. The chief of this group were
*■»— jilk . Nicolas Chamfort (1 747-1 7Q4) on the republican side,
SSw. indAnloineRivaroi(i753-i8oi)onthatoftheroyalists.
Like the older writer to whom we have compared them,
neither can be said to have produced any one work of eminence,
and in this they stand distinguished from moralists like
La Rochefoucauld. The floating sayings, however, which are
attributed to them, or which occur here and there in their
miscellaneous work, yield in no respect to those of the most
famous of their predecessors in wit and a certain kind of wisdom,
though they are frequently more personal than aphoristic.
18th-century Moralists and Politicians. — Not the least part,
however, of the energy of the period in thought and writing was
devoted to questions of a directly moral and political kind. With
regard to morality proper the favourite doctrine of the century
was what is commonly called the selfish theory, the only one
indeed which was suitable to the sensationalism of Condillac
and the materialism of Holbach. The pattern book of this
fftfuftfit, doctrine was the De Vespritol Claude Adricn Helvetius
(1715-1771), the most amusing book perhaps which
ever pretended to the title of a solemn philosophical treatise.
There is some analogy between the principles of this work and
those of the Systime de la nature. With the inconsistency —
some would say with the questionable honesty—which dis-
tinguished the more famous members of the Philosophe party
when their disciples spoke with what they considered imprudent
outspokenness, Voltaire and even Diderot attacked Helvetica
as the former afterwards at tacked Holbach. But whatever may
be the general value of Dt V esprit, it is full of acuteness, though
n omaMm that acuteness is as desultory and disjointed as its
style. As Helvetius may be taken as the represent-
ative author of the cynical school, so perhaps Alexandre Gerard
Thomas (1733-1785) nay be taken as representative of the
votaries of noble sentiment to whom we have also alluded.
The works of Thomas chiefly took the form of academic Hoges
or formal panegyrics, and they have all the defects, both io
manner and substance, which are associated with that style.
Of yet a third school, corresponding in form to La Rochefoucauld
and La Bruyere, and possessed of some of the antique vigour
of preceding centuries, was Luc de Clapiers, marquis da
Vauvenargues (1715-1747)* This writer, who died
very young, has produced maxims and reflections JJJUH*
of considerable mental force aad literary finish. From
Voltaire downwards it has been usual to compare him with
Pascal, from whom he is chiefly distinguished by a striking but
somewhat empty stoicism. Between the moralists, of whom we
have taken these- three as examples, and the politicians may
be placed Rousseau, who in his novels and miscellaneous works
is of the first class, in his famous Control social of the second.
All his theories, whatever their originality and whatever their
value, were made novel and influential by the force of their
statement and the literary beauties of its form. Of direct and
avowed political writings there were few during the century, and
none of anything like the importance of the Control social,
theoretical acceptance of the established French constitution
being a point of necessity with all Frenchmen. Nevertheless
it may be said that almost the whole of the voluminous writings
of the Philosophes, even of those who, like Voltaire, were sincerely
aristocratic and monarchic in predilection, were of more or less
veiled political significance. There was one branch of political
writing, moreover, which could be indulged in without much fear.
Political economy and administrative theories received much
attention. The earliest writer of eminence on these subject!
was the great engineer Sebastien le Prestre, marquis de Vaubaa
(1633-1707), whose OisiveUs and Dime royaU exhibit both great
ability and extensive observation. A more Utopian, economist
of the same time was Charles Irene* Castel, abbe de Saint-Pierre
(1658-1743), not to be confounded with the author of Paul et
Virginie. Soon political economy in the hands of Francois
Quesnay ( 1 694-1 774) took a regular form, and towards the middle
of the* century a great number of works on questions connected
with it, especially that of free trade in corn, on which Ferdinand
Galiani (1728-1787), Andre Morellet (1737-1819), both abbes,
and above all Turgot, distinguished themselves. Of writers on
legal subjects and of the legal profession, the century, though not
less fertile than in other directions, produced few or none of any
great importance from the literary point of view. The chief
name which in this connexion is known is that of Chancellor
Henri Francois d'Aguesseau (1668-1751), at the beginning of the
century, an estimable writer of the Port Royal school, who took
the orthodox side in the great disputes of the time, but failed
to display any great ability therein. He was, as became his
profession, more remarkable as an orator than a writer, and his
works contain valuable testimonies to the especially perturbed
and unquiet condition of his century — a disquiet which ispeihaps
also its chief literary note. There were other French magistrates,
such as Montesquieu, Henault (1685-17 70), de Brosses (1706-
1773) and others, who made considerable mark in literature;
but it was usually (except in the case of Montesquieu) in subjects
not even indirectly connected with their profession. The Esprit
des Ms stands alone; but as an example of work barristerial
in kind, famous partly for political reasons but of some real
literary merit, we may mention the Mimoire for Calas written by
J. B. J. £lie de Beaumont (1733-1786).
iSth-Century Criticism and Periodical Literature. — We have said
that literary criticism assumes in this century a sufficient im-
portance to be treated under a separate beading. Contributions
were made to it of many different kinds and from many different
points of view Periodical literature, the chief stimulus to its
production, began more and more to come into favour. Even
in the 17th century the Journal des savants, the Jesuit Journal
de Trtvoux, and other publications hadset the example of different
kinds of it. Just before the Revolution the Gazette de France was
in the hands of J. B. A. Suard (1734-1817), a man who was
nothing it not a literary critic. ?«&»$** tarw*rox*>tat 1
140
FRENCH LITERATURE
[SAVAKTS
remarkable contribution of the century to criticism of the
periodical kind was the Feuillts da Grimm, a circular sent for
many years to the German courts by Friderk Melchior Grimm
(1733-1807), the comrade of Diderot and Rousseau, and con-
taining a compie rendu of the ways and works of Paris, literary
and artistic as well as social These Leaves not only include
much excellent literary criticism by Diderot, but also gave
occasion to the incomparable salons or accounts of the exhibition
of pictures from the same hand, essays which founded the art
of picture criticism, and which have hardly been surpassed since.
The prize competitions of the Academy were also a considerable
stimulus to literary criticism, though the prevailing taste in
such compositions rather inclined to elegant themes than to
careful studies of analyses. The most characteristic critic of
the mid-century was the abbe* Charles Batteux (1713-1780)
who illustrated a tendency of the time by beginning with a treatise
on Les Beaux Arts riduiis & un mime principe (1746) ; reduced it
and others into Principes de la litUralure (1764) and added in
1 77 x Les Quakes PoUiques (Aristotle, Horace, Vidaand Boileau).
Batteux is a very ingenious critic and his attempt to con-
ciliate " taste " and " the rules," though inadequate, is interest-
ing. Works on the arts in general or on special divisions of them
were not wanting, as, for instance, that of Dubos before alluded
to, the Essai sur la peinlure of Diderot and others. Critically
annotated editions of the great French writers also came into
fashion, and were no longer written by mere pedants. Of these
Voltaire's edition of Corneille was the most remarkable, and his
annotations, united separately under the title of Commenlaire
sur Corneille, form not the least important portion of his works.
Even older writers, looked down upon though they were by the
general taste of the day, received a share of this critical interest.
In the earlier portion of the century Nicolas Lenglet-Duf rcsnoy
(1674-1755) and Bernard de la Monnoye (1641-1728) devoted
their attention to Rabelais, Rcgnicr, Villon, Marot and others.
Etienne Barbazan (1606-1770) and P. J. B. Le Grand d'Aussy
( 1 737- x 800) gathered and brought into notice the long scattered
and unknown rather than neglected fabliaux of the middle ages.
Even the chansons de geste attracted the notice of the Comte
de Caylus (1692-1765) and the Comte de Tressan (1705-1783).
The latter, in his Bibliothtque des romans, worked up a large
number of the old epics into a form suited to the taste Of the
century. In his hands they became lively tales of the kind
suited to readers of Voltaire and Crebillon. But in this travestied
form they had considerable influence both in France and abroad.
By these publications attention was at least called to early
French literature, and when it had been once called, a more
serious and appreciative study became merely a matter of time.
The method of much of the literary criticism of the close of this
period was indeed deplorable enough. Jean Francois de la
Harpe (1730-1803), who though a little later in time as to most
of his critical productions is perhaps its most representative
figure, shows criticism in one of its worst forms. The critic
specially abhorred by Sterne, who looked only at the stop-watch,
was a kind of prophecy of La Harpe, who lays it down distinctly
that a beauty, however beautiful, produced in spite of rules is
a "monstrous beauty" and cannot be allowed. But such a
writer is a natural enough expression of an expiring principle.
The year after the death of La Harpe Sainte-Beuve was born.
z8th~Century Savants. — In science and general erudition the
18th century in France was at first much occupied with the
mathematical studies for which the French genius is so peculiarly
adapted, which the great discoveries of Descartes had made
possible and popular, and which those of his supplanter Newton
only made more popular still. Voltaire took to himself the credit,
which he fairly deserves, of first introducing the Newtonian
system into France, and it was soon widely popular— even ladies
devoting themselves to the exposition of mathematical subjects,
as in the case of Gabrielle de Breteuil, marquise du Chatelet
( 1 706-1749) Voltaire's 4I divine fimilie." Indeed ladies played
• great part in the literary and scientific activity of the century,
by actual contribution sometimes, but still more by continuing
mad' extending the tradition of "salons," The duchejge du
Maine, Mesdames de Lambert, de Tencin, Geoffrin, du DcrTand,
Necker, and above all, the baronne d' Holbach (whose husband,
however, was here the principal personage) presided over coteries '
which became more and more " philosophical" Many of the
greatest mathematicians of the age, such as de Moivre tad
Laplace, were French by birth, while others like Euler belonged
to French-speaking races, and wrote in French. The physical
sciences were also ardently cultivated, the impulse to them
being given partly by the generally materialistic tendency of
the age, partly by the Newtonian system, and partly also by the
extended knowledge of the world provided by the circumnavi-
gatory voyage of Louis Antoinede Bougainville (1 739-181 1), and
other travels. P. L. de Moreau Maupertuis (1698-1759) and
C. M. de la Condamine (1 701-1774) made long journeys for
scientific purposes and duly recorded their experiences. The
former, a mathematician and physicist of some ability but more
oddity, is chiefly known to literature by the ridicule of Voltaire
in the Diatribe du Docteur Akakia. Jean le Rood, called
d'Alembert (1717-1783), a great mathematician and a writer of
considerable though rather academic excellence, is prindpaUj
known from his connexion with and introduction to the Encydo-
pidU, of which more presently. Chemistry was also assiduously
cultivated, the baron d' Holbach, among others, being a devotee
thereof, and helping to advance the science to the point where,
at the conclusion of the century, it was illustrated by BerthoUet
and Lavoisier. During all this devotion to science in its modern
acceptation, the older and more literary forms of erudition wen
not neglected, especially by the illustrious Benedictines of the
abbey of St Maur. Dom Augustin Calmet (1673-1757) the
author of the well-known Dictionary of the Bible, belonged to
this order, and to them also (in particular to Dom Rivet) was
due the beginning of the immense Hisloirc liuiraire de la Frame,
a work interrupted by the Revolution and long suspended,
but diligently continued since the middle of the 19th century.
Of less orthodox names distinguished for erudition, Nicolas
Freret (1688-1749), secretary of the Academy, is perhaps the
most remarkable. But in the consideration of the science and
learning in the 18th century from a literary point of view, then
is one name and one book which require particular and, in the
case of the book, somewhat extended mention. The man is
Georges Louis Leclerc, comte de BufTon (17 17-1788), the book
the Encyclopedic. The immense Natural History of Buflon,
though not entirely his own, is a remarkable monument nwiia
of the union of scientific tastes with literary ability.
As has happened in many similar instances, there is in parts
more literature than science to be found in it; and from the
point of view of the latter, Buflon was far too careless in observa-
tion and far too solicitous of perfection of style and grandiosity
of view. The style of Buflon has sometimes been made the
subject of the highest eulogy, and it is at its best admirable;
but one still feels in it the fault of all serious French prose in this
century before Rousseau— the presence, that is to say, of an
artificial spirit rather than of natural variety and power. The
Encycloptdie, unquestionably on the whole the most Vh ^^^
important French literary production of the century, rf^f^'
if we except the works of Rousseau and Voltaire, was
conducted for a time by Diderot and d'Alembert, afterwards
by Diderot alone. It numbered among its contributors almost
every Frenchman of eminence in letters. It is oft en spoken of as if,
under the guise of an encyclopaedia, it had been merely a plaidoya
against religion, but this is entirely erroneous. Whatever anti-
ecclesiastic aJ bent some of the articles may have, the book as a
whole is simply what it professes to be, a dictionary — that is to
say, not merely an historical and critical lexicon, like those of
Bayle and Moreri (indeed history and biography were nominally
excluded), but a dictionary of arts, sciences, trades and technical
terms. Diderot himself bad perhaps the greatest faculty of any
man that ever lived for the literary treatment in a workman-like
manner of the most heterogeneous and in some cases rebellious
subjects; and his untiring labour, not merely in writing original
articles, but in editing the contributions of others, determined
the character of the whole work. There is no doubt that it had,
*1*fi»M
FRENCH LITERATURE
1+1
quite independently of any tlfeologietl or political influence,
an immense share in diffusing and gratifying tbe taste for general
information.
1789-1830— Gtneral Sketch.— The period which elapsed
between the outbreak of tbe Revolution and the accession of
Charles X. has often been considered a sterile one in point of
literature. As far as mere productiveness goes, this judgment
is hardly correct. No class of literature was altogether neglected
during these stirring fivc-and-thirty years, the political events
of which have so engrossed the attention of posterity that it
has sometimes been necessary for historians to remind us that
during the height of the Terror and tbe final disasters of the
empire the theatres were open and the booksellers' shops pat-
ronised. Journalism, parliamentary eloquence and scientific
writing were especially cultivated, and the former in its modern
sense may almost be said to have been created. But of the higher
products of literature the period may justly be considered to
have been somewhat barren. During the earlier part of it there
is, with the exception of Andre Cblnier, not a single name of the
first or even second order of excellence. Towards the midst
those of Chateaubriand (1768-1848) and Madame de Stael
(1766-1817) stand almost alone; and at the close those of
Courier, Stranger and Lamartine are not seconded by any
others to tell of the magnificent literary burst which was to
follow tbe publication of Cromwell. Of all departments of
literature, poetry proper was worst represented during this
period. Andre Chcnier was silenced at its opening by the
guillotine. Le Bran and Delille, favoured by an extraordinary
longevity, continued to be admired and followed. It was the
palmy time of descriptive poetry. Louis, marquis de Fontanes
(1757-1831, who deserves rather more special notice as a critic
and an official patron of literature), Castel, Boisjolin, Esmenard,
Berchoux, Ricard, Martin, Gudin, Cournaud, are names which
chiefly survive as those of tbe authors of scattered attempts to
turn the Encyclopaedia into verse. Charles Julien de ChCnedollt
'(1760-1833) owes his reputation rather to amiability, and to his
association with men eminent in different ways, such as Rivarol
and Joubert, than to any real power. He has been regarded as
a precursor of Lamartine; but the resemblance is .chiefly on
Lamartine's weakest side; and the stress laid on him recently,
as on Lamartine himself and even on CMnier, is part of a passing
reaction against the school of Hugo. Even more ambitiously,
Luce de Lancival, Campenon, Dumesnil and Parseval de Grand*
Maison endeavoured to write epics, and succeeded rather worse
than the Chapelains and Desmarets of the 17th century. The
characteristic of all this poetry was the description of everything
in metaphor and paraphrase, and the careful avoidance of any-
thing like directness of expression; and the historians of the
Romantic movement have collected many instances of this
absurdity. Lamartine will be more properly noticed in the next
division. But about the same' time as Lamartine, and towards
the end of the present period, there appeared a poet who may
be regarded as the last important echo of Malherbe. This was
Casimir Delavigne (1793-1843), the author of Us Messcniennes,
a writer of very great talent, and, according to the measure
of J. B. Rousseau and Lebrun, no mean poet. It is usual to
reckon Delavigne as transit ionary between the two schools, but
in strictness he must be counted with the classicists. Dramatic
poetry exhibited somewhat similar characteristics. The system
of tragedy writing had become purely mechanical, and every
act, almost every scene and situation, had its regular and appro-
. priate business and language, the former of which the poet was
not supposed to alter at all, and the latter only very slightly.
Poinsinet.LaHarpe, M.J. Chtnier, Raynouard.de Jouy, Briffaut,
Baour-Lormian, all wrote in this style. Of these Chenier (1764-
181 1) had some of the vigour of his brother Andrl, from whom
he was distinguished by more popular political principles and
better fortune. On the other hand, Jean Francois Duds (1 733-
1816), who passes with Englishmen as a feeble reducer of Shake-
speare to classical rules, passed with his contemporaries as an
introducer into French poetry of strange and revolutionary
novelties. Comedy, on the other fcaod, fared better, as Indeed
it had always fared. Fabre d'tiglantine (1755-1704) (tbe
companion in death of Danton), Collin d'Harleville( 175 5-1806),
Francois G. J. S. Andrieux (1 750-1833), Picard, Alexandre
Duval, and Nepomuc&ne Lemercier (1771-1840) (the most
vigorous of all as a poet and a critic of mark) were the comic
authors of the period, and their works have not suffered the
complete eclipse of the contemporary tragedies which in part
they also wrote. If not exactly worthy successors of Moliere,
they are at any rate not unworthy children of Beaumarchats.
In romance writing there is again, until we come to Madame de
Stael, a great want of originality and even of excellence hi
workmanship. The works of Madame de Genlis (1746-1830)
exhibit the tendencies of the 18th century to platitude and
noble sentiment at their worst. Madame Cottin (1 770-1807),
Madame de Souza (1761-1836), and Madame de Krudener,
exhibited some of the quatitles of Madame de Lafayette and
more of those of Madame de Genlis. Joseph Fievee (1767-1839),
in Le Dot de Sutette and other works, showed some power over the
domestic story; but perhaps the most remarkable work in
point of originality of the time was Xavier de Maistre's (1763-
1852) Voyage autour de ma ckambre, an attempt in quite a
new style, which has been happily followed up by other writers.
Turning to history we find comparatively little written at this
period. Indeed, until quite its close, men were too much occupied
in making history to have time to write it. There is, however,
a considerable body of memoir writers, especially in the earlier
years of the period, and some great names appear even in history
proper. Many of Sismondi's (1773-1849) best works were
produced during the empire. A. G. P. Brugiere, baron de
Barante (1782-1866), though his best-known works date much
later, belongs partially to this time. On the other hand, the
production of philosophical writing, especially in what we may
call applied philosophy, was considerable. The sensationalist
views of Condillac were first continued as by Destutt de Tracy
(1 754-1836) and Laromiguiere (1756-1837) and subsequently
opposed, in consequence partly of a religious and spiritualist
revival, partly of the influence of foreign schools of thought,
especially the German and the Scotch. The chief philosophical
writers from this latter point of view were Pierre Paul Royer
Collard (1763-1845), F. P. G. Maine de Biran (1776-1824),
and Theodore Simon Jouffroy ( 1 706-1842). Their influence on
literature, however, was altogether inferior to that of the re-
actionist school, of whom Louis Gabriel, vicomte de Bonald
(1754-1840), and Joseph de Maistre (1753-1821) were the great
leaders. These latter were strongly political in their tendencies,
and political philosophy received, as was natural, a large share
of the attention of the time. In continuation of the work of
the PhUosophes, the most remarkable writer was Constantin
Francois Chasseboeuf, comte de Volney (1757-1820), whose
Ruines are generally known. On the other hand, others belong-
ing to that school, such as Necker and Morellet, wrote from the
moderate point of view against revolutionary excesses. Of
the reactionists Bonald is extremely royalist, and carries out in
his legislations primitives somewhat the same patriarchal and
absolutist theories as our own Filmer, but with infinitely greater
genius. As Bonald is royalist and aristocratic, so
Maistre is the advocate of a theocracy pure and
simple, with the pope for its earthly head, and a vigorous despot-
ism for its system of government. Pierre Simon Ballancbe
(1776-1847), often mentioned in the literary memoirs of his
time, wrote among other things Essais de palingenisie sociale;
good in style but vague in substance. Of theology proper there
is almost necessarily little or nothing, the clergy being in the
earlier period proscribed, in the latter part kept in a strict and
somewhat discreditable subjection by the Empire. In moralising
literature there is one work of the very highest excellence, which,
though not published till long afterwards, belongs In point of
composition to this period. This is the Penties of Joseph
Joubert (1754-1824), the most illustrious successor . . .
of Pascal and Vauvenargues, and to be ranked perhaps
above both in the literary finish. <*i M& m*a^v vcA w^v^c^
above VaAivewtpe%\&\ta\fte*&b ^o.oje^^VS^w^-w^flBv
1+2
FRENCH LITERATURE
they exhibit. In pure literary criticism more particularly,
Joubert, though exhibiting some inconsistencies due to his time,
is astonishingly penetrating and suggestive. Of science and
erudition the time was fruitful. At an early period of it appeared
the remarkable work of Pierre Cabanis( 17 57-180$), the Rapports
du physique el du morale de I'komme, a work in which physiology
is treated from the extreme materialist point of view but with
all the liveliness and literary excellence of the Philosophe move-
ment at its best. Another physiological work of great merit
at this period was the Traiti de la fie ct de ia mort of Bichat,
and the example set by these works was widely followed; while
in other branches of science Laplace, Lagrange,Hauy,Berthollet,
&c, produced contributions of the highest value. From the
literary point of view, however, the chief interest of this time
is centred in two individual names, those of Chateaubriand and
Madame de Stael, and in three literary developments of a more
or less novel character, which were all of the highest importance
in shaping the course which French literature has taken since
1824. One of these developments was the reactionary movement
of Majstre and Bonald, which in its turn largely influenced
Chateaubriand, then Lamennais and Montalembert, and was
later represented in French literature in different guises, chiefly
by Louis Veuillot (1815-1883) and Mgr Dupanloup( 1803-1878).
The second and third, closely connected, were the immense
advances made by parliamentary eloquence and by political
writing; the latter of which, by the hand of Paul Louis Courier
( 1 773- 1825), contributed for the first time an undoubted master-
piece to French literature. The influence of the two combined
has since raised journalism to even a greater pitch of power in
France than in any other country. It is in the development of
these new openings for literature, and in the cast and complexion
which they gave to its matter, that the real literary importance
of the Revolutionary period consists; just as it is in the new
elements which they supplied for the treatment of such subjects
that the literary value of the authors of Rend and De I'AUemagne
mainly lies. We have already alluded to some of the beginnings
of periodical and journalistic letters in France. For some time,
in the hands of Bayle, Basnage, Des Maiaeaux, Jurieu, Lederc,
periodical literature consisted mainly of a aeries, more or less
disconnected, of pamphlets, with occasional extracts from
forthcoming works, critical adversaria and the like. Of a more
regular kind were the often-mentioned Journal de Trivoux and
Mereure de France , and later the Annie litUraire of Freron and
the like. The Correspondence of Grimm also, as we have pointed
out, bore considerable resemblance to a modern monthly review,
though it was addressed to a very few persons. Of political
news there was, under a despotism, naturally very little. 1789,
however, saw a vast change in this respect. An enormous
efflorescence of periodical literature at once took place, and a
few of the numerous journals founded in that year or soon after-
wards survived for a considerable time. A whole class of authors
arose who pretended to be nothing more than journalists, while
many writers distinguished for more solid contributions to litera-
ture took part in the movement, and not a few active politicians
contributed. Thus to the original staff of the Uoniteur, or, as
it was at first called. La GaxeiU NationaU, La Harpe, Lacretelle,
Andrieux, Dominique Joseph Carat (1740-1833) and Pierre
Gingucne (1748-1826) were attached. Among the writers of
the Journal de Paris Andre Chenier had been ranked. Fontanes
contributed to many royalist and moderate journals. Guixot
and Morellet, representatives respectively of the 19th and the
18th century, shared in the NouteUes polHiques, while Berlin,
Fievee and J. L. Geoffrey (1743-1814), a critic of peculiar
acerbity, contributed to the Journal de r empire, afterwards
turned into the still existing Journal da dibats. With Geoffroy,
Francois Benoit Hoffman (1760-1838), Jean F. J. Dussault
(1769-1824) and Charles F. Dorimond, abb6 de Feletx (1765-
1850), constituted a quartet of critics sometimes spoken of as
" the Dibats four," though they were by no means all friends.
Of active politicians Marat(X,'^mu dupeupU), Mirabeau(C*um«r
& Siretxxac), Burin (Journal des dibats el des dicrets), Brissot
V*+u*/romfo*s) $ Hdben (Pire Duchesne), Robespierre (Dtfen-
seurdela constitution), and Taltien (La Sentinelle) were the most
remarkable who had an intimate connexion with journalism.
On the other hand, the type of the journalist pure and simple
is Camille DesmoulinsO 759-1 704), one of the most brilliant, in a
literary point of view, of the short-lived celebrities of the time.
Of the same class were Pelletier, Durozoir, Loustalot, Royou.
As the immediate daily interest in politics drooped, there were
formed periodicals of a partly political and partly literary
character. Such had been the dtcade philosopkique, which
counted Cabanis.Chenier, and De Tracy among its contributors,
and this was followed by the Retut franchise at a later period,
which was in its turn succeeded by the Revue des deux monies.
On the other hand, parliamentary eloquence was even more
important than journalism during the early period of the Revolu-
tion. Mirabeau naturally stands at the head of orators of this
class, and next to him may be ranked the well-known names of
Malouet and Meunier among constitutionalists; of Robespierre,
Marat and Danton, the triumvirs of the Mountain; of Maury,
Caxales and the vicomte de Mirabeau, among the royalists;
and above all of the Girondist speakers Barnave, Vergniaud,
and Lanjuinais. The last named survived to take part in the
revival of parliamentary discussion after the Restoration. But
the permanent contributions to French literature of this period
of voluminous eloquence are, as frequently happens in such cases,
by no means large. The union of the journalist and the parlia-
mentary spirit produced, however, in Paul Louis Courier a
master of style. Courier spent the greater part 0/ comur
his life, tragically cut short, in translating the classics
and studying the older writers of France, in which study he
learnt thoroughly to despise the pseudo-classicism of the* 18th
century. It was not till he was past forty that he took to political
writing, and the style of his pamphlets, and their wonderful
irony and vigour, at once placed them on the level of the very
best things of the kind. Along with Courier should be mentioned
Benjamin Constant (1767-1830), who, though partly a romance
writer and partly a philosophical author, was mainly a politician'
and an orator, besides being fertile in articles and pamphlets.
Lamennais, like Lamartine, will best be dealt with later aad the
same may be said of Beranger; but Chateaubriand and Madame
de Stael must be noticed here. The former represents, in the
influence which changed the literature of the 18th century into
the literature of the 19th, the vague spirit of unrest and " Well-
schmers," the affection for the picturesque qualities of nature*
the religious spirit occasionally turning into mysticism, and the
respect, sure to become more and more definite and appreciative,
for antiquity. He gives in short the romantic and conservative
element. Madame de Stael (1766-18 17) on the other Mag ^ B
hand, as became a daughter of Necker, retained a JfJJJJ
great deal of the Philosophe characterand the traditions
of the 18th century, especially its liberalism, its sensibiliti, and
its thirst for general information; to which, however, she
added a cosmopolitan spirit, and a readiness to introduce into
France the literary and social, as well as the political and philo-
sophical, peculiari tiesof other countries to which the x 8th century,
in France at least,had been a stranger, and which Chateaubriand
himself, notwithstanding his excursions into English literature,
had been very far from feeling. She therefore contributed to
the positive and liberal side of the future movement. The
absolute literary importance of the two was very different.
Madame de StaeTs early writings were of the critical kind,
half aesthetic half ethical, of which the 18th century had been
fond, and which their titles, Lettres sur J. J. Rousseau, DeVmfhh
ence des passions, De la literature considMe dans us rapports
omcc let institutions sociaks sufficiently show. Her romances,
Ddphine and Corinne, had immense literary influence at the time.
Still more was this the case with De VAUemagne, which practically
opened up to the rising generation in France the till thenunknowi
treasures of literature and philosophy, which during ^^
the most glorious half century of her literary history jjjjy
Germany bad, sometimes on hints taken from France
herself, been accumulating. The literary importance of Chaleao-
hriand U?6&-*&4& » uu V«aus k while bis literary j
AFTER 1930]
FRENCH LITERATURE
'43
can hardly be exaggerated. Chateaubriand's literary father was
Rousseau, and his voyage to America helped to develop the seeds
which Rousseau had sown. In Rent and other works of the
same kind, the naturalism of Rousseau received a still further*
development. But it was not in mere naturalism that Chateau-
briand was to find his most fertile and most successful theme.
It was, on the contrary, in the rehabilitation of Christianity as
an inspiring force in literature. The 18th century had used
against religion the method of ridicule; Chateaubriand, by
genius rather than by reasoning, set up against this' method that
of poetry and romance. " Christianity," says he, almost in
so many words, " is the most poetical of all religions, the most
attractive, the most fertile in literary, artistic and social results."
This theme he develops with the most splendid language, and
with every conceivable advantage of style, in the Gtnit du
Ckristianisme and the Martyrs. The splendour of imagination,
the summonings of history and literature to supply effective and
touching illustrations, analogies and incidents, the rich colouring
so different from the peculiarly monotonous and grey tones of
the masters of the iSth century, and the fervid admiration for
nature which were Chateaubriand's main attractions and char-
acteristics, could not fail to have an enormous literary influence.
Indeed he has been acclaimed, with more reason than is usually
found in such acclamations, as the founder of comparative and
imaginative literary criticism in France if not in Europe. The
Romantic school acknowledged, and with justice, its direct
indebtedness to him.
Literature since 1830.— In dealing with the last period of the
history of French literature and that which was introduced by
the literary revolution of 1830 and has continued, in phases of
only partial change, to the present day, a slight alteration of
treatment is requisite. The subdivisions of literature have lately
become so numerous, and the contributions to each have reached
such an immense volume, that it is impossible to give more than
cursory notice, or indeed allusion, to most of them. It so
happens, however, that the purely literary characteristics of this
period, though of the most striking and remarkable, are confined
to a few branches of literature. The character of the 19th
century in France has hitherto been at least as strongly marked
as that of any previous period. In the middle ages men of letters
followed each other in the cultivation of certain literary forms
for long centuries. The chanson dc geste, the Arthurian legend,
the reman d* aventure, the fabliau, the allegorical poem, the
rough dramatic jeu, mystery and farce, served successively as
moulds into which the thought and writing impulse of genera-
tions of authors were successively cast, often with little attention
to the suitability of form and subject. The end of the 15th
century, and still more the 16th, owing to the vast extension
of thought and knowledge then introduced, finally broke up the
old forms, and introduced the practice of treating each subject
in a manner more or less appropriate to it, and whether appro-
priate or not, freely selected by the author. At the same lime
a vast but somewhat indiscriminate addition was made to the
actual vocabulary of the language. The 1 7th and 18th centuries
witnessed a process of restriction once more to certain forms
and strict imitation of predecessors, combined with attention
to purely arbitrary rules, the cramping and impoverishing effect
of this (in Fenelon's words) being counterbalanced partly by
the efforts of individual genius, and still more by the constant
and steady enlargement of the range of thought, the choice of
subjects, and the familiarity with other literature, both of the
ancient and modern world. The literary work of the 19th
century and of the great Romantic movement which began in its
second quarter was to repeat on a far larger scale the wwk of the
16th, to break up and discard such literary forms as had become
useless or hopelessly stiff, to give strength, suppleness and
variety to such as were retained, to invent new ones where
necessary, to enrich the language by importations, inventions
and revivals, and, above all, to bring into prominence the principle
of individualism. Authors and even books, rather than groups
and kinds, demand principal attention.
The result of this revolution is naturally most remarkable in
the belles-lettres and the kindred department of history. Poetry,
not dramatic, has been revived; prose romance and literary
criticism have been brought to a perfection previously unknown;
and history has produced works more various, if not more remark*
able, than at any previous stage of the language. Of all these
branches we shall therefore endeavour to give some detailed
account. * But the services done to the language were not limited
to the strictly literary branches of literature. Modern French,
if it lacks, as it probably does lack, the statuesque precision and
elegance of prose style to which between 1650 and r8oo all else
was sacrificed, has become a much more suitable instrument
for the accurate and copious treatment of positive and concrete
subjects. These subjects have accordingly been treated in an
abundance corresponding to that manifested in other countries,
though the literary importance of the treatment has perhaps
proportionately declined. We cannot even attempt to indicate
the innumerable directions of scientific study which this copious
industry has taken, and must confine ourselves to those which
come more immediately under the headings previously adopted.
In philosophy proper France, like other nations, has been more
remarkable for attention to the historical side of the matter
than for the production of new systems; and the principal
exception among her philosophical writers, Auguste Comte( 1 793-
1857), besides inclining, as far as his matter went to the political
and scientific rather than to the purely philosophical side (which
indeed he regarded as antiquated), was not very remarkable
merely as a man of letters. Victor Cousin (1792-1867), on the
other band, almost a brilliant man of letters and for a time
regarded as something of a philosophical apostle preaching
" eclecticism," betook himself latterly to biographical and other
miscellaneous writing, especially on the famous French ladies of
the 17 th century, and is likely to be remembered chiefly in this
department, though not to be forgotten in that of philosophical
history and criticism. The same curious declension was observ-
able in the much younger Hippolyte Adolphe Taine (1828-1893)!
who, beginning with philosophical studies, and always maintain-
ing a strong tincture of philosophical determinism, applied himself
later, first to literary history and criticism in his famous Histoire
de la lilttrature anglaise (1864), and then to history proper in
his still more famous and far more solidly based Origines de la
France contemporaine (1876). To him, however, we must recur
under the head of literary criticism. And not dissimilar
phenomena, not so much of inconstancy to philosophy as of a
tendency towards the applied rather than the pure branches of
the subject, are noticeable in Edgar Quinet (1803-1875), in
Charles de Rlmusat (1797-1875), and in Ernest Renan (1823-
1892), the first of whom began by translating Herder while the
second and third devoted themselves early to scholastic philo-
sophy, de Remusat dealing with Abelard (1845) and Anselm
(1856), Renan with Averroes (1852). More single-minded
devotion to at least the historical side was shown by Jean
Philibert Damlron (1704*1862), who published in 1842 a Cows
de philosophic and many minor works at different times; but
the inconstancy recurs in Jules Simon (1814-1896), who, in the
earlier part of his life a professor of philosophy and a writer of
authority on the Greek philosophers (especially in Histoire de
V tcole d' Alexandrie, 1844-1845), began before long to take an
active and, towards the close of his life-work, all but a foremost
part in politics. In theology the chief name of great literary
eminence in the earlier part of the century is that of Lamennais,
of whom more presently, in the later, that of Renan again.
But Charles Forbes de Montalcmbert (1810-1870), an historian
with a strong theological tendency, deserves notice; and among
ecclesiastics who have been orators and writers the p£re Jean
Baptiste Henri Lacordaire (1802-1861), a pupil of Lamennais
who returned to orthodoxy but always kept to the Liberal side;
the pere Cllestin Joseph Felix (1810-1891), a Jesuit teacher and
preacher of eminence; and the pdre Didon (1840-1900), a very
popular preacher and writer who, though thoroughly orthodox,
did not escape collision with his superiors. On the Protestant
side Atbanase Coqucrcl (1820-1875) is the most remarkable
name. Recently Paul S&baAiet Q>. \fc^\\^^v^^>^V*^^
*44
FRENCH LITERATURE
[ROMANTIC MOVEMENT
in dealing with Saint Francis of Assist, much power tif literary
and religious sympathy and a style somewhat modelled on that
of Renan, but less unctuous and effeminate. There are strong
philosophical tendencies, and at least a revolt against the re-
ligious as well as philosophical ideas of the Encyclopedists, in
the Pensies of Joubert, while the hybrid position characteristic
of the 19th century is particularly noticeable in £tiennaPivert de
Slnancour (1 770-1846), whose principal work, Obermann (1804),
had an extraordinary influence on its own and the next generation
in the direction of melancholy moralizing. This tone was notably
taken up towards the other end of the century by Amiel (q.v.),
who, however, does not strictly belong to French literature:
while in Ximines Doudon (1800-1872), author of Melanges et
lettres posthumously published, we find more of a return to the
attitude of Joubert — literary criticism occupying a very large
part of his reflections. Political philosophy and its kindred
sciences have naturally received a large share of attention.
Towards the middle of the century there was a^grcat develop-
ment of socialist and fanciful theorizing on politics, with which
the names of Claude Henri, comte dc Saint-Simon (1760-182$),
Charles Fourier (1772-1837), filienne Cabct (1788-1856), and
others are connected. As political economists Frederic Basliat
(1801-1850), L. G. L. Guilhaud de Lavergne (1800-1880), Louis
Auguste Blanqui (1805-1881), and Michel Chevalier (1806- 1879)
may be noticed. In Alexis de Tocquevilie (1805-1859) France
produced a political observer of a remarkably acute, moderate
and reflective character, and Armand Carrel (1800-1836), whose
life was cut short in a duel, was a real man of letters, as well as
a brilliant journalist and an honest if rather violent party
politician. The name of Jean Louis Eugene Lerminier (1803-
1857) is of wide repute for legal and constitutional writings, and
that of Henri, baron dejomini (x 770-1869) is still more celebrated
as a military historian; while that of Francois Lenonnant (1837-
2883) holds a not dissimilar position in archaeology. With the
publications devoted to physical science proper we do not attempt
to meddle. Philology, however, demands a brief notice. In
classical studies France has till recently hardly maintained the
position which might be expected of the country of Scaliger
and Casaubon. She has, however, produced some considerable
Orientalists, such as Champollion the younger, Burnouf, Silvcstrc
dc Sacy and Stanislas Julien. The foundation of Romance philo-
logy was due, indeed, to the foreigners Wolf and Diez. . But
early in the century the curiosity as to the older literature of
France created by Barbazan, Tressan and others continued to
extend. Dominique Martin M6on (1748-1829) published many
unprintcd fabliaux, gave the whole of the French Renart cycle,
with the exception of Renart It con trefoil, and edited the Roman
de la rose. Charles Claude Fauricl (1 772-1844) and Francois
Raynouard (1761-1836) dealt elaborately with Provencal
poetry as well as partially with that of the trouveres; and the
latter produced his comprehensive Lcxiquc romane. These
examples were followed by many other writers, who edited
manuscript works and commented on them, always with zeal
and sometimes with discretion. Foremost among these must
be mentioned Paulin Paris ( 1 800-1 88 1) who for fifty years served
the cause of old French literature with untiring energy, great
literary taste, and a pleasant and facile pen. His selections from
manuscripts, his Romancero Jrancjais, his editions of Garin le
Lokcrain and Bcrle aus grans pits, and his Romans dc la table
ronde may especially be mentioned. Soon, too, the Benedictine
His loir c lit Ur aire, so long interrupted, was resumed under M.
Paris's general management, and has proceeded nearly to the
end of the 14th century. Among, its contents M. Faris's dis-
sertations on the later chansons de gestes and the early song
writers, M. Victor le Gere's on the fabliaux, and M. Lilt re's
on the romans d*aventures may be specially noticed. For some
time indeed the work of French editors was chargeable with a
certain lack of critical and philological accuracy. This reproach,
however, was wiped off by the efforts of a band of younger
scholars, chiefly pupils of the fccole des Chartes, with M M.Gaston
Paris ( 1 830-1003) and Paul Meyer at their head. Of M. Paris
in particular it may be said that no scholar in the subject has ever
combined literary and linguistic competence more admirably.
ThcSocie* t6 desAnciensTextesFrancais was formed for the purpose
of publishing scholarly editions of inedited works, and a lexicon
of the older tongue by M. Godefroy at last supplemented, though
not quite with equal accomplishment, the admirable dictionary
in which fimile Littri (1801-1881), at the cost of a life's labour,
embodied the whole vocabulary of the classical French language.
Meanwhile the period between the middle ages proper and the
17th century has not lacked its share of this revival of attention.
To the literature between Villon and Rcgnier especial attention
was paid by the early Romantics, and Sainte-Beuve's Tableau
hisloriquc el critique de la poisie et du thidtre au scmhnc siicle
was one of the manifestoes of the school. Since the appearance
of that work in 1828 editions with critical comments of the
literature of this period have constantly multiplied, aided by the
great fancy for tastefully produced works which exists among
the richer classes in France; and there are probably now few
countries in which works of old authors, whether in cheap reprints
or in editions de luxe can be more readily procured.
The Romantic Movement.— It is time, however, to return to the
literary revolution itself, and its more purely literary results.
At the accession of Charles X. France possessed three B ^ tmgtl ^
writers, and perhaps only three, of already remarkable ^ mmgm
eminence, if we except Chateaubriand, who was already of a
past generation. These three were Pierre Jean de Berangtr
(1780-1857), Alphonse de Lamartine (1790-1869), and Hugues
Filiate 1 Robert Lamcnnais (1782-1854). The first belongs
definitely in manner, despite his striking originality of nuance,
to the past. He has remnants of the old periphrases, the cum-
brous mythological allusions, the poetical " properties " of French
verse. He has also the older and somewhat narrow limitations
of a French poet; foreigners are for him mere barbarians. At
the same time his extraordinary lyrical faculty, his excellent wit,
which makes him a descendant of Rabelais and La Fontaine,
and his occasional touches of pathos made him deserve and
obtain something more than successes of occasion. Be*ranger,
moreover, was very far from being the mere improvisatore
which those who cling to the inspirationist theory of poetry
would fain sec in him. His studies in style and composition were
persistent, and it was long before he attained the firm and brilliant
manner which distinguishes him. B£ranger's talent, however,
was still too much a matter of individual genius to have great
literary influence, and he formed no school It was different
with Lamartine, who was, nevertheless, like Beranger, ,
a typical Frenchman. The Meditations and the JC*
Harmonics exhibit a remarkable transition between
the old school and the new. In going direct to nature, in borrow-
ing from her striking outlines, vivid and contrasted tints,
harmony and variety of sound, the new poet showed himself
an innovator of the best class. In using romantic and religious
associations, and expressing them in affecting language, he was
the Chateaubriand of verse. But with all this he retained some
of the vices of the classical school. His versification, harmonious
as it is, is monotonous, and he does not venture into the bold
lyrical forms which true poetry loves. He has still the horror of
the mot propre\ he is always spiritualizing and idealizing, and
his style and thought have a double portion of the feminine
and almost flaccid softness which had come to pass for grace in
French. The last of the trio, Lamennais, represents an altogether
bolder and rougher genius. Strongly influenced by Lamtmm
the Catholic reaction, Lamennais also shows the *" *"
strongest possible influence of the revolutionary spirit.
His earliest work, the Essai sur Vindijffrcnct en matibe ie
religion (181 7 and 18x8) was a defence of the church on curiously
unccclcsiaslical lines. It was written in an ardent style, full of
illustrations, and extremely ambitious in character. The plan
was partly critical and partly constructive. The first part dis-
posed of the 1 8th century; the second, adopting the theory of
papal absolutism which Joseph de Maistre had already advocated,
proceeded to base it on a supposed universal consent. The after
history of Lamennais was perhaps not an unnatural recoil front
this; but it is sufficient here to point out that in his prose,
DRAMA. AND POETRY]
FRENCH LITERATURE
HS
especially as afterwards developed in the apocalyptic Paroles
d'xn croyant (1839) arc to be discerned many of the tendencies
of the Romantic school, particularly its hardy and picturesque
choice of language, and the disdain of established and accepted
methods which it professed. The signs of the revolution itself
were, as was natural, first given in periodical literature. The
feudalist affectations of Chateaubriand and the legitimists
excited a sort of aesthetic affection for Gothkism, and Walter
Scott became one of the most favourite authors in France.
Soon was started the periodical La Musefrancoise, in which the
names of Hugo, Vigny, Deschamps and Madame de Girardin
appear. Almost all the writers in this periodical were eager
royalists, and for some time the battle was still fought on poli-
tical grounds. There could, however, be no special connexion
between classical drama and liberalism; and the liberal journal,
the Globe, with no less a person than Sainte-Beuve among its
contributors, declared definite war against classicism in the
drama. The chief " classical " organs were the Constitulionncl,
the Journal des dibats, and after a time and not exclusively,
the Revue des deux ntotidcs. Soon the question became purely
literary, and the Romantic school proper was born in the famous
Unade or clique in which Hugo was chief poet, Sainte-Beuve
chief critic, and Gautier, Gerard de Nerval, the brothers £mile
(1791-1871) and Antony (1800-1869), Deschamps, Petrus Borel
(1809-1859) and others were officers. Alfred de Vigny and
Alfred de Musset stand somewhat apart, and so does Charles
Kodicr (1780-1844), a versatile and voluminous writer, the very
variety and number of whose works have somewhat prevented
the individual excellence of any of them from having justice
done to it. The objects of the school, which was at first violently
opposed, so much so that certain academicians actually petitioned
the king to forbid the admission of any Romantic piece at the
Theatre Francais, were, briefly stated, the burning of everything
which had been adored, and the adoring of everything which
had been burnt. They would have no unities, no arbitrary
selection of subjects, no restraints on variety of versification, no
academically limited vocabulary, no considerations of artificial-
beauty, and, above all, no periphrastic expression. The mot
propre, the calling of a spade a spade, was the great command-
ment of Romanticism; but it must be allowed that what was
taken away in periphrase was made up in adjectives. Musset,
who was very much of a free-lance in the contest, maintained
indeed that the differentia of the Romantic was the copious use
of this part of speech. All sorts of epithets were invented to
distinguish the two parties, of which jlamboyant and grisdire
are perhaps the most accurate and expressive pair — the former
serving to denote the gorgeous tints and bold attempts of the
new school, the latter the grey colour and monotonous outlines
of the okL . The representation of Hernani in 1830 was the cul-
mination of the struggle, and during great part of the reign of
Louis Philippe almost all the younger men of letters in France
were Romantics. The representation of the Lucrecc of Francois
Ponsard (1814-1867) in 1846 is often quoted as the herald or sign
of a classical reaction. But this was only apparent, and signified,
if it signified anything, merely that the more juvenile excesses
of the Romantics were out of date. All the greatest men of
letters of France since 1830 have been on the innovating side,
tad all without exception, whether intentionally or not, have ha4
their work coloured by the results of the movement, and of those
which have succeeded it as developments rather than reactions.
Drama and Poetry since 1830.— Although the immediate
subject on which the battles of Classics and Romantics arose
was dramatic poetry, the dramatic results of the movement
have not been those of greatest value or most permanent char-
acter. The principal effect in the long run has been the intro-
duction of a species of play called drame, as opposed to regular
comedy and tragedy, admitting of much freer treatment than
either of these two as previously understood in French, and
lending itself in some measure to the lengthy and disjointed
tction, the multiplicity of personages, and the absence of stock
characters which characterized the English stage in its palmy
4ays. All Victor Hugo's dramatic works are of this class, and
XI 3*
each, as it was produced or published (Cromwell, Hernani.
Marion de IVrme, Le Roi s'amuse, Lucrice Borgia, Marie Tudor ^
Ruy Bias and Les Bur graves), was a literary event, and excited
the most violent discussion — the author's usual plan being to
prefix a prose preface of a very militant character to his work.
A still more melodramatic variety of drame was that chiefly
represented by Alexandre Dumas (1802-1870), whose Henri 111
and Antony, to which niay be added later La Tour de Nesje
and Mademoiselle de Belleisle, were almost as much rallying
points for the early Romantics as the dramas of Hugo, despite
their inferior literary value. At the same time Alexandre Soumet
(1788-1845), in Norma, Una FUe de Heron, &c, and Casimir
Delavigne in Marino Faliero, Louis XI, &c., maintained a
somewhat closer adherence to the older models. The classical
or semi-classical reaction of the last years of Louis Philippe was
represented in tragedy by Ponsard (Lucrice, Agnes de Mtranie,
Charlotte Corday, Ulysse, and several comedies), and on the comic
side, to a certain extent, by £mile Augier (1820-1889) in
V Aventurvere, Le Ccndre de if. Poirier, Le Fils de Ciboyer, &c
During almost the whole period Eugene Scribe (1791-1861)
poured forth innumerable comedies of the vaudeville order,
which, without possessing much literary value, attained immense
popularity. For the last half-century the realist development
of Romanticism has had the upper hand in dramatic composition,
its principal representatives being on the one side Victorien
Sardou (1831-1009), who in Nos Intimes, La FamiUe Benotton,
Rabagas, Dora, &c, chiefly devoted himself to the satirical
treatment of manners, and Alexandre Dumas Jttr (1824-1895),
author in 1852 of the famous Dame aux camtiias, who in such
pieces as Les Idecs de Madame Aubray and L*£trangere rather
busied himself with morals and " problems," while his Dante
aux camtiias (1852) is sometimes ranked as the first of such things
in "modern" style. Certain isolated authors also deserve
notice, such as Joseph Autran (1813-1877), a poet and acade?
mician having some resemblance to Lamartine, whose Fill*
d'/Esckyle created for him a dramatic reputation which he did
not attempt to follow up, and Gabriel Lcgouvc (b. 1807), whose
Adrienne Lccouvreur was assisted to popularity by the admirable
talent of Rachel. A special variety of drama of the first literary
importance has also been cultivated in this century under the
title of seines or proverbes, slight dramatic sketches in which the
dialogue and style are of even more importance than the action.
The best of all of these are those of Alfred de Musset (18 10-185 7),
whose H faut qn'unc parte soil ouvcrte ou fermie. On ne badine
pas avec V amour, &c, are models of grace and wit. Among his
followers may be mentioned especially Octave Feuillet (1821-
1890). Few social dramas of the kind in modern times have
attained a greater success than Le Monde oil Von s'ennuie (1868)
of £douard Pailleron (1834-1899). (See also Dkama.)
In poetry proper, as in drama, Victor Hugo showed the way.
In him all the Romantic characteristics were expressed and
embodied — disregard of arbitrary critical rules, free
choice of subject, variety and vigour of metre, splendour
and sonorousness of diction, abundant " local colour,"
and that irrepressible individualism which is one of the chief,
though not perhaps the chief, of the symptoms. If the careful
attention to form which is also characteristic of the movement is
less apparent in him than in some of his followers, it is not
because it is absent, but because the enthusiastic conviction
with which he attacked every subject somewhat diverts attention
from it. As with the merits so with the defects. A deficient
sense of the ludicrous which characterized many of the Romantics
was strongly apparent in their leader, as was also an equally
representative grandiosity, and a fondness for the introduction
of foreign and unfamiliar words, especially proper names,
which occasionally produces an effect of burlesque. Victor
Hugo's earliest poetical works, his chiefly royalist and political
Odes, were cast in the older and accepted forms, but already
displayed astonishing poetical qualities. But it was in the
Ballades (for instance, the splendid Pas d'armes du roi Jean,
written in verses of three syllables) and the Orientates ( of which
may be taken for a sample the sixth section of Nawin, a perfect
146
FRENCH LITERATURE
(drama and poenty
torrent of outlandish terms poured forth in the most admirable
verse, or Les Djinns, where some of the stanzas have lines of
two syllables each) that the grand provocation was thrown
to the believers in alexandrines, careful caesuras and strictly
separated couplets. Les FeutiUs d'atdomne, Les Chants du
irtpusade, Les Voix inltHeures, Les Rayons et les ombres, the
productions of the next twenty years, were quieter in style and
tone, but no less full of poetical spirit. The Revolution of 1848*
the establishment of the empire and the poet's exile brought
about a fresh determination of his genius to lyrical subjects.
Les Chdtiments and La Ltgende des sildes, the one political, the
other historical, reach perhaps the high-water mark of French
verse; and they were followed by the philosophical Conlemptar
lions, the lighter Chansons des rues et des bob, the Annie
Urrible, the second Ligende des siides, and the later work to be
found noticed sub nom. We have been thus particular here
because the literary productiveness of Victor Hugo himself has
been the measure and sample of the whole literary productiveness
of France on the poetical side. At five-and-twenty be was
acknowledged as a master, at seventy-five he was a master still.
His poetical influence has been represented in three different
schools, from which very few of the poetical writers of the
Century can be excluded. These few we may notice first. Alfred
Manrt de Musset, a writer of great genius, felt part of the
Romantic inspiration very strongly, but was on the
whole unfortunately influenced by Byron, and partly out of
wilfulness, partly from a natural want of persevering industry
and vigour, allowed himself to be careless and even slovenly
in composition. Notwithstandin^this, many of his lyrics are
among the finest poems in the language, and his verse, careless
as it is, has extraordinary natural grace. Auguste Barbier
(1805-1882) whose lambes shows an extraordinary command of
nervous and masculine versification, also comes in here; and the
Breton poet, Auguste Brizeux (1803-1858), much admired by
some, together with Hlgesippe Moreau, an unequal writer
possessing some talent, Pierre Dupont (1821-1870), one of much
greater gifts, and Gustave Nadaud (1820- 1803), a follower of
Beranger, also deserve mention. Of the school of Lamartine
rather than of Hugo are Alfred de Vigny (1700-1865) and
Victor de Laprade (18x2-1887), the former a writer of little
bulk and somewhat over-fastidious, but possessing one of the
most correct and elegant styles to be found in French, with a
curious restrained passion and a complicated originality, the
latter a meditative and philosophical poet, like Vigny an admir-
able writer, but somewhat deficient in pith and substance, as
well as in warmth and colour. Madame Ackermann ( 18 13-1890)
is the chief philosophical poetess of France, and this style has
recently been very popular; but for actual poetical powers,
Marceline Desbordes-Valmore (1786^-1859) perhaps excelled her,
though in a looser and more sentimental fashion. The poetical
schools which more directly derive from the Romantic movement
as represented by Hugo are three in number, c o rresponding in
point of time with the first outburst of the movement, with the
period of reaction already alluded to, and with the closing years
of the second empire. Of the first by far the most distinguished
member was Theophile Gautier (18x1-1872), the most perfect
QMatkft poet in point of form that France has produced. When
quite a boy he devoted himself to the study of 16th-
century masters, and though he acknowledged the supremacy
of Hugo, his own talent was of an individual order, and developed
itself more or less independently. Albertus alone of his poems
has much of the extravagant and grotesque character which
distinguished early romantic literature. The Comidie de la
mart, the Poesies diverse*, and still more the £mo*x el camies,
display a distinctly classical tendency—classical, that is to say,
not in the party and perverted sense, but in its true acceptation.
The tendency to the fantastic and horrible may be taken as best
shown by Petrus Borel (1809-1859), a writer of singular power
almost entirely wasted. Gerard Labrunie or de Nerval (1808-
1855) adopted a manner also fantastic but more idealistic than
BoreVs, and distinguished himself by his Oriental travels and
studies, and by his attention to popular ballads and traditions,
while his style has an exquisite but unaffected stran g e ness
hardly inferior to Gautier's. This peculiar and somewhat
quintessenced style is also remarkable in the Caspard de la mot
of Louis Bertrand (1807-1841), a work of rhythmical prose
almost unique in its character. One famous sonnet preserves
the name of Felix Arvers (1806-1850). The two Deschamps
were chiefly remarkable as translators. The next generation
produced three remarkable poets, to whom may perhaps be
added a fourth. Theodore de Banville (1823-1891), adopting
the principles of Gautier, and combining with them a considerable
satiric faculty, composed a large amount of verse, faultless in
form, delicate and exquisite in shades and colours, but so entirely
neutral In moral and political tone that it has found fewer
admirers than it deserved. Charles Marie Rene" Lcconte de Lisle
(18x8-1804), carrying oat the principle of ransacking foreign
literature for subjects, went to Celtic, classical or even Oriental
sources for his inspiration, and despite a science in verse not much
inferior to Banville's, and a far wider range and choice of
subject, diffused an air of erudition, not to say pedantry, over
his work which disgusted some readers, and a pess i mism which
displeased others, but has left poetry only inferior to that of
the greatest of his countrymen. Charles Baudelaire (1821-1867),
by his choice of unpopular subjects and the terrible truth of his
analysis, revolted not a few of those who, in the words of an
English critic, cannot take pleasure in the representation if they
do not take pleasure in the thing represented, and who thus
miss his extraordinary command of the poetical appeal in
sound, in imagery and in suggestion generally. Thus, by a
strange coincidence, each of the three representatives of the
second Romantic generation was for a time disappointed of
his due fame. A fourth poet of this time, Jpsephin Soulary
(18x5-1801), produced sonnets of rare beauty and excellence.
A fifth, Louis Bouilhet (1822-1869), an intimate friend of Flau-
bert, pushed even farther the fancy for strange subjects, but
showed powers in Mel cents and other things. In 1866 a collection
of poems, entitled after an old French fashion Le Pamasu
contetnporain, appeared. It included contributions by many
of the poets just mentioned, but the mass of the contributors
were hitherto unknown to fame. A similar collection appeared
in 1869, and was interrupted by the German war, but continued
after it, and a third in 1876.
The first Pamasse had been projected by MM. Xavier de
Ricard(b. 1843) and CatulleMendes( 1841-1009) as a sort of mani-
festo of a school of young poets: but its contents were largely
coloured by the inclusion among them of work by representatives
of older generations — Gautier, Laprade, Leconte de Lisle,
Banville, Baudelaire and others. The continuation, however,
of the title in the later issues, rather than anything else, led to
the formation and promulgation of the idea of a " Parnassien "
or an "Impassible" school which was supposed to adopt as its
watchword the motto of " Art for Art's sake," to pay especial
attention to form, and also to aim at a certain objectivity. As
a matter of fact the greater poets and the greater poems of the
Pamasse admit of no such restrictive labelling, which can only
be regarded as mischievous, though (or very mainly because)
it has been continued. Another school, arising mainly in the
later 'eighties and calling itself that of " Symbolism," has been
supposed to indicate a reaction against Parnassianism and even
against the main or Hugonic Romantic tradition generally;
with a throwing back to Lamartine and perhaps CWnier. This
idea of successive schools (" Decadents," " Naturists," " Sim-
plists," ftc) has even been reduced to such an absurdum at
the statement that M France sees a new school of poetry every
fifteen years." Those who have studied literature sufficiently
widely, and from a sufficient elevation, know that these syste-
matisings are always more or less delusive. Parnassianism,
symbolism, and the other things are merely phases of the
Romantic movement itself— as may be proved to demonstration
by the simple process of taking, say, Hugo and Verlaine on the
onehand.Delilleor Escouchard Lebrun on the other, and com-
paring the two first mentioned with each other and with the
older pott. Tb* differences in the first case will be found to be
FICTION]
FRENCH LITERATURE
H7
differences At most of individuality: in the other of kind. We
shall not, therefore, farther refer to these dubious classifications:
but specify briefly the most remarkable poets whom they concern,
and all the older of whom, it may be observed, were represented
in the Parnasse itself. Of these the most remarkable were Sully
Pnadhomme (1830-1007), Francois Coppee (1842-1908) and Paul
Verlaine (1844-1806). The first (Stance* d poems, 1865, Vaines
Tendresscs, 1875, Bonhemr, 1888, &c) is a- philosophical and
father pessimistic poet who has very strongly rallied the suffrages
of the. rather large present public who care for the embodiment
of these tendencies in verse; the second (La Greve des forgerons,
i860, La Humbles, 187a, Outer et vers, 1881-1887, &c) a
dealer with more generally popular subjects in a more sentimental
manner; and the third (Sagcsse, 1881, ParaUekment, 1880,
Poemes saturnkns; including early work, 1867-1800), by far the
most original and remarkable poet of the three, starting with
Baudelaire and pushing farther the fancy for forbidden subjects,
but treating both these and others with wonderful command of
sound and image-suggestion. Verlaine in fact (he was actually
well acquainted with English) endeavoured, and to a small
extent succeeded in the endeavour, to communicate to French
the vague suggestion of visual and audible appeal which has
characterized English poetry from Blake through Coleridge.
Others of the original Parnassiens who deserve mention are
Albert Glatigny (1830-1873), a Bohemian poet of great talent
who died young; Sttphane Mallarme (1842-1898), afterwards
chief of the Symbolists, also a true poet in his way, but somewhat
barren, and the victim of pose and trick; Jose* Maria de Heredia
(1842-1905), a very exquisite practitioner of the sonnet but with
perhaps more art than matter in him; Henri Cazalis (1840-1909),
who long afterwards, under his name of Jean Lahore appeared
as a Symbolist pessimist; A. Villiers de lisle-Adam, another
eccentric bat with a spark of genius; Emmanuel des Essarts;
Auguste de Chltillon (18 10-1882); Leon Dierx (b. 1838) who,
after producing even less than Mallarme, succeeded him- as
Symbolist chief; Jean Aicard (b. 1848), a southern bard of merit;
and lastly CatuUe Mendes himself, who has been a brilliant
writer in verse and prose ever since, and whose Mouvement
foilique francois de i86j & 1900 (1903), an official report largely
amplified so that it is in fact a history and dictionary of French
poetry during the century, forms an almost unique work of
reference on the subject. Among the later recruits the most
specially noticeable was Armand Silvestre (1837-1901), whose
verse (La Chanson des heures, 1878, Ailes d'or, 1880, La Chanson
des Hoiks, 1885), of an ethereal beauty, was contrasted with
prose admirably written and sometimes most amusing, but
" Pantagruelist," and more, in manners and morals. This
declension from poetry to prose fiction was also noticeable in
Guy de Maupassant, Andre* Theuriet, Anatole France and even
Alphonse Daudet.
Yet another flight of poets may be grouped as those specially
representing the last quarter of the century and (whether Par-
nassian, Symbolist or what not) the latest development of French
poetry. Verlaine and Mallarme' already mentioned were in a
manner the leaders of these. Perhaps something of the influence
of Whitman may be detected in the irregular verses of Gustave
Kahn (b. 1859), Francis Yi£16 Griffin, actually an American by
birth (b. 1864), Stuart Merrill, of like origin, and Paul Fort
(b. 187a). But the whole tendency of the period has been to
relax the stringency of French prosody. Albert Samain (1859-
1900), a musical versifier enough; Jean Moreas (1856- 19 10) who
began wiih a volume called Les Syrles in 1884) ; Laurent Tailhade
(b. 1854) and others arc more or less Symbolist, and contributed
to the Symbolist periodical (one of many such since the beginning
of the Romantic movement which would almost require an
article to themselves), the Mcrcure de France, An older man
than many of these, M. Jean Richcpin (b. 1849), made for
a time considerable noise with poetical work of a colour older
even than his age, and harking back somewhat to the Jcune-
France and " Bousingot " type of early Romanticism— £a
Chanson des gueux, Les Blasphtmcs, &c Other writers of note
are M. Paul Deroulede (b. 1846), a violently nationalist poet;
M. Maurice Bouchor (b. 1864), who started his serious and
respectable work with Les SymboUs in 1888; while M. Henri de
Regnier, born in the same year, has received very high praise
for work from Lendemains in 1886 and other volumes up to
Les J tux rustujues el dnins (1897) and Les M (dailies fargiU
(2900). The truth, however, perhaps is that this extraordinary
abundance of verse (for we have not mentioned a quarter of the
names which present themselves, or a twentieth part of those
who figure in M. Mendes's catalogue for the last half-century)
reminds the literary historian somewhat too much of similar
phenomena in other times. There is undoubtedly a great diffu-
sion of poetical dexterity,and not perhaps a small one of poetical
spirit, but it requires the settling, clarifying and distinguishing
effects of time to separate the poet from the minor poet. Still
more perhaps must we look to time to decide whether the vers
libre as it is called— that is to say, the vtmt freed from the minute
traditions of the elder prosody, admitting hiatus, neglecting to
a greater or less extent caesura, and sometimes relying upon mere
rhythm to the neglect of strict metre altogether— can hold its
ground. It has as yet been practised by no poet at all approach-
ing the first class, except Verlaine, and not by him in its extremer
forms. And the whole history of prosody and poetry teaches us
that though similar changes often come in as it were unperceived,
they scarcely ever take root in the language unless a great poet
adopts them. Or rather it should perhaps be said that when
they are going to take root in the language a great poet always
does adopt them before very long.
Prose Fiction since s 830.— Even more remarkable, because
move absolutely novel, was the outburst of prose fiction which
followed 183a Madame de Lafayette, Le Sage, Marivaux,
Voltaire, the Abb* Prevost, Diderot, J. J. Rousseau, Bernardin
de Saint-Pierre and Fievfe had all of them produced work
excellent in its way, and comprising in a more or less rudimentary
condition most varieties of the novel. But none of them had,
in the French phrase, made a school, and at no time had prose
fiction been composed in any considerable quantities. The im-
mense influence which Walter Scott exercised was perhaps the
direct cause of the attention paid to prose fiction; the facility,
too, with which all the fancies, tastes and beliefs of the
time could be embodied in such work may have had con-
siderable importance. But it is difficult on any theory of cause
-and effect to account for the appearance in less than ten years of
such a group of novelists as Hugo, Gamier, Dumas, Menmee,
Balzac, George Sand, Jules Sandeau and Charles de Bernard,
names to which might be added others scarcely inferior. There is
hardly anything else resembling it in literature, except the great
duster of English dramatists in the beginning of the 17th century,
and of English poets at the beginning of the 19th; and it is
remarkable that the excellence of the first group was maintained
by a fresh generation— Murger, About, FeuOlet, Flaubert,
Erckmann-Chatrian, Droz, Daudet, Cherbuliez and Gaboriau,
forming a company of diadochi not far inferior to their pre-
decessors, and being themselves not unworthily succeeded almost
up to the present day. The romance-writing of France during
the period has taken two different directions— the first that of
the novel of incident, the second that of analysis and character.
The first, now mainly deserted, was that which, as was natural
when Scott was the model, was formerly most trodden; the
second required the genius of George Sand and of Balzac and the
more problematical talent of Beyle to attract students to it.
The novels of Victor Hugo are novels of incident, with a strong
infusion of purpose, and considerable but rather ideal character
drawing. They are in fact lengthy prose drames rather than
romances proper, and they have found no imitators. They
display, however, the powers of the master at their fullest.
On the other hand, Alexandre Dumas originally com- [toJfc
posed his novels in close imitation of Scott, and they
are much less dramatic than narrative in character, so that they
lend themselves to almost indefinite continuation, and there is
often no particular reason why they should terminate even at
the end of the score or so of volumes to which they sometimes
actually extend. Of this purely narrative kind, .which. hardly
148
FRENCH LITERATURE
[PROSE FICTION
even attempts anything but the boldest character drawing,
the best of them, such as Les Trots Mousquetairts, Vingt ans
apris, La Reine Mar got, are probably the best specimens extant.
Dumas possesses, almost alone among novelists, the secret of
writing interminable dialogue without being tedious, and of
telling the story by ft. Of something the same kind, but of a far
lower stamp, are the novels of Eugene Sue (1804-1857). Dumas
and Sue were accompanied and followed by a vast crowd of com-
panions, independent or imitative. Alfred de Vigny had already
attempted the historical novel in Cinq-Mars. Henri deLa Touche
(1785-1851) (Fragoletta), an excellent critic who formed George
Sand, but a mediocre novelist, may be mentioned: and perhaps
also Roger de Beauvoir, whose real name was Eugene Auguste
Roger de Bully (1806-1866) (Le Chronique de Saint Georges),
and Frederic Souli6 (Les Mimoires du diable) (1800-1847).
Paul Feval (La Fie des gjreves) (1817-1877) and Amedee Achard
(Belle-Rose) (1814-1875) are of the same school, and some of the
attempts of Jules Janin (1804-1874), more celebrated as a critic,
may also be connected with it. By degrees, however, the taste
for the novel of incident, at least of an historical kind, died out
till it was revived in another form, and with an admixture of
domestic interest, by MM. Erckmann-Chatrian. The last and
one of the most splendid instances of the old style was Le Capi-
taine Fracasse, which Theophile Gautier began early and finished
late as a kind of tour deforce. The last-named writer in his earlier
days had modified the incident novel in many short tales, a kind
of writing for which French has always been famous, and in
which Gautier's sketches are masterpieces. His only other long
novel, Mademoiselle de Maupin, belongs rather to the class of
analysis. With Gautier, as a writer whose literary characteristics
even excel his purely tale-telling powers, may be classed Prosper
Merimee (1803-1870), one of the most exquisite 19th-century
masters of the language. Already, however, in 1830 the tide
was setting strongly in favour of novels of contemporary life
and manners. These were of course susceptible of extremely
various treatment. For many years Paul de Kock (1793-1871),
a writer who did not trouble himself about Classics or Romantics
or any such matter, continued the tradition of Marivaux,
Crtbillon jttr, and Pigault Lebrun (1753-1835) in a series of not
very moral or polished but lively and amusing sketches of life,
principally of the bourgeois type. Later Charles de Bernard
(1804-1850) (Gcrfaut) with infinitely greater wit, elegance,
propriety and literary skill, did the same thing for the higher
classes of French society. But the two great masters of the
novel of character and manners as opposed to that of history
and incident are Honorl de Balzac (1700-1850) and Aurore
Dudevant, commonly called George Sand (1804-1876). Their
influence affected the entire body of novelists who succeeded
them, with very few exceptions. At the head of these exceptions
may be placed Jules Sandcau (1811-1883), who, after writing
a certain number of novels in a less individual style, at last made
for himself a special subject in a certain kind of domestic novel,
where the passions set in motion are less boisterous than those
usually preferred by the French novelist, and reliance is mainly
placed on minute character drawing and shades of colour sober
in hue but very carefully adjusted (Catherine, Mademoiselle de
Penarvan, Mademoiselle de la' Seiglibre). In the same class of
the more quiet and purely domestic novelists may be placed
X. B. Saintine (1798-1865) (Picciola), Madame C. Reybaud
(1801-1871) (Clementine, Le Cadet de Colobriercs), J. T. de Saint-
Germain (Pour en ipingle, La Feuille de coudricr), Madame Craven
(1808-1891) (Ricit d'une saur, Fleurange). Henri Beyle (1708-
1865), who wrote under the nomde plume of Stendhal and belongs
to an older generation than most of these, also stands by himself.
His chief book in the line of fiction is La Chartreuse de Parme, an
exceedingly powerful novel of the analytical kind, and he also
composed a considerable number of critical and miscellaneous
works. Of little influence at first (though he had great power
over Merimee) and never master of a perfect style, he has exer-
cised ever increasing authority as a master of pessimist analysis.
Indeed much of his work was never published till towards the
chso of the century. Last among the independents must be I
mentioned Henry Murger (18*3-1861), the painter of what is
called Bohemian life, that is to say, the struggles, difficulties and
amusements of students, youthful artists, and men of letters.
In this peculiar style, which may perhaps be regarded as an
irregular descendant of the picaroon romance, Murger has no
rival; and he is also, though on no extensive scale, a poet of great
pathos. But with these exceptions, the influences of the two
writers we have mentioned, sometimes combined, more often
separate, may be traced throughout the whole of later novel
literature. George Sand began with books strongly tinged with
the spirit of revolt against moral and social arrangements,
and she sometimes diverged into very curious paths of pseudo-
philosophy, such as was popular in the second quarter of the
century. At times, too, as in Lstcrena Floriani and some other
works, she did not hesitate to draw largely on her own personal
adventures and experiences. But latterly she devoted herself
rather to sketches of country life and manners, and to novels
involving bold if not very careful sketches of character and more
or less dramatic situations. She was one of the moat fertile
of novelists, continuing to the end of her long life to pour forth
fiction at the rate of many volumes a year. Of her different
styles may be mentioned as fairly characteristic, IMia, Lmcraia
Floriani, Consuelo, La Mare au diable, La Petite FadetU, Francois
le champi, Mademoiselle de la Quintinie. Considering the shorttt
length of his life -the productiveness of Balzac was
almost more astonishing, especially if we consider that '
some of his early work was never reprinted, and that '
he left great stores of fragments and unfinished sketches. He k,
moreover, the most remarkable example in literature of untiring
work and determination to achieve success despite the greatest
discouragements. His early work was worse than twsuccessrul,
it was positively bad. After more than a score of unsuccessful
attempts, Les Ckouans at last made its mark, and for twenty
years from that time the astonishing productions composing the
so-called Comidie humaine were poured forth successively.
The sub-titles which Balzac imposed upon the different batches,
Scenes de la vie parisienne, de la vie de province, de la tie
intime, &c, show, like the general title, a deliberate intention
on the author's part to cover the whole ground of human, si
least of French life. Such an attempt could not succeed wholly,
yet the amount of success attained is astonishing. Balzac has,
however, with some justice been accused of creating the world
which he described, and his personages, wonderful as is the
accuracy and force with which many of the characteristics of
humanity are exemplified in them, are somehow not altogether
human. Since these two great novelists, many others have
arisen, partly to tread in their steps, partly to strike oat inde-
pendent paths. Octave FeuiHet (1821-1800), beginning his
career by apprenticeship to Alexandre Dumas and the historical
novel, soon found his way in a very different style of co mp osi ti on,
the roman intime of fashionable life, in which, notwithstanding
some grave defects, he attained much popularity and showed
remarkable skill in keeping abreast of his time. The so-called
realist side of Balzac was developed (but, as he himself acknow-
ledged, with a double dose of intermixed if somewhat trans*
formed Romanticism) by Gustave Flaubert (r8*i-i88o), who
showed culture, scholarship and a literary power over the language
inferior to that of no writer of the century. No novcKst of Ms
generation has attained a higher literary rank than Flaubert
Madame Bovary and V Education sentimentale are studies of cos*
temporary life; in Salammbd and La Tentation dc Saint Antrim
erudition and antiquarian knowledge furnish the subjects for
the display of the highest literary skill. Of about the same date
Edraond About (1828-1885), before he abandoned novel-writing,
devoted himself chiefly to sketches of abundant but not always
refined wit (L'Homme & Vortille cassie, Le Net d'un notairt),
and sometimes to foreign scenes (Tolla, Le Roi des montagna).
Champfleury (Henri Husson, 1820-1880), a prolific critic,
deserves notice for stories of the extravaganza kind. During the
whole of the Second Empire one of the most popular writers was
Ernest Feydeau (1821-1873), a writer of great ability, but morbid
and affected in the choice and treatment of his subjects (Fanny,
FICTION)
FRENCH LITERATURE
149
SyMe, Catherine d'Ocermeire). fimfle Gaboriau (1833-1873),
taking up that side of Balzac's talent which devoted itself to
inextricable mysteries, criminal trials, and the like, produced
M. Le Coq, Le Crime d'Orcival, La Digringalade, &c.; and
Adolpbe fielot (b. 1829) for a time endeavoured to out-
Feydeau Feydeau in La Fern me defeu and other works. Eugene
Fromentin (1820-1876), best known as a painter, wrote a novel,
Dominique, which was highly appreciated by good judges.
During the last decade of the Second Empire there arose,
continuing for varying lengths of time till nearly the end of the
century, another remarkable group of novelists, most of whom
are dealt with under separate headings, but who must receive
combined treatment here; with the warning that even more
danger than in the case of the poets is incurred by classing
them in "schools." Undoubtedly, however, the "Naturalist"
tendency, starting from Balzac and continued through Flaubert,
but taking quite a new direction under some of those to be
mentioned, is in a manner dominant. Flaubert himself and
Feuillet (an exact observer of manners but an anti-Naturalist)
have already been mentioned. Victor Cherbulicz (1829-1809),
a constant writer in the Revue des deux mondes on politics and
other subjects, also accomplished a long series of novels from
Le Comle Koslia (1863) onwards, of which the most remarkable
are that just named, Le Roman d'unc honnite jemme (i860),
and Mela Holdenis (1873). With something of Balzac and
more of Feuillet, Cherbulicz mixed with his observation of
society a dose of sentimental and popular romance which offended
the younger critics of his day, but he had solid merits. Gustave
Dras (b. 1832) devoted himself chiefly to short stories sufficiently
"free" in subject (Monsieur, madomt et bibi, Enire nous, &c)
but full of fancy, excellently written, and of a delicate wit in one
tense if not in all. Andri Theurict (1833-1907) began with poetry
bnt diverged to novels, in which the scenery of France and
especially of its great forests is used with much skill; Le Fils
Msugars (1879) may be mentioned out of many as a specimen.
Leon Cladel (1835-1892), whose most remarkable work was
Les Va~nu-pieds (1874), had, as this title of itself shows, Naturalist
leanings; but with a .quaint Romantic tendency in prose and
The Naturalists proper chiefly developed or seemed to develop
one side of Balzac, but almost entirely abandoned his Romantic
dement. They aimed first at exact and almost photographic
delineation -of the accidents of modern life, and secondly at
still more uncompromising non-suppression of the essential
features and functions of that life which are usually suppressed.
This school may be represented in chief by four novelists (really
three, as two of them were brothers who wrote together till the
rather early death of one of them), £mOe Zola (1840-1903),
Alphonse Daudet (1840-1897), and Edmond (1822-1897) and
Jules (1830-1870) de Goncourt. The first, of Italian extraction
and Marseillaia birth, began by work of undecided kinds and
was always a critic as well as a novelist. Of this first stage
Conies a Ninon (1864) and Tkbrese Raquin (1867) deserve to be
specified. But after 1870 Zola entered upon a huge scheme
(suggested no doubt by the Comtdie humaine) of tracing the
fortunes in every branch, legitimate and illegitimate, and in
every rank of society of a family, Les Rougon-Macquart, and
carried it out in a full score of novels during more than as many
years. He followed this with a shorter series on places, Paris,
Rome, Lourdes, and lastly by another of strangely apocalyptic
tone, Ficenditt, Travail, Viriti, the last a story of the Dreyfus
case, retrospective and, as it proved, prophetic. The extreme
repulsiveness of much of his work, and the overdone detail of
almost the whole of it, caused great prejudice against him, and
will probably always prevent his being ranked among the greatest
novelists; but his power is indubitable, and in passages, if not
in whole books, does itself justice.
VIM. de Goncourt, besides their work in Naturalist (they
would have preferred to call it "Impressionist") fiction, devoted
themselves especially to study and collection in the fine arts,
and produced many volumes on the historical side of these,
volumes distinguished by accurate and careful research. This
quality they carried, and the elder of them after his brother's
death continued to carry, into novel-writing (Rente Mauperin,
Germinie Laeerteux, Ckeric, &c.) with the addition of an extra-
ordinary care for peculiar and, as they called it, " personal "
diction. On the other hand, Alphonse Daudet (who with the
other three, Flaubert to some extent, and the Russian novelist
Turgenieff, formed a sort of etnaele or literary club) mixed with
some Naturalism a far greater amount of fancy and wit than his
companions allowed themselves or could perhaps attain; and
in the Tar lot in scries (dealing with the extravagances of bis
fellow-Provencaux) added not a little to the gaiety of Europe.
His other novels (Fromont jcune el Risler atnt. Jack, Le Nabob,
&c), also very popular, have been variously judged, there
being something strangely like plagiarism in some of them, and
in others, in fact in most, an excessive use of that privilege of
the novelist which consists in introducing real persons under
more or less disguise. It should be observed in speaking of this
group that the Goncourts, or rather the survivor of them, left an
elaborate Journal disfigured by spite and bad taste, but of much
importance for the appreciation of the personal side of French
literature during the last half of the century.
In 1880 Zola, who had by this time formed a regular school of
disciples, issued with certain of them a collection of short stories,
Les Soirics de Midan, which contains one of his own best things,
L'Altiujuc du moulin, and also the capital story, Boulc de suif,
by Guy de Maupassant (1850-1893), who in the same year
published poems, Des vers, of very remarkable if not strictly
poetical quality. Maupassant developed during his short
literary career perhaps the greatest powers shown by any French
novelist since Flaubert (his sponsor in both senses) in a series
of longer novels (Une Vie, Bd Ami, Pierre el Jean, Fort comme
la mort) and shorter stories (Monsieur Parent, Les Scturs
Rondoli, Le II or la), but they were distorted by the Naturalist
pessimism and grime, and perhaps also by the brain-disease
of which their author died. M. J. K. Huysmans (b. 1848), also
a contributor to Les Spiries de Mtdan, who had begun a little
earlier with liar Ike (1876) and other books, gave his most
characteristic work in 1884 with Au rebours and in 1891 with
L&'bas, stories of exaggerated and "satanic" pose, decorated
with perhaps the extrcmest achievements of the school in mere
ugliness and nastincss. Afterwards, by an obvious reaction,
he returned to Catholicism. Of about the same date as these
two arc two other novelists of note, Julien Viaud (" Pierre Loti,"
b. 1850), a naval officer who embodied his experiences of foreign
service with a faint dose of story and character interest, and a
far larger one of elaborate description, in a series of books
(Aziyadi, Le Manage de Loti, Madame Ckrysantkemc, &c), and
M. Paul Bourgct (b. 1852), an important critic as well as novelist
who deflected the Naturalist current into a " psychological "
channel, connecting itself higher with Stendhal, and composed
in its books very popular in their vrzy—Cruclle Anigme (1885),
Le Disciple, Terre promise, Cosmopalis. As a contrast or comple-
ment to Bourgct 's "psychological" novel may be taken the
"ethical" novel of Edouard Rod (1.857-1909) — La Vie privet
de Michel Tessier (1893), Le Sens de la vie, Les Trots Caters.
Contemporary with these as a novelist though a much older man,
and occupied at different times of bis life with verse and with
criticism, came Anatolc France (b. 1844), who in Le Crime de
Sihestre Bonnard, La Rdtisserie de la rcine Ptdauque, Le Lys
rouge, and others, has made a kind of novel as different from
the ordinary styles as Pierre Loti's, but of far higher appeal
in its wit, its subtle fancy, and its perfect French. Ferdinand
Fabre (1830-1898) and Rene Bazin (b. 1853) represent the union,
not too common in the French novel, of orthodoxy in morals and
religion with literary ability. Further must be mentioned Paul
Hcrvicu (b. 1857). a dramatist rather than a novelist; the
brothers Margueritte (Paul, b. i860. Victor, b. 1866), especially
strong in short stories and passages; another pair of brothers
of Belgian origin writing under the name of "J. H. Rosny" —
Zolaists partly converted not to religion but to science and a
Isort of non-Christian virtue; the ingenious and acuusfa^ \t *s&.
exactly moral, WuR&ncy <A MaxcA rtkwx V^. \Vvi\\ ^».
152
FRENCH LITERATURE
NUMMARY
series of historical events has ever perhaps received treatment
at the same time from so many different points of view, and by
writers of such varied literary excellence, among whom it must,
however, be said that the purely royalist side is hardly at all
represented. One of the earliest of these histories is that of
Francois Aiignet (1796-1884), a sober and judicious historian of
the older school, also well known for his Histoire de Marie Stuart.
About the same time was begun the brilliant if not extremely
trustworthy work of Adolphe Thiers (1 797-1877) on the Revolu-
tion, which established the literary reputation of the future
president of the French republic, and was at a later period com-
pleted by the Histoire du consulal el de Vempire. The downfall
of the July monarchy and the early years of the empire witnessed
the publication of several works of the first importance on this
subject. Barante contributed histories of the Convention and
the Directory, but the three books of greatest note were those
of Lamartinc, Jules Michelet (1798-1874), and Louis Blanc
(1811*1882). Lamartine's Histoire des Cirondins is written
from the constitutional-republican point of view, and is sometimes
considered to have had much influence in producing the events
of 1848. It is, perhaps, rather the work of an orator and poet
than of an historian. The work of Michelet is of a more original
character. Besides his history of the Revolution, Michelet wrote
an extended history of France, and a very large number of smaller
works on historical, political and social subjects. His imaginative
powers are of the highest order, and his style stands alone in
French for its strangely broken and picturesque character, its
turbid abundance of striking images, and its somewhat sombre
magnificence, qualities which, as may easily be supposed, found
full occupation in a history of the Revolution. The work of
Louis Blanc was that of a sincere but ardent republican, and is
useful from this point of view, but possesses no extraordinary
literary merit. The principal contributions to the history of the
Revolution of the third quarter of the century were those of
Quinet, Lanfrey and Taine. Edgar Quinet (1803-1875), like
Louis Blanc a devotee of the republic and an exile for its sake,
brought to this one of his latest works a mind and pen long
trained to literary and historical studies; but J/s Revolution is
not considered his best work. P. Lanfrey devoted himself with
extraordinary patience and acuteness to the destruction of the
Napoleonic legend, and the setting of the character of Napoleon I.
in a new, aulhentic and very far from favourable light. And
Taine, after distinguishing himself, as we have mentioned,
in literary criticism (Histoire de la liiUtature anglaise), and attain-
ing less success in philosophy (De V intelligence), turned in
Lei Origines de la France tnoderne to an elaborate discussion of
the Revolution, its causes, character and consequences, which
excited some commotion among the more ardent devotees of the
principles of '89. To return from this group, we must notice
J. F. Michaud (1767-1839), the historian of the crusades,
and Francois Pierre Guillaume Guizot (1 787-1874), who, like
his rival Thiers, devoted himself much to historical study. His
earliest works were literary and linguistic, but he soon turned
to political history, and for the last half-century of bis long life
his contributions to historical literature were almost incessant
and of the most various character. The most important are
the histories Des Origines du 'gouvcrnctnent rcprtsentatif, De la
revolution d'Angleterre, De la civilisation en France, and latterly
a Histoire de France, which he was writing at the time of his
death. Among minor historians of the earlier century may
be mentioned Prosper Duvcrgier de Hauranne (1798-1881)
(Couvernement parUmcntairc en France),]. J. Ampere (1 800-1864)
(Histoire romaint a Rome), Auguste Arthur Beugnot (1707-
1865) (Destruction du paganisme d' Occident), jf. O. B. de Cleron,
comte d'Haussonville (La Reunion de la Lorraine d la France),
Achillc Tendclle de Vaulabelle (1709-1870) (Lcs Deux Reslaura-
lions). In the last quarter of the century, under the department
of history, the most remarkable names were still those of Taine
and Renan, the former being distinguished for thought and
matter, the latter for style. Indeed it may be here proper to
remark that Renan, in the kind of elaborated semi-poetic style
which baa most characterized the prose oi the 19th century in
all countries of Europe, takes pre-eminence among French
writers even in the estimation of critics who are not enamoured
of his substance and tone. But, under the influence of Taine to
some extent and of a general European tendency still snore,
France during this period attained or recovered a considerable
place for what is called " scientific " history— the history whka
while, in some cases, though not in all, not neglecting the develop-
ment of style attaches itself particularly to " the document,"
on the one hand, and to philosophical arrangement on the other.
The chief representative of the school was probably Albert Sore)
(1842-1906), whose various handlings of the Revolutionary period
(including an excursion into partly literary criticism in the shape
of an admirable monograph on Madame de Statl) have established
themselves once for all. In a wider sweep Ernest Lavisse (b.
1842), who has dealt mainly with the 18th century, may bold
a similar position. Of others, older and younger, the doc de
Broglie (1821-1901), who devoted himself also to the 18th century
and especially to its secret diplomacy; Gaston Boisaicr (b. 1823),
a classical scholar rather than an historian proper, and one of the
latest masters of the older French academic style; Thureao-
Dangin (b. 1837), a student of mid 19th-century history; Henri
Houssaye (b. 1848), one of the Napoleonic period; Gabriel
Hanotaux (b. 1853), an historian of Richelieu and other subjects,
and a practical politician, may be mentioned. A large accessioa
has also been made to the publication of older memoirs— that
important branch of French literature from almost the whole of
its existence since the invention of prose.
Summary and Conclusion. — We have in these last pages given
such an outline of the 19th-century literature of France as seemed
convenient for the completion of what has gone before. It has
been already remarked that the nearer approach is made to oar
own time the less is it possible to give exhaustive accounts of
the individual cultivators of the different branches of literature.
It may be added, perhaps, that such exh£ustiveness becomes,
as -we advance, less and less necessary, as well as less and less
possible. The individual poet of to-day may and does produce
work that is in itself of greater literary value than that of the
individual trouvere. As a matter of literary history his con-
tribution is less remarkable because of the examples he has
before him and the circumstances which he has around him.
Yet we have endeavoured to draw such a sketch of French
literature from the Chanson de Roland onwards that no important
development and hardly any important partaker in such develop-
ment should be left out. A few lines may, perhaps, be now
profitably given to summing up the aspects of the whole,
remembering always that, as in no case is generalisation easier
than in the case of the literary aspects and tendencies of periods
and nations, so in no case is it apt to be more delusive unless
corrected and supported by ample information of fact and detail.
At the close of the nth century and at the beginning of the
1 2th we find the vulgar tongue in France not merely in fully
organized use for literary purposes, but already employed ia
most of the forms of poetical writing. An immense outburst of
epic and narrative verse has taken place, and lyrical poe'ry,
not limited as in the case of the epics to the north of France, but
extending from Roussillon to the Pas de Calais, completes this.
The 1 2th century adds to these earliest forms the important
development of the mystery, extends the subjects and varies
the manner of epic verse, and begins the compositions of literary
prose with the chronicles of St Denis and of Villchardouin, and
the prose romances of the Arthurian cycle. All this liieraure
is so far connected purely with the knightly and priestly orders,
though it is largely composed and still more largely dealt in by
Classes of men, trouvcres and jongleurs, who arc not necessarily
either knights or priests, and in the case of the jongleurs are
certainly neither. With a possible ancestry of Romance and
Teutonic canlUcnae, Breton lais, and vernacular legends, the
new literature has a certain pattern and model in Latin and for
the most part ecclesiastical compositions. It has the sacred books
and the legends of the saints for examples of narrative, the
rhythm of the hymns for a guide to metre, and the ceremonies of
the church for a stimulant to dramatic performance. By degress
RY1
sis xath century, forms of literature which busy them-
th the unprivileged classes begin to be born. The
ikes every phase of life for its subject; the folk-song
elegance and docs not lose raciness and truth. In the
ury, the 13th, medieval literature in France arrives at
—a prime which lasts until the first quarter of the 14th.
epics lose something of their savage charms, the polished
: of Provence quickly perishes. But in the provinces
oak the more prevailing tongue nothing is wanting to
tevelopmcnt. The language itself has shaken off all
iful incapacities, and, though not yet well adapted
Kjuircmcnts of modern life and study, is in every way
the demands made upon it by its own time. The
germ contained in the fabliau and quickened by the
produces the profane dram*. Ambitious works of merit
ost various kinds are published; Aucassin tt Nicoktte
ie by side with the Vie de Saint Louis, the Jen de la
ith Lt Miracle de Thiopkile, the Roman do la rose
Roman du Renart. The earliest notes of ballads and
are heard; endeavours are made with seal, and not
ithout understanding, to naturalize the wisdom of the
in France, and in the graceful tongue that France
, Romance in prose and verse, drama, history, songs,
mtory and evjn erudition, are all represented and
ed worthily. Meanwhile all nations of western Europe
ie to France for their literary models and subjects,
greatest writers in English, German; Italian, content
s with adaptations of Chretien de Troycs, of Benoit
: More, and of a hundred other known and unknown
and fabulists. But this age does not last long. The
has been put to all the uses of which it is as yet capable;
t in their sameness begin to pall upon reader and hearer;
lormous evils of the civil and religious state reflect thern-
ivitably in literature. The old forms die out or are
I only in half-lifeless travesties. The brilliant colouring
irt, and the graceful science of ballade and rondeau
ie Lescurcl and Dcschamps, alone maintain the literary
n of the time. Towards the end of the 14th century
lators and political writers import many terms of art,
1 the language to uses for which it is as yet unhandy,
t the beginning of the next age Charles d 'Orleans by
al grace and the virtue of the forms he used emerges
mass of writers. Throughout the 15th century the
: enriching or at least increasing the vocabulary goes on,
st no organizing hand appears to direct the process,
mds alone in merit as in peculiarity. But in this time
literature and the literature of the floating popular
st acquire an immense extension— all or almost all the
spirit being concentrated in the rough farce and rougher
while all the literary skill is engrossed by insipid
tirs and pedants. Then comes the grand upheaval
enaissance and the Reformation. An immense influx
r, of thought to make the science living, of new terms
a the thought, takes place, and a band of literary
ippear of power enough to master and get into shape
id mass. Rabelais, Amyot, Calvin and. Hcrberay
r rench prose; Marot, Ronsard and Regnier refashion
erse. The Pleiade introduces the drama as it is to be
language that is to help the drama to express itself.
ie for the first time throws invention and originality
other form than verse or than prose fiction. But by the
e century the tide has receded. The work of arrange-
. been but half done, and there are no master spirits
mplete it. At this period Malherbe and Balzac make
earance. Unable to deal with the whole problem, they
: to deal with part of it, and to reject a portion of the
irhich they feel themselves unfit to be stewards. Balzac
iccessors make of French prose an instrument faultless
irablc in precision, unequalled for the work for which
ut unfit for certain portions of the work which it was
; to perform. Malherbe, seconded by Boileau, makes
. verse an instrument suited only for the purposes of the
FRENCH LITERATURE
'53
drama of Euripides, or rather of Seneca, with or without its
chorus, and for a certain weakened echo of those choruses,
under the name of lyrics. No French verse of the first merit
other than dramatic is written for two whole centuries. The
drama soon comes to its acme, and during the succeeding time
usually maintains itself at a fairly high level until the death of
Voltaire. But prose lends itself to almost everything that is
required of it, and becomes constantly a more and more perfect
instrument. To the highest efforts of pathos and sublimity
its vocabulary and its arrangement likewise are still unsuited,
though the great preachers of the 17th century do their utmost
with it. But for clear exposition, smooth and agreeable narrative,
sententious and pointed brevity, witty repartee, it soon proves
itself to have no superior and scarcely an equal in Europe.
In these directions practitioners of the highest skill apply it
during the 17th century, while during the 18th its powers are
shown to the utmost of their variety by Voltaire, and receive
a new development at the hands of Rousseau. Yet, on the whole,
it loses during this century. It becomes more and more unfit
for any but trivial uses, and at last it is employed for those uses
only. Then occurs the Revolution, repeating the mighty stir
in men's minds which the Renaissance had given, but at first
experiencing more difficulty in breaking up the ground and once
more rendering it fertile. The faulty and incomplete genius
of Chateaubriand and Madame de Stael gives the first evidence
of a new growth, and after many years the Romantic movement
completes the work. Whether the force of that movement is
now, after three-quarters of a century, spent or not, its results
remain. The poetical power of French has been once more
triumphantly proved, and its productiveness in all branches of
literature has been renewed, while in that of prose fiction there has
been almost created a new class of composition. In the process
of reform, however, not a little of the finish of French prose
style has been lost, and the language itself has been affected in
something the same way as it was affected by the less judicious
innovations of the Ronsardists. The pedantry of the Plliade
led to the preposterous compounds of Du Bartas; the passion
of the Romantics for foreign tongues and for the mot proprt
has loaded French with foreign terms on the one hand and with
argot on the other, while it is questionable whether the vers Ubre
is really suited to the French genius* There is, therefore, room
for new Malherbes and Balzacs, if the days for Balzacs and Mal-
herbes had not to all appearance passed. Should they be once
more forthcoming, they have the failure as well as the success
of their predecessors, to guide them.
Finally, we may sum up even this summary. For volume
and merit taken together the product of these eight centuries of
literature excels that of any European nation, though for in-
dividual works of the suprcmest excellence they may perhaps be
asked in vain. No French writer is lifted by the suffrages of
other nations— the only criterion when sufficient time has elapsed
—to the level of Homer, of Shakespeare, or of Dante, who reign
alone. Of those of the authors of France who are indeed of the
thirty but attain not to the first three Rabelais and Molicre
alone unite the general suffrage, and this fact roughly but surely
points to the real excellence of the literature which these men are
chosen to represent. It is great in all ways, but it is greatest on
the lighter side. The house of mirth is more suited to it than the
bouse of mourning. To the latter, indeed, the language of the
unknown marvel who told Roland's death, of him who gave
utterance to Camilla's wrath and despair, and of Victor Hugo,
who sings how the mountain wind makes mad the lover who can-
not forget, has amply made good its title of entrance. But for
one Frenchman who can write admirably in this strain there are
a hundred who can tell the most admirable story, formulate the
most pregnant reflection, point the acutcst jest. There is thus
no really great epic in French, few great tragedies, and those
imperfect and in a faulty kind, little prose like Mflton's or like
Jeremy Taylor's, little verse (though more than is generally
thought) like Shelley's or like Spenser's. But there arc the most
delightful short tales, both in prose and in Verse, that the world
baa ever seen, the most polished Jewelry pf reflection that has
«5+
FRENCH POLISH— FRENCH REVOLUTION
ever been wrought, songs
must make men laugh as
above all such a body of n
verse, as no other nation <
grace of workmanship in 1
delight to him who reads.
Bibliography.— The m
of the middle ages is the
ferred to, which, notwiths
volumes in 1906, and had o
publication, had only rca<
monographs which it com
subjects, such as that of P
Leclerc on the fabliaux, ar
For the history of literati
mainly Latin, J. J. Ampei
Charlemagne, sons Ckariemc
authority. Leon Gautier's
contains almost everything
P. Paris's Romans de la tab
this subject, but very mu<
and elsewhere. The most
especially those by Gaston
map* has been reprinted
periodical Romania, which
chief receptacle of studies
of Reynard the standard
All parts of the lighter Ii
treated by Lenient, Lt Soti
been frequently treated by
franqais), by Fabre (Les Q
us mystkrts), by Aubcrtin
franfais* au moyen die).
summary of the whole me
and oratorical sections are
of unsurpassed authority
translated into English.
On the 16th century an e:
•ad Hatzfeld; and the re<
of A. Tilley (a vols., 1904) i
has been more than once re
der frantdsiscken Tragddu
the chief authority for dra
periods and sub-periods, sin
desire thorough acquainu
hundred years should read
work of Sainte-Bcuve, of S
may be supplemented ad hi
above. The series of volui
now pretty extensive, is gc
invaluable book on ioth-a
a companion to the stud;
(4 vols., 1861), an antholt
and all the best critics of
may be added the later
siicU (1877-1879).
FRENCH POLISH, a
dissolving shellac in mcth
tints, brown, white, gam
most extensively used,
manner, with the exceptl
brown polish and methyl
or Bismarck brown, accoi
Some woods, and especial
they are polished. To 2
of potash in hot water ao
After staining the wood t
grain is to rub in fine plaster of Paris (wet), wiping off before a
" sets." After this is dry it should be oiled with linseed oil and
thoroughly wiped off. The wood is then ready for the polish,
which is put on with a rubber made of wadding covered with
linen rag and well wetted with polish. The polishing process hat
to be repeated gradually, and after the work has hardened,
the surface is smoothed down with fine glass-paper, a few drops
of linseed oil being added until the surface is sufficiently smooth.
After a day or two the surface can be cleared by using a fresh
rubber with a double layer of linen, removing the top layer wfaea
it is getting hard and finishing off with the bottom layer.
FRENCH REVOLUTION, THE. Among the many revolutions
which from time to time have given a new direction to the
political development of nations the French Revolution stands
out as at once the most dramatic in its incident* and the most
momentous in its results. This exceptional character is, indeed,
implied in the name by which it is known; for France has ex-
perienced many revolutions both before and since that of 1789,
but the name " French Revolution," or simply " the Revolution,'*
without qualification, is applied to this one alone. The causes
which led to h: the gradual decay of the institutions which
France had inherited from the feudal system, the decline of the
centralized monarchy, and the immediate financial necessities
that compelled the assembling of the long neglected states-
general in 1789, are dealt with in the article on Fxancz: History.
The successive constitutions, and the other legal changes which
resulted from it, are also discussed in their general relation to
the growth of the modern French polity in the. article Faucet
(Law and Institutions). The present article deals with the
progress of the Revolution itself from the convocation of the
states-general to the coup d'etat of the 18th Brumaire winch
placed Napoleon Bonaparte in power.
The elections to the states-general of 1780 were held in mv
favourable circumstances. The failure of the harvest of 1788
and a severe winter had caused widespread distress, opm^
The government was weak and despised, and its agents mtttm
were afraid or unwilling to quell outbreaks of disorder. *f MH .
At the same time the longing for radical reform and atamwtt
the belief that it would be easy were almost universal The
cokicrs or written instructions given to the deputies covered
well-nigh every subject of political, social or economic interest,
and demanded an amazing number of changes. Amid this com-
motion the king and his ministers remained passive. They did
not even determine the question whether the estates should act
as separate bodies or deliberate collectively. On the 5th of May
the states-general were opened by Louis in the Salle des Menus
Plaisirs at Versailles. Barentin, the keeper of the seals, informed
them that they were free to determine whether they would vote
by orders or vote by head. Neckcr, as director-general of the
finances, set forth the condition of the treasury and proposed
some small reforms. The Tiers £tat (Third Estate) was dis-
satisfied that the question of joint or separate deliberation should
have been left open. It was aware that some of the nobles
and many of the inferior clergy agreed with it as to the need
for comprehensive reform. Joint deliberation would ensure 1
majority to the reformers and therefore the abolition of privilege!
and the extinction of feudal rights of property. Separate de*
liberation would enable the majority among the nobles and the
superior clergy to limit reform. Hence it became the firsUobject
of the Tiers Etat to effect the amalgamation of the three estate*.
The conflict between those who desired and those who resisted
amalgamation took the form of a conflict over the verification
of the powers of the deputies. The Tiers £tat insisted
that the deputies of all three estates should have their
powers verified in common as the first step towards ***y*
making them all members -of one House. It resolved BMUu "
to hold its meetings in the Salle des Menus Plaisirs, whereas the
nobles and the clergy met in smaller apartments set aside for their
exclusive use. It refrained from taking any step which might
have implied that it was an organized assembly, and persevered
in regarding itself as a mere crowd of individual members
incapable of transacting business. Meanwhile the clergy and
FRENCH REVOLUTION
*55
>bks began a separate verification of their powers. Bat
of the.nobles and a great many of the clergy voted against
rocedure. On the 7th the Tiers £tat sent deputations to
: the other estates to union, while the clergy sent a deputa-
» it with the proposal that each estate should name conv
ocrs to discuss the best method of verifying powers,
fcrs £tat accepted the proposal and conferences were held,
ithout result. It then made another appeal to the clergy
was almost successful The king interposed with a com-
for the renewal of the conferences. They were resumed
the presidency of Barentin, but again to no purpose.
the 10th of June Sieyes moved that the Hers £tat should
s last time invite the First and Second Estates to join in the
ation of powers and announce that, whether they did or
be work of verifying would begin forthwith. The motion
irried by an immense majority. As there was no response,
iers fitat on the 12th named BaiUy provisional president
smmenced verification. Next day three cures of Poitou
to have their powers verified. Other clergymen followed
When the work of verification was over, a title had to be
for the body thus created, which would no longer accept
yle of the Tiers £tat. On the 15th Sieves proposed that
hould entitle themselves the Assembly of the known and
d representatives of the French nation. Mirabean, Mounier
there proposed various appellations. But success was
pd for Legrand, an obscure deputy who proposed the
! name of National Assembly. Withdrawing his own
i, Sieyes adopted Legrand 's suggestion, which was carried
1 votes to 00. The Assembly went on to declare that it
. the debts of the crown under the safeguard of the national
r and that all existing taxes, although illegal as having
imposed without the consent of the people, should
ue to be paid until the day of dissolution.
these proceedings the Tiers £tat and a few of the clergy
ed themselves the national legislature. Then and there-
after the National Assembly assumed full sovereign
and constituent powers. Nobles and clergy might
^ come in if they pleased, but it could do without them.
The king's assent to its measures would be convenient,
»t necessary. This boldness was rewarded, for on the 19th
xgy decided by a majority of one in favour of joint verifica*
On the same day the nobles voted an address to the king
swing the action of the Tiers £tat. Left to himself, Louis
have been too inert for resistance. But the queen and
tther, the count of Artois, with some of the ministers and
vs, urged him to make a stand. A Seance Royale was
d for the 22nd and workmen were sent to prepare the Salle
snus Plaisirs for the ceremony. On the 20th BaiUy and the
es proceeded to the hall and found it barred against their
ice. Thereupon they adjourned to a neighbouring tennis
court, where Mounier proposed that they should swear
f mM not to separate until they had established the constitu-
tion. With a solitary exception they swore and the
Oath of the Tennis Court became an era in French
f. As the ministers could not agree on the policy which the
hould announce in the Seance Royale, it was postponed
23rd. The Assembly found shelter in the church of St
where it was joined by the main body of the clergy and by
st of the nobles.
the Seance Royale Louis made known his will that the
s should deliberate apart, and declared that if they should
to help him he would do by his sole authority what was
ary for the happiness of his people. When he quitted the
ome of the clergy and most of the nobles retired to their
te chambers. But the rest, together with the Tiers £tat,
led, and Mirabeau declared that, as they had come by the
f the nation, force only should make them withdraw.
Jemed," said Sieyes, " you are to-day what you were
lay." With one voice the Assembly proclaimed its
on to its former decrees and the inviolability of its members.
rsaiUes and in Paris popular feeling was clamorous for the
Uy and against the court. During the next few days
many of the clergy and nobles, including the archbishop of Paris
and the duke of Orleans, joined the Assembly. Louis tamely
accepted his defeat. He recalled Necker, who had resigned
after the Seance Royale. On the 27th he wrote to those clerical
and noble deputies who still held out, urging submission. By
the and of July the joint verification of powers was completed.
The last trace of the historic States-General disappeared and the
National Assembly was perfect. On the same day it claimed an
absolute discretion by a decree that the mandates of the electors
were not binding on its members.
Having failed in their first attempt on the Assembly, the Court
party resolved to try what force could da A large number of
troops,chicfly foreign regiments in the service of France, DM ^ tm ^
were concentrated near Paris under the command of the gin*****
marshal de Brogiie. OnMirabeau's motion theAssembly
voted an address to the king asking for their withdrawal. Hie
king replied that the troops were not meant to act against the
Assembly, but intimated his purpose of transferring the session
to some provincial town. On the same day he dismissed Necker
and ordered him to quit Versailles. These acts led to the first
insurrection of Paris. The capital had long been in a dangerous
condition. Bread was dear and employment was scarce. The
measures taken to relieve distress had allured a multitude of needy
and desperate men from the surrounding country. Among the
middle class there already existed a party, consisting of men like
Danton or Camille Desmoulins, which was prepared to go much
further than any of the leaders of the Assembly. The rich citizens
were generally fund-holders, who regarded the Assembly as the
one bulwark against a public bankruptcy. The duke of Orleans,
a weak and dissolute but ambitious man, had conceived the hope
of supplanting his cousin on the throne. He strained his wealth
and influence to recruit followers and to make mischief. The
gardens of his residence, the Palais Royal, became the centre of
political agitation. Ever since the elections virtual freedom of
the press and freedom of speech had prevailed in Paris. Clubs
were multiplied and pamphlets came forth every hour. The
municipal officers who were named by the Crown had little
influence with the citizens. The police were a mere handful. Of
the two line regiments quartered in the capital, one was Swiss and
therefore trusty; but the other, the Gardes Franchises, shared
ail the feelings of the populace.
On the 1 2th of July Camille Desmoulins announced the dis-
missal of Necker to the crowd in the Palais Royal. Warmed by
his eloquence, they sallied into the street. Part of £Jm*v
Broglie's troops occupied the Champs Elysees and the *■ PmrtMt
Place Louis Quinie. After one or two petty encounters
with the mob they were withdrawn, either because their temper
was uncertain or because their commanders shunned responsi-
bility. Paris was thus left to the rioters, who seized arms
wherever they could find them, broke open the jails, burnt the
octroi barriers and soon had every man's life and goods at their
discretion. Citizens with anything to lose were driven to act
for themselves. For the purpose of choosing its representatives
in the states-general the Third Estate of Paris had named 300
electors. Their function once discharged, these men had no
public character, but they resolved that they would hold together
in order to watch over the interests of the city. After the Seance
Royale the municipal authority, conscious of its own weakness,
allowed them to meet at the H6tel de Ville, where they proceeded
to consider the formation of a civic guard. On the 13th, when
all was anarchy in Paris, they were joined by Flesselles, Provost
of the Merchants, and other municipal officers. The project of a
civic guard was then adopted. The insurrection, however, ran
its course unchecked. Crowds of deserters from the regular
troops swelled the ranks of the insurgents. They attacked the
Hotel des Invalides and carried off all the arms j^po/ia*
which were stored there. With the same object they b—m*,
assailed the Bastille. The garrison was small and ***
disheartened, provisions were short, and after, some B89%
hours' fighting De Launay the governor surrendered on
promise of quarter. He and several of his men were, notwith-
standing, butchered by the nob before they could be brought to
i 5 6
FRENCH REVOLUTION
the H6telde Ville. As all Paris was in the hands of the insurgents,
the king saw the necessity of submission. On the morning of the
15th he entered the hall of the Assembly to announce that the
troops would be withdrawn. Immediately afterwards he dis-
missed his new ministers and recalled Necker. Thereupon the
princes and courtiers most hostile to the National Assembly,
the count of Artois, the prince of Condi, the duke of Bourbon
and many others, feeling themselves no longer safe, quitted
France. Their departure is known as the first emigration.
The capture of the Bastille was hailed throughout Europe as
symbolizing the fall of absolute monarchy, and the victory of the
insurgents had momentous consequences. Recognizing
2JJj. the 300 electors as a temporary municipal government,
duality ot the Assembly sent a deputation to confer with them at
the H6tel de Ville, and on a sudden impulse one of these
deputies, Bailly, lately president of the Assembly, was
chosen to be mayor of Paris. The marquis Lafayette,
doubly popular as a veteran of the American War and as one of
the nobles who heartily upheld the cause of the Assembly, was
chosen commandant of the new civic force, thenceforward*
known as the National Guard. On the 1 7th Louis himself visited
Paris and gave his sanction to the new authorities. In the course
of the following weeks the example of Paris was copied throughout
France. All the cities and towns set up new elective authorities
and organized a National Guard. At the same time the revolution
spread to the country districts. In most of the pro-
1 vinces the peasants rose and stormed and burnt the
houses of the seigneurs, taking peculiar care to destroy
their title-deeds. Some of the seigneurs were murdered
and the rest were driven into the towns or across the frontier.
Amid the universal confusion the old administrative system
Vanished! The intendants and sub-delegates quitted or were
driven from their posts. The old courts of justice, whether
loyal or feudal, ceased to acL In many districts there was no
more police, public works were suspended and the collection of
taxes became almost impossible. The insurrection of July really
ended the ancien regime.
Disorder in the provinces led directly to the proceedings on
the famous night of the 4th of August. While the Assembly was
considering a declaration which might calm revolt, the
Xjjw? vicomte de Noailles and the due d'Aiguillon moved
that it should proclaim equality of taxation and the
suppression of feudal burdens. Other deputies rose to demand
the repeal of the game laws, the enfranchisement of such serfs
as were still to be found in France, and the abolition of tithes and
of feudal courts and to renounce all privileges, whether of classes,
of cities, or of provinces. Amid indescribable enthusiasm the
Assembly passed resolution after resolution embodying these
changes. The resolutions were followed by decrees sometimes
hastily and unskilfully drawn. In vain Sieves remarked that in
extinguishing tithes the Assembly was making a present to every
landed proprietor. In vain the king, while approving most of
the decrees, tendered some cautious criticisms of the rest. The
majority did not, indeed, design to confiscate property wholesale.
They drew a distinction between feudal claims which did and
did not carry a moral claim to compensation. But they were
embarrassed by the wording of their own decrees and forestalled
by the violence of the people. The proceedings of the 4th of
August issued in a wholesale transfer of property from one class
to another without any indemnity for the losers.
The work of drafting a constitution for France had already
been begun. Parties in the Assembly were numerous and ill-
defined. The Extreme Right, who desired to keep
the government as it stood, were a mere handful.
The Right who wanted to revive, as they said, the
ancient constitution, in other words, to limit the king's
power by periodic States-General of the old-fashioned sort, were
more numerous and had able chiefs in Cazales and Maury, but
strove in vain against the spirit of the time. The Right Centre,
sometimes called the Monarchiens,were a large body and included
several men of talent, notably Mounier and Malouet, as well as
many men of rank and wealth. They desired a constitution like
that of England which should reserve a Jarge executive power
to the king, while entrusting the taxing and legislative powers to*
modern parliament. The Left or Constitutionals, known after
wards as the Feuillants, among whom Barnave and Charles and
Alexander Lameth were conspicuous, also wished to preserve
monarchy but disdained English precedent. They were possessed
with feelings then widespread, weariness of arbitrary govern-
ment, hatred of ministers and courtiers, and distrust not to muck
of Louis as of those who surrounded him and influenced his
judgment. Republicans without knowing it, they grudged every
remnant of power to the Crown. The Extreme Left, still more
republican in spirit, of whom Robespierre was the most note-
worthy, were few and had little power. Mirabeau's independeace
of judgment forbids us to place him in any party.
The first Constitutional Committee, elected on the 14th of July,
had Mounier for its reporter. It was instructed to begin with
drafting a Declaration of the Rights of Man. Six p $l1nm
weeks were spent by the Assembly in discussing this ammtm
document. The Committee then presented a report *%***
which embodied the principle of two Chambers. This Mmm '
principle contradicted the extreme democratic theories so much
in fashion. It also offended, the self-love of most of the nobles
and the clergy who were loath that a few of their number should
be erected into a House of Lords. The Assembly rejected the
principle of two Chambers by nearly 10 to x. The question
whether the king should have a veto on legislation was next
raised. Mounier contended that he should have an
absolute veto, and was supported by Mirabeau, who 3^*'
had already described the unlimited power of a single
Chamber as worse than the tyranny of Constantinople. The Left
maintained that the king, as depositary of the executive, should
be wholly excluded from the legislative power. Lafayette, who
imagined himself to be copying the American constitution,
proposed that the king should have a suspensive veto. Thinking
that it would be politic to claim no more, Necker persuaded
the king to intimate that he was satisfied with .Lafayette's
proposal. The suspensive veto was therefore adopted. As the
king had no power of dissolution, it was an idle form. Mounier
and his friends having resigned their places in the Constitutional
Committee, it came to an end and the Assembly elected a new
Committee which represented the opinions of the Left.
Soon afterwards a fresh revolt in Paris caused the king and the
Assembly to migrate thither. The old causes of disorder were
still working in that city. The scarcity of bread was set down
to conspirators against the Revolution. Riots were frequent
and persons supposed hostile to the Assembly and the nation
were murdered with impunity. The king still had counsellors
who wished for his departure as a means to regaining freedom
of action. At the end of September the Flanders regiment came
to Versailles to reinforce the Gardes du Corps. The officers of
the Gardes du Corps entertained the officers of the Flanders
regiment and of the Versailles National Guard at dinner in the
palace. The king, queen and dauphin visited the company.
There followed a vehement outbreak of loyalty. Rumour
enlarged the incident into a military plot against freedom
Those who wanted a more thorough revolution wrought up the
crowd and even respectable citizens wished to have the
king among them and amenable to their opinion. On Srum
the 5th of October a mob which had gathered to royi
assault the H6lel de Ville was diverted into a march on
Versailles. Lafayette was slow to follow it and, when
he arrived, took insufficient precautions. At daybreak
on the 6tb some of the rioters made their way into the palace
and stormed the apartment of the queen who escaped with
difficulty. At length the National Guards arrived and the mob
was quieted by the announcement that the king had resolved
to go to Paris. The Assembly declared itself inseparable from
the king's person. Louis and his family reached Paris on the
same evening and took up their abode in the Tuileries. A
little later the Assembly established itself in the riding school
of the palace. Thenceforward the king and queen were to all
The Assembly itself was subject to constant
FRENCH REVOLUTION
"57
intimidation. Many members of the Right gave up the struggle
and emigrated, or at least withdrew from attendance, so that the
Left became supreme.
Mirabeau had already taken alarm at the growing violence of
the Revolution. In September he had foretold that it would
not stop short of the death of both king and queen.
After the insurrection of October be sought to com-
municate with them through his friend the comte de
laMarck. In a remarkable correspondence he sketched
a policy for the king. The abolition of privilege and the estab-
lishment of a parliamentary system were, he wrote, unalterable
facts which it would be madness to dispute. But a strong
executive authority was essential, and a king who frankly adopted
the Revolution might still be powerful. In order to rally the
sound part of the nation Louis should leave Paris, and, if neces-
sary, he should prepare for a civil war; but he should never
appeal to foreign powers. .Neither the king nor the queen could
grasp the wisdom of this advice. They distrusted Mirabeau as
an unscrupulous adventurer, and were confirmed in this feeling
by Ins demands for money. His correspondence with the court,
although secret, was suspected. The politicians who envied
his talents and believed him a rascal raised the cry of treason.
In the Assembly Mirabeau, though sometimes successful on
particular questions, never had a chance of giving effect to his
policy as a whole. Whether even he could have controlled the
Revolution is highly doubtful; but his letters and minutes drawn
up for the king form the most striking monument of his genius
(see Muabeau and Montmokin de Saint-Herem).
Early in the year 1700 a dispute with England concerning
the frontier in North America induced the Spanish government
n. to claim the help of France under the Family Compact.
This demand led the Assembly to consider in what
hands the power of concluding alliances and of making
peace and war should be placed. Mirabeau tried to
keep the initiative for the king, subject to confirmation
by the Chamber. On Barnave's motion the Assembly decreed that
the legislature should have the power of war and peace and the
king a merely advisory power. Mirabeau was defeated on another
point of the highest consequence, the inclusion of ministers
in the National Assembly. His colleagues generally adhered to
the principle that the legislative and executive powers should be
totally separate. The Left assumed that, if deputies could hold
office, the king would have the means of corrupting the ablest
and most influential. It was decreed that no deputy should
be minister while sitting in the House or for two years after.
Ministers excluded from the House being necessarily objects
of suspicion, the. Assembly was careful to allow them the least
possible power. The old provinces were abolished, and France
was divided anew into eighty departments. Each department
, was subdivided into districts, cantons and communes.
JSp lf The main business of administration, even the levying
rnw of taxes, was entrusted to the elective local authorities.
The judicature was likewise made elective. The army
and the navy were so organized as to leave the king but a small
share in appointing officers and to leave the officers but scanty
means of maintaining discipline. Even the cases in which the
sovereign might be deposed were foreseen and expressly staled.
Monarchy was retained, but the monarch was regarded as a pos-
sible traitor and every precaution was taken to render him harm-
less even at the cost of having no effective national government.
The distrust which the Assembly felt for the actual ministers
led it to undertake the business of government as well as the
if . « ■ business of reform. There were committees for all
cms*- the chief departments of state, a committee for the
JJJjS? army, a committee for the navy, another for diplomacy,
\tmwNr. JUM>thcr ^ g nancc# These committees sometimes
asked the ministers for information, but rarely took their advice
Even Necker found the Assembly heedless of his counsels. The
condition of the treasury became worse day by day. The yield
of the indirect taxes fell off through the interruption of business,
and the direct taxes were in large measure withheld, for want of
am authority to enforce payment. With some trouble Necker
The
induced the Assembly to sanction first a loan of 30,000,000
livrcs and then a loan of 80,000,000 livres. The public having
shown no eagerness to subscribe, Necker proposed that every
man should be invited to make a patriotic contribution of one-
fourth of his income. This expedient also failed. On the iolh
of October 1 780 Talleyra nd, bishop of Autun, proposed caafea-
that the Assembly should take possession of the lands tkm •/
of the church. In November the Assembly enacted
that they should be at the disposal of the nation, which
would provide for the maintenance of the clergy. Since the
church lands were supposed to occupy one-fifth of France, the
Assembly thought that it had found an inexhaustible source
of public wealth. On the security of the church lands it based
a paper currency (the famous assignats). In December it ordered
an issue to the amount of 400,000,000 livres. As the revenue
still declined and the reforms enacted by the Assembly involved
a heavy outlay, it recurred again and again to this expedient.
Before its dissolution the Assembly had authorized
the creation of 1,800,000,000 livres of assignats and
the depreciation of its paper had begun. Finding that
he had lost all credit with, the Assembly, Necker resigned office
and left France in September 1700.
Even the committees of the Assembly had far less power
than the new municipal authorities throughout France. They
really governed so far as there was any government.
Often full of public spirit, they lacked experience and
in a time of peculiar difficulty had no guide save their
own discretion. They opened letters, arrested suspects,
controlled the trade in corn, and sent their National
Guards on such errands as they thought proper.
The political clubs which sprang up all over the country often
presumed to act as though they were public authorities (see
Jacobins). The revolutionary journalists, Desmoulins in his
RtvoluLiotu de France el de Brabant, Lou st allot in his Rtvolv*
lions de Paris, Marat in his Ami du pcuple, continued to feed the
fire of discord. Amid this anarchy it became a practice for the
National Guards of different districts to form federations, that
is, to meet and swear loyalty to each other and obedience to the
laws made by the National Assembly. At the suggestion of the
municipality of Paris the Assembly decreed a general federation
of all France, to be held on the anniversary of the fall of the
Bastille. The ceremony took place in the Champ de Mars (July
14, 1790) in presence of the king, the queen, the Assembly,
and an enormous concourse of spectators. It was attended by
deputations from the National Guards in every part of the
kingdom, from the regular regiments, and from the crews of the
fleet. Talleyrand celebrated Mass, and Lafayette was the first
to swear fidelity to the Assembly and the nation. In this gather-
ing the provincial deputations caught the revolutionary fever
of Paris. Still graver was the effect upon the regular army.
It had been disaffected since the outbreak of the Revolution.
The rank and file complained of their food, their lodging and
their pay. The non-commissioned officers, often intelligent
and hard-working, were embittered by the refusal o*.
of promotion. The officers, almost all nobles, rarely aifKihm
showed much concern for their men, and were often Jjjj?
mere courtiers and triflcrs. After the festival of the
federation the soldiers were drawn into the political clubs, and
named regimental committees to defend their interests. Not
content with asking for redress of grievances, they sometimes
seized the regimental chest or imprisoned their officers. In
August a formidable outbreak at Nancy was only quelled with
much loss of life. Desertion became more frequent than ever, and
the officers, finding their position unbearable, began to emigrate.
Similar causes produced an even worse effect upon the navy.
By its rough handling of the church the Assembly brought
fresh trouble upon France. The suppression of tithe and the
confiscation of church lands had reduced the clergy to arBco—
live on whatever stipend the legislature might think fit
to give them. A law of February 1700 suppressed the
religious orders not engaged in education or in works of
charity, and forbade the introduction of new ones. Monastic vowa
i6o
FRENCH REVOLUTION
him on the 9th of March, whereupon the assembly testified its
confidence in Narbonne. De Lessart having incurred its anger
by the tameness of his replies to Austrian dictation, the Assembly
voted his impeachment.
The king, seeing no other course open, formed a new ministry
which was chiefly Girondin. Roland became minister of the
War interior, Clavierc of finance, De Grave of war, and
Lacoste of marine. Far abler and more resolute than
any of these men was Dumouriez, the new minister
for foreign affairs. A soldier by profession, be had
been employed in the secret diplomacy of Louis XV. and had thus
gained a wide knowledge of international politics. He stood
aloof from parties and had no rigid principles, but held views
closely resembling those of Narbonne. He wished for a war with
Austria which should restore some influence to the crown and
make himself the arbiter of France. The king bent to necessity,
and on the 20th of April came to the Assembly with the proposal
that war should be declared against Austria. It was carried by
acclamation. Dumouriez intended to begin with an invasion
of the Austrian Netherlands. As this would awaken English
jealousy, he sent Talleyrand to London with assurances that,
if victorious, the French would annex no territory.
It was designed that the French should invade the Netherlands
at three points simultaneously. Lafayette was to march against
Namur, Biron against Mons, and Dillon against Tournay. But
the first movement disclosed the miserable state of the army.
Smitten with panic, Dillon's force fled at sight of the enemy, and
Dillon, after receiving a wound from one of his own soldiers,
was murdered by the mob of Lille. Biron was easily routed
before Mons. On hearing of these disasters Lafayette found it
necessary to retreat. This shameful discomfiture quickened all
the suspicion and jealousy fermenting in France. De Grave had
to resign and was succeeded by Servan. The Austrian forces in
the Netherlands were, however, so weak that they could not take
the offensive. Austria demanded help from Prussia under the
recent alliance, and the claim was admitted. Prussia declared
war against France, and the duke of Brunswick was chosen to
command the allied forces, but various causes delayed action.
Austrian and Prussian interests clashed in Poland. The Austrian
government wished to preserve a harmless neighbour. The
Prussian government desired another partition and a large tract
of Polish territory. Only after long discussion was it agreed that
Prussia should be free to act in Poland, while Austria might find
compensation in provinces conquered from France.
A respite was thus given and something was done to improve
the army. Meantime the Assembly passed three decrees: one
for the deportation of nonjuring priests, another to suppress the
king's Constitutional Guard, and a third for the establishment
of a camp of fidiris near Paris. Louis consented to sacrifice
his guard, but vetoed the other decrees. Roland having addressed
to him an arrogant letter of remonstrance, the king with the
support of Dumouriez dismissed Roland, Servan and Clavierc,
Dumouriez then took the ministry of war, and the other places
were filled with such men as could be had. Dumouriez, who
cared only for the successful prosecution of the war, urged the
king to accept the decrees. As Louis was obstinate, he felt that
he could do no more, resigned office on the 15th of June and
r of went to join the army of the north. Lafayette, who
remained faithful to the constitution of 1791, ventured
on a letter of remonstrance to the Assembly. It paid
no attention, for Lafayette could no longer sway the
people. The Jacobins tried to frighten the king into accepting the
decrees and recalling his ministers. On the 20th of June Use
armed populace invaded the hall of the Assembly and the royal
apartments in the TuUeries. For some hours the king and queen
were in the utmost peril. With passive courage Louis refrained
from making any promise to the insurgents.
The failure of the insurrection encouraged a movement in
favour of the king. Some twenty thousand Parisians signed a
petition expressing sympathy with Louis. Addresses of like
tcnour poured in from the departments and the provincial cities.
LaUyettc himself came to Paris in the hope of rallying the
constitutional party, but the king and queen eluded his offers of
assistance. They had always disliked and distrusted Lafayette
and the Feuillants, and preferred to rest their hopes of deliverance
on the foreigner. Lafayette returned to his troops without having
effected anything. The Girondins made a last advance to Lows,
offering to save the monarchy if he would accept them as
ministers. His refusal united all the Jacobins in the project o»
overturning the monarchy by force. The ruling spirit of ihi* new
revolution was Danton, a barrister only thirty-two years of age,
who had not sat in either Assembly, although he had been the
leader of the Cordeliers, an advanced republican dub, and had
a strong hold on the common people of Paris. Danton and his
friends were assisted in their work by the fear of invasion, for
the allied army was at length mustering on the frontier. The
Assembly declared the country in danger. All the regular troops
in or near Paris were sent to the front. Volunteers and ftdtrts
were constantly arriving in Paris, and, although most went on to
join the army, the Jacobins enlisted those who were suitable for
their purpose, especially some 500 whom Barbaroux, a Girondin,
had summoned from Marseilles. At the same time the National
Guard was opened to the lowest class. Brunswick's famous
declaration of the 25th of July, announcing that the allies would
enter France to restore the royal authority and would visit the
Assembly and the city of Paris with military execution if any
further outrage were offered to the king, heated the republican
spirit to fury. It was resolved to strike the decisive blow on the
10th of August.
On the night of the 9th a new revolutionary Commune took
possession of the hotel de ville, and early on the morning of the
10th the insurgents assailed the Tuileries. As the
preparations of the Jacobins had been notorious, some
measures of defence had been taken. Beside a few
gentlemen in arms and a number of National Guards
the .palace was garrisoned by the Swiss Guard, about 950 strong.
The disparity of force was not so great as to make resistance
altogether hopeless. But Louis let himself be persuaded into
betraying his own cause and retiring with his family under the
shelter of the Assembly. The National Guards either dispersed
or fraternized with the assailants. The Swiss Guard stood firm,
and, possibly by accident, a fusillade began. The enemy were
gaining ground when the Swiss received an order from the king to
cease firing and withdraw. They were mostly shot down as tbey
were retiring, and of those who surrendered many were murdered
in cold blood next day. The king and queen spent long hours in
a reporter's box while the Assembly discussed their fate and the
fate of the French monarchy. Little more than a third of the
deputies were present and they were almost all Jacobins. They
decreed that Louis should be suspended from his office and that
a convention should be summoned to give France a new con-
stitution. An executive council was formed by recalling Roland,
Claviere and Servan to office and joining with them Danton as
minister of justice, Lcbrun as minister of foreign affairs, and
Monge as minister of marine.
When Lafayette heard of the insurrection in Paris he tried
to rally his troops in defence of the constitution, but they refused
to follow him. He was driven to cross the frontier t*mjh*-
and surrender himself to the Austrians. Dumouriez k/ttmmny
was named his successor. But the new government was r ! f '"
still beset with danger. It had no root in law and little a * AHtB>
hold on public opinion. It could not lean on the Assembly, a
mere shrunken remnant, whose days were numbered. It re-
mained dependent on the power which had set it up, the revolu-
tionary Commune of Paris. The Commune could therefore extort
what concessions it pleased. It got the custody of the king and
his family who were imprisoned in the Temple. Having obtained
an indefinite power of arrest, it soon filled the prisons of Paris.
As the elections to the Convention were close at hand, the Com-
mune resolved to strike the public with terror by the slaughter
of its prisoners. It found its opportunity in the progress of
invasion. On the 19th Brunswick crossed the frontier. On the
32nd Longwy surrendered. Verdun was invested and seemed
likely to faff. On the 1st of September the Commune decreed
FRENCH REVOLUTION
161
•/(ft*
that on the following day the tocsin should be rung, all able-
bodied citizens convened in the Champs de Mars, and 60,000
volunteers enrolled for the defence of the country.
r * #Sf *' While this assembly was is progress gangs of assassins
wa . were sent to the prisons and began a butchery which
lasted four days and consumed 1400 victims. The Com-
i addressed a circular letter to the other cities of France
inviting them to follow the example. A number of state prisoners
awaiting trial at Orleans were ordered to Paris and on the way
were murdered at Versailles. The Assembly offered a feeble
resistance to these crimes. Damon can hardly be acquitted of
connivance at them. Roland hinted disapproval, but did not
venture more. He with many other Girondins had been marked
for slaughter in the original project.
The elections to the Convention were by almost universal
suffrage, but indifference or intimidation reduced the voters to a
n, small number. Many who had -sat in the National,
Hmmmal and many more who had sat in the Legislative
f — "»» ■ Assembly were returned. The Convention met on the
** 20th of September. Like the previous assemblies,
it did not fall into well-defined parties. The success of the
Jacobins in overthrowing the monarchy had ended their union.
Thenc ef 6 1 w a rds the name of Jacobin was confined to the smaller
and more fanatical group, while the rest came to be known as
the Girondins. The Jacobins, about 100 strong, formed the Left
of the Convention, afterwards known from the raised benches on
which they sat as the Mountain (q.v.). The Girondins, numbering
perhaps 180, formed the Right. The rest of the House, nearly
500 members, voted now on one side now on the other, until in
the course of the Terror they fell under the Jacobin domination.
This neutral mass is often termed the Plain, in allusion to its
seats on the Boor of the House. The Convention as a whole was
Republican, if not on principle, from the feeling that no other
form of government could be established. It decreed
the abolition of monarchy on the 21st of September.
A committee was named to draft a new constitution,
which was presented and decreed in the following June,
but never took effect and was superseded by a third constitution
ia 1795. The actual government of France was by committees
of the Convention, but some months passed before it could be
folly organized.
The inner history of the Convention was strange and terrible.
It turned on the successive schisms in the ruling minority.
Whichever side prevailed destroyed its adversaries
Jj**"* only to divide afresh and renew the strife until the
qn B ,lh« victors were at length so reduced that their yoke was
shaken off and the mass of the Convention, hitherto
benumbed by fear, resumed its freedom and the government of
France. The first and most memorable of these contests was
the quarrel between Jacobin and Girondin. Both parties were
republican and democratic; both wished to complete the Revolu-
tion; both were determined to maintain the integrity of France.
But they differed in circumstances and temperament. Although
the leaders on both sides were of the middle class, the Girondins
represented the bourgeoisie, the Jacobins represented the populace.
The Girondins desired a speedy return to law and order; the
Jacobins thought that they could keep power only by violence.
The Jacobins leant on the revolutionary commune and the mob
of Paris; the Girondins leant on the thriving burghers of the
provincial cities. Despite their smaller number the Jacobins were
victors. They were the more resolute and unscrupulous. The
Girondins numbered many orators, but not one man of action.
The Jacobins controlled the parent club with its affiliated societies
and the whole machinery of terror. The Girondins had no
organized force at their disposal. The Jacobins perpetuated in
a new form the old centralization of power to which France was
accustomed. The Girondins addressed t hemsel ves to provincials
who had lost the power of initiative. They were termed federal'
ists by their enemies and accused, unjustly enough, of wishing
to dissolve the national unity.
Even in the first days of the Convention the feud broke out.
The Girondins condemned the September massacres and dreaded
the Parisian populace. Barbarous accused Robespierre of aiming
at a dictatorship, and Buzot demanded a guard recruited in the
departments to protect the Convention. In October Louvet
reiterated the charge against Robespierre, and Barbaroux called
for the dissolution of the Commune of Paris. But the Girondins
gained no tangible result from this wordy warfare. For a time
the question how to dispose of the king diverted the thoughts of
all parties. It was approached in a political, not in a judicial
spirit. The Jacobins desired the death of Louis, partly because
they hated kings and deemed him a traitor, partly because they
wished to envenom the Revolution, defy Europe and compromise
their more temperate colleagues. The Girondins wished to spare
Louis, but were afraid of incurring the reproach of royal isra.
At this critical moment the discovery of the famous iron chest,
containing papers which showed that many public men had
intrigued with the court, was disastrous for Louis. Members of
the Convention were anxious to be thought severe lest they should
be thought corrupt. Robespierre frankly demanded that Louis
as a public enemy should be put to death without form of trial.
The majority shrank from such open injustice and decreed on
the 3rd of December that Louis should be tried by the Convention.
A committee of twenty-one was chosen to frame the indictment
against Louis, and on the nth of December he was brought to
the bar for the first time to hear the charges read. Trkima*
The most essential might be summed up in the state- cxmmOm
ment that he had plotted against the Constitution and °**£ mi *
against the safety of the kingdom. On the 26th Louis *^
appeared at the bar a second time, and the trial began. The
advocates of Louis could plead that all his actions down to the
dissolution of the National Assembly came within the amnesty
then granted, and that the Constitution had proclaimed his
person inviolable, while enacting for certain offences the penalty
of deposition which he had already undergone. Such argu-
ments were not likely to weigh with such a tribunal. The
Mountain called for immediate sentence of death; the Girondins
desired an appeal to the people of France. The galleries of the
Convention were packed with adherents of the Jacobins, whose
fury, not confined to words, struck terror into all who might
incline towards mercy. In Paris unmistakable signs announced
a new insurrection, to be followed perhaps, by new massacrea,
On the question whether Louis was guilty none ventured to give
a negative vote. The motion for an appeal to the people was
rejected by 424 votes to 283. The penalty of death was adopted
by 361 votes against 360 in favour of other penalties or of post-
poning at least the execution of the sentence. On the aist of
January 1793 Louis was beheaded in the Place de la Revolution,
now the Place de la Concorde.
Between the deposition and the death of Louis the war had
run a surprising course. Accompanied by King Frederick
William, Brunswick had entered France with 80,000 Bata . m/
men, of whom more than half were Prussians, the vaimy?
best soldiers in Europe. The disorder of France was
such that many expected a triumphal march to Paris. But the
Allies had opened the campaign late; they moved slowly;
the weather broke, and sickness began to waste their ranks.
Dumouriez succeeded in rousing the spirit of the French; he
occupied the defiles of the forest of Argonne, thus causing the
enemy to lose many valuable days, and when at last they turned
his position, he retreated without loss. At Valmy on the 20th
of September the two armies came in contact. The affair was
only a cannonade, but the French stood firm and the advance of
the Allies was stayed. Brunswick had no heart for his work;
the king was ill satisfied with the Austrian*, and both were alarmed
by the ravages of disease among the soldiers. Within ten days,
after the affair of Valmy tbey began their retreat. Dumouriez,
who still hoped to detach Prussia from Austria, left them un*
molested. When the enemy bad quitted France, he invaded
Hainaut and defeated the Austrians at Jemappes on the 6th of
November. In Belgium a large party regarded the French as
deliverers. Dumouriez entered Brussels without further re-
sistance, and was soon master ©A tat <wY\.<ta. enwtien . YN^K^Vsrw.
the French were equaWy sAitcjesslvjJa. \*YCa. * &V&*. Vw* ^«a86aw4
i6a
FRENCH REVOLUTION
assailed the electorate of Maim. The common people were
friendly, and he had no trouble in occupying the country as far
as the Rhine. The king of Sardinia having shown a hostile
temper, Montesquiou made an easy conquest of Savoy. At the
dose of 1792 the relative position of France and her enemies
had been reversed. It was seen that the French were still able
to wage war, and that the revolutionary spirit had permeated
the adjoining countries, while the old governments of Europe,
jealous of one another and uncertain of the loyalty of their
subjects, wete ill qualified for resistance.
Intoxicated with these victories, the Convention abandoned
Hself to the fervour of propaganda and conquest. The river
Scheldt had been closed to commerce by various treaties to which
England and Holland, neutral powers, were parties. Without a
pretence of negotiation the French government declared on the
1 6th of November that the Scheldt was thenceforwards open.
On the 10th a decree of the Convention offered the aid of France
to all nations which were striving after freedom— in other words,
to the malcontents in every neighbouring state. Not long
afterwards the Convention annexed Savoy, with the consent,
it should be added, of many Savoyards. On the 15th of
December the Convention decreed that all peoples freed by its
assistance should carry out a revolution like that which had
been made in France on pain of being treated as enemies.
Towards Great Britain the executive council and the Convention
behaved with singular folly. There, in spite of a growing anti-
pathy to the Revolution, Pitt earnestly desired to maintain peace.
The conquest of the Netherlands and the symptoms of a wish to
annex that country made his task most difficult. But the French
71, fkvt government underrated the strength of Great Britain,
imagining that all Englishmen who desired parlia-
mentary reform desired revolution, and that a few
democratic societies represented the nation. When
Monge announced the intention of attacking Great Britain on
behalf of the English republicans, the British government and
nation were thoroughly alarmed and roused; and when the
news of the execution of Louis XVI. was received, Chauvelin,
the French envoy, was ordered to quit England. France declared
war against England and Holland on the 1st of February and
soon afterwards against Spain. In the course of the year 1793
the Empire, the kings of Portugal and Naples and the grand-
duke el Tuscany declared war against France. Thuswasformed
the first coalition,
France was not prepared to encounter so- many enemies.
Administrative confusion had been heightened by the triumph of
the Jacobins. Servan was succeeded as minister of war by Pache
who was incapable and dishonest. The army of Dumouriez was
left in such want that it dwindled rapidly. The commissioners
of the Convention plundered the Netherlands with so little
remorse that the people became bitterly hostile. The attempt to
enforce a revolution of the French sort on the Catholic and con-
servative Belgians drove them to fury. By every unfair means
the commissioners extorted the semblance of a popular vote in
favour of incorporation, and France annexed the Netherlands.
This was the last outrage. When a new Austrian army under the
prince of Coburg entered the country, Dumouriez, who had
invaded Holland, was unable to defend Belgium. On the 18th
of March he was defeated at Neerwinden, and a few days later he
was driven back to the frontier. Alike on public and personal
grounds Dumouriez was the enemy of the government. Trusting
in his influence over the army he resolved to lead it against the
Convention, and, in order to secure his rear, he negotiated with
the enemy. But he could make no impression on his soldiers, and
deserted to the Austrian*. Events followed a similar course in
the Rhine valley. There also the. French wore out the goodwill
at first shown to them. Tbey summoned a convention and
obtained a vote for incorporation with France. But they were
unable to hold their ground on the approach of a Prussian army.
By April they had lost the country with the exception of Mainz,
which was invested. France thus lay open to invasion from the
east and the north. The Convention decreed a levy of 300,000
About the same time began the first formidable, uprising
against the Revolution, the War of La Vendee, the region lying
to the south of the lower Loire and facing the Atlantic, mh .
Its inhabitants differed in many ways from the mas* {JjJ 1
of the nation. Living far from large towns and busy tfeadt*,
routes of commerce, they remained primitive in all their
thoughts and ways. The peasants had always been on friendly
terms with the gentry, and the agrarian changes made by the
Revolution had not been appreciated so highly at elsewhere.
The people were ardent Catholics, who venerated the nonjuring
clergy and resented the measures taken against them. But
they remained passive until the enforcement of the decree for
the levy of 300,000 men. Caring little for the Convention and
knowing nothing of events on the northern or eastern frontier,
the peasants were determined not to serve and preferred to fight
the Republic at home. When once they had taken up arms
they found gentlemen to lead and priests to exhort, and their
rebellion became Royalist and Catholic The chiefs were drawn
from widely different classes. If Bonchamps and La Roche-
jacquelin were nobles, StofBet was a gam e keeper and Cathelineao
a mason. As the country was favourable to guerilla warfare, and
the government could not .spare regular troops from the frontiers,
the rebels were usually successful, and by the end of May had
almost expelled the Republicans from La Vendee.
Danger without and within prompted the Convention to
strengthen the executive authority. That the executive and
legislative powers ought to be absolutely separate n*
had been an axiom throughout the Revolution. CtmmMtm
Ministers had always been excluded from a seat in the **^y r
legislature. But the Assemblies were suspicious of *■***
the executive and bent on absorbing the government. They
had nominated committees of their own members to control
every branch of public affairs. These committees, while reducing
the ministers to impotence, were themselves clumsy and in-
effectual. It may be said that since the first meeting of the
states-general the executive authority had been paralysed in
France. The Convention in theory maintained the separation
of powers. Even Danton had been forced to resign office when
be was elected a member. But unity of government was restored
by the formation of a central committee. In January the first
Committee of General Defence was formed of members of the
committees for the several departments of state. Too large and
too much divided for strenuous labour, it was reduced in April to
nine members and re-named the Committee of Public Safety.
It deliberated in secret and had authority over the ministers;
it was entrusted with the whole of the national defence and em-
powered to use all the resources of the state, and it quickly
became the supreme power in the republic Under it the ministers
were no more than head clerks. About the same time were
instituted the deputies on mission in the provinces, who could
overrule any local authority, and who corresponded regularly
with the Committee, France thus returned under new forms to
its traditional government: a despotic authority in Paris with
all-powerful agents in the provinces. Against disaffection the
government was armed with formidable weapons: the Com-
mittee of General Security and the Revolutionary Tribunal.
The Committee of General Security, first established in October
1792, was several times remodelled. In September 1793 the
Convention decreed that its members should be nominated by
the Committee of Public Safety. The Committee of General
Security had unlimited powers for the prevention or discovery
of crime against the state. The Revolutionary Tribunal was
decreed on the 10th of March. It was an extraordinary court,
destined to try all offences against the Revolution without appeal
The jury, which received wages, voted openly, so that con-
demnation was almost certain. The director of the jury or public
prosecutor was Fouquier Tinvillc The first condemnation took
place on the nth of April.
Enmity between Girondin and Jacobin grew fiercer as the
perils of the Republic increased. Danton strove to unite aO
partisans of the Revolution in defence of the country; but
the Girondlns, detesting his character and fearing his ambition,
FRENCH REVOLUTION
163
rejected all advances. TbeCoimmme of Pari* and ihe journalist!
who were its mouthpieces, Hebert and Marat, aimed frankly
at destroying the Girondins. In April the Girondins
Snliima, car™* 1 a decree that Marat should be sent before the
Revolutionary Tribunal for incendiary writings, but
his acquittal showed that a Jacobin leader was above the law.
In May they proposed that the Commune of Paris should be
dissolved, and that the suppliants, the persons elected to fill
vacancies occurring in the Convention, should assemble at
Bourges, where they would be safe from that violence which
might be applied to the Convention itself. Barere, who was
rising into notice by the skill with which he trimmed between
parties, opposed this motion, and carried a decree appointing a
Committee of Twelve to watch over the safety of the Convention.
Then the Commune named as commandant of the National
Guard, Haoriot, a man concerned in the September massacres.
It raised an insurrection on the 31st of May. On Barere's pro-
posal the Convention stooped to dissolving the Committee of
Twelve. The Commune, which had hoped for the arrest of the
Girondin leaders, was not satisfied. It undertook a new and
more formidable outbreak on the 2nd of June. Enclosed by
Hanriot's troops and thoroughly cowed, the Convention decreed
the arrest of the Committee of Twelve and of twenty-two
principal Girondins. They were put under confinement in their
own houses. Thus the Jacobins became all-powerful.
A tremor of revolt ran through the cities of the south which
chafed under the despotism of the Parisian mob. These cities
had their own grievances. The Jacobin dubs menaced
the lives and properties of all who were guilty of wealth
or of moderate opinions, while the representatives on
mission deposed the municipal authorities and placed
their own creatures in power. At the end of April the citizens of
Marseilles closed the Jacobin club, put its chiefs on their trial
and drove out the representatives on mission. In May Lyons
rose. The Jacobin municipality was overturned, and ChaUier,
their fiercest demagogue, was arrested. In June the citizens of
Bordeaux declared that they would not acknowledge the
authority of the Convention until the imprisoned deputies
were set free. In July Toulon rebelled. But in the north
the appeals of such Girondins as escaped from Paris were of no
avail. Even the southern uprising proved far less dangerous
than might have been expected. The peasants, who had
gained more by the Revolution than any other class, held
aloof from the citizens. The citizens lacked the qualities
necessary for the successful conduct of civil war. Bordeaux
surrendered almost without waiting to be summoned. Marseilles
was taken in August and treated with great cruelty. Lyons,
where the Royalists were strong, defended itself with courage,
for the trial and execution of ChaUier made the townsmen
hopeless of pardon. Toulon, also largely Royalist, invited the
English and Spanish admirals, Hood and Langara, who occupied
the port and garrisoned the town. At the same time the Vendean
War continued formidable. In June the insurgents took the im-
portant town of Saumur, although they failed in an attempt upon
Nantes. At the end of July the Republicans were still unable
to make any impression upon the revolted territory.
Thus in the summer of 1793 France seemed to be falling to
pieces. It was saved by the imbecility and disunion of the
rinnna hostile powers. In the north the French army after
•#«*» the treason of Dumouriez could only attempt to cover
*"** the frontier. The. Austrians were joined by British,
*° w * n> Dutch and Prussian forces. Had the Allies pushed
straight upon Paris, they might have ended the war. But the
desire of each ally to make conquests on his own account led
them to spend time and strength in sieges. When Condi and
Valenciennes had been taken, the British went off to assail
Dunkirk and the Prussians retired into Luxemburg. In the east
the Prussians and Austrians took Mainz at the end of July,
allowing the garrison to depart on condition of not serving
against the Allies for a year. Then they invaded Alsace, but their
mutual jealousy prevented them from going farther. Thus the
wmmer passed away without any decisive achievement of the
Tfnfta
ottmror.
coalition. Meanwhile the Committee of Public Safety, Inspired
by Danton, strove to rebuild the French administrative system.
In July the Committee was renewed and Danton fell out; but
soon afterwards it was reinforced by two officers, Carnot, who
undertook the organization of the army, and Prieur of the
Cote d'Or, who undertook its equipment. Administrators of the
first rank, these men renovated the warlike power of France, and
enabled her to deal those crushing blows which broke up the
coalition.
The Royalist and Girondin insurrections and the critical
aspect of the war favoured the establishment of what is known
as the reign of terror. Terrorism, had prevailed more
or less since the beginning of the Revolution, but it was
the work of those who desired to rule, not of the
nominal rulers. It had been lawless and rebellious. It ended by
becoming legal and official. While Danton kept power Terrorism
remained imperfect, for Danton, although unscrupulous, did not
love cruelty and kept in view a return to normal government
But soon after Danton had ceased to be a member of the Com-
mittee of Public Safety Robespierre was elected, and now became
the most powerful man in France. Robespierre was an acrid
fanatic, and unlike Danton, who only cared to securethe practical
results of the Revolution, he had a moral and religious ideal
which he intended to force on the nation. All who rejected his
ideal were corrupt; all who resented his ascendancy were
traitors. The death of Marat, who was stabbed by Charlotte
Corday (?.«.) to avenge the Girondins, gave yet another pretext
for terrible measures of repression. In Paris the armed ruffians
who had long preyed upon respectable citizens were organized
as a revolutionary army, and other revolutionary armies were
established in the provinces. Two new laws placed almost
everybody at the mercy of the government. The Law of the
Maximum, passed on the 17th of September, fixed the priced
food and made it capital to ask for more. The Law of Suspects,
passed at the same time, declared suspect every person who was
of noble birth, or had held office before the Revolution, or had any
connexion with an emigre, or could not produce a card of civirmt
granted by the local authority, which had full discretion to refuse.
Any suspect might be arrested and imprisoned until the peace
or sent before the Revolutionary Tribunal An earlier law had
established in every commune an elective committee of surveil-
lance. These bodies, better known as revolutionary committees,
were charged with the enforcement of the Law of Suspects.
On the 10th of October the new constitution was suspended
and the government declared revolutionary until the peace.
The spirit of those in power was shown by the massacres
which followed on the surrender of Lyons in that month. In
Paris the slaughter of distinguished victims began with
the trial of Marie Antoinette, who was guillotined on JJJJ
the 16th. Twenty-one Girondin deputies were next <mm
brought to the bar and, with the exception of Valaxe
who stabbed himself, were beheaded on the last day of October*
Madame Roland and other Girondins of note suffered-later. la
November the duke of Orleans, who had styled himself Philippe
£galite, had sat in the Convention, and had voted for the king's
death, went to the scaffold. Bailly, Barnave and many others of
note followed before the end of the year. As the bloody work
went on the pretence of trial became more and more hollow,
the chance of acquittal fainter and fainter. The Revolutionary
Tribunal was a mere instrument of state. Knowing the slight'
foundation of its power the government deliberately sought to
destroy all whose birth, political connexions or past career
might mark them out as leaders of opposition. At the same time
it took care to show that none was so obscure or so impotent as to
be safe when its policy was to destroy.
The disastrous effects of the Terror were heightened by the
financial mismanagement of the Jacobins. Assignats were issued
with such reckless profusion that the total for the three years of
the Convention has been estimated at 7250 millions of francs.
Enormous depreciation ensued and, although penalties rising
to death itself were denounced against all who should refuse
to take them at par, they fell to little more than 1 % of their
i66
FRENCH REVOLUTION
compassion. The National Guard was reorganized so as to
exclude the lowest dass. The property of persons executed
since the xoth of March 1793 was restored to their families.
The signs of reaction daily became more unmistakable. Wor-
shippers crowded to the churches; the tmipts returned by
thousands; and Anti-Jacobin outbreaks, followed by massacre,
took place in the south. The despair of the Jacobins produced
a second rising in Paris on the xst Prairial (May 20). Again
the mob invaded the Convention, murdered a deputy named
Feraud who attempted to shield the president, and set his head
•n a pike. The ultra-Jacobin members took possession and
embodied their wishes in decrees. Again the hall was cleared
by the National Guards, but order was restored in Paris only by
employing regular troops, a new precedent in the history of the
Revolution. Paris was disarmed, and several leaders of the
insurrection were sentenced to death. The Revolutionary
Tribunal was suppressed. Toleration was proclaimed for all
priests who would declare their obedience to the laws of the state.
Royalists began to count upon the restoration of young Louis
the Dauphin, otherwise Louis XVII.; but his health had been
ruined by persevering cruelty, and he died on the 10th of June.
The Thermidorian government also endeavoured to pacify
the rebels of the west. Its best adviser, Hoche, recommended
an amnesty and the assurance of religious freedom.
J/STUar. °° tocse lcrms peace was made with the Vendeans
* at La Jannaie in February and with the Chouans at
La Mabflais in April. Some of the Vendean leaders persevered
in resistance until May, and even after their submission the peace
was ill observed, for the Royalists hearkened to the solicitations
of the princes and their advisers. In the hope of rekindling the
civil war a body of tmigris sailed under cover of the British
feet and landed on the peninsula of Quiberon. They were
presently hemmed in by Hoche, and all who could not make
their escape to the ships were forced to surrender at discretion
(July to). Nearly 700 were executed by court-martial. Yet
the spirit of revolt lingered in the west and broke out time after
time. Against the coalition the Republic was gloriously success-
ful. (See French Revolutionary Wars.) In the summer of 1704
the French invaded Spain at both ends of the Pyrenees, and at
the dose of the year they made good their footing in Catalonia
and Navarre. By the beginning of 1795 the Rhine frontier had
been won. Against the king of Sardinia alone they accom-
plished little. At sea the French had sustained a severe defeat
from Lord Howe, and several of their colonies had been taken
by the British. But Great Britain, when the Netherlands were
lost, could do little for her allies. Even before the close of 1704
the king of Prussia retired from any active part in the war, and
on the 5th of April 1795 he concluded with France the treaty
of Basd, which recognized her occupation of the left bank of the
Rhine. The new democratic government which the French
had established in Holland purchased peace by surrendering
Dutch territory to the south of that river. A treaty of peace
between France and Spain followed in July. The grand duke
of Tuscany bad been admitted to terms in February. The
coalition thus fell into ruin and France occupied a more com-
manding position than in the proudest days of Louis XIV.
But this greatness was unsure so long as France remained
without a stable government. A constitutional committee was
CnMM(Kw> naraed in - Apnl* I* resolved that the constitution
iftMofa* of 1793 was impracticable and proceeded to frame
j**ul a new one. The draft was submitted to the Convention
™V^ in June. In its final shape the constit ution established
a parliamentary system of two houses: a Council of
Five Hundred and a Council of Ancients, 150 in number.
Members of the Five Hundred were to be at least thirty years
of age, members of the Andents at least forty. The system of
Indirect election was maintained but universal suffrage was
abandoned. A moderate qualification was required for electors
in the first degree, a higher one for electors in the second degree.
When the 750 persons necessary bad been elected they were
to choose the AodenU out of their own body. A legislature was
to last for three years, and one-third of the members were to be
renewed every year. The Andents had a suspensory veto, but
no initiative in legislation. The executive was to consist of five
directors chosen by the Andents out of a list elected by the
Five Hundred. One director was to retire every year. The
directors were aided by ministers for the various departments
of State. These ministers did not form a council and had no
general powers of government. Provision was made for the
stringent control of all local authorities by the central govern-
ment. Since the separation of powers was still deemed axiomatic,
the directors had no voice in legislation or taxation, nor could
directors or ministers sit in cither bouse. Freedom of religion,
freedom of the press, and freedom of labour were guaranteed.
Armed assemblies and even public meetings of political societies
were forbidden. Petitions were to be tendered only by individuals
or through the public authorities. The constitution was not,
however, allowed free play from the beginning. The Convention
was so unpopular that, if its members had retired into private life,
they would not have been safe and their work might have been
undone. It was therefore decreed that two-thirds of the first
legislature must be chosen out of the Convention.
When the constitution was submitted to the primary
assemblies, most electors held aloof, 1 ,050,000 voting for and only
5,000 voting against it. On the 23rd of September it umtm\
was declared to be law. Then all the parties which <im«/ii
resented the limit upon freedom of election combined *"*
to rise in Paris. The government entrusted its defence " *'
to B arras; but its true man of action was young. General
Bonaparte, who could dispose of a few thousand regular troops
and a powerful artillery. The Parisians were Ill-equipped and
ill-led, and on the 13th of Vendemiaire (October 5) tbeir insur-
rection was quelled almost without loss to the victors. No
further resistance was possible. The Convention dissolved itself
on the 26th of October.
The feeling of the nation was clearly shown in the elections.
Among those who had sat in the Convention the anti-Jacobins
were generally preferred. A leader of the old Right
was sometimes chosen by many departments at once.
Owing to this circumstance, 104 places reserved to
members of the Convention were left unfilled. When
the persons elected met they had no choice but to co-
opt the 104 from the Left of the Convention. The new one-third
were, as a rule, enemies of the Jacobins, but not of the Revolution.
Many had been members of the Constituent or of the Legislative
Assembly. When the new legislature was complete, the Jacobins
bad a majority, although a weak one. After the Council of the
Andents bad been chosen by lot, it remained to name the
directors. For its own security the Left resolved that all five
must be old members of the Convention and regiddes. The per-
sons chosen were Rewbell, Barras, La Revdliere Lepeaux, Carnot
and Letourneur. Rewbell was an able, although unscrupulous,
man of action, Barras a dissolute and shameless adventurer,
La Revelliere Lepeaux the chief of a new sect, the Theophuan-
thropists, and therefore a bitter foe to other religions, especially
the Catholic. Severe integrity and memorable public services
raised Carnot far above his colleagues, but he was not a states-
man and was hampered by his past. Letourneur, a harmless
insignificant person, was his admirer and follower. The division
in the legislature was reproduced in the Directory. Rewbell,
Barras and LaRevelliere Lepeaux had a full measure of the Jacobin
spirit ; Carnot and Letourneur favoured a more temperate policy.
With the establishment of the Directory the Revolution might
seem dosed. The nation only desired rest and the healing of its
many wounds. Those who wished to restore Louis
XVIII. and the ancien ripme and those who would 2rjJJ -,r
have renewed the Reign of Terror were insignificant arm**?.
in number. The possibility of foreign interference
had vanished with the failure of the coalition. Nevertheless the
four years of the Directory were a time of arbitrary government
and chronic disquiet. The late atrocities had made confidence
or goodwill between parties impossible. The same instinct of
self-preservation which had led the members of the Convention
to claim so large a part fm ,the new legislature and the whole of
FRENCH REVOLUTION
167
the Directory impelled them to keep their predominance. As
the majority of Frenchmen wanted to be rid of them, they could
achieve their purpose only by extraordinary means. They
habitually disregarded the terms of the constitution, and, when
the elections went against them, appealed to the sword. They
resolved to prolong the war as the best expedient for prolonging
their power. They were thus driven to rely upon the armies,
which abo desired war and were becoming less and less civic in
temper. Other reasons influenced them in this direction. The
finances had been so thoroughly ruined that the government
could not have met its expenses without the plunder and the
tribute of foreign countries. If peace were made, the armies
would return home and the directors would have to face the
exasperation of the rank and file who had lost their livelihood,
as well as the ambition of generals who could in a moment brush
them aside. Bams and Rewbell were notoriously corrupt
themselves and screened corruption in others. The patronage
of the directors was ill bestowed, and the general maladministra-
tion heightened their unpopularity.
The contitutional parly in the legislature desired a toleration
of the nonjuring clergy, the repeal of the laws against the relatives
mntary °* tne imi t ris * and ^me merciful discrimination toward
the imigris themselves. The directors baffled all such
endeavours. On the other hand, the socialist con-
( spiracy of Babeuf was easily quelled (see Babeuf,
' Francois N.). Little was done to improve the
finances, and the ossignats continued to fall in value. But the
Directory was sustained by the military successes of the year
1 706. Hoche again pacified La Vendee. Bonaparte's victories in
Italy more than compensated for the reverses of Jourdan and
Moreau in Germany. The king of Sardinia made peace in May,
ceding Nice and Savoy to the Republic and consenting to receive
French garrisons in his Piedmontese fortresses. By the treaty
of San Ildefonso, concluded in August, Spain became the ally of
France. In October Naples made peace. In 1707 Bonaparte
finished the .conquest of northern Italy and forced Austria to
make the treaty of Campo Formio (October), whereby the
emperor ceded Lombardy and the Austrian Netherlands to the
Republic in exchange for Venice and undertook to urge upon the
Diet the surrender of the lands -beyond the Rhine. Notwith-
standing the victory of Cape St Vincent, England was brought
into such extreme peril by the mutinies in the fleet that she
offered to acknowledge the French conquest of the Netherlands
and to restore the French colonies. The selfishness of the three
directors threw away this golden opportunity. In March and
April the election of a new third of the Councils had been held.
It gave a majority to the constitutional party. Among the
directors the lot fell on Letourneur to retire, and he was succeeded
by BartheMemy, an eminent diplomatist, who allied himself with
Carnot. The political disabilities imposed upon the relatives
of imigris were repealed. Priests who would declare their
submission to the Republic were restored to their rights as
citizens. It seemed likely that peace would be made and that
moderate men would gain power.
Barras, Rewbell and La Revelliere-Lepeaux then sought help
from the armies. Although Royalists formed but a petty
fraction of the majority, they raised the alarm that
•nSfrnfii n was Peking to restore monarchy and undo the work
n»iflfti_ of the Revolution. Hoche, then in command of the
army of the Sambre and Mcuse, visited Paris and sent
troops. Bonaparte sent General Augcreau, who executed the
coup Sltal of the 18th Fructidor (September 4). The councils
were purged, the elections in forty-nine departments were can-
celled, and many deputies and other men of note were arrested.
Some of them, including Barlhelemy, were deported to Cayenne.
Carnot made good his escape. The two vacant places in the
Directory were filled by Merlin of Douai and Francois of Ncuf-
chlteau. Then the government frankly returned to Jacobin
methods. The law against the relatives of imigris was re-
enacted, and military tribunals were established to condemn
imigris who should return to. France. The nonjuring priests were
again persecuted. Many hundreds were either sent to Cayenne
or imprisoned in the hulks of Re" and Oleron. La RevelliereLepeaux
seized the opportunity to propagate his religion. Many churches
were turned into Theophilanthropic temples. The government
strained its power to secure the recognition of the itcadi as the
day of public worship and the non-observance of Sunday.
Liberty of the press ceased. Newspapers were confiscated and
journalists were deported wholesale. It was proposed to banish
from France all members of the old noblesse. Although the
proposal was dropped, they were all declared to be foreigners
and were forced to obtain naturalization if they would enjoy
the rights of other citizens. A formal bankruptcy of the state, the
cancelling of two-thirds of the interest on the public debt,
crowned the misgovcrnment of this disastrous time.
In the spring of 1708 not only a new third of the legislature had
to be chosen, but the places of the members expelled by the revolu-
tion of Fructidor had to be filled. The constitutional party had
been rendered helpless, and the mass of the electors were in-
different. But among the Jacobins themselves there had arisen
an extreme party hostile to the directors. With the support of
many who were not Jacobins but detested the government, it
bade fair to gain a majority. Before the new deputies could
take their seats the directors forced through the councils the
law of the sand Floreal (May n), annulling or perverting the
elections in thirty departments and excluding forty-eight deputies
by name. Even this coup d'ilat did not secure harmony between
the executive and the legislature. In the councils the directors
were loudly charged with corruption and misgovernment.
The retirement of Francois of Neufchateau and the choice of
Treilhard as his successor made no difference in the position
of the Directory.
While France was thus inwardly convulsed, its rulers were
doubly bound to husband the national strength and practise
moderation towards other states. Since December 1797 a con-
gress bad been silting at Rastadt to regulate the future of
Germany. That it should be brought to a successful conclusion
was of the utmost import for France. But the directors were
driven by self-interest to new adventures abroad. Bonaparte
was resolved not to sink into obscurity, and the directors were
anxious to keep him as far as possible from Paris; they therefore
sanctioned the expedition to Egypt which deprived the Republic
of its best army and most renowned captain. Coveting the
treasures of Bern, they sent Brune to invade Switzerland and
remodel its constitution; in revenge for the murder of General
Duphot, they sent Berthier to invade the papal states and erect
the Roman Republic; they occupied and virtually annexed
Piedmont. In all these countries they organized such an effective
pillage that the French became universally hateful. As the
armies were far below the strength required by the policy of un-
bounded conquest and rapine, the first permanent law of conscrip-
tion was passed in the summer of 1708. The attempt to enforce
it caused a revolt of the peasants in the Belgian departments.
The priests were made responsible and some eight thousand were
condemned in a mass to deportation, although much the greater
part escaped by the goodwill of the people. Few soldiers were
obtained by the conscription, for the government was as weak
as it was tyrannical
Under these circumstances Nelson's victory of Aboukir (1st
of August), which gave the British full command of the Mediter-
ranean and secluded Bonaparte in Egypt, was the signal
for a second coalition. Naples, Austria, Russia and H£ at
Turkey joined Great Britain against France. Ferdinand commmm.
of Naples, rashly taking the offensive before his allies
were ready, was defeated and forced to seek a refuge in Sicily.
In January 1709 the French occupied Naples and set up the
Parthenopcan republic. But the consequent dispersion of their
weak forces 'only exposed them to greater peril At home the
Directory was in a most critical position. In the elections of
April 1709 a large number of Jacobins gained seats. A little
later Rewbell retired. It was imperative to fill his place with a
man of ability and influence. The choice fell upon Sieyes, who
had kept aloof from office and retained not only his immeasur-
able self-conceit but the respect of the public Sieyes felt thai
1 68
FRENCH REVOLUTION
the Directory was bankrupt of reputation, and he intended to be
far more than a mere member of a board. He hoped to concen-
trate power in his own hands,to bridle the Jacobins,and to remodel
the constitution. With the help of Barras he proceeded to rid
himself of the other directors. An irregularity having been
discovered in TreUhard's election, he retired, and his place was
taken by Gohier. Merlin of Douai and La Revelliere Lepeaux
were driven to resign in June. They were succeeded by Moulin
and Ducos. The three new directors were so insignificant that
they could give no trouble, but for the same reason they were of
little service.
Such a government was HI fitted to cope with the dangers then
gathering round France. The directors having resolved on the
Frtocb offensive in Germany, the French crossed the Rhine
rvvrrsrs. early in March, but were defeated by the archduke
The Dim* Charles at Stockacb on the 25th. The congress at Ras-
JJJJJjJjT tadt, which had sat for fifteen months without doing
anything, broke up in April and the French envoys
were murdered by Austrian hussars. In Italy the allies took the
offensive with an army partly Austrian, partly Russian under the
command of Suvarov. After defeating Moreau at Cassano on
the 27th of April, he occupied Milan and Turin. The republics
established by the French in Italy were overthrown, and the
French army retreating from Naples was defeated by Suvarov
on theTrebbia. Thus threatened with invasion on her German
and Italian frontiers, France was disabled by anarchy within.
The finances were in the last distress; the anti-religious policy
of the government kept many departments on the verge of revolt ;
and commerce was almost suspended by the decay of roads and
the increase of bandits. There was no real political freedom,
yet none of the ease or security which enlightened despotism
can bestow. The Terrorists lifted their heads in the Council of
Five Hundred. A Law of Hostages, which was really a new Law
of Suspects, and a progressive income tax showed the temper of
the majority. The Jacobin Club was reopened and became
once more the focus of disorder. The Jacobin press renewed the
licence of Hebert and Marat. Never since the outbreak of
the Revolution had the public temper been so gloomy and
desponding.
In this extremity Sieves chose as minister of police the old
Terrorist Fouche, who best understood how to deal with his
brethren. Fouche" closed the Jacobin Club and deported a
number of journalists. But like his predecessors Sieyes felt
that for the revolution which he meditated he must have the
help of a soldier. As his man of action he chose General Joubert,
one of toe most distinguished among French officers. Joubert
was sent to restore the fortune of the war in Italy. At Novi on
the 15th of August he encountered Suvarov. He was killed
at the outset of the battle and his men were defeated. After
this disaster the French held scarcely anything south of the Alps
save Genoa. The Russian and Austrian governments then
agreed to drive the enemy out of Switzerland and to invade
France from the east. At the same time Holland was assailed
by the joint forces of Great Britain and Russia. But the second
coalition, like the first, was doomed to failure by the narrow
views and conflicting interests of its members. The invasion
of Switzerland was baffled by want of concert between Austrian*
and Russians and by Masslna's victory at Zurich on the 25th
and 26th of September. In October the British and the Russians
were forced to evacuate Holland. All immediate danger to
France was ended, but the issue of the war was still in suspense.
The directors had been forced to recall Bonaparte from Egypt.
He anticipated their order and on the 9th of October landed at
Frejus.
Daztled by his victories in the East the public forgot that the
Egyptian expedition was ending in calamity. It received him
with an ardour which convinced Sieyes that he was
^VJ^ff^ the Indispensable soldier. Bonaparte was ready to act,
Brvmmkv, DUt at °> s own t,me and * or his own cn< * s - Since the
close of the Convention affairs at home and abroad
had been tending more and more surely to the establishment
of a military dictatorship. Feeling his powers equal to such an
office he only hesitated about the means of attainment. At first
he thought of becoming a director; finally he decided upon a
partnership with Sieyes. They resolved to end the actual govern-
ment by a fresh coup d'itat. Means were to be taken for removing
the councils from Paris to St Cloud, where pressure could more
easily be applied. Then the councils would be induced to
decree a provisional government by three consuls and the
appointment of a commission to revise the constitution. The
pretext for this irregular proceeding was to be a vast Jacobin
conspiracy. Perhaps the gravest obstacles were to be expected
from the army.- Of the generals, some, like Jourdan, were honest
republicans; others, like Bernadotte, believed themselves
capable of governing France. With perfect subtlety Bonaparte
worked on the feelings of all and kept his own intentions
secret.
On the morning of the 1 8th Brumaire (November 0) the Ancients,
to whom that power belonged, decreed the transference of the
councils to St Cloud. Of the directors, Sieyes and his friend
Ducos had arranged to resign; Barras was cajoled and bribed
into resigning; Gohier and Moulins, who were intractable, found
themselves imprisoned in the Luxemburg palace and helpless.
So far all had gone well. But when the councils met at St Cloud
on the following day, the majority of the Five Hundred showed
themselves bent on resistance, and even the Ancients gave
signs of wavering. When Bonaparte addressed the Ancients,
be lost his self-possession and made a deplorable figure. When
he appeared among the Five Hundred, they fell upon him with
such fury that he was hardly rescued by his officers. A motion
to outlaw him was only baffled by the audacity of the president,
his brother Lucien. At length driven to undisguised violence, he
sent in his grenadiers, who turned out the deputies. Then the
Ancients passed a decree which adjourned the Councils for three
months, appointed. Bonaparte, Sieyes and Ducos provisional
consuls, and named the Legislative Commission. Some tractable
members of the Five Hundred were afterwards swept up and
served to give these measures the confirmation of their House.'
Thus the Directory and the Councils came to their unlamented
end. A shabby compound of brute force and imposture, the 18th
Brumaire was nevertheless condoned, nay applauded, by the
French nation. Weary of revolution, men sought no more than
to be wisely and firmly governed.
Although the French Revolution seemed to contemporaries
a total break in the history of France, it was really far otherwise.
Its results were momentous and durable in proportion ototrml
as they were the outcome of causes which had been ittima* wt
working long. In France there had been no historic &• *•*•»■
preparation for political freedom. The desire for such mtio °'
freedom was in the main confined to the upper classes. During
the Revolution it was constantly baffled. No Assembly after
the states-general was freely elected and none deliberated in
freedom. After the Revolution Bonaparte established a mon-
archy even more absolute than the monarchy of Louis XIV. But
the desire for uniformity, for equality and for what may be
termed civil liberty was the growth of ages, had been in many
respects nurtured by the action of the crown and its ministers,
and had become intense and general. Accordingly it determined
the principal results of the Revolution. Uniformity of laws
and institutions was enforced throughout France. The legal
privileges formerly distinguishing different classes were sup-
pressed. An obsolete and burthensome agrarian system was
abolished. A number of large estates belonging to the crown, the
clergy and the nobles were broken up and sold at nominal
prices to men of the middle or lower class. The new jurisprudence
encouraged the multiplication of small properties. The new
fiscal system taxed men according to their means and raised
no obstacle to commerce Within the national boundaries. Every
calling and profession was made free to all French dtizens, and
in the public service the principle of an open career for talent
was adopted. Religious disabilities vanished, and there was
well-nigh complete liberty of thought. It was because Napoleon
gave a practical form to these achievements of the Revolution
and ensured the public order necessary to their continuance that
FRENCH REVOLUTION
169
the majority of Frenchmen endured so long the fearful sacrifices
which his policy exacted.
That a revolution largely inspired by generous and humane
feeling should have issued in such havoc and such crimes is a
paradox which astounded spectators and still perplexes the
historian. Something in the cruelty of the French Revolution
may be ascribed to national character. From the time when
Burgundians and Armagnacs strove for dominion down to the
last insurrection of Paris, civil discord in France has always been
cruel. More, however, was due to the total dissolution of society
which followed the meeting of the states-general. In the course
of the Revolution we can discover no well-organized party, no
governing mind. Mirabcau had the stuff of a great statesman,
and Damon was capable of statesmanship. But these men were
not followed or obeyed save by accident or for a moment. Those
who seemed to govern were usually the sport of chance, often
the victims of their colleagues. Neither Royalists nor Feuillants
nor Girondins had the instinct of government. In the chaotic
state of France all ferocious and destructive passions found ample
scope. The same conditions explain the triumph of the Jacobins.
Devoid of wisdom and virtue in the highest sense, they at least
understood how power might be seized and kept. The Reign
of Terror was the expedient of a party which knew its weakness
and unpopularity. It was not necessary cither to secure the
lasting benefits of the Revolution or to save France from dis-
memberment; for nine Frenchmen out of ten were agreed on
both of these points and were ready to lay down their lives for
the national cause.
In the history of the French Revolution the influence which
it exerted upon the surrounding countries demands peculiar
attention. The French professed to act upon principles of
universal authority, and from an early date they began to seek
converts outside their own limits. The effect was slight upon
F.ngland, which had already secured most of the reforms desired
by the French, and upon Spain, where the hulk of the people
were entirely submissive to church and king. But in the Nether-
lands, in western Germany and in northern Italy, countries which
had attained a degree of civilization resembling that of France,
where the middle and lower classes had grievances and aspirations
not very different from those of the French, the effect was pro-
found. Fear of revolution at home was one of the motives
which led continental sovereigns to attack revolution in France.
Their incoherent efforts only confirmed the Jacobin supremacy.
Wherever the victorious French extended their dominion, they
remodelled institutions in the French manner. Their sway
proved so oppressive that the very classes which had welcomed
them with most {ervour soon came to long for their expulsion.
But revolutionary ideas kept their charm. Under Napoleon the
essential part of the changes made by the Republic was preserved
in these countries also. Moreover the c (la cement of old
boundaries, the overthrow of ancestral governments, and the
invocation, however hollow, of the sovereignty of the people,
awoke national feeling which had slumbered long and prepared
the struggle for national union and independence in the 19th
century.
See al*o Fhakcb, sections History and Law and Institutions.
For the leading figure-* in the Revolution sec their biographies under
separate headings. Particular phases, facts, and institutions of
the period arc also seiurately dealt with, e.g. Assicnats, Con-
vention, The National. Jacobins.
Bibliography. — The MS. authorities for the history of the
French Revolution are exceedingly copious. The largest collection
is in the Archives National*-* in Paris, hut an immense number of
documents are to be found in other collections in Paris and the
provinces. The printed materials are so abundant and varied that
anv brief notice of them must bo imperfect.
The condition of France and the state of public opinion at the
beginning of the Revolution may l>e studied in the printed collections
of Cahiers. The Cahieri nrrc the statements of grievances drawn
up for the guidance of deputies to the States-General liy tho«c who
hid elected them. In every baiHiage and sinfehaussve each estate
drew up its own cahit- r .tnd the cahieri ol the Third Estate were con*
denscd from separate cahicrs drawn up by each parish in the district.
Thus the cahicrs of the Third Estate number many thousands, the
greater part of which have not yet been printed. Among the collec-
tions printed we may mention Les Election* et les cahiers de Parti
en 1789. by C. L. Chassin (4 vols., Paris, t888): Canters deplainUs et
dolcances de\ paroisses de la province de Maine, by A. Bel lee and
V. Duchemin (4 vols., Le Mans. 1881-1R93); Cahiers de doteances
de 1789 dans le departement dm Pas-de-Calais, by H. Loriquct (2 vols..
Arras, 1891); Cahiers des paroisses et cammunautes du bat Mage
d'Autun, by A. Charmasse (Autun, 1895). New collections are
printed from time to time. A more general collection of cahiers
than any above named is given in vols, i.-vi. of the Archives parte-
mentaires. The cahicrs must not be read in a spirit of absolute fahh,
as they were influenced by certain models circulated at the time of
the elections and by popular excitement, but they remain an author-
ity of the utmost value and a mine of information as to old France.
Reference should also be made to the works of travellers who visited
France at the outbreak of the Revolution. Among these Arthur
Young's Travels in France during the years 1787, 1788 and 1789 (2
vols., Bury St Edmunds, 1792-1704; are peculiarly instructive.
For the history of the Assemblies during the Revolution a main
authority is their Precis verbaux or Journals; those of the Con-
stituent Assembly in 75 vols., those of the Legislative Assembly in
16 vols.: those of the Convention in 74 vols., and those of the
Councils under t he Directory in 99 vols. Sec also the A rchives para-
menia ires edited by J. Mavidal and K. Laurent (Paris, 1867, and
the follow ins years); the llistaire pnrlementaire de la Revolution,
by P. J. B. Buchcz and P. C. Roux (Paris, 1838), and the Histoire
de la Revolution par deux amis de la liberti (Pans, 1 792-1803).
The newspapers, of which a few have been mentioned in the text,
were numerous. _ They arc useful chiefly as illustrating the ideas and
passions of the time, lor they give comparatively little information
as to facts and that little is peculiarly inaccurate. The ablest of
the Royalist journals was Mallet du Pan's Mercure de France.
Pamphlets of the Revolution period number many thousands.
Such pamphlets as Mounier's Nouvelles Observations curies Btats-
Giniraux de France and Sicyes's Qujest-ce que le Tiers Etat had a
notable influence on opinion. The richest collections of Revolution
Simphlcts arc in the Bibtiothcquc Nationalc of Paris and in the
ritish Museum.
and Kaunitz, and the correspondence of Mallet du Pan with the court
of Vienna, are also instructive. But the contemporary literature of
the French Revolution requires to be read in an unusually critical
spirit. At no other historical crisis have passions been more fiercely
excited; at none have shameless disregard of truth and blind
credulity been more common.
Among later works based on these original materials the first
place belongs to general histories. In French Louis Blanc's Histoire
dela Revolution (12 vols.. Paris, 1847-1862), and Michclet 's Histoire
de la Revolution Frantaise (9 vols.. Paris, 1847-1853), are the most
elaborate of the older works. Michclet 's book is marked by great
eloquence and power. In II. Taine's Origines de la France contcnt-
poraine (Paris, 1 876- 1 894) three volumes arc devoted to the Revolu-
tion. They show exceptional talent and industry, but their value
is impaired by the spirit of system and by .strong prepossessions.
F. A. M. Mignct's Histoire de la Revolution Francatse (2 vols., Paris,
1861 ), short and devoid of literary charm, has the merits of learning
and judgment ami is still useful. F. A. Aulard's Histoire politique
de la Revolution Francaise (Paris, 1901) is a most valuable precis of
political history, ba«ed on deep knowledge and lucidly set forth,
although not free from bias. The volume on the Revolution in
Lavissc and Rambaud's Histoire tfnlrale de V Europe (Paris, 1896)
is the work of distinguished scholars using the Litest information.
In English, general histories of the Revolution are few. Carryle s
famous work, published in 1837, is more of a prose epic than a
history, omifting all detail which would not heighten the imaginative
effect and tinged by all the favourite ideas of the author. Some
fifty years later II. M. Stephens published the first (1886) and second
(iSoj) volumes of a History of the French Rcxolution. They are
marked \ry solid learning and contain mueh information. Volume
viii. of the Cambridge Mvdern History, publi>hed in 1904, contains a
general survey of the Revolution.
The most notable Herman work is H. von Sybel's Gesehiehfe der
Rcvolutionszeit (5 vols., Stuttgart, 1853-1879). It is strongest ia
17°
FRENCH REVOLUTION
French Republican Calendar.— Among the changes made
during the Revolution was the substitution of a new calendar,
usually called the revolutionary or republican calendar, for the
prevailing Gregorian system. Something of the sort had been
suggested in 1785 by a certain Riboud, and a definite scheme
had been promulgated by Pierre Sylvain Marechal (1750-1803)
in his Almanack des konnUes gens (1788). The objects which
the advocates of a new calendar had in view were to strike a
blow at the clergy and to divorce all calculations of lime front
the Christian associations with which they were loaded, in short,
to abolish the Christian year; and enthusiasts were already
speaking of " the first year of liberty " and " the first year of the
republic " when the national convention took up the matter in
1793. The business of drawing up the new calendar was en-
trusted to the president of the committee of public instruction,
Charles Gilbert Romme (i75®-i795)» wno was aided in the work
by the mathematicians Gaspard Monge and Joseph Louis
Lagrange, the poet Fabrc d'Eglantine and others. The result
of their labours was submitted to the convention in September;
it was accepted, and the new calendar became law on the 5th
of October 1793. The new arrangement was regarded as begin-
ning on the 22nd of September 1792, this day being chosen
because on it the republic was proclaimed and because it was
in this year the day of the autumnal equinox.
By the new calendar the year of 36$ days was divided into
twelve months of thirty days each, every month being divided
into three periods of ten days, each of which were called dttadet,
and the tenth, or last, day of each decade being a day of rest.
It was also proposed to divide the day on the decimal system,
but this arrangement was found to be highly inconvenient and
it was never put into practice. Five days of the 365 still re-
mained to be dealt with, and these were set aside for national
festivals and holidays and were called Sans-cuhttides. They
were to fall at the end of the year, i.e. on the five days between
the 17th and the 21st of September inclusive, and were called
the festivals of virtue, of genius, of labour, of opinion and of
rewards. A similar course was adopted with regard to the
extra day which occurred once in every four years, bat the not
of these was to fall in the year III., i.e. in 1795, and not in 1796,
the leap year in the Gregorian calendar. This day was set apart
for the festival of the Revolution and was to be the last of the
Sans-culoitides. Each period of four years was to be called a
Franciade.
Some discussion took place about the nomenclature of the
new divisions of time. Eventually this work was entrusted to
Fabre d 'Eglantine, who gave to each month a name taken from
some seasonal event therein. Beginning with the new year on
the 22nd of September the autumn months were Vendimiam,
the month of vintage, Brumaire, the months of fog, and Fr imtiii,
An II.
An III.
An IV.
AnV.
An VI.
anvil
An VIII.
Ait IX.
1793-1794-
1794-1795-
1 795-«796.
I796-I797-
i797-i79«.
1798-1799.
1 799-1 800.
1 800-1801.
1 Vendemiaire
22 Sept. 1793
22 Sept. 1794
23 Sept. 1795
22 Sept.
1796
22 Sept. 1797
22 Sept. 1798
23 Sept. 1799
23 Sept. 1800
1 Brumaire .
22 Oct. „
22 Oct.
M
23 Oct. „
22 Oct.
„
22 Oct.
22 Oct. „
23 Oct. „
23 Oct. „
I Frimaire .
21 Nov. „
21 Nov.
„
22 Nov. „
21 Nov.
M
21 Nov. „
21 Nov. „
22 Nov. , t
22 Nov. „
1 Nivflse
21 Dec. „
21 Dec.
•f
22 Dec „
21 Dec.
„
21 Dec. „
21 Dec. „
22 Dec. „
22 Dec. „
l Pluviose .
1 Ventose .
20 Janv. 1794
19 Fevr. „
20 Janv.
19 Fevr.
1795
21 Janv. 1796
20 Fevr. , ,
20 Janv
19 Fevr
«797
20 Janv. 1798
19 Fcv. „
20 Janv. 1799
19 Fcv. „
21 Janv. 1800
20 Fev. „
21 Janv. 1801
20 Fev. „
1 Germinal .
21 Mars „
21 Mars
tf
21 Mars „
21 Mars
,,
21 Mars „
21 Mars „
22 Mars „
22 Mars „
1 Floreal .
20 Avr. „
20 Avr.
M
20 Avr. „
20 Avr.
M
20 Avr. „
20 Avr. „
21 Avr. M
21 Avr. „
1 Prairial
20 Mai „
20 Mai
„
20 Mai „
20 Mai
f .
20 Mai „
20 Mai ,,
21 Mai „
21 Mai „
1 Mcssidor
19 Juin „
19 Juil. „
18 Aoflt ,.
19 Tuin
19 Juil.
18 Aoflt
tl
»9 J"in .»
19 Juil. „
18 Aoflt „
19 luin
f ,
19 Tuin „
19 Juil.
19 Juin „
19 Juil. „
18 Aoflt .,
20 Tuiif „
20 Juin „
20 Juil.
1 Thermidor
M
>9 Juil.
18 Aoflt
20 Toil. „
1 Fructidor
»
..
18 Aoflt „
19 Aoflt „
i9Aowt ..
I Saovcukrttkfas
6
17 Sept. 1794
17 Sept.
22 .,
«795
17 Sept. 1796
17 Sept.
1797
17 Sept. 1798
1 7 Sept. 1799
22 ,.
18 Sept. 1800
18 Sept, 1801
AnX.
An XI.
An XII.
An XIII.
An XIV.
1801-1802.
1802-1803.
1803-1804.
1 804-1805.
1805.
1 Vendemiaire . .
23 Scptembre
1801
23Sepicmbrc 1802
24 Scptembre 1803
23 Scptembre 1804
23 Scptembre 1805
1 Brumaire
23 Octobre
„
2$ Octobre „
24 Octobre „
23 Octobre „
23 Octobre
1 Frimaire . .
22 Novembre
„
22 Novembre „
2$ Novembre „
22 Novembre „
22 Novembre, „
1 Nivose . .
22 Decembre
n
22 Decembre „
23 Decembre .,
22 Decembre „
21 Janvier 1805
20 Fevrier „
22 Decembre n
1 Pluviose . .
21 Janvier
20 Fevrier
1802
21 Janvier 1 803
20 Fevrier „
22 Janvier 1804
21 Fevrier „
1 Ventose . .
lt
1 Germinal. .
22 Mars
M
22 Mars „
22 Mars „
22 Mars „
I Floreal . .
21 Avril
„
21 Avril „
21 Avril „
21 Avril „
I Prairial .
21 Mai
tt
21 Mai „
21 Mai „
21 Mai „
1 Mcssidor
.
20 Tuin
20 J unlet
fl
20 Tuin „•
20Juillct „
20 Juin ,,
20 Juin M
1 Thermidor .
lt
20 J uilllet „
20 Juiuet „
1 Fructidor
19 Aout
»
19 Aoflt „
19 Aoflt „
19 Aoflt ,.
l San-culottides
18 Scptembre 1802
18 Scptembre 1803
iSSeptembre 1804
18 Scptembre 1805
6
*3
FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS
the month of frost. The winter months were Nhdsr, the
snowy. Plutifise, the rainy, and Ventfae. the windy month; then
followed the spring months, Germinal, the month of buds,
Florid, the month of flowers, and Pr atrial, the month of meadows;
and lastly the summer months, licssidor, the month of reaping,
Tkcrmidor, the month of heat, utdFnulidor, the month of fruit.
To the days Fabre d'£glantine gave names which retained the
idea of their numerical order, calling them Primedi, Duodi, &c,
the last day of the ten, the day of rest, being named Decadi.
The new order was soon in force in France and the new method
was employed in all public documents, but it did not last many
years. In September 1805 it was decided to restore the Gregorian
calendar, and the republican one was officially discontinued
on the 1st of January 1806.
ccn the old and
e expression of
er of some diffi-
itfordcd by the
he article by J.
An II., i.«. the
d An III. took
maire An VIII.
of 18 Fructidor
the republican
^eiden. 1889);
La Rbolulttm
(A. W. H.*)
FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS (1702-1800), the general
name for the first part of the series of French wars which went on
continuously, except for some local and temporary cessations
of hostilities, from the declaration of war against Britain in 1792
to the final overthrow of Napoleon in 1815. The most important
of these cessations— viz. the peace of 1 801-1803— closes the
" Revolutionary " and opens the '* Napoleonic " era of land
warfare, for which see Napoleonic Campaigns, Peninsulas
War and Waterloo Campaign. Th» naval history of the period
b divided somewhat differently; the first period, treated below,
is 1 792-1799; for the second, 1700-1815, see Napoleonic
Campaigns.
France declared war on Austria on the 20th of April 1792.
But Prussia and other powers had allied themselves with Austria
in view of war, and it was against a coalition and not a single
power that France found herself pitted,' at the moment when the
"emigration," the ferment of the Revolution, and want of
material and of funds had thoroughly disorganized her army.
The first engagements were singularly disgraceful. Near Lille
the French soldiers fled at sight of the Austrian outposts, crying
Nous sommes Irakis, and murdered their general (April 29)
The commanders-in-chief of the armies that were formed became
one after another " suspects "; and before a serious action had
been fought, the three armies of Rochambeau, Lafayette and
Luckner had resolved themselves into two commanded by
Dumouriez and Kcllermann. Thus the disciplined soldiers of the
Allies had apparently good reason to consider the campaign
before them a military promenade. On the Rhine, a combined
army oi Prussians, Austrians, Hessians and imigrls under the
duke of Brunswick was formed for the invasion of France, flanked
by two smaller armies on its right and left, all three being under
the supreme command of the king of Prussia. In the Netherlands
the Austrian* were to besiege Lille, and in the south the Pied-
mont ese also took the field.' The first step, taken against
Brunswick's advice, was the issue (July 25) of a proclamation
which, couched in terms in the last degree offensive to the French
nation, generated the spirit that was afterwards to find ex-
pression in the " armed nation " of 1793-4, and sealed the fate
of Louis XVI. The duke, who was a model sovereign in his own
principality, sympathized with the constitutional side of the
Revolution, while as a soldier he had no confidence in the success
of the enterprise. After completing its preparations in the
leisurely manner of the previous generation, his army crossed
the French frontier on the 19th of August. Loagwy was easily
captured; and the Allies slowry marched on to Verdun, which
Valmy.
171
. The commandant,
ipair, and the place
iswick now began his
iles of the Argonne.
; his raw troops at
nts, with the purpose
tto the Argonne by a
ider the eyes of the
aria road, summoning
The latter moved but
n part of the line of
lunted, changed front
the Argonne and hit
> position Kellermana
leptember.
thern defiles and had
rom Chalons. At the
vas nearly
umouriez's
I and took up a posi-
The result was the
eptember 20, 1792).
, stood steady. The
the best in Europe,
lalf-hcarted infantry
retired. This trivial
ampaign and a land-
later, without firing
retreat. Dumouriex'e
upied himself chiefly
lions which, with the
ught about the com-
1 of France,
nth had driven back
r and Nice. Another
» Germany
ired Mainz '
I as far as Frankfurt
id completely failed,
E>ted scheme for the
movement, made as
ians, and he disposed
of November he won
s near Mons and, this
country from Namur
he "Great War "in
Before going further
Mures of the French
anization and move*
irchetype of modern
snch army, like other
vice army, augmented
tuent Assembly took
this strictly royal and
into existence side by
organization in the
these two dements,
was the abolition of
regiments throughout
Maison du rot. The
to fill the numerous
with these, however,
leaders, favourites in
net discipline became
of the civil authorities
nerals, and especially
oluateer " (embodied
be regulars had fallen
.— rd demanded too high
r
172
FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS iin the Netherlands
pay, to admit of developing the expected field strength. Arms,
discipline, training alike were wanting to the new levies, and the
rcpulw of Brunswick was effected by manoeuvring and fighting on
the old lines and chiefly with the old army. The cry of la palrie
en danger, after giving, at the crisis, the highest moral support to
the troops in the Iron t. dwindled away after victory, and the French
government contented itself with the half-measures tUt had,
apparently, sufficed to avert the peril. More, when the armies went
into winter quarters, the Volunteers claimed leave of absence and
went home-
But In the spring of 1793, confronted by a Car more serious peril,
the government took strong measures. Universal liability was
asserted, and passed into law. Yet even now whole classes obtained
exemption and the right of substitution as usual forced the burden
of service on the poorer classes, so that of the 100,000 men called
oa for the regular army and 300.000 for the Volunteers, only some
180,000 were actually raised. Desertion, generally regarded as the
curse of professional armies, became a conspicuous vice of the
defenders of the Republic, except at moments when a supreme crisis
tailed forth supreme devotion — moments which naturally were
more or less prolonged in proportion to the gravity of the situation.
Thus, while it almost disappeared in the great effort of i793-*794»
when the armies sustained bloody reverses in distant wars of conquest,
as in 1799, it promptly rose again to an alarming height.
While this unsatisfactory general levy was being made, defeats,
defections and invasion in earnest came in rapid succession, and to
OmhfnMl deal with the almost desperate emergency, the ruthless
iwrta* Committee of Public Safety sprang into existence. " The
•/<*• kyY '* to ** ""'v*™!. Unmarried citizens and widowers
: Ammi . without children of ages from 18 to 25 are to be called up
um .- first," and 450,ooo.recruits were immediately obtained by
•^ this single act. The complete amalgamation of the regular
and volunteer units was decided upon. The white uniforms of the line
gave place to the blue of the National Guard in all arms and services.
The titles of officers were changed, and in fact every relic of the old
regime, save the inherited solidity of the old regular battalions, was
swept away. Thb rough combination of line and volunteers therefore
—-for the Amalgam was not officially begun until 1794 — must be
understood when we refer to the French army of llondschoote
or of Wattignies. It contained, by reason of its universality and also
because men were better off in the army than out of it — if they stayed
at home they went in daily fear of denunciation and the guillotine —
the best elements of the Frenc h nation. To some extent at any rate
the political arrivistes had been weeded out, and though the informer,
here as elsewhere, struck unseen blows, the mass of the army gradually
evolved its true leaders and obeyed them. It was, therefore, an army
of individual citizen-soldiers of the best type, welded by the enemy's
fire, and conscious of its own solidarity in the midst of the Revolu-
tionary chaos.
After 1794 the system underwent but little radical change until
the end Of the Revolutionary period. Its regiments grew in military
loose tc
order, 1
to the <
deliver,
The<
which r
But e»
Alsatiaj
tion or
for long
in thee
and mo
like the
In ar
in close
rived to
tactics,
■actios.
ft*, 1
portant
uTeus,
Jean Pi poleon's
instruct lipment
— the g - . ne until
the time of the Grande Armfe — and may be summarized as the
transition from battalion guns and r ese rve artillery to batteries of
44 horse and field."
The engineers, like the artillery, were a technical and non-noble
corps. They escaped, therefore, most of the troubles of the Revolu-
tion — indeed the artillery and engineer officers, Napoleon and Carnot
amongst them, were conspicuous in the political regeneration of
France — and the engineers carried on with little change the traditions
of Vaubanand Cormontaingne(sec Fortification an dSiegecea ft).
Both these corps were, after the Revolution as before it, the best in
Europe, other armies admitting their superiority and following their
outgrew its old " linear " orgamia-
led for by momentary necessities,
d released from the detailed super-
soon became, though in an irregular
lent organisms, and by 1796 the
ictically universal. The next step,
argcr, was the temporary grouping
came permanent, and bequeathed
>th the army corps and the capable,
ordinate generals, for whom the
om.
u intimately connected with the
adopted by the " New French,"
What astonished the Allies most
of all was the number and the velocity of the Repub- n . Mmt
licans. These improvised armies had in fact nothing to J~?^^
delay them. Tents were unprocurable for want of money. ^?
untransportable for want of the enormous number of TL
wagons that would have been required, and also un-
necessary, for the discomfort that would have caused wholesale
desertion in professional armies was cheerfully borne by the men of
I 793~ 1 794- Supplies for armies of then unheard-of sue could not
tne oncers learned to use and even to invent now one form, now
another, according to ground and circumstances. But the main
stream of progress is easily distinguishable.
The earficr catties were fought more or less according to the drill-
book, partly in line for fire action, partly in column for the bayonet
^^ attack. But line movements required the most accurate
1 of practice
f impossible
>n, therefore,
of individual
;he tactics of
called— and
o suggest the
ny troops as
itter becomes
with half the
ilf in support
re important
. _ . (skirmishers)
become s insignificant, and the decision rests with the bayonets
of the closed masses in rear. Indeed, the latter often used mixed
line and column formations, which enabled them not only to charge,
but to fireckw e -ord e r voUers— absolutely regardless of the skirmishers
in front. In other words, the haves* and coolest saarksmen west let
the new conditions.
Those campaigns and battles of this army which are described in
detail in the present article have been selected, some on account of
their historical importance — as producing great results, others f ran
their military interest — as typifying and illustrating the nature ef
the revolution undergone by the art of war in these heroic yean.
Campaigns 01 the Netherlands
The year 1793 opened disastrously for the Republic Ai a
consequence of Jemappes and Valmy, France had taken the
offensive both in Belgium, which had been overrun by
Dumouriet's army, and in the Rhine countries, where Custae
had preached the new gospel to the sentimental and blf-
discontenied Hessians and Mainzers. But the execution of
Louts XVI. raised up a host of new and determined eneiots
England, Holland, Austria, Prussia, Spain and Sardinia proapth/
m the Netherlands] FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS
>73
formed the First Coalition. England poured out money in pro-
fusion to pay and equip her Allies' land armies, and herself began
the great struggle for the command of the sea (see Naval Opera-
tions, below).
In the Low Countries, while Dumouriez was beginning his
proposed invasion of Holland, Prince Josias of Saxe-Coburg,
^^ the new Austrian commander on the Lower Rhine,
w *4ie. advanced with 42,000 men from the region of Cologne,
and drove in the various detachments that Dumouriez
had posted to cover his right. The French general thereupon
abandoned his advance into Holland, and, with what forces he
could gather, turned towards the Mcusc. The two armies met
at N'eerwinden (q.v.) on the 18th of March 1705. Dumouriez
had only a few thousand men more than his opponent, instead
of the enormous superiority he had had at Jcmappcs. Thus the
enveloping attack could not be repeated, and in a bit lie on equal
fronts the old generalship and the old armies had the advantage.
Dumouriez was thoroughly defeated, the house of cards collapsed,
and the whole of the French forces retreated in confusion to the
strong line of border fortresses, created by Louts XIV. and
Yauban. 1 Dumouriez, witnessing the failure of his political
schemes, declared against the Republic, and after a vain attempt
to induce his own army to follow his example, fled (April 5) into
the Austrian lines. The leaderlcss Republicans streamed back
to Valenciennes. There, however, they found a general. Picot
(comte de) Dampicrrc was a regimental officer of the old army,
who, in spite of his vanity and extravagance, possessed real
loyalty to the new order of things, and brilliant personal courage.
At the darkest hour he seized the reins without orders and without
reference to seniority, and began to reconstruct the force and
the spirit of the shattered army by wise administration and
dilhyrambic proclamations. Moreover, he withdrew it well
behind Valenciennes out of reach of a second reverse. The
region of Dunkirk and Casscl. the camp of La Madeleine near
Lille, and Bouchain were made the rallying points of the various
groups, the princip.il army being at the last-named. But the
blow of N'eerwinden had struck deep, and the army was for long
incapable of service, what with the general distrust, the mis-
conduct of the newer battalions, and the discontent of the old
white-coated regiments that were left ragged and shoeless to
the profit of the " patriot " corps. " Beware of giving horses
to the ' Hussars of Liberty,' " wrote Carnot, " all these new
corps are abominable."
France was in fact defenceless, and the opportunity existed
for the military promenade to Paris that the allied statesmen had
imagined in 1702. But Coburg now ceased to be a purely
Austrian commander, for one by one allied contingents, with
instructions that varied with the political aims of the various
governments, began to arrive. Moreover, he had his own views
as to the political situation, fearing especially to be the cause of
the queen's death as Brunswick had been of the king's, and
negotiated for a settlement. The story of these negotiations
slioold be read in Chuquct's Valenciennes — it gives the key to
many mysteries of the campaign and shows that though the
revolutionary spirit had already passed all understanding,
enlightened men such as Coburg and his chicf-of-staff Mack
sympathized with its first efforts and thought the constitution
of 1 79 1 a gain to humanity. " If you come to Paris you will
find 80,000 patriots ready to die," said the French negotiators.
" The patriots could not resist the Austrian regulars/' replied
Coburg, " but I do not propose to go to Paris. I desire to see
a stable government, with a chief, king or other, with whom
we can treat." Soon, however, these personal negotiations
were stopped by the emperor, and the idea of restoring
order in France became little more than a pretext
for a general intrigue amongst the confederate powers,
each seeking to aggrandize itself at France's expense.
" If you wish to deal with the French," observed Dumouriez
ironically to Coburg, " talk ' constitution.' You may beat them
but you cannot subdue them." And their subjugation was
becoming less and less possible as the days went on and men
a For the following opera taonssce map inSrAWlsBSuccissiONWAl.
talked of the partition of France as a question of the moment
like the partition of Poland— a pretension that even the emigres
resented.
Coburg's plan of campaign was limited to the objects acceptable
to all the Allies alike. He aimed at the conquest of a first -class
fortress— Lille or Valenciennes — and chiefly for this reason.
War meant to the burgher of Germany and the Netherlands a
special form of haute politique with which it was neither his
business nor his inclination to meddle. He had no more com-
punction, therefore, in selling his worst goods at the best price
to the army commissaries than in doing so to his ordinary
customers. It followed that, owing to the distance between
Vienna and Valenciennes, and the exorbitant prices charged by
carters and horse-owners, a mere concentration of Austrian
troops at the latter place cost as much as a campaign, and the
transport expenses rose to such a figure that Coburg's first duty
was to find a strong place to serve as a market for the country-
side and a depot for the supplies purchased, and to have it as
near as possible to the front to save the hire of vehicles. As for
the other governments which Coburg served as best he could,
the object of the war was material concessions, and it would be
easy to negotiate for the cession of Dunkirk and Valenciennes
when the British and Austrian colours already waved there.
The Allies, therefore, instead of following up their advantage over
the French field army and driving forward on the open Paris
road, set their faces westward, intending to capture Valenciennes,
Le Quesnoy, Dunkirk and Lille one after the other.
Dampierre meanwhile grew less confident an responsibility
settled upon his shoulders. Quite unable to believe that Coburg
would bury himself in a maze of rivers and fortresses
when he could scatter the French army to the winds Jf JJ2J*!*
by a direct advance, he was disquieted and puzzled ckman.
by the Austrian investment of Condi. This was
followed by skirmishes around Valenciennes, so unfavourable
to the French that their officers felt it would be madness to
venture far beyond the support of the fortress guns. But the
representatives on mission ordered Dampierre, who was re-
organizing his army at Bouchain, to advance and occupy Famars
camp, cast of Valenciennes, and soon afterwards, disregarding
his protests, bade him relieve Condi at all costs. His skill,
though not commensurate with his personal courage and devotion,
sufficed to give him the idea of attacking Coburg on the right
bank of the Scheldt while Clerfayt. with the corps covering the
siege of Condi, was on the left, and then to turn against Clerfayt
— in fact, to operate on interior lines — but it was far from being
adequate to the task of beating either with the disheartened
forces he commanded. On the 1st of May, while Clerfayt was
held in check by a very vigorous demonstration, Coburg's
positions west of Quievrain were attacked by Dampierre himself.
The French won some local successes by force of numbers and
surprise, but the Allies recovered themselves, thanks chiefly to
the address and skill of Colonel Mack.and drove the Republicans
in disorder to their entrenchments. Dampicrre's discouragement
now became desperation, and, urged on by the representatives
(who, be it said, had exposed their own lives freely enough in
the action), he attacked Clerfayt on the 8th at Raismes. The
troops fought far better in the woods and hamlets west of the
Scheldt than they had done in the plains to the east. But in
the heat of the action Dampierre, becoming again the brilliant
soldier that he had been before responsibility stifled him, risked
and lost his life in leading a storming party, and his men retired
sullenly, though this time in good order, to Valenciennes. TW
days later the French gave up the open field and retired into
Valenciennes. Dampicrre's remains were by a vote of the
Convention ordered to be deposited in the Pantheon. But he
was a " ci-devant " noble, the demagogues denounced him as a
traitor, and the only honour finally paid to the man who had
j tided over the weeks of greatest danger was the placing of his
I bust, in the strange company of those of Brutus and Marat, fn
j the chamber of deputies.
Another pause folio wed.Coburg awaiting the British contingent
I under the duke of York, and the Republicans endeavouring ■•*■
«7+
FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS bn ihb hetheumM
assimilate the reinforcements of conscripts, for the most part
" undesirables/' who now arrived. Mutiny and denunciations
augmented the confusion in the French camp. Plan of campaign
there was none, save a resolution to stay at Valenciennes in the
hope of finding an opportunity of relieving Conde and to create
diversions elsewhere by expeditions from Dunkirk, Lille and
Sedan. These of course came to nothing, and before they had
even started, Coburg, resuming the offensive, had stormed the
lines of Fa mars (May 24), whereupon the French army retired
to Bouchain, leaving not only Conde l but also Valenciennes to
resist as best they could. The central point of the new positions
about Bouchain was called Caesar's Camp. Here, surrounded
by streams and marshes, the French generals thought that their
troops were secure from the rush of the dreaded Austrian cavalry,
and Mack himself shared their opinion.
Custine now took command of the abjectly dispirited army,
the fourth change of command within two months. His first
task was to institute a severe discipline, and his prestige was so
great that his mere threat of death sentences for offenders pro*
duced the desired effect.. As to operations, he wished for a
concentration of all possible forces from other parts of the frontier
towards Valenciennes, even if necessary at the cost of sacrificing
his own conquest of Mains. But after he had induced the govern-
ment to assent to this, the generals of the numerous other armies
refused to give up their troops, and on the 17th of June the idea
was abandoned in view of the growing seriousness of the Vendean
insurrection (see Vendue). Custine, therefore, could do no more
than continue the work of reorganization. Military operations
were few. Coburg, who had all this time succeeded in remaining
concentrated, now found himself compelled to extend leftwards
towards Flanders, 1 for Custine had infused some energy into the
scattered groups of the Republicans in the region of Douai,
Lille and Dunkirk— and during this respite the Paris Jacobins
sent to the guillotine both Custine and his successor La Marliere
before July was ended. Both were " ci-devant " nobles and, so
far as is ascertainable, neither was guilty of anything worse than
attempts to make his orders respected by, and himself popular
with, the soldiers. By this time, owing to the innumerable
denunciations and arrests,the confusion in the Army of the North
was at its height, and no further attempt was made either to
relieve Valenciennes and Conde, or to press forward from Lille
and Dunkirk. Conde, starved out as Coburg desired, capitulated
on the 10th of June, and the Austrians, who bad done their work
as soldiers, but were filled with pity for their suffering and
distracted enemies, marched in with food for the women and
children. Valenciennes, under the energetic General Ferrand,
held out bravely until the fire of the Allies became
{JjJjJ intolerable, and then the civil population began to
fffrr^r, plot treachery, and to wear the Bourbon cockade in
the open street. Ferrand and the representatives
with him found themselves obliged to surrender to the duke of
York, who commanded the siege corps, on the 28th of July,
after rejecting the first draft of a capitulation sent in by the
duke and threatening to continue the defence to the bitter end.
Impossible as this was known to be— for Valenciennes seemed
to have become a royalist town— Ferrand's soldierly bearing
carried the day, and honourable terms were arranged. The
duke even offered to assist the garrison in repressing disorder.
Shortly after this the wreck of the field army was forced to
evacuate Caesar's Camp after an unimportant action (Aug. 7-8)
and retired on Arras. By this they gave up the direct defence
of the Paris road, but placed themselves in a " flank position "
relatively to it, and secured to themselves the resources and
reinforcements available in the region of Dunkirk - Lille.
1 Coburg refrained from a regular siege of Conde. He wished to
gain possession of the fortress in a defensible state, intending to use
it as his own depot later in the year. He therefore reduced it by
famine. During the siege of Valenciennes the Allies appear to have
been supplied from Mons.
* Henceforth to the end of 1 704 both armies were more or less
" in cordon," the cordon possessing greater or less density at any
particular moment or place, according to the immediate intentions
of the respective commanders and the general military situation.
Bouchain and Cambrai, Landredes and Le Quesnoy, were left
to their own garrisons.
With this ended the second episode of the amazing campaign
of 1793. Military operations were few and spasmodic, on the
one side because the Allied statesmen were less concerned with
the nebulous common object of restoring order in France than
with their several schemes of aggrandisement, on the other
owing to the almost incredible confusion of France under the
regime of Danton and Marat. The third episode shows little
or no change in the force and direction of the allied efforts, bat
a very great change in France. Thoroughly roused by disaster
and now dominated by the furious and bloodthirsty energy of
the terrorists, the French people and armies at last set before
themselves clear and definite objects to be pursued at all coats.
Jean Nicolas Houchard, the next officer appointed to command,
had been a heavy cavalry trooper in the Seven Years' War. Hit
face bore the scars of wounds received at Minden, and f | <M|fcM<
his bravery, his stature, his bold and fierce manner,
his want of education, seemed to all to betoken the ideal sans-
culotte general But he was nevertheless incapable of leading
an army, and knowing this, carefully conformed to the advice
of his staff officers Berthelmy and Cay- Vernon, the latter of
whom, an exceptionally capable officer, had been Custine's chief
of staff and was consequently under suspicion. At one moment,
indeed, operations had to be suspended altogether because hb
papers were seized by the civil authorities, and amongst them
were all the confidential memoranda and maps required for
the business of headquarters. It was the darkest hour. The
Vendeans, the people of Lyons, Marseilles and Toulon, were in
open and hitherto successful revolt. Valenciennes had fallen
and Coburg's hussar parties pressed forward into the Somme
valley. Again the Allies had the decision of the war in their
own hands. Coburg,indeed,was still afraid, on Marie Antoinette's
account, of forcing the Republicans to extremities, and on
military grounds too he thought an advance on Paris hazardous.
But, hazardous or not, it would have been attempted but for
the English. The duke of York had definite orders from bif
government to capture Dunkirk— at present a nest of corsairs
which interfered with the Channel trade, and in the future, H
was hoped, a second Gibraltar — and after the fall of Valenciennes
and the capture of Caesar's Camp the English and Hanoverians
marched away, via Tournai and Ypres, to besiege the coast
fortress. Thereupon the king of Prussia in turn called off ms
contingent for operations on the middle Rhine. Holland, too,
though she maintained her contingent in face of LiUe (where
it covered Flanders), was not disposed to send it to join the
imperialists in an adventure in the heart of France. Cobtng,
therefore, was brought to a complete standstill, and the scent
of the decision was shifted to the district between Lille and the
coast.
Thither came Carnot, the engineer officer who was in charge'
of military affairs in the Committee of Public Safety and u
known to history as the " Organizer of Victory." His views sf
the strategy to be pursued indicate either a purely geo g r ap hical
idea of war, which does not square with his later principles sad
practice, or, as is far more likely, a profound disbelief m the
capacity of the Army of the North, as it then stood, to fight s
battle, and they went no further than to recommend an inroad
into Flanders on the ground that no enemy would be encountered
there. This, however, in the event developed into an operatioa
of almost decisive importance, for at the moment of its inception
the duke of York was already on the march. Fighting m ml*
a very severe but successful action (Ltncelles, Aug. 18) with tat
French troops encamped near Lille, the Anglo-Hanoveriaas
entered the district— densely intersected with canals ad
morasses— around Dunkirk and Bergues on the 21st and ami
On the right, by way of Fumes, the British moved towards
Dunkirk and invested the east front of the weak fortress, wale
on the left the Hanoverian field marshal v. Freytag moved wa
Poperinghe on Bergues. The French had a chain of outpofti
between Fumes and Bergues, but Freytag attacked them
resolutely, and the defenders,cxcept a brave handful who stood
ntTHENEniEitLANDsi FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS
"75
to cross bayonets, fled in all directions. The east front of
Bergues was invested on the 13rd, and Freytag spread out his
HmUH^ forces to cover the duke of York's attack on Dunkirk,
his right being opposite Bergues and his centre at
Bambcke, while his left covered the space between Roosbrugge
and Yprcs with a cordon of posts. Houchard was in despair
at the bad conduct of his troops. But one young general,
Jourdan, anticipating Houchard's orders, had already brought
a strong force from LUle to Cassel, whence he incessantly harried
Freytag's posts. Carnot encouraged the garrisons of Dunkirk
and Bergues, and caused the sluices to be opened. The moral
of the defenders rose rapidly. Houchard prepared to bring up
every available man of the Army of the North, and only waited
to make up his mind as to the direction in which his attack' should
be made. The Allies themselves recognized the extreme danger
of their position. It was cut in half by the Great Morass, stretches
of which extended even to Fumes. Neither Dunkirk nor
Bergues could be completely invested owing to the inundations,
and Freytag sent a message to King George III. to the effect
that if Dunkirk did not surrender in a few days the expedition
would be a complete failure.
As for the French, they could hardly believe their good fortune.
Generals, staff officers and representatives on mission alike were
eager for a swift and crushing offensive. " ' Attack' and ' attack
in mass ' became the shibboleth and the catch-phrase of the
campe " (Chuquet), and fortresses and armies on other parts of
the frontier were imperiously called upon to supply large drafts
for the Army of the North. Gay- Vernon's strategical instinct
found expression in a wide-ranging movement designed to secure
the absolute annihilation of the duke of York's forces. Beginning
with an attack on the Dutch posts north and east of Lille, the
army was then to press forward towards Fumes, the left wing
holding Freytag's left wing in check, and the right swinging
inwards and across the line of retreat of both allied corps. At
that moment all men were daring, and the scheme was adopted
with enthusiasm. On the 28th of August, consequently, the
Dutch posts were attacked and driven away by the mobile
forces at Lille, aided by parts of the main army from Arras.
But even before they had fired their last shot the Republicans
dispersed to plunder and compromised their success. Houchard
and Gay- Vernon began to fear that their army would not emerge
successfully from the supreme test they were about to impose
on it, and from this moment the scheme of destroying the
English began to give way to the simpler and safer idea of
relieving Dunkirk. The place was so ill-equipped that after a
few days' siege it was in extremis, and the political importance of
its preservation led not merely the civilian representatives, but
even Carnot, to implore Houchard to put an end to the crisis at
once. On the 30th, Cassel, instead of Yprcs, was designated as
the point of concentration for the "mass of attack." This
surprised the representatives and Carnot as much as it surprised
the subordinate generals, all of whom thought that there would
still be time to make the detour through Ypres and to cut off
the Allies' retreat before Dunkirk fell. But Houchard and Gay-
Vernon were no longer under any illusions as to the manoeuvring
power of their forces, and the government agents wisely left
them to execute their own plans. Thirty-seven thousand men
were left to watch Coburg and to secure Arras and Douai, and
the rest, 50,000 strong, assembled at Cassel. Everything was in
Houchard's favour could he but overcome the indiscipline of his
own army. The duke of York was more dangerous in appearance
than in reality — as the result must infallibly have shown had
Houchard and Gay- Vernon possessed the courage to execute the
original plan — and Freytag's covering army extended in a line
of disconnected posts from Bergues to Ypres.
Against the left and centre of this feeble cordon 40,000 men
advanced in many columns on the 6th of September. A confused
„__^ outpost fight, in which the various assailing columns
Jjjjjj^ dissolved into excited swarms, ended, long after
nightfall, in the orderly withdrawal of the various
allied posts to Hondschoote. The French generals were occupied
the whole of next day in sorting out their troops, who had not
only completely wasted their strength against mere outposts,
but had actually consumed their rations and used up their
ammunition. On the 8th, the assailants, having more or less
recovered themselves, advanced again. They found Wallmoden
(who had succeeded Freytag, disabled on the 6th) entrenched on
either side of the village of Hondschoote, the right resting on the
great morass and the left on the village of Leysde. Here was
the opportunity for the "attack in mass " that had been so freely
discussed; but Houchard was now concerned more with the
relief of Dunkirk than with the defeat of the enemy. He sent
away one division to Dunkirk, another to Bergues, and a third
towards Ypres, and left himself only some 20,000 men for the
battle. But Wallmoden had only 13,000 — so great was the dis-
proportion between end and means in this ill-designed enterprise
against Dunkirk.
Houchard despatched a column, guided by his staff officer
Berthdmy, to turn the Hanoverians' left, but this column lost
ftafrawn from a map ia Foriescue's History •/ flu British Army, by-
its way in the dense country about Loo. The centre waited
motionless under the fire of the allied guns near Hondschoote.
In vain the representative Dclbrel implored the general to order
the advance. Houchard was obstinate, and ere long the natural
result followed. Though Delbrel posted himself in front of the
line, conspicuous by his white horse and tricoloured sash and
plume, to steady the men, the bravest left the ranks and skir-
mished forward from bush to bush, and the rest sought cover!.
Then the allied commander ordered forward one regiment of
Hessians, and these, advancing at a ceremonial slow march,
and firing steady rolling volleys, scattered the Republicans before
them. At this crisis Houchard uttered the fatal word " retreat,"
but Delbrel overwhelmed him with reproaches and stung him into
renewed activity. He hurried away to urge forward the right
wing while Jourdan rallied the centre and led it into the fight
again. Once more Jourdan awaited in vain the order to advance,
and once more the troops broke. But at last the exasperated
Delbrel rose to the occasion. " You fear the responsibility, 4 *
he cried to Jourdan; " well, I assume it. My authority overrides
the general's and I give you the formal order to attack at once I "
Then, gently, as if to soften a rebuke, he continued, " You have
forced me to speak as a superior; now I will be your aide-de-
176
FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS P* the hbtherlmis
Houchard's offensive died away completely, and he halted
his army (45,000 strong excluding detachments) at Gaveielle,
half-way between Douai and Arras, hoping thereby to succour
Bouchain, Cambrai or Arras, whichever should prove to be
Coburg's next objective. After standing still for several days,
a prey to all the conflicting rumours that reached his can, he
came to the conclusion that Coburg was about to join the duke
of York in a second siege of Dunkirk, and began to close on his
left But his conclusion was entirely wrong. The Allies were
closing on their left inland to attack Maubeuge. Coburg drew is
Beaulicu, and even persuaded the Dutch to assist, the duke of
York undertaking for the moment to watch the whole el the
Flanders cordon from the sea to TournaL But this concentra-
tion of force was merely nominal, for each contingent worked
in the interests of its own masters, and, above ail, the siege
that was the object of the concentration was calculated to last
four weeks, i.e. gave the French four weeks unimpeded liberty
of action.
Houchard was now denounced and brought captive to Paris.
Placed upon his trial, he offered a calm and reasoned defence of
his conduct, but when the intolerable word "coward " was hurled
at him by one of his judges he wept with rage, pointing to the
scars of his many wounds, and then, his spirit broken, sank into
a lethargic indifference, in which he remained to the end. He was
guillotined on the i6lh of November 1793.
After Houchard's arrest, Jourdan accepted the command,
though with many misgivings, for the higher ranks were filled
by officers with even less experience than he had himself, equip-
ment and clothing was wanting, and, perhaps more important
still, the new levies, instead of filling up the depleted ranks of
the line, were assembled in undisciplined and half-armed hordes
at various frontier camps, under elected officers who had for the
most part never undergone the least training. The field states
showed a total of 104,000 men, of whom less than a third formed
the operative army. But an enthusiasm equal to that of
Hondschoote, and similarly demanding a plain, urgent and
recognizable objective, animated it, and although Jourdan and
Carnot (who was with him at Gaverellc, where the army had
now reassembled) began to study the general strategic situation,
the Committee brought them back to realities by ordering them
to relieve Maubeuge at all costs.
The Allies disposed in all of 66,000 men around the threatened
fortress, but 26,000 of these were actually employed in the
siege, and the remainder, forming the covering army,
extended in an enormous semicircle of posts facing
west, south and east. Thus the Republicans, as before,
had two men toone at the point of contact (44 ,000 against 21,000),
but so formidable was the discipline and steadiness of manoeuvre
of the old armies that the chances were considered as no more than
" rather in favour " of the French. Not that these chances
were seriously weighed before engaging. The generals might
squander their energies in the council chamber on plans of sieges
and expeditions, but in the field they were glad enough to seize
the opportunity of a battle which they were not skilful enough
to compeL It took place on the 15th and x6th of October, and
though the allied right and centre held their ground, on their kft
the plateau of Wallignies (?.&.), from which the battle derives its
name, was stormed on the second day, Carnot, Jourdan and the
representatives leading the columns in person. Coburg indeed
retired in unbroken order, added to which the Maubeuge garrison
had failed to co-operate with their rescuers by a sortie,* and the
duke of York had hurried up with all the men be could span
from the Flanders cordon. But the Dutch generals refused to
advance beyond the Sambre, and Coburg broke up the siege of
Maubeuge and retired whence he had come, while Jourdan, so
far from pressing forward, was anxiously awaiting a counter-
attack, and entrenching himself with all possible energy. So
ended the episode of Wattignics, which, alike in its general
outline and in its details, gives a perfect picture of the character,
at once intense and spasmodic, of the " New French " warfare
in the days of the Terror.
* One of the generals at Maubeuge, Chancel, was guillotined.
camp," and at once hurried off to bring up the reserves and to
despatch cavalry to collect the fugitives. This incident, amongst
many, serves to show that the representatives on mission were
no mere savage marplots, as is too generally assumed. They
were often wise and able men, brave and fearless of responsibility
in camp and in action. Jourdan led on the reserves, and the
men fighting in the bushes on either side of the road beard their
drums to right and left. Jourdan fell wounded, but Delbrel
headed a wild irregular bayonet charge which checked the
Hanoverians, and Houchard himself, in his true place as a
cavalry leader, came up with 500 fresh sabres and flung himself
on the Allies. The Hanoverians, magnificently disciplined
troops that they were, soon re-formed after the shock, but by
this time the fugitives collected by Delbrel's troopers, reanimated
by new hopes of victory, were returning to the front in hundreds,
and a last assault on Hondschoote met with complete success.
Hondschoote was a psychological victory. Materially, it
was no more than the crushing of an obstinate rearguard at
enormous expense to the assailants, for the duke of York was able
to withdraw while there was still time. Houchard had indeed
called back the division he had sent to Bergues, and despatched
it by Loo against the enemy's rear, but the movement was under-
taken too late in the day to be useful. The struggle was
practically a front to front battle, numbers and enthusiasm on
the one side, discipline, position and steadiness on the other.
Hence, though its strategical result was merely to compel the
duke of York to give up an enterprise that he should never
have undertaken, Hondschoote established the fact that the
" New French " were determined to win, at any cost and by sheer
weight and energy. It was long before they were able to meet
equal numbers with confidence, and still longer before they could
freely oppose a small corps to a larger one. But the nightmare
Of defeats and surrenders was dispelled.
The influence of Houchard on the course of the operations
had been sometimes null, sometimes detrimental, and only
occasionally good. The plan and its execution were the work
of Berthclmy and Gay-Vernon, the victory itself was Jourdan's
and, above all, Delbrel's. To these errors, forgiven to a victor,
Houchard added the crowning offence of failure, in the reaction
after the battle, to pursue his advantage. His enemies in Paris
became more and more powerful as the campaign continued.
Having missed the great opportunity of crushing the English,
Houchard turned his attention to the Dutch posts about Mcnin.
Miala. As far as the Allies were concerned Hondschoote was
a mere reverse, not a disaster, and was counter-
balanced in Coburg's eyes by his own capture of Le Quesnoy
(Sept. zi). The proximity of the main body of the French to
Menin induced him to order Beaulieu's corps (hitherto at
Cysoing and linking the Dutch posts with the central group)
to join the prince of Orange there, and to ask the duke
of York to do the same. But this last meant negotiation, and
before anything was settled Houchard, with the army from
Hondschoote and a contingent from Lille, had attacked the
prince at Menin and destroyed his corps (Sept. 12-13).
After this engagement, which, though it was won by immensely
superior forces, was if not an important at any rate a complete
victory, Houchard went still farther inland — leaving detachments
to observe York and replacing them by troops from the various
camps as he passed along the cordon — in the hope of dealing
with Beaulicu as he bad dealt with the Dutch, and even of
relieving Le Quesnoy. But in all this he failed. He had ex-
pected to meet Bcaulieu near Cysoing, but the Austrian general
bad long before gone northward to assist the prince of Orange.
Thus Houchard missed his target. Worse still, one of his pro-
tective detachments chanced to meet Bcaulieu near Courtraion the
15th, and was not only defeated but driven in rout from Menin.
Lastly, Coburg had already captured Le Quesnoy, and had also
repulsed a straggling attack of the Landrccies, Bouchain and other
French garrisons on the positions of his covering army (12th). 1
1 In the course of this the column from Bouchain. 4500 strong, was
caught in the open at Avcsnes-le-Sec by 3 aquadrons of the allied
cavalry and literally annihilated.
MTHBHEnuBLAMosi FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS
177
To complete the story of '93 it remain* to sketch, very briefly,
he principal events on the eastern and southern frontiers of France,
"hese present, in the main, no special features, and all that it is
ecessary to retain of them is the fact of their existence. What this
aakipliauion of their tasks meant to the Committee of Public Safety
nd to Carnot in particular it is impossible to realise. It was not
aerely on the Sambre and the Scheldt, nor against one army of
eterograeous allies that the Republic had to fight for life, but against
'rossians and Hessians on the Rhine, Sardinians in the Alps,
paniards in the Pyrenees, and also (one might say, indeed, above all)
gainst Frenchmen in Vendee, Lyons, Marseilles and Toulon.
On the Rhine, the advance of a Prussian- Hessian army, 63,000
trong, rapidly drove back Custine from the Main into the valleys of
he Sear and the Lauter. An Austrian corps under Wurmser soon
fterwards invaded Alsace. Here, as on the northern frontier, there
rasa long period of trial and error, of denunciations and indiscipline,
nd of wholly trivial fighting, before the Republicans recovered
bemselves. But in the end the ragged enthusiasts found their true
sader in Laxare Hoche, and, though defeated by Brunswick at
innasens and Kaiscrslautern, they managed to develop almost
heir full strength against Wurmser in Abacc. On the 26th of Deccm-
er the latter, who had already undergone a series of partial reverses,
ras driven by main force from the lines of Wcissenburg, after which
loche advanced into the Palatinate and delivered Landau, and
Schegru moved on to recapture Mains, which had surrendered
1 July. On the Spanish frontier both sides indulged in a fruitless
or of posts in broken ground. The Italian campaign of 1793,
riually unprofitable, will be referred to below. Far more serious than
ither was the insurrection of Vendee (tf.r.)and the counter-revolution
s the south of France, the principal incidents of which were the
errible sieges of Lyons and Toulon.
For 1704 Carnot planned a general advance of all the northern
' s, that of the North (Pichcgru) from Dunkirk-Cassel by
Ypres and Oudenarde on Brussels, the minor Army
trruZ of the Ardennes to Charleroi, and the Army of lh^
Moselle (Jourdan) to Liege, while between Charleroi
ad Lille demonstrations were to be made against the hostile
entxe. He counted upon little as regards the two armies near
be Meuse, but hoped to force on a decisive battle by the
dvance of the left wing towards Ypres. Coburg, on the other
ide, intended, if not forced to develop his strength on the Ypres
ide, to make his main effort against the French centre about
andredes. This produced the siege of Landrecies, which need
iot concern us, a forward movement of the French to Menin
ad Courtrai which resulted in the battles of Tourcoing and
Louroai, and the campaign of Fleurus, which, almost fortuit-
usly, produced the long-sought decision.
The first crisis was brought about by the advance of the left
ring of the Army of the North, under Souham, to Menin-Court rai.
Tus advance placed Souham in the midst of the enemy's right
ring, and at last stimulated the Allies into adopting the plan
hat Mack had advocated, in season and out of season, since
cfore Neerwinden— that of annikilatint the enemy's army.
Iris vigorous purpose, and the leading part in its execution
laved by the duke of York and the British contingent, give
hese operations, to Englishmen at any rate, a living interest
rhkh is entirely lacking in, say, the sieges of Le Quesnoy and
andrede*. On the other side, the " New French " armies and
heir leaders, without losing the energy of 1793, had emerged from
ooiusioo and inexperience, and the powers of the new army
ad the new system had begun to mature. Thus it was a fair
rial of strength between the old way and the new.
In the second week of May the left wing of the Army of the
forth — the centre was towards Landrecies, and the right,
used in the Army of the Ardennes, towards Charleroi— found
iself interposed at Menin-Courtrai-Lille between two hostile
losses, the main body of the allied right wing about Tournai
tod a secondary corps at Thielt. Common-sense, therefore,
lictated a converging attack for the Allies and a series of rapid
idial blows for the French. In the allied camp common-sense
ud first to prevail over routine, and the emperor's first orders
sere for a raid of the Thielt corps towards Ypres, which his
idrisers hoped would of itself cause the French to decamp.
But the duke of York formed a very different plan, and Fcld-
Kugmeister Clerfayt, in command at Thielt, agreed to co-
operate. Their proposal was to surround the French on the Lys
vith their two corps, and by the 15th the emperor bad decided to
use larger forces with 'the same object.
». 4
On that day Coburg himself, with 6000 men under Fddzeug-
raeister Kinsky from the central (Landrecies) group, entered
Tournai and took up the general command, while Hack**
another reinforcement under the archduke Charles "«»•**
marched towards Orcnies. Orders were promptly issued mUom
for a general offensive. Clerfayt's corps was to be ****•"
between Rousselaerand Menin on the 16th, and the next day to force
its way across the Lys at Wcrwick and connect with the main
army. The main army was to advance in four columns. The first
three, under the duke of York, were to move off, at daylight on the
17th, by Dottignies, Leers and Lannoy respectively to the line
Mouscron-Tourcoipg-Mouveaux. The fourth and fifth under
Kinsky and the archduke Charles were to defeat the French
corps on the upper Marque, and then, leaving Lille on their left
and guaranteeing themselves by a cordon system against being
cut off from Tournai (cither by the troops just defeated or by the
Lille garrison), to march rapidly forward towards Werwick,
getting touch on their right with the duke of York and on their
left with Clerfayt, and thus completing the investing circle
around Souham's and Moreau's isolated divisions. Speed was
enjoined on alL Picked volunteers to clear away the enemy's
skirmishers, and pioneers to make good difficult places on the
roads, were to precede the heads of the columns. Then came
at the head of the main body the artillery with an infantry
escort. All this might have been designed by the Japanese for
the attack of some well-defined Russian position in the war of
1904. Outpost and skirmisher resistance was to be overpowered
the instant it was offered, and the attack on the closed bodies
of the enemy was to be initiated by a heavy artillery fire at the
earliest possible moment. But in 1904 the Russians stood still,
which was the last thing that the Revolutionary armies of 1794
wouldorcoulddo. Mack 'swell-considered and carefully balanced
2a
i 7 8
FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS iw the meihekuwis
combinations failed, and doubtless helped to create the legend
of his incapacity, which finds no support either in the opinion
of Coburg, the representative of the old school, or in that of
Scharahorst, the founder of the new
Souham,who commanded in the temporary absence of Pichegru,
had formed his own plan. Finding himself with the major
part of his forces between York and Clerfayt, he had decided
to impose upon the former by means of a covering detach-
ment, and to fall upon Clerfayt near Rousselaer with the bulk
of his forces. This plan, based as it was on a sound calculation
of time, space, strength and endurance, merits dose consideration,
for it contains more than a trace of the essential principles of
modern strategy, yet with one vital difference, that whereas,
in the present case, the factor of the enemy's independent will
wrecked the scheme, Napoleon would have guaranteed to himself,
before and during its development, the power of executing it
in spite of the enemy The appearance of fresh allied troops
(Kinsley) on his right front at once modified these general
arrangements. Divining Coburg's intentions from the arrival
of the enemy near Pont-a-Marque and at Lannoy, he ordered
Bonnaud (Lille group, 27,000) to leave enough troops on the upper
Marque to amuse the enemy's leftmost columns, and with every
man he had left beyond this absolute minimum to attack the left
flank of the columns moving towards Tourcoing, which his weak
centre (12,000 men at Tourcoing, Mouscron and Roubaix) was
to stop by frontal defence. No r61e was as yet assigned to the
principal mass (50,000 under Moreau) -about Court rai.
Vandammc's brigade was to extend along the Lys from Menin to
Wcrwick and beyond, to deny as long as possible the passage to
Clerfayt
This second plan failed like the first, because the enemy's
counter-will was not controlled All along the line Coburg's
advance compelled' the French to fight as they were without any
redistribution. But the French were sufficiently elastic to adapt
themselves readily to unforeseen conditions, and on Coburg's
side too the unexpected happened. When Clerfayt appeared
on the Lys above Menin, he found Wcrwick held. This was an
accident, for the battalion there was on its way to Menin,
and Vandamme, who had not yet received his new orders, was
still far away But the battalion fought boldly, Clerfayt sent
for his pontoons; and ere they arrived Vandamme's leading
troops managed to come up on the other side. Thus it was not
till 1 a.m. on the i8th that the first Austrian battalions passed
the Lys.
On the front of the main allied group the "annihilation
plan " was crippled at the outset by the tardiness of the arch-
duke's (fifth or left) column. On this the smooth working of the
whole scheme depended, for Coburg considered that he must
defeat Bonnaud before carrying out his intended envelopment
of the Menin-Courtrai group (the idea of " binding " the enemy
by a detachment while the main scheme proceeded had not yet
arisen) The allied general, indeed, on discovering the back-
wardncss of the archduke, went so far as to order all the other
columns to begin by swerving southward against Bonnaud, but
these were already too deeply committed to the original plan
to execute any new variation.
The rightmost column (Hanoverians) under von dem Busschc
moved on Mouscron, overpowering the fragmentary, if energetic,
resistance of the French advanced posts. Next on the left,
Lieutenant Field Marshal Otto moved by Leers and Watrelos,
driving away a French post at Lis (near Lannoy) on his left flank,
and entered Tourcoing. But meantime a French brigade had
driven von dem Bussche away from Mouscron, so that Otto felt
compelled to keep troops at Leers and Watrelos to protect his
rear, which seriously weakened his hold on Tourcoing. The
third column, led by the duke of York, advanced from Templeuve
on Lannoy, at the same time securing its left by expelling the
French from Willems. Lannoy was stormed by the British
Guards under Sir R. Abercromby with such vigour that the
cavalry which had been sent round the village to cut off the
French retreat had no time to get into position. Beyond Lannoy,
the French resistance, still disjointed, became more obstinate as
the ground favoured it more, and the duke called up the Austrian!
from Wilkms to turn the right of the French position at Roubaix
by way of a small valley Once again, however, the Guards dis-
lodged the enemy before the turning movement had taken effect
A third French position now appeared, at Mouvaux, and this
seemed so formidable that the duke halted to rest his now
weary men. The emperor himself, however, ordered the Advance
to be resumed, and Mouvaux too was carried by Abercromby.
It was now nightfall, and the duke having attained his objective
point prepared to hold it against a counter attack.
Kinsky meanwhile with the fourth column had made feints
opposite Pont-a-Tressin,and had forced the passage of the Marque
near Bouvines with his main body. But Bonnaud gave ground
so slowly that up to 4 p.m. Kinsky had only progressed a few
hundred paces from his crossing point. The fifth column, which
was behind time on the i6ih, did not arrive at Orchies till dawn
on the 17th, and had to halt there for rest and food. Thence,
moving across country in fighting formation, the archduke
made his way to Pont-a-Marque. But he was unable to do more,
before calling a halt, than deploy his troops on the other side of
the stream.
So closed the first day's operations. The " annihilation plan "
had already undergone a serious check. The archduke and
Kinsky, instead of being ready for the second part of their task,
had scarcely completed the first, and the same could be said of
Clerfayt, while von dem Bussche had definitively failed. Only
the duke of York and Otto had done their share in the centre,
and they now stood at Tourcoing and Mouvaux isolated in the
midst of the enemy's main body, with no hope of support from
the other columns and no more than a chance of meeting Clerfayt.
Coburg's entire force was, without deducting losses, no more
than 53,000 for a front of 18 m., and only half of the enemy's
available 80,000 men had as yet been engaged. Mack sent a
staff officer, at x a.m., to implore the archduke to come op to
Lannoy at once, but the young prince was asleep and his suite
refused to wake him.
Matters did not, of course, present themselves in this light at
Souham's headquarters, where the generals met in an informal
council. The project of flinging Bonnaud 's corps against the
flank of the duke of York had not received even a beginning of
execution, and the outposts, reinforced though they were from
the main group, had everywhere been driven in. All the sub-
ordinate leaders, moreover (except Bonnand), sent in the most
despondent reports. " Councils of war never fight " is an old
maxim, justified in ninety-nine cases in a hundred: But this
council determined to do so, and with all possible vigour. The
scheme was practically that which Coburg's first threat hid
produced and his first brusque advance had inhibited. Van-
damme was to hold Clerfayt, the garrison of Lille and a few
outlying corps to occupy the archduke and Kinsky, and in the
centre Moreau and Bonnaud, with 40,000 effectives, were to
attack the Tourcomg-Mouvaux position in front' and flank at
dawn with all possible energy
The first shots were fired on the Lys, where, it wffl be re-
membered, Clerfayt 's infantry had effected its crossing in the
night. Vandamme, who was to defend the river, had
in the evening assembled his troops (fatigued by a jJnMty
long march) near Menin instead of pushing on at once.
Thus only one of his battalions had taken part in the defence
of Werwick on the 17th, and the remainder were by this chance
massed on the flank of Clerfayt 's subsequent line of advance.
Vandamme used his advantage well. He attacked, with perhaps
z 2,000 men against 2 1 ,000, the head and the middle of Clerfayt 's
columns as they moved on Lmcellcs. Clerfayt stopped at once,
turned upon him and drove him towards Roncq and Menin. '
Still, fighting in succession, rallying and fighting again,
Vandamme's regiments managed to spin out time and to -
commit Clerfayt deeper and deeper to a false direction till ft was ^
too late in the day to influence the battle elsewhere. **
V dem Bussche's column at Dottignies, shaken by the Wow •-«
it had received the day before, did nothing^and actually retreated f ^
to the Scheldt. On the other flank. Kinsky and the archduke >-■
in toe Netherlands! FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS
179
Charles practically remained inactive despite repeated orders
to proceed to Lannoy, Kinsley wailing for the archduke, and the
latter using up his time and forces in elaborating a protective
cordon all around his left and rear. Both alleged that " the troops
were tired," but there was a stronger motive. It was felt that
Belgium was about to be handed over to France as the price
of peace, and the generals did not see the force of wasting
soldiers on a lost cause. There remained the two centre columns,
Otto's and the duke of York's. The orders of the emperor to
the duke were that he should advance. to establish communica-
tion with Clcrfayt at Linccllcs. Having thus cut off the French
Courtrai group, he was to initiate a general advance to crush it,
in which all the allied columns would take part, Clcrfayt, York
and Otto in front, von dem Bussche on the right flank and the
archduke and Kinsky in support.. These airy schemes were
destroyed at dawn on the i8lh. Macdonald's brigade carried
Tourcotng at the first rush, though Otto's guns and the volleys
of the infantry checked its further progress. Malbrancq's
brigade swarmed around the duke of York's entrenchments at
Mouvaux, while Bonnaud's mass from the side of Lille passed
the Marque and lapped round the flanks of the British posts at
Roubaix and Lannoy. The duke had used up his reserves in
assisting Otto, and by 8 a.m. the positions of Roubaix, Lannoy
and Mouvaux were isolated from each other. But the Allies
fought magnificently, and by now the Republicans were in
confusion, excited to the highest pitch and therefore extremely
sensitive to waves of enthusiasm or panic; and at this moment
Clerfayt was nearing success, and Vandamme fighting almost
back to back with Malbrancq. Otto was able to retire gradually,
though with heavy losses, to Leers, before Macdonald's left
column was able to storm Watrclos, or Dacndels' brigade, still
farther towards the Scheldt, could reach his rear. The resistance
of the Austrians gave breathing space to the English, who held
on to their positions till about 11.30, attacked again and again
by Bonnaud, and then, not without confusion, retired to join
Otto at Leers.
With the retreat of the two sorely tried columns and the
suspension of Clcrfayt 's attack between Linccllcs and Roncq,
the battle of Tourcoing ended. It was a victory of which the
young French generals had reason to be proud. The main
attack was vigorously conducted, and the two-lo-onc numerical
superiority which the French possessed at the decisive point
is the best testimony at once to Souham's generalship and to
Vandatnrae's bravery. As for the Allies, those of them who took
part in the battle at all, generals and soldiers, covered themselves
with glory, but the inaction of two-thirds of Coburg's army was
the bankruptcy declaration of the old strategical system. The
Allies lost, on this day, about 4000 killed and wounded and 1 500
prisoners besides 60 guns. The French loss, which was probably
heavier, is not known. The duke of York defeated, Souham
at once turned his attention to Clerfayt, against whom he directed
all the forces he could gather after a day's " horde-tactics." The
Austrian commander, however, withdrew over the river un-
harmed. On the ioth he was at Rousselaer and Ingelminster, 9
or 10 m. north of Courtrai, while Coburg's forces assembled and
encamped in a strong position some 3 m. west and north-west of
Tournai, the Hanoverians remaining out in advance of the right
on the Espicrre.
Souham's victory, thanks to his geographical position, had
merely given him air. The Allies, except for the loss of some
$500 men, were in no way worse off. The plan had failed, but
the army as a whole had not been defeated, while the troops of
the duke of York and Otto were far too well disciplined not to
lake their defeat as " all in the day's work." Souham was still
on the Lys and midway between the two allied masses, able to
strike each in turn or liable to be crushed between them in pro-
portion as the opposing generals calculated time, space and
endurance accurately Souham, therefore, as early as the 19th,
had decided that until Clcrfayt had been pushed back to his
old positions near Thielt he could not deal with the main body
of the Allies on the side of Tournai, and he had left Bonnaud
to bold the latter while he concentrated most of his forces
towards Courtrai. This move had the desired effect, for Clerfayt
retired without a contest, and on the aist of May Souham issued
his orders for an advance on Coburg's army, which, as he knew,
had meantime been reinforced. Vandamme alone was left to
face Clerfayt, and this time with outposts far out, at Ingelminster
and Roosebeke, so as to ensure his chief, not a few hours', but
two or three days 1 freedom from interference.
Pichegru now returned and took up the supreme command,
Souham remaining in charge of his own and Moreau's divisions.
On the extreme right, from Pont-a-Tressin, only glMiiamt ^
demonstrations were to be made; the centre, between j£»iA
Baisicux and Estaimbourg, was to be the scene of the
holding attack of Bonnaud's command, while Souham, in con-
siderably greater density, delivered the decisive attack on the
allied right by St Leger and Warcoing. At Helchin a brigade was
to guard the outer flank of the assailants against a movement by
the Hanoverians and to keep open communication with Courtrai
in case of attack from the direction of Oudenarde. The details of
the allied position were insufficiently known owing to the multi-
plicity of their advanced posts and the intricate and densely culti-
vated nature of the ground. The battle of Tournai opened in
the early morning of the 22nd and was long and desperately
contested. The demonstration on the French extreme right
was soon recognized by the defenders to be negligible, and the
allied left wing thereupon closed on the centre. There Bonnaud
attacked with vigour, forcing back the various advanced posts,
especially on the left, where he dislodged the Allies from Nechin.
The defenders of Tcmpleuve then fell back, and the attacking
swarms— a dissolved line of battle— fringed the brook beyond
Templeuve, on the other side of which was the Allies' main
position, and even for a moment seized Blandain. Meanwhile
the French at Nechin, in concert with the main attack, pressed
on towards Ramegnies.
Macdonald's and other brigades had forced the Espicrre
rivulet and driven von dem Bussche's Hanoverians partly over
the Scheldt (they had a pontoon bridge), partly southward.
The main front of the Allies was defined by the brook that flows
between Templeuve and Blandain, then between Ramegnies
and Pont-a-Chin and empties into the Scheldt near the last-named
hamlet. On this front till close on nightfall a fierce battle raged.
Pichegru 's main attack was still by his left, and Pont-a-Chin was
taken and retaken by French, Austrians, British and Hanoverians
in turn. Between Blandain and Pont-a-Chin Bonnaud's troops
more than once entered the line of defence. But the attack was
definitively broken off at nightfall and the Republicans withdrew
slowly towards Lannoy and Leers. They had for the first time
in a fiercely contested " soldier's battle " measured their strength,
regiment for regiment, against the Allies, and failed, but by so
narrow a margin that henceforward the Army of the North
realized its own strength and solidity. The Army of the Revolu-
tion, already superior in numbers and imbued with the dedskm-
compclling spirit, had at last achieved self-confidence.
But the actual decision was destined by a curious process of
evolution to be given by Jourdan's far-distant Army of the
Moselle, to which we now turn.
The Army of the Moselle had been ordered to assemble a striking
force on its left wing, without prejudicing the rest of its cordon
in Lorraine, and with this striking force to operate towards
Liege and Namur. Its first movement on Arlon, in April, was
repulsed by a small Austrian corps under Bcaulieu that guarded
this region. But in the beginning of May the advance was
resumed though the troops were ill-equipped and ill-fed, and
requisitions had reduced the civil population to semi-starvation
and sullen hostility. We quote Jourdan's instructions to his
advanced guard, not merely as evidence of the trivial purpose
of the march as originally planned, but still more as an illustration
of the driving power that made the troops march at all, and of
the new method of marching and subsisting them.
Its commander was " to keep In mind the purpose of cutting
the communications between Luxemburg and Namur, and was
therefore to throw out strong bodies against the enemy daily and
at different points, to parry the enemy's movements by rapid
i8o
FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS um the metherlanw
marches, to prevent any transfer of troops to Belgium, and lastly
to seek an occasion for giving battle, for cutting oil bis convoys
and for seizing his magazines." So much for the
Jj, purpose. The method of achieving it is defined as
follows. " General Hatry, in order to attain the object
of these instructions, will have with him the minimum
of wagons. He is to live at the expense of the enemy as much
as possible, and to send back into the interior of the Republic
whatever may be useful to it; he will maintain his communica-
tions with Longwy, report every movement to me, and when
necessary to the Committee of Public Safety and to the minister
of war, maintain order and discipline, and firmly oppose every
sort of pillage." How the last of these instructions was to be
reconciled with the rest, Hatry was not informed. In fact, it
was ignored. " I am far from believing," wrote the representa-
tive on mission Gillet, " that we ought to adopt the principles
of philanthropy with which we began the war "
At the moment when, on these terms, Jourdan's advance was
resumed, the general situation east of the Scheldt was as follows:
The Allies' centre under Coburg had captured Landrcries, and
now (May 4) lay around that place, about 65,000 strong, while
the left under Kaunitz (27,000) was somewhat north of Maubcugc,
with detachments south of the Sambre as far as the Meuse.
Beyond these again were the detachment of Beaulieu (8000)
near Arlon, and another, 9000 strong, around Trier. On the side
of the French, the Army of the Moselle (41,000 effectives) was
in cordon between Saargemund and Longwy, the Army of the
Ardennes (22,000) between Beaumont and Givet; of the Army
of the North, the right wing (38,000) in the area Beaumont —
Maubeugc and the centre ( 24,000) about Guise. In the aggregate
the allied field armies numbered 139,000 men, those of the
French 203,000. Tactically the disproportion was sufficient to
give the latter the victory, if, strategically, it could be made
effective at a given time and place. But the French had mobility
as a remedy for over-extension, and though their close massing
on the extreme flanks left no more than equal forces opposite
Coburg in the centre, the latter felt unable cither to go forward
or to dose to one flank when on his right the storm was brewing
at Menin and Tournai, and on his left Kaunitz reported the
gathering of important masses of the French around Beaumont.
Thus the initiative passed over to the French, but they missed
their opportunity, as Coburg had missed his in 1 793. Pichegru's
right was ordered to march on Mons, and his left to master the
navigation of the Scheldt so as to reduce the Allies to wagon-
drawn supplies — the latter an objective dear to the 18th-century
general; while Jourdan's task, as we know, was to conquer the
Liege or Namur country without unduly stripping the cordon on
the Saar and the Moselle. Jourdan's orders and original purpose
were to get Beaulieu out of his way by the usual strategical
tricks, and.to march through the Ardennes as rapidly as possible,
living on what supplies he could pick up from the enemy or the
inhabitants. But he had scarcely started when Beaulieu made
his existence felt by attacking a French post at Bouillon. There-
upon Jourdan made the active enemy, instead of Namur, his
first object
The movement of the operative portion of the Army of the
Moselle began on the 21st of May from Longwy through Arlon
towards Neufchatcau. Irregular fighting, sometimes with the
Austrian*, sometimes with the bitterly hostile inhabitants,
marked its progress. Beaulieu was nowhere forced into a battle.
But fortune was on Jourdan's side. The Austrians were a de-
tachment of Coburg's army, not an independent force, and when
threatened they retired towards Ciney, drawing Jourdan after
them in the very direction in which he desired to go. On the
28th the French, after a vain detour made in the hope of forcing
Beaulieu to fight — " les esdaves n'osent pas se mesurer avec
des hommes libres," wrote Jourdan in disgust,— reached Ciney,
and there heard that the enemy had fallen back to a strongly
entrenched position on the east bank of the Meuse near Namur.
Jourdan was preparing to attack them there, when considerations
of quite another kind intervened to change his direction, and
thereby to produce the drama 0/ Charleroi and Fleurus— which
military historians have asserted to be the foreseen result of the
initial plan.
The method of " living on the country " had failed lamentably
in the Ardennes, and Jourdan, though he had spoken of changing
his line of supply from Arlon to Carignan, then to Mczieres and
so on as his march progressed, was still actually living from hand
to mouth on the convoys that arrived intermittently from his
original base. When he sought to lake what be needed from the
towns on the Meuse, he infringed on the preserves of the Army
of the Ardennes. 1 The advance, therefore, came for the moment
to a standstill, while Beaulieu , solicitous for the safety of Charleroi
— in which fortress he had a magazine — called up the outlying
troops left behind on the Moselle to rejoin him by way of Bastogne.
At the same moment (29th) Jourdan received new orders from
Paris— (0) to take Dinant and Charleroi and to dear the country
between the Meuse and the Sambre, and (6) to attack Namur,
either by assault or by regular siege In the latter case the bulk
of the forces were to form a covering army beyond the place,
to demonstrate towards Nivellcs, Lou vain and Liege, and to
serve at need as a support to the right flank of the Ardennes
Army From these orders and from the action of the enemy
the campaign it last took a definite shape.
When the Army of the Moselle passed over to the left bank
of the Meuse, it was greeted by the distant roar of guns towards
Charleroi and by news that the Army of the Ardennes, ft,^,^
which had already twice been defeated by Kaunita,
was for the third time deeply and unsuccessfully engaged beyond
the Sambre. The resumption of the march again complicated
the supply question, and 11 was only slowly that the army
advanced towards Charleroi, sweeping the country before it
and extending its right towards Namur But at last on the 3rd
of June the concentration of parts of three armies on the Sambre
was effected. Jourdan took command of the united force (Army
of the Sambre and Meuse) with a strong hand, the 40,000 new-
comers inspired fresh courage in the beaten Ardennes troops, and
in the sudden dominating enthusiasm of the moment pillaging
and straggling almost ceased. Troops that had secured bread
shared it with less fortunate comrades, and even the Liegois
peasantry made free gifts of supplies. " We must believe," says
the French general staff of to-day, " that the idea symbolized
by the Tricolour, around which marched ever these sansculottes,
shoeless and hungry, unchained a mysterious force that preceded
our columns and aided the achievement of military success."
Friction, however, arose between Jourdan and the generals
of the Ardennes Army, to whom the representatives thought
it well to give a separate mission. This detachment of 18,000
men was followed by another, of 16,000, to keep touch with
Maubeuge. Deducting another 6000 for the siege of Charleroi,
when this should be made, the covering army destined to fight
the Imperialists dwindled to 55,000 out of 06,000 effectives.
Even now, we see, the objective was not primarily the enemy's
army The Republican leaders desired to strike out beyond
the Sambre, and as a preliminary to capture Charleroi. They
would not, however, risk the loss of their connexion with Maubeuge
before attaining the new foothold.
Meanwhile, Tourcoing and Tournai had at last convinced
Coburg that Pichegru was his most threatening opponent, and
he had therefore, though with many misgivings, decided to
move towards his right, leaving the prince of Orange with not
more than 45,000 men on the side of Maubeugc-Charkroi-
Namur.
Jourdan crossed the Sambre on the 12 th of June, practically
unopposed. Charleroi was rapidly invested and the covering
army extended in a semicircular position. For the fourth
time the Allies counter-attacked successfully, and after a severe
struggle the French had to abandon their positions and their
siege works and to recross the Sambre (June 16). But the army
was not beaten. On the contrary, it was only desirous of baring
its revenge for a stroke of ill-fortune, due, the soldiers said, to
1 Each of the fifteen armies on foot had been allotted certain
departments as supply areas, Jourdan's being of course far away ia
Lorraine.
w the Netherlands) FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS
181
the fog and to the want of ammunition. The fierce threats of
St Just (who had joined the army) to /aire timber Us tbUs
if more energy were not shown were unnecessary, and within
two days the army was advancing again. On the 18th Jourdan 's
columns recrossed the river and extended around Cbarleroi
in the same positions as before. This time, having in view the
weariness of his troops and their heavy losses on the i6lh, the
prince of Orange allowed the siege to proceed. His reasons for
so doing furnish an excellent illustration of the different ideas
and capacities of a professional army and a " nation in arms."
44 The Imperial troops," wrote General Alvintri, "are very
fatigued. We have fought nine times since the 10th of May,
we have bivouacked constantly, and made forced marches.
Further, we are short of officers." All this, it need hardly be
pointed out, applied equally to the French.
Charleroi, garrisoned by less than 3000 men, was intimidated
into surrender (25th) when the third parallel was barely estab-
lished. Thus the object of the first operations was achieved.
As to the next neither Jourdan nor the representatives seem to
have had anything further in view than the capture of more
fortresses. But within -twenty-four hours events had decided
for them.
Coburg had quickly abandoned his intention of closing on
his right wing, and (after the usual difficulties with his Allies
on that side) had withdrawn 12,000 Austrians from the centre
of his cordon opposite Pichegru, and made forced marches to
join the prince of Orange. On the 24th of June he had collected
52,000 men at various points round Charleroi, and on the 25th
he s**t out to relieve the little fortress. But he was in complete
ignorance of the state of affairs at Charleroi. Signal guns were
fired, but the woods drowned even the roar of the siege batteries,
and at last a party under Lieutenant Radclzky made its way
through the covering army and discovered that the place had
fallen. The party was destroyed on its return, but Radetzky
was reserved for greater things. He managed, though twice
wounded, to rejoin Coburg with his bad news in the midst of
the battle of Fleurus.
On the 26th Jourdan's army (now some 73,000 strong) was still
posted in a semicircle of entrenched posts, 20 m. in extent,
round the captured town, pending the removal of the now un-
necessary pontoon bridge at Marchiennes and the selection. of
a shorter line of defence.
Coburg was still more widely extended. Inferior in numbers
as he was, he proposed to attack on an equal front, and thus gave
himself, for the attack of an entrenched position,
n§WUUm an order f battle of three men to every two yards of
front, all reserves included. The Allies were to attack in five
columns, the prince of Orange from the west and north-west
towards Trazegnies and Monceau wood, Quasdanovich from the
north on Gosselics, Kaunitz from the north-east, the archduke
Charles from the east through Fleurus, and finally Beaulieu
towards Lambusart. The scheme was worked out in such minute
detail and with so entire a disregard of the chance of unforeseen
incidents, that once he had given the executive command to move,
the Austrian general could do no more. If every detail worked
out ma planned, victory would be his; if accidents happened
he could do nothing to redress them, and unless these righted
themselves (which was improbable in the case of the stiffly
organized old armies) he could only send round the order to break
off the action and retreat
In these circumstances the battle of Fleurus is the sum rather
than the product of the various fights that took place between
each allied column and the French division that it met. The
prince of Orange attacked at earliest dawn and gradually drove
in the French left wing to Courcelles, Roux and Marchiennes,
but somewhat after noon the French, under the direction for the
most part of Kltper, began a series of counterstrokes which
recovered the lost ground, and about 5> without waiting for
Coburg's instructions, the prince retired north-westward off
the battlefield. The French centre division, under Moriot, made
a gradual fighting retreat on Gosselies, followed up by the
Quasdanovich column and part of Kaunitz's force. No serious
impression was made on the defenders, chiefly because the brook
west of Mcllet was a serious obstacle to the rigid order of the
Allies and had to be bridged before their guns could be got over.
Kaunitz's column and Championnct's division met on the battle-
field of 1600. The French were gradually driven in from the
outlying villages to their main position between Heppignics and
Wangciiics. Here the Allies, well led and taking every advantage
of ground and momentary chances, had the best of it. They
pressed the French hard, necessitated the intervention of such
small reserves as Jourdan had available, and only gave way to the
defenders* counterslroke at the moment they received Coburg's
orders for a general retreat.
On the allied left wing the fighting was closer and more severe
than at any point. Beaulieu on the extreme left advanced upon
Vclainc and the French positions in the woods to the south in
several small groups of all arms. Here were the divisions of the
Army of the Ardennes, markedly inferior in discipline and
endurance to the rest, and only too mindful of their four previous
reverses. For six hours, more or less, they resisted the oncoming
Allies, but then, in spite of the example and the despairing
appeals of their young general Marceau, they broke and fled,
leaving Beaulieu free to combine with the archduke Charles,
who carried Fleurus after obstinate fighting, and then pressed on
towards Campinaire. Beaulieu took command of aU the allied
forces on this side about noon, and from then to 5 p.m. launched
a series of terrible attacks on the French (Lefcbvrc's division,
part of the general reserve, and the remnant of Marceau's troops)
above Campinaire and Lambusart. The disciplined resolution
of the imperial battalions, and the enthusiasm of the French
Revolutionaries, were each at their height. The Austrians came
on time after time over ground that was practically destitute of
cover. Villages, farms and fields of corn caught fire. The French
grew more and more excited — " No retreat to-day!" they called
out to their leaders, and finally, clamouring to be led against the
enemy, they had their wish. Lefebvre seized the psychological
moment when the fourth attack of the Allies had failed, and
(though he did not know it) the order to retreat had come from
Coburg. The losses of the unit that delivered it were small,
for the charge exactly responded to the moral conditions of the
moment, but the proportion of killed to wounded (55 to 8x) is
good evidence of the intensity of the momentary conflict.
So ended the battle. Coburg had by now learned definitely
that Charleroi had surrendered, and while the issue of the battle
was still doubtful— for though the prince of Orange was beaten,
Beaulieu was in the full tide of success — he gave (towards 3 p.m.)
the order for a general retreat. This was delivered to the various
commanders between 4 and 5, and these, having their men in
hand even in the beat of the engagement, were able to break off
the battle without undue confusion. The French were far too
exhausted to pursue them (they had lost twice as many men
as the Allies), and their leader had practically no formed body
at hand to follow up the victory, thanks to the extraordinary
dissemination of the army.
Tourcoing, Toumay and Fleurus represent the maximum result
achievable under the earlier Revolutionary system of making war,
and show the men and the leaders at the highest point of combined
steadiness and enthusiasm they ever reached— that is. as a " Sans-
culotte " army. Fleurus was also the last great victory of the
French, in point of time, prior to the advent of Napoleon, and may
therefore be considered as illustrating the general conditions of
warfare at one of the most important points in its development.
The sequel of these battles can be told in a few words. The Austrian
government had, it is said, long ago decided to evacuate the Nether-
lands, and Coburg retired over the Meuse, practically uspursued,
while the duke of York's forces fell back in good order, though
pursued by Pichegru through Flanders. The English contingent
embarked for home, the rest retired through Holland into Hanoverian
territory, leaving the Dutch troops to surrender to the victors. The
last phase of the pursuit reflected great glory on Pichegru, for it
was conducted in midwinter through a country bare of supplies and
densely intersected with dykes and meres. The crowning incident
was the dramatic capture of the Dutch fleet, frozen in at the Texel,
by a handful of hussars who rode over the ice and browbeat the crews
of the well-armed battleships into surrender. It was many years
before a prince of Orange ruled again in the United provinces, while
the Austrian whitecoau newer agua tooubxrA ^a3w&.\^ ^rasssm.
l82
FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS t«»» m cekmaky
The Rhine campaign of 1794, waged as before chiefly by the
Prussians, was not of great importance. General v. Mollcndorf won a
victory at Katserslautern on the 23rd of May, but operations there-
after became spasmodic, and were soon complicated by Coburg's
retreat over the Meuse. With this event the offensive of the Allies
against the French Revolution came to an inglorious end. Poland
now occupied the thoughts of European statesmen, and Austria began
to draw her forces on to the east. England stopped the payment of
subsidies, and Prussia made the Peace of Basel on the 5th of April
1795. On the Spanish frontier the French under General Dugommicr
(who was killed in the last battle) were successful in almost every
encounter, and Spain, too, made peace. Only the eternal enemies,
France and Austria, were left face to face on the Rhinc.and elsewhere,
of all the Allies, Sardinia alone (see below under Italian Campaigns)
continued the struggle in a half-hearted fashion.
The operations of 1795 on the Rhine present no feature of the
Revolutionary Wars that other and more interesting campaigns
fail to show. Austria had two armies on foot ui
command of Clcrfayt, one on the upper Rhine, th
the Main, while Mama was held by an army of rmpc
The French, Jourdan on the lower, Pichegru on t
had as usual superior numbers at their disposal. Jo
a demonstrative frontal attack on Ncuwicd with an
via Ddsseldorf, reunited his wings beyond the rive
and drove back the Austria ns in a series of small enj
Main, while Pichegru passed at Mannheim and ac
the Neckar. But ere long both were beaten, Joi
and Pichegru at Mannheim, and the investment of
abandoned. This was followed by the invasion <
by Clerfayt and the retreat of Jourdan to the Mosel
was further compromised by secret negotiations b
and the enemy for the restoration of the Bourbons,
treason came to light early in the following year,
commander disappeared into the obscure ranks
secret agents till finally brought to justice in 1804.
The Campaign of 1796 in Germany
The wonder of Europe now transferred itself from the drama
of the French Revolution to the equally absorbing drama of a
great war on the Rhine. " Every day, for four terrible years,"
wrote a German pamphleteer early in 1706, " has surpassed the
one before it in grandeur and terror, and to-day surpasses all
in dizzy sublimity." That a manoeuvre on the Lahn should
possess an interest to the peoples of Europe surpassing that of
the Reign of Terror is indeed hardly imaginable, but there was a
good reason for the tense expectancy that prevailed everywhere.
France's policy was no longer defensive. She aimed at invading
and " revolutionizing " the monarchies and principalities of old
Europe, and to this end the campaign of 1 706 was to be the great
and conclusive effort. The " liberation of the oppressed" had
its part in the decision, and the glory of freeing the serf easily
merged itself in the glory of defeating the serf's masters. But
a still more pressing motive for carrying the war into the enemy's
country was the fact that France and the lands she had overrun
could no longer subsist her armies. The Directory frankly told
its generals, when they complained that their men were starving
and ragged, that they would find plenty of subsistence beyond
the Rhine.
On her part, Austria, no longer fettered by allied contingents
nor by the expenses of a far distant campaign, could put forth
more strength than on former campaigns, and as war came
nearer home and the citizen saw himself threatened by " re-
volutionizing " and devastating armies, he ceased to hamper or
to swindle the troops. Thus the duel took place on the grandest
scale then known in the history of European armies. Apart
from the secondary theatre of Italy, the area embraced in the
struggle was a vast triangle extending from DQsseldorf to Basel
and thence to Ratisbon, and Carnot sketched the outlines in
accordance with the scale of the picture. He imagined nothing
less than the union of the armies of the Rhine and the Riviera
before the walls of Vienna. Its practicability cannot here be
discussed, but it is worth contrasting the attitude of contem-
poraries and of later strategical theorists towards it. The
former, with their empirical knowledge of war, merely thought
it impracticable with the available means, but the latter have
condemned it root and branch as " an operation on exterior
Hoes."
The scheme took shape only gradually. The first advance
was made partly in search of food, partly to disengage the
Palatinate, which Clcrfayt had conquered in 1795. " If you
have reason to believe that you would find some supplies on
the Lahn, hasten thither with the' greater part of your forces,"
wrote the Directory to Jourdan (Army of the Sambre-and-
Meuse, 72,000) on the 29th of March. He was to move at once,
before the Austrian* could concentrate, and to pass the Rhine
at DQsseldorf, thereby bringing back the centre of the _
enemy over the river. He was, further, to take every ^JJ"
advantage of their want of concentration to deliver fff»i»«
blow after blow, and to do his utmost to break them
up completely. A fortnight later Moreau (Army of the Rhine-
and-Moselle, 78,000) was ordered to take advantage of Jourdan's
move, which would draw most of the Austrian forces to the
Mainz region, to enter the Brcisgau and Suabia. "You will
attack Austria at home, and capture her magazines. You will
enter a new country, the resources of which, properly handled,
should suffice for the needs of the Army of the Rhine-and-
Moselle."
Jourdan, therefore, was to take upon himself the destruction
of the enemy, Moreau the invasion of South Germany. The
first object of both was to subsist their armies beyond the
Rhine, the second to defeat the armies and terrorize the popula-
tions of the empire. Under these instructions the campaign
opened. Jourdan crossed at Ddsseldorf and reached the Lahn,
but the enemy concentrated against him very swiftly and he
had to retire over the river. Still, if he had not been able to
" break them up completely," he had at any rate drawn on
himself the weight of the Austrian army, and enabled Moreau
to cross at Strassburg without much difficulty.
The Austrians were now commanded by the archduke Charles,
who, after all detachments had been made, disposed of some
56,000 men. At first he employed the bulk of this force against
Jourdan, but on hearing of Moreau 's progress he returned to
the Neckar country with 20,000 men, leaving Feldzeugmeister
v. Wartensleben with 36,000 to observe Jourdan. In later
years he admitted himself that his own force was far too small
to deal with Moreau, who, he probably thought, would retire
after a few manoeuvres.
But by now the two French generals were aiming at something
more than alternate raids and feints. Carnot had set before
them the ideal of a decisive battle as the great object.
Jourdan was instructed, if the archduke turned on **f
Moreau, to follow him up with all speed and to bring JSJ"^*
him to action. Moreau, loo, was not retreating but
advancing. The two armies, Moreau's and the archduke's, met
in a straggling and indecisive battle at Malsch on the 9th of
July, and soon afterwards Charles learned that Jourdan bad
recrossed the Rhine and was driving Wartensleben before him.
He thereupon retired both armies from the Rhine valley into the
interior, hoping that at least the French would detach large
forces to besiege the river fortresses. Disappointed of this, and
compelled to face a very grave situation, he resorted to an
expedient which may be described in his own words: "to
retire both armies step by step without committing himself
to a battle, and to seize the first opportunity to unite them so
as to throw himself with superior or at least equal strength on
one of the two hostile enemies." This is the ever-recurring idea
of " interior lines." It was not new, for Frederick the Great had
used similar means in similar circumstances, as had Souham
at Tourcoing and even Dampierre at Valenciennes. Nor was k
differentiated, as were Napoleon's operations in this same year,
by the deliberate use of a small containing force at one point
to obtain relative superiority at another. A general of the 18th
century did not believe in the efficacy of superior numbers— had
not Frederick the Great disproved it ?— and for him operations
on " interior lines " were simply successive blows at successive
targets, the efficacy of the blow in each case being dependent
chiefly on his own personal qualities and skill as a general on
the field of battle. In the present case the point to be observed
is not the expedient, which was dictated by the circumstances,
but the courage of the young general, who, unlike Wartens-
leben and the rest of his generals, unlike, too, Moreau and
it* in cermanyi FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS
183
Jourdon themselves, surmounted difficulties instead of lamenting
them.
On the other side, Caroot, of course, foresaw this possibility.
He warned the generals not to allow the enemy to M use his
forces sometimes against one, sometimes against the other, as
he did in the last campaign," and ordered them to go forward
respectively into Franconia and into the country of the upper
Neckar, with a view to seeking out and defeating the enemy's
army. But the plan of operations soon grew bolder. Jourdan
was informed on the 21st of July that if he reached the Regnitz
without meeting the enemy, or if his arrival there forced the
latter to retire rapidly to the Danube, he was not to hesitate to
advance to Ratisbon and even to Passau if the disorganisation
of the enemy admitted it, but in these contingencies he was to
detach a force into Bohemia to levy contributions. " We pre-
sume that the enemy is too weak to offer a successful resistance
and will have united his forces on the Danube; we hope that
our two armies will act in unison to rout him completely. Each,
is, in any case, strong enough to attack by itself, and nothing
is so pernicious as slowness in war." Evidently the fear that
the two Austrian armies would unite against one of their as-
sailants had now given place to something like disdain.
This was due in all probability to the rapidity with which
Moreau was driving the archduke before him. After a brief
stand on the Neckar at Cannstadt, the Austrians, only 25,000
strong, fell back to the Rauhe Alb, where they halted again,
to cover their magazines at Ulm and Giinzburg, towards the end
of July. Wartensleben was similarly falling back before Jourdan,
though the latter, starting considerably later than Moreau, had
not advanced so far. The details of the successive positions
occupied by Wartensleben need not be stated; all that concerns
the general development of the campaign is the fact that the
hitherto independent leader of the " Lower Rhine Army "
resented the loss of his freedom of action, and besides lamenta-
tions opposed a dull passive resistance to all but the most formal
orders of the prince. Many weeks passed before this was over-
come sufficiently for his leader even to arrange for the contem-
plated combination, and in these weeks the archduke was being
driven back day by day, and the German principalities were
falling away one by one as the French advanced and preached
the revolutionary formula. In such circumstances as these —
the general facts, if not the causes, were patent enough — it was
natural that the confident Paris strategists should think chiefly
of the profits of their enterprise and ignore the fears of the generals
at the front. But the latter were justified in one important
respect; their operating armies had seriously diminished in
numbers, Jourdan disposing of not more than 45,000 and Moreau
of about 50,000. The archduke had now, owing to the arrival
of a few detachments from the Black Forest and elsewhere, about
34,000 men, Wartensleben almost exactly the same, and the
former, for some reason which has never been fully explained
but has its justification in psychological factors, suddenly turned
j. I . and fought a long, severe and straggling battle above
Neresheim (August xi). This did not, however, give
him much respite, and on the 12th and 13th he retired over the
Danube. At this date Wartensleben was about Amberg, almost
as far away from the other army as he had been on the Rhine,
owing to the necessity of retreating round instead of through the
principality of Bayreuth, which was a Prussian possession and
could therefore make its neutrality respected.
Hitherto Charles had intended to. unite his armies on the
Danube against Moreau. His later choice of Jourdan's army as
toe objective of his combination grew out of circumstances and
in particular out of the brilliant reconnaissance work of a cavalry
brigadier of the Lower Rhine Army, Nauendorff. This general's
reports — he was working in the country south and south-east
of Nfimberg, Wartensleben being at Amberg — indicated first an
tdvance of Jourdan's army from Forchhcim through Ntirnberg
to the south, and induced the archduke, on the 12th, to begin a
concentration of his own army towards Ingolstadt. This was a
purely defensive measure, but Nauendorff reported on the 13th
and 14th that the main columns of the French were swinging
away to the cast against Wartensleben's front and inner flank,
and on the 14th he boldly suggested the idea that decided the
campaign. " If your Royal Highness will or can advance x 2,000
men against Jourdan's rear, he is lost. We could not have a
better opportunity. When this message arrived at head-
quarters the archduke had already issued orders to the same
effect. Lieutenant Field Marshal Count Latour, with 30,000
men, was to keep Moreau occupied — another expedient of the
moment, due to the very close pressure of Moreau's advance,
and the failure of the attempt to put him out of action at
Neresheim. The small remainder of the army, with a few
detachments gathered en route, in all about 27,000 men, began
to recross the Danube on the 14th, and slowly advanced north
on a broad front, its leader being now sure that at some point
on his line he would encounter the French, whether they were
heading for Ratisbon or Amberg. Meanwhile, the Directory had,
still acting on the theory of the archduke's weakness, ordered
Moreau to combine the operations with those of Bonaparte in
Italian Tirol, and Jourdan to turn both flanks of his immediate
opponent, and thus to prevent his joining the archduke, as well
as his retreat into Bohemia. And curiously enough it was this
latter, and not Moreau's move, which suggested to the archduke
that his chance had come. The chance was, in fact, one dear to
the x8th century general, catching his opponent in the act of
executing a manoeuvre. So far from " exterior lines " being
fatal to Jourdan, it was not until the French general began to
operate against Wartensleben's inner flank that the archduke's
opportunity came.
The decisive events of the campaign can be described very
briefly, the ideas that directed them having been made clear.
The long thin line of the archduke wrapped itself round
Jourdan's right flank near Amberg, while Wartensleben ^jj" 1 *
fought him in front. The battle (August 24) was a wUnbarg.
series of engagements between the various columns that
met; it was a repetition in fact of Fleurus, without the intensity
of fighting spirit that redeems that battle from dulness. Success
followed, not upon bravery or even tactics, but upon the pre*
existing strategical conditions. At the end of the day the French
retired, and next morning the archduke began another wide
extension to his left, hoping to head them off. This consumed
several days. In the course of it Jourdan attempted to take
advantage of his opponent's dissemination to regain the direct
road to Wurzburg, but the attempt was defeated by an almost
fortuitous combination of forces at the threatened point. More
effective, indeed, than this indirect pursuit was the very active
hostility of the peasantry, who had suffered in Jourdan's advance
and retaliated so effectually during bis retreat that the army
became thoroughly demoralized, both by want of food and by
the strain of incessant sniping. Defeated again at Wflrzburg on
the 3rd of September, Jourdan continued his retreat to the Lahn,
and finally withdrew the shattered army over the Rhine, partly
by Dusseldorf, partly by Neuwied. In the last engagement
on the Lahn the young and brilliant Marceau was mortally
wounded. Far away in Bavaria, Moreau had meantime been
driving Latour from one line of resistance to another. On re-
ceiving the news of Jourdan's reverses, however, he made a rapid
and successful retreat to Strassburg, evading the prince's army,
which had ascended the Rhine valley to head him off, in the nick
of time.
This celebrated campaign is pre-eminently strategical in its
character, in that the positions and movements anterior to the
battle preordained its issue. It raised the reputation of the arch-
duke Charles to the highest point, and deservedly, for he wrested
victory from the most desperate circumstances by the skilful
and resolute employment of his one advantage. But this was
only possible because Moreau and Jourdan were content to accept
strategical failure without seeking to redress the balance by bard
fighting. The great question of this campaign is, why did
Moreau and Jourdan fail against inferior numbers, when in Italy
Bonaparte with a similar army against a similar opponent won
victory after victory against equal a.ndsu\*.T\o\ tarcx&t 'Wat
answer will not be s\xyp\icA V>^ wsy \tow*>§ <A " oxwax wfc
i8 4
FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS
(ITALY 1793*9?
interior lines." It lies far deeper. So far as it is possible to
summarize it in one phrase, it lies in the fact that though the
Directory meant this campaign to be the final word on the
Revolutionary War, for the nation at large this final word had
been said at Fleurus. The troops were still the nation; they no
longer fought for a cause and for bare existence, and Moreau and
Jourdan were too closely allied in ideas and sympathies with the
misplaced citizen soldiers they commanded to be able to dominate
their collective wilL In default of a cause, however, soldiers
will fight for a man, and this brings us by a natural sequence of
ideas to the war in Italy.
The War in Italy 1793-97
» Hitherto we have ignored the operations on the Italian
frontier, partly because they were of minor importance and
partly because the conditions out of which Napoleon's first
campaign arose can be best considered in connexion with that
campaign itself, from which indeed the previous operations
derive such light as they possess. It has been mentioned that
in 1792 the French overran Savoy and Nice. In 1793 the
Sardinian army and a small auxiliary corps of Austrians waged
a desultory mountain warfare against the Army of the Alps
about Briancon and the Army of Italy on the Var. That furjous
offensive on the part of the French, which signalized the year 1 793
elsewhere, was made impossible here by the counter-revolution
in the cities of the Midi.
In 1794, when this bad been crushed, the intention of the French
government was to take the offensive against the Austro-
Sardinians. The first operation was to be the capture of Oneglia .
The concentration of. large forces in the lower Rhone valley had
naturally infringed upon the areas told off for the provisioning of
the Armies of the Alps (KcUermann) and of Italy (Dumerbion);
indeed, the sullen population could hardly be induced to feed the
troops suppressing the revolt, still less the distant frontier
armies. Thus the only source of supply was the Riviera of
Genoa: " Our connexion with this district is imperilled by the
corsairs of Oneglia (a Sardinian town) owing to the cessation of
our operations afloat. The army is living from hand to mouth,"
wrote the younger Robespierre in September 1793. Vessels
bearing supplies from Genoa could not avoid the corsairs by
taking the open sea, for there the British fleet was supreme.
Carnot therefore ordered the Army of Italy to capture Oneglia,
and 21,000 men (the rest of the 67,000 effectives were held back
for coast defence) began operations in ApriL The French left
moved against the enemy's positions on the main road over the
Col di Tenda, the centre towards Ponte di Nava, and the right
T MI jjj_ along the Riviera. All met with success, thanks to
^"~*~ Maasena's bold handling of the centre column. Not
only was Oneglia captured, but also the Col di Tenda. Napoleon
Bonaparte served in these affairs on the headquarter staff.
Meantime the Army of the Alps had possessed itself of the Little
St Bernard and Mont Cenis, and the Republicans were now
masters of several routes into Piedmont (May). But the Alpine
roads merely led to fortresses, and both Carnot and Bonaparte —
Napoleon had by now captivated the younger Robespierre and
become the leading spirit in Dumerbion's army — considered
that the Army of the Alps should be weakened to the profit of
the Army of Italy, and that the time had come to disregard the
feeble neutrality of Genoa, and to advance over the Col di Tenda.
Napoleon's first suggestion for a rapid condensation of the
French cordon, and an irresistible blow on the centre of the Allies
Nmmahaa ^ v Tenda-Coni, 1 came to nothing owing to the waste
la #794 °f tmie m negotiations between the generals and the
distant Committee, and meanwhile new factors came
into play. The capture of the pass of Argentera by the right wing
of the Army of the Alps suggested that the main effort should be
made against the barrier fortress of Demontc, but here again
Napoleon proposed a concentration of effort on the primary and
economy of force in the secondary objective. About the same
time, in a memoir on the war in general, he laid down his most
'Ligvria was not at this period thought of, even by Napoleon,
ma anything more than a supply area.
celebrated maxim : " The principles of war are the same as those
of a siege. Fire must be concentrated on one point, and as soon
as the breach is made, the equilibrium is broken and the rest is
nothing." In the domain of tactics he was and remains the
principal exponent of the art of breaking the equilibrium, and
already be imagined the solution of problems of policy and
strategy on the same lines. " Austria is the great enemy;
Austria crushed, Germany, Spain, Italy fall of themselves. We
must not disperse, but concentrate our attack." Napoleon
argued that Austria could be effectively wounded by an offensive
against Piedmont, and even more effectively by an ulterior
advance from Italian soil into Germany. In pursuance of the
single aim he asked for the appointment of a single commander-
in-chief to hold sway from Bayonne to the Lake of Geneva, and
for the rejection of all schemes for " revolutionizing " Italy till
after the defeat of the arch-enemy.
Operations, however, did not after all take either of these forms.
The younger Robespierre perished with his brother in the coup
d'ital of 9th Thermidor, the advance was suspended, and
Bonaparte, amongst other leading spirits of the Army of Italy,
was arrested and imprisoned. Profiting by this moment, Austria
increased her auxiliary corps. An Austrian general took command
of the whole of the allied forces, and pronounced a threat from
the region of Cairo (where the Austrians took their place on the
left wing of the combined army) towards the Riviera. The
French, still dependent on Genoa for supplies, had to take the
offensive at once to save themselves from starvation, and the
result was the expedition of Dego, planned chiefly by Napoleon,
who had been released from prison and was at headquarters,
though unemployed. The movement began on the 17th of
September; and although the Austrian general Coiloredo
repulsed an attack at Dego (Sept. 21) he retreated to Acqui,
and the incipient offensive of the Allies ended abruptly.
The first months of the winter of 1 794-1 795 were spent ia
re-equipping the troops, who stood in sore need after their rapid
movements in the mountains. For the future operations, the
enforced condensation of the army on its right wing with the
object of protecting its line of supply to Genoa and the dangers of
its cramped situation on the Riviera suggested a plan roughly
resembling one already recommended by Napoleon, who had
since the affair of Dego become convinced that the way into
Italy was through the Apennines and not the Alps. The essence
of this was to anticipate the enemy by a very early and rapid
advance from Vado towards Carcare by the Ceva road, the, only
good road of which the French disposed and which they signifi-
cantly called the chemin dc canon.
The plan, however, came to nothing; the Committee, which
now changed its personnel at fixed intervals, was in consequence
wavering and non-committal, troops were withdrawn ?dMrw
for a projected invasion of Corsica, and in November am*
1704 Dumerbion was replaced by ScheYer, who r,llhr
assembled only 17,000 of his 54,000 effectives for field mamm *
operations, and selected as his line of advance the Col di Tenda*
Coni road. Scherer, besides being hostile to any suggestion
emanating from Napoleon, was impressed with the apparent
danger to his right wing concentrated in the narrow Riviera,
which it was at this stage impossible to avert by a sudden and
early assumption of the offensive. After a brief tenure Scherer
was transferred to the Spanish frontier, but KeUermann, who now
received command of the Army of Italy in addition to his own,
took the same view as his predecessor— the view of the ordinary
general But not even the Scherer plan was put into execution,
for spring had scarcely arrived when the prospect of renewed
revolts in the south of France practically paralysed the army.
This encouraged the enemy to deliver the blow that had so long
been feared. The combined forces, under Devins, — the Sar-
dinians, the Austrian auxiliary corps and the newly arrived
Austrian main army, — advanced together and forced the French
right wing to evacuate Vado and the Genoese littoral. But at
this juncture the conclusion of peace with Spain released the
Pyrenees armies, and Scherer returned to the Army of Italy at the
head oi itunloicemcnU. He was faced with a difficult situatioa,
ITALY I79J-971
FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS
185
but he had the means wherewith to meet it, as Napoleon
promptly pointed out. Up to this, Napoleon said, the French
commanded the mountain crest, and therefore covered Savoy and
Nice, and also Oneglia, Loano and Vado, the ports' of the Riviera.
But now that Vado was lost the breach was made. Genoa was
cut off, and the south of France was the only remaining resource
for the army commissariat. Vado must therefore be retaken and
the line reopened to Genoa, and to do this it was essential first
to close up the over-extended cordon — and with the greatest
rapidity, lest the enemy, with the shorter line to move on, should
gather at the point of contact before the French — and to advance
on Vado. Further, knowing (as every one knew) that the king of
Sardinia was not inclined to continue the struggle indefinitely, he
predicted that this ruler would make peace once the French army
had established itself in his dominions, and for this the way into
the interior, he asserted, was the great road Savona-Ceva. But
Napoleon's mind ranged beyond the immediate future. He
calculated that once the French advanced the Austrian* would
seek to cover Lombardy, the Fiedmontese Turin, and this separa-
tion, already morally accomplished, it was to be the French
general's task to accentuate in fact. Next, Sardinia having been
coerced into peace, the Army of Italy would expel the Austrians
from Lombardy, and connect its operations with those of the
French in South Germany by way of Tirol. The supply question,
once the soldiers had gained the rich valley of the Po, would
solve itself.
This was the essence of the first of four memoranda on this
subject prepared by Napoleon in his Paris office. The second
. indicated the means of coercing Sardinia — first the
***** Austrians were to be driven or scared away towards
Alessandria, then the French army would turn sharp to the left,
driving the Sardinians eastward and north-eastward through
Ceva, and this was to be the signal for the general invasion of
Piedmont from all sides. In the third paper he framed an
elaborate plan for the retaking of Vado, and in the fourth he
summarized the contents of the other three. Having thus
cleared his own mind as to the conditions and the solution
of the problem, he did his best to secure the command for
himself.
The measures recommended by Napoleon were translated
into a formal and detailed order to recapt ure Vado. To Napoleon
the miserable condition of the Army of Italy was the most urgent
incentive to prompt action. In Scherer's judgment, however, the
army was unfit to take the field, and therefore ex kypolkesi to
attack Vado, without thorough reorganization, and it was only in
November that the advance was finally made. It culminated*
thanks once more to the resolute Massena, in the victory of Loano
(November 23-24). But Schcrer thought more of the destitution
of his own army than of the fruits of success, and contented
himself with resuming possession of the Riviera.
Meanwhile the Mentor whose suggestions and personality were
equally repugnant to Sch6rer had undergone strange vicissitudes
of fortune-— dismissal from the headquarters' staff, expulsion from
the list of general officers, and then the " whiff ol grapeshot "
of 23th Vendemiaire, followed shortly by his marriage- with
Josephine, and his nomination to command the Army of Italy.
These events had neither shaken his cold resolution nor disturbed
his balance.
The Army of Italy spent the winter of 1 705-1 706 as before in the
narrow Riviera, while on the one side, just over the mountains,
lay the Austro-Sardinians, and on the other, out of
range of the coast batteries but ready to pounce on the
supply ships, were the British frigates. On Bonaparte's
left Kellermann, with no more than 18,000, maintained
a string of posts between Lake Geneva and the Argentcra as before
Of the Army of Italy, 7000 watched the Tenda road and 20,000
men the coast-line. There remained for active operations some
27,000 men, ragged, famished and suffering in every way in spite
of their victory of Loano. The Sardinian and Austrian auxiliaries
(Colli), 25,000 men, lay between Mondovi and Ceva, a force
strung out in the Alpine valleys opposed Kellermann, and the
main Austrian army (commanded by Beaulieu), in widely extended
cantonments between Acqui and Milan, numbered 27,000 field
troops. Thus the short-lived concentration of all the allied
forces for the battle against Schcrer had ended in a fresh separa-
tion. Austria was far more concerned with Poland than with the
moribund French question, and committed as few of her troops as
possible to this distant and secondary theatre of war. As for
Piedmont, " peace " was almost the universal cry, even within
the army. All this scarcely affected the regimental spirit and
discipline of the Austrian squadrons and battalions, which had
now recovered from the defeat of Loano. But they were im-
portant factors for the new gcneral-in-chief on the Riviera, and
formed the basis of his strategy.
Napoleon's first task was far more difficult than the writing of
memoranda. He had to grasp the reins and to prepare his troops,
morally and physically, for active work. It was not merely t hat a
young general with many enemies, a political favourite of the
moment, had been thrust upon the army. The army itself was
in a pitiable condition. Whole companies with their officers went
plundering in search of mere food, the horses had never received
as much as half-rations for a year past, and even the generajs
were half-starved. Thousands of men were Barefooted and
hundreds were without arms. But in a few days he had secured
an almost incredible ascendancy over the sullen, starved, half-
clothed army.
" Soldiers," he told them, " you are famished and nearly naked.
The government owes you much, but can do nothing for you.
Your patience, your courage, do you honour, but give you no
glory, no advantage. I will lead you into the most fertile plains
of the world. There you will find great towns, rich provinces.
There you will find honour, glory and riches. Soldiers of Italy,
will you be wanting in courage?"
Such words go far, and little as he was able to supply material
deficiencies— all he could do was to expel rascally contractors,
sell a captured privateer for £5000 and borrow £2500 from
Genoa— he cheerfully told the Directory on the 28th of March
that " the worst was over." • He augmented his army of operations
to about 40,000, at the expense of the coast divisions, and set on
foot also two small cavalry divisions, mounted on the half -starved
horses that had survived the winter. Then he announced that
the army was ready and opened the campaign.
The first plan, emanating from Paris, was that, after an
expedition towards Genoa to assist in raising a loan there, the
army should march against Beaulieu, previously neutralizing
the Sardinians by the occupation of Ceva. When Beaulieu was
beaten it was thought probable that the Piedmontese would enter
into an alliance with the French against their former comrades.
A second plan, however, authorized the general to begin by
subduing the Piedmontese to the extent necessary to bring about
peace and alliance, and on this Napoleon acted. If the present
separation of the Allies continued, he proposed to overwhelm the
Sardinians first, before the Austrians could assemble from winter
quarters, and t hen to turn on Beaulieu. If, on the other hand, the
Austrians, before he could strike his blow, united with Colli, he
proposed to frighten them into separating again by moving on
Acqui and Alessandria. Hence Carcare, where the road from
Acqui joined the "cannon-road," was the first objective of his
march, and from there he could manoeuvre and widen the breach
between the allied armies. His scattered left wing would assist
in the attack on the Sardinians as well as it could — for the
immediate attack on the Austrians its co-operation would of
course have been out of the question. In any case he grudged
every week spent in administrative preparation. The delay due
to this, as a matter of fact, allowed a new situation to develop.
Beaulieu was himself the first to move, and he moved towards
Genoa instead of towards his Allies. The gap between the two
allied wings was thereby widened, but it was no longer possible
for the French to use it, for their plan of destroying Colli ukiic
Beaulieu was ineffective had collapsed.
In connexion with the Genoese loan, and to facilitate the move-
ment of supply convoys, a small French force had been pushed
forward to Voltri. Bonaparte ordered It back a* «ra\ %a, Vit
arrived at the trout, tail ti&fe itaxm tt*& ^n«l. Tt* K^yv-w*
1 86
FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS
[ITALY iw-ff
Optolmg
broke up from winter quarters at once, and rather than lose the
food supplies at Voltri, Bonaparte actually reinforced Massena
at that place, and gave him orders to hold on as long as possible,
cautioning him only to watch his left rear (Montenotte). But
he did not abandon his purpose. Starting from the new condi-
tions, he devised other means, as we shall see, for reducing
Beaulieu to ineffectiveness. Meanwhile Beaulieu's plan of
offensive operations, such as they were, developed* The French
advance to Voltri had not only spurred him into activity, but
convinced him that the bulk of the French army lay east of
Savona. He therefore made Voltri the objective of a converging
attack, not with the intention of destroying the French
army but with that of " cutting its communications
with Genoa," and expelling it from " the only place
in the Riviera where there were sufficient ovens to
bake its bread." (Beaulieu to the Aulic Council, 15 April.) The
Sardinians and auxiliary Austrians were ordered to extend
leftwards on Dego to close the gap that Beaulieu's advance on
Genoa-Voltri opened up, which they did, though only half-
heartedly and in small force, for, unlike Beaulieu, they knew
that masses of the enemy were still in the western stretch of the
Riviera. The rightmost of Beaulieu's own columns was on the
road between Acqui and Savona with orders to seize Monte
Legino as an advanced post, the others were to converge towards
Voltri from the Genoa side and the mountain passes about
Campofreddo and SasseOo. The wings were therefore so far
connected that Colli wrote to Beaulieu on this day " the enemy
will never dare to place himself between our two armies." The
event belied the prediction, and the proposed minor operation
against granaries and bakeries became the first act of a decisive
campaign.
On the night of the 9th of April the French were grouped
as follows: brigades under Gamier and Macquard at the Fmestre
and Tenda passes, Senirier's division and Rusca's brigade east
of Garessio; Augereau's division about Loano, Mcynier's at
Finale, Laharpe's at Savona with an outpost on the Monte
Legino, and Cervoni's brigade at Voltri. Massena was in general
charge of the last-named units. The cavalry was far in rear
beyond Loano. Colli 's army, excluding the troops in the valleys
that led into Dauphinl, was around Coni and Mondovi-Ceva,
the latter group connecting with Beaulieu by a detachment
under Provera between Millesimo and Carcare. Of Beaulieu's
army, Argenteau's division, still concentrating to the front
in many small bodies, extended over the area Acqui-Dego-
Sassello. Vukassovich's brigade was equally extended between
Ovada and the mountain-crests above Voltri, and Pittoni's
division was grouped around Gavi and the Bocchetta, the two
last units being destined for the attack on Voltri. Farther to
the rear was Sebottendorf's division around Alessandria-
Tortona.
On the afternoon of the 10th Beaulieu delivered his blow
at Voltri, not, as he anticipated, against three-quarters of the
French army, but against Cervoni's detachment. This, after a
long irregular fight, slipped away in the night to Savona. Dis-
covering his mistake next morning, Beaulieu sent back some
of his battalions to join Argenteau. But there was no road
by which they could do so save the devour through Acqui and
Dego, and long before they arrived Argentcau's advance on
Monte Legino had forced on the crisis. On the nth (a day
behind time), this general drove in the French outposts, but he
soon came on three battalions under Colonel Rampon, who
threw himself into some old earthworks that lay near, and said
to his men, " We must win or die here, my friends." His redoubt
and his men stood the trial well, and when day broke on the
12th Bonaparte was ready to deliver his first "Napoleon-
stroke."
The principle that guided him in the subsequent operations
may be called " superior numbers at the decisive point." Touch
had been gained with the enemy all along the long line
between the Tenda and Voltri, and he decided to
concentrateswiftly upon the nearest enemy— Argenteau.
Augcresu's division, or such part of it as could march at once,
was ordered to Mallare, picking up here and there on the way
a few horsemen and guns. Massena, with 9000 men, was to
send two brigades in the direction ol Carcare and Altare, and with
the third to swing round Argenteau's right and to head for
Montenotte village in his rear. Laharpe with 7000 (it had
become clear that the enemy at Voltri would not pursue their
advantage) was to join Rampon, leaving only Cervoni and two
battalions in Savona. Slrurier and Rusca were to keep the
Sardinians in front of them occupied. The far-distant brigades
of Gamier and Macquard stood fast, but the cavalry drew
eastward as quickly as its condition permitted. In rain and
mist on the early morning of the nth the French marched up
from all quarters, while Argenteau's men waited in their cold
bivouacs for light enough to resume their attack on Monte
Legino. About 9 the mists cleared, and heavy fighting began,
but Laharpe held the mountain, and the vigorous Massena with
his nearest brigade stormed forward against Argenteau's right
A few hours later, seeing Augereau's columns heading for their
line of retreat, the Austrians retired, sharply pressed, on Dego.
The threatened intervention of Provera was checked by
Augereau's presence at Carcare.
Montenotte was a brilliant victory, and one can imagine its
effects. on the but lately despondent soldiers of the Army of
Italy, for all imagined that Beaulieu's main body had been
defeated. This was far from being the case, however, and although
the French spent the night of the battle at Cairo-Carcare-Monte-
notte, midway between the allied wings, only two-thirds of
Argenteau's force, and none of the other divisions, had been
beaten, and the heaviest fighting was to come. This became
evident on the afternoon of the 13th, but meanwhile Bonaparte,
eager to begin at once the subjugation of the Piedmontese (for
which purpose he wanted to bring Serurier and Rusca into play)
sent only Laharpe's division and a few details of Masseaa's,
under the latter, towards Dego. These were to protect the
main attack from interference by the forces that had bees
engaged at Montenotte (presumed to be Beaulieu's „—
main body), the said main attack being delivered by
Augereau's division, reinforced by most of Massena's, on the
positions held by Provera. The latter only xooo strong to
Augereau's 0000, shut himself in the castle of Cossaria, which
he defended a la Rampon against a series of furious assaults.
Not until the morning of the 14th was his surrender secured,
after his ammunition and food had been exhausted.
Argenteau also won a day's respite on the 13th, for Laharpe
did not join Masslna till late, and nothing took place opposite
Dego but a little skirmishing. During the day Bonaparte stv
FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS
ITALY 1793-07]
for himself that he had overrated the effects of Montenotte.
Beaulieu, on the other hand, underrated them, treating it as a
mishap which was more than counterbalanced by his own
success in " cutting off the French from Genoa." He began to
reconstruct his tine on the front Dego-Sassello, trusting to
Colli to harry the French until the Voliri troops had finished
their dltour through Acqui and rejoined Argenteau. This, of
course, presumed that Argenteau's troops were intact and
Colli 's able to move, which was not the case with either, ftot
until the afternoon of the 14th did Beaulieu place a few extra
battalions at Argenteau's disposal " to be used only in case of
extreme necessity," and order Vukassovich from the region
of Sassello to " make a diversion " against the French right
with two battalions.
Thus Argenteau, already shaken, was exposed to destruction.
On the 14th, after Provera's surrender, Massena and Laharpe,
n,— reinforced until they had nearly a two-to-one superior-
ity, stormed Dego and killed or captured 3000 of
Argenteau's 5500 men, the remnant retreating in disorder to
Acqui. But nothing was done towards the accomplishment of
the purpose of destroying Colli on that day, save that Serurier
and Ruse* began to close in to meet the main body between
Ceva and Millesimo. Moreover, the victory at Dcgo had produced
its usual results on the wild fighting swarms of the Republicans,
who threw themselves like hungry wolves on the Utile town,
without pursuing the beaten enemy or even placing a single
outpost on the Acqui road. In this state, during the early
hours of the 15th, Vukassovich's brigade, 1 marching up from
Sassello, surprised them, and they broke and fled in an instant.
The whole ^doming had to be spent in rallying them at Cairo,
and Bonaparte had for the second tame to postpone his union
with Serurier and Rusca, who meanwhile, isolated from one
another and from the main army, were groping forward in the
mountains. A fresh assault on Dego was ordered, and after
very severe fighting, Masslna and Laharpe succeeded late in
the evening in retaking it. Vukassovich lost heavily, but
retired steadily and in order on Spigno. The killed and wounded
numbered probably about 1000 French and 1500 Austrian!,
out of considerably less than 10,000 engaged on each side — a
loss which contrasted very forcibly with those suffered in other
patties of the Revolutionary Wars, and by teaching the Army
of Italy to bear punishment, imbued it with self-confidence.
But again success bred disorder, and there was a second orgy in
the houses and streets of Dego which went on till late in the
morning and paralysed the whole army.
This was perhaps the crisis of the campaign. Even now it
was not certain that the Austrian* had been definitively pushed
aside, while it was quite clear that Beaulieu 's main body was
intact and Colli was still more an unknown quantity. But
Napoleon's intention remained the same, to attack the Pied-
mont ese as quickly and as heavily as possible, Beaulieu being
held in check by a containing force under Massena and Laharpe.
The remainder of the army, counting in now Rusca and Se'rurier,
was to move westward towards Ceva. This disposition, while
it illustrates the Napoleonic principle of delivering a heavy
blow on the selected target and warding off interference at other
points, shows also the difficulty of rightly apportioning the
available means between the offensive mass and the defensive
system, for, as it turned out, Beaulieu was already sufficiently
scared, and thought of nothing but self-defence on the line
Acqui-Ovada-Bocchetta, while the French offensive mass was
very weak compared with Colli's unbeaten and now fairly
concentrated army about Ceva and Montczemolo.
On the afternoon of the 16th the real advance was begun by
Augereau's division, reinforced by other troops. Rusca joined
Augereau towards evening, and Serurier approached Ceva
from the south. Colli's object was now to spin out time, and
having repulsed a weak attack by Augereau, and feeling able
to repeat these tactics on each successive spur of the Apennines,
1 Vukassovich had received Beaulieu** order to demonstrate with
two battalions, and also appeals for help from Argenteau. He
therefore brought matt of bit troop* with him.
I87
he retired in the night to a new position behind the Cursaglia.
On the 17th, reassured by the absence of fighting on the Dego
side, and by the news that no enemy remained at Sassello,
Bonaparte released Massena from Dego, leaving only Laharpe
there, and brought him over towards the right of the main
body, which thus on the evening of the 17th formed a long
straggling line on both sides of Ceva, Serurier on the left,
echeloned forward, Augereau, Joubert and Rusca in the centre,
and Massena, partly as support, partly as flank guard, on
Augereau's right rear. Serurier had been bidden to extend
well out and to strive to get contact with Massina, i\*. to
encircle the enemy. There was no longer any idea of waiting
to besiege Ceva, although the artillery train had been ordered
up from the Riviera by the " cannon-road " for eventual use
there. Further, the line of supply, as an extra guarantee against
interference, was changed from that of Savona-Carcare to that of
Loano-Bardinetto. When this was accomplished, four dear days
could be reckoned on with certainty in which to deal with Colli.
The latter, still expecting the Austrians to advance to his
assistance, had established his corps (not more than x 2,000
muskets in all) in the immensely strong positions
of the Cursaglia, with a thin line of posts on his left £*»«*.
stretching towards Cherasco, whence he could com-
municate, by a roundabout way, with Acqui. Opposite this
position the long straggling line of the French arrived, after
many delays due to the weariness of the troops, on the 19th
A day of irregular fighting followed, everywhere to the advantage
of the defenders. Napoleon, fighting against time, ordered a
fresh attack on the 30th, and only desisted when it became
evident that the army was exhausted, and, in particular, when
Serurier reported frankly that without bread the soldiers would •
not march. The delay thus imposed, however, enabled him to
clear the " cannon-road " of an vehicles, and to bring up the
Dego detachment to replace Massena in the valley of the western
Bormida, the latter coming in to the main army. Further,
part at any rate of the convoy service was transferred still
farther westward to the line Albenga-Garessio-Ceva. Nelson's
fleet, that had so powerfully contributed to force the French
inland, was becoming less and less innocuous. If leadership and
force of character could overcome internal friction, all the
success he had hoped for was now within the young commander's
grasp.
Twenty-four thousand men, for the first time with a due
proportion of cavalry and artillery, were now disposed along
Colli's front and beyond his right flank. Colli, out- MaadVTk
numbered by two to one and threatened with en-
velopment, decided once more to retreat, and the Republicans
occupied the Cursaglia lines on the morning of the 21st without
firing a shot. But Colli halted again at Vico, half-way to
Mondovi (in order, it is said, to protect the evacuation of a
small magazine he had there), and while he was in this un-
favourable situation the pursuers came on with true Republican
swiftness, lapped round his flanks and crushed him. A few
days later (27th April), the armistice of Cherasco put- an end
to the campaign before the Austrians moved a single battalion
to his assistance.
The interest of the campaign its moral
must be found by discovering t : differen-
tiated it from other Revolutio _
deal is common to all, on bo
and Sardinians worked togethe
the Austrians, Prussians, Britist
lands. Revolutionary energy w Italy and
to the Army of the North. Whj ragged on
from one campaign to another leuse and
Rhine countries, did Napoleon 1 n in these
cramped valleys r The answer is to be found partly in the exigencies
of the supply service, but still more in Napoleon s own personality
and the strategy born of it. The first, as we have seen, was at
the end of its resources when Beaulieu placed himself across the
Genoa road. Action of some sort was the plain alternative to
starvation, and at this point Napoleon's personality intervened.
He would have no quarter-rations on the Riviera, but plenty and to
spare beyond the mountains. If there were many thousand soldiers
who marched unarmed and *hoc\e» Vtv\V* Y%tto % «.^i«&\8«Mft»" ^*v
Promised Land " tlatVueVen^sem. YteV»Y*A Awi»\»>aMt«>*V«*
i88
FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS
flTALY TOl-fT
met each day as if with full expectation of attaining it before sunset.
Strategical conditions and " new French " methods of war did not
aave Bonaparte in the two crises — the Dego rout and the sullen halt
of the army at San Michele — but the personality which made the
soldiers, on the way to Montenotte, inarch barefoot past a wagon-
load of new boots.
We have said that Napoleon's strategy was the result of this per-
sonal magnetism. Later critics evolved from his success the theory
of "interior lines," and then accounted for it by applying the
criterion they had evolved. Actually, the form in which the will to
conquer found expression was in many important respects old.
What, therefore, in the theory or its application was the product of
Napoleon's own genius and will-power ? A comparison with Souham's
campaign of Tourcoing will enable us to answer this question. To
begin with, Souham found himself midway between Coburg and Cler-
fayt almost by accident, and his utilization of the advantages of his
position was an expedient for the given case. Napoleon, however,
placed himself deliberately and by fighting his way thither, in an
analogous situation at Carcare and Cairo. Military opinion of the
time considered it dangerous, as indeed it was, for no theory can alter
the fact that had not Napoleon made his men fight harder and march
farther than usual, he would have been destroyed. The effective
play of forces on interior lines depends on the two conditions that
the outer enemies are not so near together as to give no time for the
inner mass to defeat one before the arrival of the other, and that
they arc not so far apart that before one can be brought to action
the other has inflicted serious damage elsewhere.
Neither condition was fully met at any time in the Montenotte
campaign. On the nth Napoleon knew that the attack on Voltri
had been made by a part only of the Austrian forces, yet he flung
his own masses on Montenotte. On the 13th he thought that
Beaulieu's main body was at Dego and Colli's at Millcsimo, and on
this assumption had to exact the most extraordinary efforts from
Augereau's troops at Cossaria. On the 19th and 20th he tried to
exclude the risks of the Austrians' intervention, and with this the
chances of a victory over them to follow his victory over Colli, by
transferring the centre ofgravity of his army to Ceva and Garessio,
and fighting it out with Colli alone.
* It was not, in fact, to gain a position on interior lines — with respect
to two opponents — that Napoleon pushed his army to Carcare.
Before the campaign began he hoped by using the " cannon-road "
to destroy the Piedmontese before Ike Austrian* were in existence
at all as an army. But on the news from Voltri and Monte Leg i no
be swiftly "concentrated fire, made the breach, and broke the
auilibrium " at the spot where the interests and forces of the two
lies converged and diverged. The hypothesis in the first case was
that the Austrians were practically non-existent, and the whole
object in the second was to breach the now connected front of the
Allies (" strategic penetration ") and to cause them to break up into
two separate systems. More, having made the breach, he had the
choice (which he had not before) of attacking either the Austrians or
the Sardinians, as every critic has pointed out. Indeed the Austrians
offered by far the better target. But he neither wanted nor used
the new alternative. His purpose was to crush Piedmont. " My
enemies saw too much at once," said Napoleon. Singleness of aim
and of purpose, the product of clear thinking and of personality,"
was the foundation-stone of the new form of strategy.
In the course of sul
placed on interior lim
idea, that of " relativ
had been in superior i
against 50.000} was n
in a position of rclat
mately 2 to 1) to 1
strategy," said Napo
to have more force a
art is taught ncithei
tact." In thb he ex
mind rather than a
victories. But the
practice, though imp<
first. As soon as he 1
out Massena and La
other. This is mere
though preparing to tl
Massena and Lanarp
Lys against a real a
and he only diminish*
containing detach nu
dwindled. Later in
system as " having
and " being nowhere
two requirements, in
secret of his generalship. At first his precautions (judged by events
and not by the probabilities of the moment) were excessive,
and the offensive mass small. But the latter was handled
by a general untroubled by multiple aims and anxieties,
and u such self-confidence was equivalent to 10,000
1 on the battlefield, it was legitimate to detach 10.000 men to
: it. These 10,000 were posted 8 m. out 00 the dangsrous
flank, not almost back to back with the main body as Vandamme
had been, 1 and although this distance was but little compared to
those of his later campaigns, when he employed small armies for the
same purpose, it sufficed in this difficult mountain country, where
the covering force eaioyed the advantage of strong positions.
Of course, if Colli had been better concentrated, or if Bcaulieu had
been more active, the calculated proportions between covering force
and main body might have proved fallacious, and the system on
which Napoleon's relative superiority rested might have broken
down. But the point is that such a system, however rough its first
model, had been imagined and put into practice.
This was Napoleon s individual art of war, as raiding bakeries and
cutting communications were Beaulieu's speciality. Napoleon made
the art into a science, and in our own time, with modern conditions
of effective, armament and communications, it is more than po s s ib l e
that Moreaus and Jourdans will prove able to practise it with success.
But in the old conditions it required a Napoleon. " Strategy," said
Moltke, " is a system of expedients." But it was the intense personal
force, as well as the genius, of Napoleon that forged these expedients
into a system.
The first phase of the campaign satisfactorily settled, Napoleon
was free to turn bis attention to the " arch-enemy " to whom he
was now considerably superior in numbers (35,000 to a&ooo).
The day after the signature of the armistice of Cherasco he
began preparing for a new advance and also for the role of
arbiter of the destinies of Italy. Many whispers there were,
even in his own army, as to the dangers of passing on without
44 revolutionizing "aristocratic Genoa and monarchical Piedmont,
and of bringing Venice, the pope and the Italian princes into the
field against the French. But Bonaparte, flushed with victory,
and better informed than the malcontents of the real condi-
tion of Italy, never hesitated. His first object was to drive
out Beaulicu, his second to push through Tirol, and his only
serious restriction the chance that the armistice with Piedmont
would not result in a definitive treaty. Bcaulieu had fallen back
into Lombardy, and now bordered the Po right and left of
Valenza. To achieve further progress, Napoleon bad first to
cross that river, and the point and method of crossing was the
immediate problem, a problem the more difficult as Napoleon
had no bridge train and could only make use of such existing
bridges as he could seize intact.' If he crossed above Valenza,
he would be confronted by one river-line after another, on one
of which at least Bcaulieu would probably stand to fight. But
quite apart from the immediate problem, Napoleon's intention
was less to beat the Austrians than to dislodge them. He needed
a foothold in Lombardy which would make him independent of,
and even a menace to, Piedmont. If this were assured, he could
for a few weeks entirely ignore bis communications with France
and strike out against Bcaulieu, dethrone the king of Sardinia,
or revolutionize Parma, Modcna and the papal states according
to circumstances.
Milan, therefore, was his objective, and Tortona-Piacenza hit
route thither To give himself every chance, he had stipulated
with the Piedmontese authorities for the right of
passing at- Valenza, and he had the satisfaction of
seeing Beautieu fall into the trap and concentrate opposite that
part of the river. The French meantime had moved to the region
Alessandria-Tortona. Thence on the 6th of May Bonaparte,
with a picked body of troops,, set out for a forced march on
Piacenza, and that night the advanced guard was 30 m. on the
way, at Castel San Giovanni, and Laharpe's and the cavalry
divisions at Stradella, 10 m. behind them. Augcreau was at
Broni, Massena at Sale and Serurier near Valenza, the whole
forming a rapidly extending fan, 50 m. from point to point
If the Piacenza detachment succeeded in crossing, the army vas
to follow rapidly in its track. If, on the other hand, Beauliea fell
by experience,
> m. out. But
ne to nothing,
ice with either
lercd territory,
-ed to conquer
the definitive
so, Napoleon's
1 mere political
bis own desires
ffALY I79J-97I
FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS
189
back to oppose the advanced guard, the Valenza divisions would
take advantage of his absence to cross there. In either case, be it
observed, the Austrians were to be evaded, not brought to action.
On the morning of the 7th, the swift advanced guard under
General Dallemagne crossed at Piacenza, 1 and, hearing of this,
Bonaparte ordered every division except Serurier's thither with
ail possible speed. In the exultation of the moment he mocked
at BeauHeu's incapacity, but the old Austrian was already on
the alert. This game of manoeuvres he understood; already
one of his divisions had arrived in dose proximity to Dallemagne
and the others were marching eastward by all available roads.
It was not until the 8th that the French, after a series of partial
encounters, were securely established on the left bank of the Po,
and Beaulieu had given up the idea of forcing their most advanced
troops to accept battle at a disadvantage. The success of
the French was due less to their plan than to their mobility,
which enabled them first to pass the river before the Austrians
(who had actually started a day in advance of them) put in an
appearance, and afterwards to be in superior numbers at each
point of contact. But the episode was destined after all to
culminate in a great event, which Napoleon himself indicated
as the turning-point of his life. " Vendemiaire and even Monte*
notte did not make me think myself a superior being. It was
after Lodi that the idea came to me. . . . That first kindled the
spark of boundless ambition."
The idea of a battle having been given up, Beaulieu retired to
the Adda, and most of his troops were safely beyond it before the
ffftf French arrived near Lodi, but he felt it necessary to
leave a strong rearguard on the river opposite that
place to cover the reassembly of his columns after their scattered
march. On the afternoon of the 10th of May, Bonaparte, with
Dallemagne, Massena and Augereau, came up and seized the
town. But soo yds. of open ground had to be passed from the
town gate to the bridge, and the bridge itself was another 250
in length. A few hundred yards beyond it stood the Austrians,
9000 strong with 14 guns. Napoleon brought up all his guns
to prevent the enemy from destroying the bridge. Then sending
all his cavalry to turn the enemy's right by a ford above the
town, he waited two hours, employing the time in cannonading
the Austrian lines, resting his advanced infantry and closing
up Massena's and Augereau's divisions. Finally he* gave the
order to Dallemagne's 4000 grenadiers, who were drawn up
under cover of the town wall, to rush the bridge. As the column,
not more than thirty men broad, made its appearance, it was
met by the concentrated fire bf the Austrian guns, and half
way across the bridge it checked, but Bonaparte himself and
Massena rushed forward, the courage of the soldiers revived,
and, while some jumped off the bridge and scrambled forward
in the shallow water, the remainder stormed on, passed through
the guns and drove back the infantry. This was, in bare outline,
the astounding passage of the Bridge of Lodi. It was not till
after the battle that Napoleon realized that only a rearguard
was in front of him. When he launched his 4000 grenadiers
be thought that on- the other side there were four or five times
that number of the enemy. No wonder, then, that after the
event he recognized in himself the flash of genius, the courage
to risk everything, and the " tact " which, independent of,
and indeed contrary to all reasoned calculations, told him that
the moment had come for " breaking the equilibrium." Lodi
was a tactical success in the highest sense, in that the principles
of his tactics rested on psychology— on the " sublime " part
of the art of war as Saxe had called it long ago. The spirit pro-
duced the form, and Lodi was the prototype of the Napoleonic
battle — contact, manoeuvre, preparation, and finally the well-
timed, massed and unhesitating assault. The absence of strate-
gical results mattered little. Many months elapsed before this
bold assertion of superiority ceased to decide the battles of
France and Austria.
•On entering the territory of the duke of Parma Bonaparte
imposed, besides other contribution*, the surrender of twenty
famous pictures, and thus besas a practice which for many years
enriched the Louvre and only ceased with the capture or Paris
is 1814.
Next day, still under the vivid tactical impressions of the
Bridge of Lodi, he postponed his occupation of the Milanese
and set off in pursuit of Beaulieu, but the latter was mBM
now out of reach, and during the next few days the
French divisions were installed at various points in the area
PavU-Milan-Pizzighetone, facing outwards in all dangerous
directions, with a central reserve at Milan. Thus secured,
Bonaparte turned his attention to political and military ad-
ministration. This took the form of exacting from the neigh-
bouring princes money, supplies and objects of art, and the once
famished Army of Italy revelled in its opportunity. Now, how-
ever, the Directory, suspicious of the too successful and too
•sanguine young general, ordered him to turn over the command
in Upper Italy to Kellermann, and to take an expeditionary
corps himself into the heart of the Peninsula, there to preach
the Republic and the overthrow of princes. Napoleon absolutely
refused, and offered his resignation. In the end (partly by-
bribery) he prevailed, but the incident reawakened his desire
to close with Beaulieu. This indeed he could now do with a
free hand, since not only had the Milanese been effectively
occupied, but also the treaty with Sardinia had been ratified.
But no sooner had he resumed the advance than it was
interrupted by a rising of the peasantry in his rear. The exac-
tions of the French had in a few days generated sparks of dis-
content which it was easy for the priests and the nobles to fan
into open flames. Milan and Pavia as well as the countryside
broke into insurrection, and at the latter place the mob forced
the French commandant to surrender. Bonaparte acted
swiftly and ruthlessly. Bringing back a small portion of the
army with him, he punished Milan on the 25th, sacked and
burned Binasco on the 26th, and on the evening of the latter
day, while his cavalry swept the open country, he broke his"
way into Pavia with 1500 men and beat down all resistance.
Napoleon's cruelty was never purposeless. He deported several
scores of hostages to France, executed most of the mob leaders,
and shot the French officer who had surrendered. In addition,
he gave his 1500 men three hours' leave to pillage. Then, as
swiftly as they had come, they returned to the army on the
Oglio. From this river Napoleon advanced to the banks of the
Mincio, where the remainder of the Italian campaign was fought
out, both sides contemptuously disregarding Venetian neutrality.
It centred on the fortress of Mantua, which Beaulieu, too weak
to keep the field, and .dislodged from the Mincio in the action of
Borghetto (May 30), strongly garrisoned before retiring into
Tirol. Beaulieu was soon afterwards replaced by Dagobert
Siegmund, count von Wurmser (b. 1724), who brought con-
siderable reinforcements from Germany.
At this point, mindful of the narrow escape he had had of
losing his command, Bonaparte thought it well to begin the
resettlement of Italy. The scheme for co-operating with Moreau
on the Danube was indefinitely postponed, and the Army of
Italy (now reinforced from the Army of the Alps and counting
42,000 effectives) was again disposed in a protective " zone of
manoeuvre," with a strong central reserve. # Over 8000 men,
however, garrisoned the fortresses of Piedmont and Lombardy,
and the effective blockade of Mantua and political expeditions
into the heart of the Peninsula soon used up the whole of this
reserve.
Moreover, no siege artillery was available until the Austrians
in the citadel of Milan capitulated, and thus it was not till
the 18th of July that the first parallel was begun. Almost at the
same moment Wurmser began his advance from Trent with
55,000 men to relieve Mantua.
The protective system on which his attack would fall in the
first instance was now as follows: — Augereau (6000) about
Legnago, Despinoy (8000) south-east of Verona,
Massena (13,000) at Verona and Peschiera, with Mmmtma.
outposts on the Monte Baldo and at La Corona,
Sauret (4500) at Salo and Gavardo. Serurier (12,000) was
besieging Mantua, and the only central reserve was the cavalry
(2000) under Kilmaine. The main road to Milan passed by
Brescia. Sauret's brigade, therefore, was practically a detached
190
FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS
(ITALY
post on the One of communication, and on the main defensive
front less than 50,000 men were disposed at various points
between La Corona and Legnago (30 m. apart), and at a distance
of 15 to 20 m. from Mantua. The strength of such a disposition
depended on the fighting power and handiness of the troops,
who in each case would be called upon to act as a rearguard to
gain time. Yet the lie of the country scarcely permitted a closer
grouping, unless indeed Bonaparte fell back on the old-time
device of a " drcumvallation," and shut himself up, with the
supplies necessary for the calculated duration of the siege,, in an
' impregnable ring of earthworks round Mantua. This, however,
he could not have done even if he had wished, for the wave of
revolt radiating from Milan had made accumulations of food
impossible, and the lakes above and below the fortress, besides
being extremely unhealthy, would have extended the perimeter
of the ctrcumvallauon so greatly that the available forces would
not suffice to man it. It was not in this, but in the absence of an
important central reserve that Bonaparte's disposition is open to
criticism, which indeed could impugn the scheme in its entirety,
as overtaxing the available resources, more easily than it could
attack its details.
If Bonaparte has occasionally been criticized for his defensive
measures, Wurmser's attack procedure has received almost universal
condemnation, as to the justice of which it may be pointed out 1
that the object of the expedition was not to win a battle by falling
on the disunited French with a well-concentrated army, but to over*
power one, any one, of the corps covering the siege, and to press
straight forward to the relief of Mantua, i.e. to the destruction of
Bonaparte's batteries and the levelling of his trench work. The old
principle that a battle was a grave event of doubtful issue was
reinforced in the actual case by Beauticu's late experiences of French
Man, and as a temporary victory at one point would suffice for the
purpose in hand, there was every incentive to multiply the points of
contact. The soundness of Wurmser's plan was proved by the event.
New ideas and new forces, undiscernible to a roan of seventy-two
years of age, obliterated his achievement by surpassing it, but such
as it was— a limited use of force for a limited object— the venture
undeniably succeeded.
The Austrians formed three corps, one (Quasdanovich, 18,000
men) marching round the west side of the Lake of Garda on
Gavardo, Sab and the Brescia road, the second (under Wurmser,
about 30,000) moving directly down the Adtge, and the third
(Davidovich, 6000) making a detour by the Brenta valley
mad heading for Verona, by Viceoza,
*SmG*OB B.-K. OstmmdStof, pp. 449-451-
On the loth Quasdanovich attacked Sauret at Salo, drove
him towards Desenxano, and pushed on to Gavardo and thence
into Brescia. Wurmser expelled Massena's advanced guard
from La Corona, and captured in succession the Monte Baldo
and Rivoli posts. The Brenta column approached Verona with
little or no fighting. News of this column led Napoleon early is
the day to close up Despiooy, Massena and Kilmaine at CaateV
nuovo, and to order Augereau from Legnago to advance on
Montebello (19 m. east of Verona) against Davidovich 's left
rear. But after these orders had been despatched came the news
of Sauret 's defeat, and this moment was one of the most anxious,
in Napoleon's career He could not make up bis mind to give up
the siege of Mantua, but he hurried Augereau back to the Mincio,
and sent order after order to the officers on the lines of communi-
cation to send all convoys by the Cremona instead of by the
Brescia road. More, he had the baggage, the treasure and the
sick set in motion at once for Marcaria, and wrote to Serurier
■ /fecr)it c h which included the
" perhaps we snail recover
res . . . but I must take
t measures for a retreat."
ic 30th he wrote: "The
have broken through our
i three places . . . Sauret
acuated Salo . . . and the
has captured Brescia.
* that our communication
>lilan and Verona are cut."
eporta that came to him
: the morning of the 30th
d'him to place the maia
of the enemy opposite
na, and this, without in the
illeviating the gravity of
uation, helped to make his
less doubtful Augereau
rdered to hold the lane of
Lolinella, in case Davido-
attack, the feast-known
should after all prove to
rioua; Massena to recon-
a road from Pescbiera
h Castigtione towards
vi, and to stand fast at
nuovo opposite Wurmstf
ig as he could. Saaret
and Despinoy were concentrated
at Desenxano with orders on the 31st to clear tbe main lined
retreat and to recapture Brescia. The Austrian movements wen
merely the continuation of those of the 29th. QuaadaBOvica
wheeled in ards, his right finally resting on Montechiaro and
his left 00 : do. Wurmser drove back Massena to the west side
of the Mincio. Davidovich made a slight advance,
Io tbe late evening Bonaparte held a council of war at Rover-
bella. The proceedings of this council are unknown, but it at
any rate enabled Napoleon to see clearly and to act. M
Hitherto he bad been covering the siege of Mantua with SSm
various detachments, the defeat of any one of which
might be fatal to the enterprise. Thus, when he had lost ha
main line of retreat, he could assemble no more than 8000 nes
at Desenzano to win it back. Now, however, he made up his
mind that the siege could not be continued, and bitter as tat
decision must have been, it gave him freedom. At this mooeat
of crisis the instincts of the great captain came into play, and
showed the way to a victory that would more than counter-
balance the now inevitable failure. Serurier was ordered to
spike the 140 siege guns that had been so welcome a few days
before, and, after sending part of his force to Augereau, is
establish himself with tbe rest at Marcaria on the Cremona toad.
The field forces were to be used on interior lines. On the 31st
Sauret, Despinoy. Augereau and Kilmaine advanced westward
against Qi&asfaQQNfcb. Tba fint two found the Austrians at
V 1793-97)
FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS
191
md Lonato and drove them back, while with Augereau
he cavalry Bonaparte himself made a forced march on
ia, never halting night or day till he reached the town and
sred his depots. Meantime Serurier had retired (night
y 31), Massena had gradually drawn in towards Lonato,
Wurmser's advanced guard triumphantly entered the
is (August 1).
; Austrian general now formed the plan of crushing
mite between Quasdanovich and his own main body,
meantime Quasdanovich bad evacuated Brescia under the
: of Bonaparte's advance and was now fighting a long
Lax action with Despinoy and Sauret about Gavardo and
mod Bonaparte, having missed his expected target, had
ht Augereau by another severe march back to Montechiaro
e Chiese. Massena was now assembled between Lonato
tome San Marco, and Strurier was retiring quietly on
iria. Wurmser's main body, weakened by the detachment
o Mantua, crossed the Mindo about Valcggio and Goito
! and, and penetrated as far as Cast iglione, whence Massena's
tard was expelled. But a renewed advance of Quasdano-
ordered by Wurmser, which drove Sauret and Despinoy
back on Brescia and Lonato, in the end only placed
***** strong detachment of the Austrians within striking
distance of Massena, who on the 3rd attacked it,
. front to front, and by sheer fighting destroyed it,
at the same time Augereau recaptured Castiglione from
lser. On the 4th Sauret and Despinoy pressed back
lanovich beyond Salo and Gavardo. One of the Austrian
ins, finding itself isolated and unable to retreat with the
i, turned back to break its way through to Wurmser, and
Jinihilated by Massena in the neighbourhood of Lonato.
us day Augereau fought his way towards Solferino, and
jser, thinking rightly or wrongly that he could not now
to the Mincio without a battle, drew up his whole force,
oa 30,000 men, in the plain between Solferino and Medole.
inale may be described in very few words. Bonaparte,
need that no more was to be feared from Quasdanovich,
eeing that Wurmser meant to fight, called in Despinoy's
on to the main body and sent orders to Serurier, then far
it oa the Cremona road, to march against the left flank of
ustrians. On the 5th the battle of Castiglione was fought.
ly contested in the first hours of the frontal attack till
ier't arrival decided the day, it ended in the retreat of the
ians over the Mincio and into Tirol whence they had
is the new way had failed to keep back Wurmser. and the
td failed to crush Napoleon. Each was the result of its own
ions. In former wars a commander threatened as Napoleon
rould have fallen back at once to the Adda, abandoning the
ve been able to bring off his
arte hesitated long enough
snons was a waste, and held
rules, sheer madness. But
enough to stand a retreat.
ve streamed away to Milan
the only alternative to com-
n the principle of M relative
was endeavouring to cover
as to protect his new line of
eriod, viz. up to his return
only " mass " he collected
>venng detachments had to
eleased from its trammels.
He stood between Wurmser
t or both. The latter was
nd the resolute leading of
actually outnumbered his
cautionary dispositions had
Ic from the " alternative line
is, again, that it was not the
gave Napoleon the victory,
I the chances in his favour,
eking force and containing
. All these factors were greatly influenced by the ground, which
red the swarms and columns of the French and deprived
rilliant Austrian cavalry of its power to act. But of far
t importance was the mobility that Napoleon's personal
force imparted to the French. Napoleon himself rode five horses
to death in three days, and Augcreau's division marched from
Roverbella to Brescia and back to Montechiaro, a total distance of
nearly 50 m., in about thirty-six hours. This indeed was the founda-
tion of his " relative superiority," for every hour saved in the time
of marching meant more freedom to destroy one corps before the
rest could overwhelm the covering detachments ana come to its
assistance.
Wurmser's plan for the relief of Mantua, suited to its purpose,
succeeded. But when he made his objective the French field army,
he had to take his own army as he found it, disposed for an altogether
different purpose. A properly combined attack of convergent
columns framed ah initio by a good staff officer, such as Mack,
might indeed have given good results. But the success of such a
plan depends principally on the assailant's original possession of the
initiative, and not on the chances of his being able to win it over to
his own side when operations, as here, are already in progress.
When the time came to improvise such a plan, the initiative had
passed over to Napoleon, and the plan was foredoomed.
By the end of the second week in August the blockade of
Mantua had been resumed, without siege guns. But still under
the impression of a great victory gained, Bonaparte was planning
a. long forward stride. He thought that by advancing past
Mantua directly on Trieste and thence onwards to the Semmering
he could impose a peace on the emperor. The Directory, however,
which had by now focussed its attention on the German cam-
paign, ordered him to pass through Tirol and to co-operate with
Moreau, and this plan, Bonaparte, though protesting against an
Alpine venture being made so late in the year, prepared to execute,
drawing in reinforcements and collecting great quantities of
supplies in boats on the Adige and Lake Garda. Wurmser was
thought to have posted his main body near Trent, and to have
detached one division to Bassano " to cover Trieste." The French
advanced northward on the 2nd, in three disconnected columns
(precisely as Wurmser bad done In the reverse direction at the
end of July) — Massena (13*000) from Rivoli to Ala, Augereau
(0000) from Verona by hill roads, keeping on his right rear,
Vaubois (11,000) round the Lake of Garda by Riva and Tor-
bole. Sahuguet's division (8000) remained before Mantua. The
French divisions successfully combined and drove the enemy
before them to Trent.
There, Jiowever, they missed their target. Wurmser had already
drawn over the bulk of his army (22,000) into the Val Sugana,
whence, with the Bassano division, as his advanced guard, he
intended once more to relieve Mantua, while Davidovich with
13,000 (excluding detachment's) was to hold Tirol against any
attempt of Bonaparte to join forces with Moreau.
Thus Austria was preparing to hazard a second (as in the
event she hazarded a third and a fourth) highly trained and
expensive professional army in the struggle for the preservation
of a fortress, and we must conclude that there were weighty
reasons which actuated so notoriously cautious a body as the
Council of War in making this unconditional venture. While
Mantua stood, Napoleon, for all bis energy and sanguineness,
could not press forward into Friuti and Carniola, and immunity
from a Republican visitation was above all else important for
the Vienna statesmen, governing as they did more or less dis-
contented and heterogeneous populations that had not felt the
pressure of war for a century and more. The Austrians, so far
as is known, desired no more than to hold their own. They no
longer possessed the superiority of moral that guarantees victory
to one side when both are materially equal. There was therefore
nothing to be gained, commensurate with the risk involved, by
fighting a battle in the open field. In It alien siegl nkkt die
KataUerU was an old saying in the Austrian army, and therefore
the Austrians could not hope to win a victory of the first mag-
nitude. The only practicable alternative was to strengthen
Mantua as opportunities offered themselves, and to prolong
the passive resistance as much as possible. Napoleon's own
practice in providing for secondary theatres of war was to
economise forces and to delay a decision, and the fault of the
Austrians, viewed from a purely military standpoint, was that
they squandered, instead of economizing, their forces to gain
time. If we neglect pure theory, and regard strategy as the
h a n d m ai de n of statesmanship— which (undame&U&j Vc%
1 9*
FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS
(ITALY
cannot condemn the Vienna authorities unless it be first proved
that they grossly exaggerated the possible results of Bonaparte's
threatened irruption. And if their capacity for judging the
political situation be admitted, it naturally follows that their
object was to preserve Mantua at all costs— which object Wurmser,
though invariably defeated in action, did in fact accomplish.
When Massena entered Trent on the morning of the 5th of
September, Napoleon became aware that the force in his front
ammmmmm was a mere detachment, and news soon came in that
Wurmser was in the Val Sugana about Primolano and
at Bassano. This move he supposed to be intended to cover
Trieste, being influenced by his own hopes of advancing in that
direction, and underestimating the importance, to the Austrians,
of preserving Mantua. He therefore informed the Directory
that he could not proceed with the Tirol scheme, and spent one
more day in driving Davidovich well away from Trent. Then,
leaving Vaubois to watch him, Napoleon marched Augereau and
Messina, with a rapidity he scarcely ever surpassed, into the
Val Sugana. Wurmscr's rearguard was attacked and defeated
again and again, and Wurmser himself felt compelled to stand
and fight, in the hope of checking the pursuit before going
forward into the plains. Half his army bad already reached
Montebello on the Verona road, and with the rear half he posted
himself at Bassano, where on the 8th he was attacked and
defeated with heavy losses. Then began a strategic pursuit or
general chase, and in this the mobility of the French should
have finished the work so well begun by their tactics.
But Napoleon directed the pursuers so as to cut off Wurmser
from Trieste, not from Mantua. Massena followed up the
Austrians to Vicenza, while Augereau hurried towards Padua,
and it was not until late on the 9th that Bonaparte realized that
his opponent was heading for Mantua via Lcgnago. On the xoth
Massena crossed the Adige at Ronco, while Augereau from
Padua reached Montagnana. Sahuguet from Mantua and
Kihnaine from Verona joined forces at Castellaro on the xith,
with orders to interpose between Wurmser and the fortress.
Wurmser meantime had halted for a day at Legnago, to restore
order, and had then resumed bis march. It was almost too late,
for in the evening, after having to push aside the bead of Massena 's
column at Cerea, he bad only reached Nogara, some miles short of
Castellaro, and close upon his rear was Augereau, who reached
Legnago that night. On the 12th, eluding Sahuguet by a detour
to the southward, be reached Mantua, with all the columns of
the French, weary as most of them were, in hot pursuit. After
an attempt to keep the open field, defeated in a general action
On the 15th, the relieving force was merged in the garrison, now
some 28,000 in all. So ended the episode of Bassano, the most
brilliant feature of which as usual was the marching power of
the French infantry. This time it sufficed to redeem even
strategical misconceptions and misdirections. Between the
5th and the nth, besides fighting three actions, Massena had
marched 100 m. and Augereau 1 14.
Feldzeugmeister Alvintzi was now appointed to command a
new army of relief. This time the mere distribution of the
troops imposed a concentric advance of separate columns, for
practically the whole of the fresh forces available were in Carniola,
the Military Frontier, &c, while Davidovich was still in Tirol.
Alvintzi's intention was to assemble his new army (*o,ooo) in
Friuli, and to move on Bassano, which was to be occupied on
the 4th of November. Meantime Davidovich (18,000) was to
capture Trent, and the two columns were to connect by the Val
Sugana. All being well, Alvintzi and Davidovich, still separate,
were then to converge on the Adige between Verona and Legnago.
Wurmser was to co-operate by vigorous sorties. At this time
Napoleon's protective system was as follows: Kilmaine (0000)
investing Mantua, Vaubois (10,000) at Trent, and Massena
(0000) at Bassano and Treviso, Augereau (0000) and Macquard
(3000) at Verona and Villafranca constituting, for the first time
in these operations, important mobile reserves. Hearing of
Alvintzi's approach in good time, he meant first to drive back
Davidovich, then with Augereau, Massena, Macquard and 3000
of Vaubois's force to fall upon Alvinui, who, he calculated,
would at this stage have reached Bassano, and finally to send
back a large force through the Val Sugana to attack Davidovich.
This plan practically failed.
Instead of advancing, Vaubois was driven steadily backward.
By the 6th, Davidovich had fought his way almost to Roveredo,
and Alvintzi had reached Bassano and was there cdmm*.
successfully repelling the attacks of Massena and
Augereau. That night Napoleon drew back to Vicenza. On
the 7 th Davidovich drove in Vaubois to Corona and Rivoli,
and Alvintzi came within 5 m. of Vicenza. Napoleon watched
carefully for an opportunity to strike out, and on the 8th massed
his troops closely around the central point of Verona. On the
9th, to give himself air, he ordered Massena to join Vaubois,
and to drive back Davidovich at all costs. But before this order
was executed, reports came in to the effect that Davidovich
had suspended his advance. The xoth and xxtn. were spent by
both sides in relative inaction, the French waiting on events
and opportunities, the Austrians resting after their pcolonged
exertions. Then, on the afternoon of the xxth, being informed
that Alvintzi was approaching, Napoleon decided to attack him.
On the 1 zth the advanced guard of Alvintzi's army was furiously
assailed in the position of Caldiero. But the troops in rear came
up rapidly, and by 4 p.m. the French were defeated ail along the
line and in retreat on Verona. Napoleon's situation was now
indeed precarious. He was on " interior lines," it is true, but
he had neither the force nor the space necessary for the delivery
of rapid radial blows. Alvintzi was in superior numbers, as the
battle of Caldiero had proved, and at any moment Davidovich,
who had twice Vaubois's force, might advance to the attack of
Rivoli. The reserves had proved insufficient, and Kilmaine
had to be called up from Mantua, which was thus for the third
time freed from the blockaders. Again the alternatives were
retreat, in whatever order was possible to Republican armies,
and beating the nearest enemy at any sacrifice. Napoleon chose
the latter, though it was not until the evening of the 14th that
he actually issued the fateful order.
The Austrians, too, had selected the 15th as the date of their
final advance on Verona, Davidovich from the north, Ahrintzi
via Zevio from the south. But Napoleon was no longer there;
leaving Vaubois to bold Davidovich as best be might, and
posting only 3000 men in Verona, he had collected the rest of
his small army between Albaro and Ronco. His plan seems to
have been to cross the Adige well in rear of the Austrians, to
march north on to the Verona-Viccnza highway, and there,
supplying himself from their convoys, to fight to the last. On
the 15th he had written to the Directory, " The weakness and
the exhaustion of the army causes me to fear the worst. We are
perhaps on the eve of losing Italy." In this extremity of danger
the troops passed the Adige in three columns near Ronco and
Albaredo, and marched forward along the dikes, with deep
marshes and pools on either hand. If Napoleon's intention was
to reach the dry open ground of S. Bonifacio in rear of the
Austrians, it was not realized, for the Austrian army, instead of
being at the gates of Verona, was still between Caldiero and
S. Bonifacio, heading, as we know, for Zevio. Thus Alvintzi
was able, easily and swiftly, to wheel bo the south.
The battle of Areola almost defies description. The first day
passed in a series of resultless encounters between the heads
of the columns as tbey met on the dikes. In the Mmtmtm
evening Bonaparte withdrew over the Adige, expecting ^"^
at every moment to be summoned to Vaubois's aid. But Davido-
vich remained inactive, and on the 16th the French again crossed
the river. Massena from Ronco advanced on Porcile, driving
the Austrians along the causeway thither, but on the side of
Areola, Alvintzi had deployed a considerable part of hb forces
on the edge of the marshes, within musket shot of the austway
by which Bonaparte and Augereau had to pass, along the
Austrian front, to reach the bridge of Areola. In these circum-
stances the second day's battle was more murderous and no
more decisive than the first, and again the French retreated to
Ronco. But Davidovich again stood still, and with incredible
obstinacy Bonaparte ordered a third assault, for the 17th, sstaf
ITALY >793-97l
FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS
193
indeed more tactical expedients than before, but calculating
chiefly on the fighting powers of his men and on the exhaustion
of the enemy. Massena again advanced on Porcile, Robert's
brigade on Areola, but the rest, under Augereau, were to pass
the Alpone near its confluence with the Adige, and joining various
small bodies which passed the main stream lower down, to storm
forward on dry ground to Areola. The Austrian, however,
themselves advanced from Areola, overwhelmed Robert's
brigade on the causeway and almost reached Ronco. This was
perhaps the crisis of the battle, for Augereau's force was now
on the other side of the stream, and Masslna, with his back
to the new danger, was approaching Porcile. But the fire of a
deployed regiment stopped the head of the Austrian column;
Massena, turning about, cut into its flank on the dike; and
Augereau, gathering force, was approaching Areola from the
south. The bridge and the village were evacuated soon after-
wards, and Massena and Augereau began to extend in the plain
beyond. But the Austrian* still sullenly resisted. It was at
this moment that Bonaparte secured victory by a mere ruse,
but a ruse which would have been unprofitable and ridiculous
had it not been based on his fine sense of the moral conditions.
Both sides were nearly fought out, and he sent a few trumpeters
to the rear of the Austrian army to sound the charge. They
did so, and in a few minutes the Austrian* were streaming back
to S. Bonifacio. This ended the drama of Areola, which more
than any other episode of these wars, perhaps of any wars in
modern history, centres on the personality of the hero. It is
said that the French fought without spirit on the first day, and
yet on the second and third Bonaparte had so thoroughly imbued
them with his own will to conquer that in the end they prevailed
over an enemy nearly twice their own strength.
The climax was reached just in time, for on the 17th Vaubois
was completely defeated at Rivoli and withdrew to Peschiera,
leaving the Verona and Mantua roads completely open to
Davidovich. But on the 19th Napoleon turned upon him, and
combining the forces of Vaubois, Masslna and Augereau against
him, drove him back to Trent. Meantime Alvintzi returned
from Vicenza to San Bonifacio and Caldiero (November 21st),
and Bonaparte at once stopped the pursuit of Davidovich. On
the return of the French main body to Verona, Alvintzi finally
withdrew, Wurmser, who had emerged from Mantua on the 23rd,
was driven in again, and this epilogue of the great struggle
came to a feeble end because neither side was now capable of
prolonging the crisis.
Alvintzi renewed his advance in January 1797 with all the
forces that could be assembled for a last attempt to save Mantua.
At this time 8000 men under Senirier blockaded Mantua.
Masslna (0000) was at Verona, Joubert (Vaubois's successor)
at Rivoli with 10,000, Augereau at Legnago with 0000. In
reserve were Rey's division (4000) between Brescia and Monte-
chiaro, and Victor's brigade at Goito and Castelnuovo. On the
other side, Alvintzi had 9000 men under Provera at Padua,
6000 under Bayalic at Bassano, and he himself with 28,000 men
stood in the Tirol about Trent. This time he intended to make
his principal effort on the Rivoli side. Provera was to capture
Legnago on the 9th of January, and Bayalii Verona on the 12th,
while the main army was to deliver its blow against the Rivoli
position on the 13th.
The first marches of this scheme were duly carried out, and
several days elapsed before Napoleon was able to discern the
ft/we direction of the real attack. Augereau fell back,
skirmishing a little, as Provera's and Bayalic's advance
developed. On the nth, when the latter was nearing Verona,
Alvintzi's leading troops appeared in front of the Rivoli position.
On the 1 2th Bayalic" with a weak force (he had sent reinforce-
ments to Alvintzi by the Val Pantena) made an unsuccessful
attack on Verona, Provera, farther south, remaining inactive.
On the 13th Napoleon, still in doubt, launched Massena's division
against Bayalif, who was driven back to San Bonifacio; but
at the same time definite news came from Joubert that Alvintzi'i
main army was in front of La Corona. From this point begins
the decisive, though by no means the most intense or dramatic,
struggle of the campaign. Once he felt sure of the situation
Napoleon acted promptly. Joubert was ordered to hold on to
Rivoli at all costs. Rey was brought up by a forced march to
Castelnuovo, where Victor joined him, and ahead of them both
Masslna was hurried on to Rivoli. Napoleon himself joined
Joubert on the night of the 13th. There he saw the watch-fires
of the enemy in a semicircle around him, for Alvintzi, thinking
that he had only to deal with one division, had begun a wide-
spread enveloping attack. The horns of this attack were as yet
so far distant that Napoleon, instead of extending on an equal
front, only spread out a few regiments to gain an hour or two
and to keep the ground for Massena and Rey, and on the morning
of January 14th, with 10,000 men in hand against 26,000, he
fell upon the central columns of the enemy as they advanced
up the steep broken slopes of the foreground. The fighting was
severe, but Bonaparte had the advantage. Massena arrived at
9 a.m., and a little later the column of Quasdanovich, which had
moved along the Adige and was now attempting to gain a foothold
on the plateau in rear of Joubert, was crushed by the converging
fire of Joubert's right brigade and by Massena's guns, their rout
being completed by the charge of a handful of cavalry under
Lasalle. The right horn of Alvintzi's attack, when at last it
swung in upon Napoleon's rear, was caught between Massena
and the advancing troops of Rey and annihilated, and even
before this the dispirited Austrians were in full retreat. A last
alarm, caused by the appearance of a French infantry regiment
in their rear (this had crossed the lake in boats from Salo), com-
pleted their demoralization, and though less than 2000 had been
killed and wounded, some z 2,000 Austrian prisoners were left
in the hands of the victors. Rivoli was indeed a moral triumph.
After the ordeal of Areola, the victory of the French was a fore-
gone conclusion at each point of contact. Napoleon hesitated,
or rather refrained from striking, so long as his information was
incomplete, but he knew now from experience that his covering
detachment, if well led, could not only hold its own without
assistance until it had gained the necessary information, but
could still give the rest of the army time to act upon it. Then,
when the centre of gravity had been ascertained, the French
divisions hurried thither, caught the enemy in the act of manoeu-
vring and broke them up. And if that confidence in success
which made all this possible needs a special illustration, it may
be found in Napoleon's sending Murat's regiment over the lake
to place a mere two thousand bayonets across the line of
retreat of a whole army. Alvintzi's manoeuvre was faulty
neither strategically in the first instance nor tactically at
regards the project of enveloping Joubert on the 14th. It
failed because Joubert and his men were better soldiers than bis
own, and because a French division could move twice as fast as
an Austrian, and from these two factors a new form of war was
evolved, the essence of which was that, for a given time and in
a given area, a small force of the French should engage and
hold a much larger force of the enemy.
194
FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS pecond coalition
way to the Lahn, where (or the last time in the history of these wan,
there was an irregular widespread battle. But Hoche, in this his
last campaign, displayed the brilliant energy of his first, and delivered
the " series of incessant blows " that Carnot had urged upon Jourdan
the year before. Werneck was driven with ever-increasing losses
from the lower Lahn to Wctzlar and Gicssen. Thence, pressed
hard by the French left wing under Championnet, he retired on the
Nidda, only to find that Hoche's right had swung completely round
. „. him. Nothing but the news of the armistice of Leoben
L909€a ' saved him from envelopment and surrender. This
general armistice was signed by Bonaparte, on his own authority
and to the intense chagrin of the Directory and of Hoche, on the
iflth of April, and was the basis of the peace of Campo Formio.
Napoleon in Egypt
Within the scope of this article, yet far more important from its
political and personal than from its general military interest, comes
the expedition of N; Egypt :
History; Nafoleo; suffice.
Napoleon left Tbul< time as
his army (40,000 1 retly at
various ports. Nets ipturing
Malta en route, the ic 1st of
July. The republic between
Embabeh and Gizel melukes
were defeated and -am ids),
the French for the chequer
of infantry squares rmation
for desert warfare. ' portant
groups of the enemy. Napoleon entered Cairo in triumph, and pro-
ceeded to organise Egypt as a French protectorate. Meantime
Nelson, though too late to head off the expedition, had annihilated
1799). With this crowning tact ical~ success to set against the Syrian
reverses, he handed over the command to Kleber and returned to
France (August 22) to ride the storm in a new coup d'ltal, the " 1 8th
Brumaire." Kleber, attacked by the English and Turks, concluded
the convention of El Arish (January 27, 1800), whereby he secured
free transport for the army back to France. But this convention
was disavowed by the British government, and Kleber prepared to
hold his ground. On the 20th of March 1800 he thoroughly defeated
the Turkish army at Heliopolis and recovered Cairo, and French
Influence was once more in the ascendant in Egypt, when its director
was murdered by a fanatic on the 14th of June, the day of Marengo.
Kleber's successor, the incompetent Mcnou, fell an easy victim to the
British expeditionary force under Sir Ralph Abercromby in 1801.
The British forced their way ashore at Aboukir on the 8th of March.
On the 2 1 st. Abercromby won a decisive battle, and himself fell in the
hour of victory (see Alexandria: Battle of i8ot). His successor,
General Hely Hutchinson, slowly followed up this advantage, and
received the surrender of Cairo in July and of Alexandria in August,
the debris of the French army being given free passage back to France.
Meantime a mixed force of British and native troops from India,
under Sir David Baird, had landed at Kosseir and marched across
the desert to Cairo.
The Was of the Second Coalition
In the autumn of 1708, while Napoleon's Egyptian expedition
was in progress, and the Directory was endeavouring at home
to reduce the importance and the predominance of the army
and its leaders, the powers of Europe once more allied themselves,
not now against the principles of the Republic, but against the
treaty of Campo Formio. Russia, Austria, England, Turkey,
Portugal, Naples and the Pope formed the Second Coalition. The
war began with an advance into the Roman States by a worthless
and ill-behaved Neapolitan army (commanded, much against
his will, by Mack), which the French troops under Championnet
destroyed with ease, Championnet then revolutionized Naples.
After this unimportant prelude the curtain rose on a general
Europeta war. The Directory which now had at its command
neither Humbert nor enthusiasm, prepared as best it could to
meet the storm. Four armies, numbering only 160,000, were
set on foot, in Holland (Brune, 24,000); on the Upper Rhine
(Jourdan, 46,000); in Switzerland, which had been militarily
occupied in 1798 (Massena, 30,000); and in upper Italy (Scherer,
60,000). In addition there was Championnet 's army, now
commanded by Macdonald, in southern Italy. All these forces
the Directory ordered, in January and February 1709, to assume
the offensive.
Jourdan, in the Constance and Schafihausen region, had only
40,000 men against the archduke Charles's 80,000, and was soon
brought to a standstill and driven back on Stokach. cm»*-^
The archduke had won these preliminary suc c esses
with seven-eighths of his army acting as one concentrated mass.
But as he had only encountered a portion of Jourdan's army, he
became uneasy as to his hanks, checked his bold advance, and
ordered a reconnaissance in force. This practically extended
his army while Jourdan was closing his, and thus the French
began the battle of Stokach (March 25) in superior numbers, and
it was not until late in the day that the archduke brought up
sufficient strength (60,000) to win a victory. This was a battle
of the " strategic " type, a widespread straggling combat in
which each side took fifteen hours to inflict a loss of 12%
on the other, and which ended in Jourdan accepting defeat and
drawing off, unpursued by the magnificent Austrian cavalry,
though these counted five times as many sabres as the French.
The French secondary army in Switzerland was in the hands
of the bold and active Masslna. The forces of both sides in the
Alpine region were, from a military point of view, mere flank
guards to the main armies on the Rhine and the Adige. But
unrest, amounting to civil war, among the Swiss and Grison
peoples tempted both governments to give these flank guards
considerable strength. 1
The Austrian* in the Vorarlberg and Grisons were under
Hotze, who had 13,000 men at Bregenz, and 7000 commanded
by Auffenberg around Chur, with, between them, ^^
5000 men at Feldkirch and a post of 1000 in the strong SSJ^ *"
position of the Luziensteig nearMayenfeld. Massena 's tamd.
available force was about 20,000, and he used almost
the whole of it against Auffenberg. The Rhine was crossed
by his principal column near Mayenfeld, and the Luziensteig
stormed (March 6), while a second column from the Zurich side
descended upon Disentis and captured its defenders. In three
days, thanks to Masslna's energy and the ardent attacking spirit
of his men, Auffcnbcrg's division was broken up, Oudinot
meanwhile holding off Hotze by a hard-fought combat at
Feldkirch (March 7). But a second attack on Feldkirch made
on the 23 rd by Masslna with 15,000 men was repulsed and the
advance of his left wing came to a standstill.
Behind Auffenberg and Hotze was Bellcgarde in Tirol with
some 47,000 men. Most of these were stationed north of Inns-
bruck and Landeck, probably as a sort of strategic reserve to
the archduke. The rest, with the assistance of the Tirokse
themselves, were to ward off irruptions from Italy. Here the
French offensive was entrusted to two columns, one from
Masscna's command under Lecourbe, the other from the Army
of Italy under Dessolle. Simultaneously with Massena,
Lecourbe marched from Bellinzona with 10,000 men, by (be
San Bernadino pass into the Splugen valley, and thence over the
Julicr pass into the upper Engadine. A small Austrian force
under Major-General Loudon attacked him near Zeraetz, but
was after three days of rapid manoeuvres and bold tactics driven
back to Martinsbruck, with considerable losses, especially is
prisoners. But ere long the country people flew to arms, and
Lecourbe found himself between two fires, the levies occupying
Zerneti and Loudon's regulars Martinsbruck. But though be
had only some 5000 of his original force left, he was not discon-
certed, and, by driving back the levies into the high valkys
whence they had come, and constantly threatening Loudon,
'The assumption by later critics (Clausewitz even included)
that the " flank position " held by these forces relatively to dw
main armies in Italy and Germany was their raison d'ltn is so*
supported by contemporary «Nvknce.
second coalitionj FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS
*95
he was able to maintain himself and to wait for Dessolles. The
latter, moving up the Valtclline, by now fought his way to the
Stelvio pass, but beyond it the defile of Tauffers (S.W. of Glurns)
was entrenched by Loudon, who thus occupied a position
midway between the two French columns, while his irregulars
beset all the passes and ways giving access to the Vintschgau and
the lower Engadine. In this situation the French should have
been destroyed in detail. But as usual their speed and dash gave
them the advantage in every manoeuvre and at every point of
contact.
On the 25th Lecourbe and Dessolles attacked Loudon at
Nauders in the Engadine and Tauffers in the Vintschgau re-
f- ^ ftf. spectively. At Nauders the French passed round
mm* the flanks of the defence by scrambling along the high
**•*••*■ mountain crests adjacent, while at Tauffcrs the
*" nro ^ assailants, only 4500 strong, descended into a deep
ravine, debouched unnoticed in the Austrian*' rear, and captured
6000 men and 16 guns. The Austrian leader with a couple of
companies made his way through Glurns to Nauders, and there,
finding himself headed oft by Lecourbe, he took to the mountains.
His corps, like Auffenherg's, was annihilated.
This ended the French general offensive. Jourdan had been
defeated by the archduke and forced or induced to retire over the
Rhine. Masscna was at a standstill before the strong position
of Fcldkirch, and the Austrians of Ilotzc were still massed at
firegenz, but the Grisons were revolutionized, two strong bodies
of Austrians numbering in all about 20,000 men had been
destroyed, and Lecourbe and Dessolles had advanced far into
Tirol. A pause followed. The Austrians in the mountains needed
time to concentrate and to recover from their astonishment.
The archduke fell ill, and the Vienna war council forbade his
army to advance lest Tirol should be " uncovered," though
Bcllegarde and Hotzc still disposed of numbers equal to those
of Massenaand Lecourbe. Masslna succeeded Jourdan in general
command on the French side and promptly collected all available
forces of both armies in the hilly non-Alpine country between
Basel, Ziirich and Schaffhausen, thereby directly barring the
roads into France (Bernc-Ncuchatcl-Pontarlicr and Bascl-
Besancon) which the Austrians appeared to desire to conquer.
The protection of Alsace and the Vosgcs was left to the fortresses.
There was no suggestion, it- would appear, t hat the Rhine between
Basel and Schaffhausen was a flank position sufficient of itself
to bar Alsace to the enemy.
It is now time to turn to events in Italy, where the Coalition
intended to put forth its principal efforts. At the beginning of
March the French had 80,000 men in Upper Italy and some 35,000
in the heart of the Peninsula, the latter engaged chiefly in sup-
porting newly-founded republics. Of the former, 53,000 formed
the field army on the Mincio under Schercr. The Austrians,
commanded by Kray, numbered in all 84,000, but detachments
reduced this figure to 67,000, of whom, moreover, 15.000 had not
yet arrived when operations began. They were to be joined by a
Russian contingent under the celebrated Suvarov, who was to
command the whole on arrival, and whose extraordinary person-
ality gives the campaign its special interest. Kray himself was
a resolute soldier, and when the French, obeying the general order
to advance, crossed the Adigc, he defeated them in a severely
fought battle at Magnano near Verona (March 5), the French
losing 4000 killed and wounded and 4500 taken, out of 41 ,000. The
Austrians lost some 3800 killed and wounded and 1500 prisoners,
out of 46,000 engaged. The war, however, was undertaken not
to annihilate, but to evict the French, and, probably under orders
from Vienna, Kray allowed the beaten enemy to depart.
Suvarov appeared with 17,000 Russians on the 4th of ApriL
His first step was to set Russian officers to teach the Austrian
Sarirov. troo P*"~ whose feelings can be imagined— how to
attack with the bayonet, his next to order the whole
army forward. The Allies broke camp on the 17th, 18th and
19th of April, and on the 20th, after a forced march of close on
30 m., they passed the Chiese. Brescia had a French garrison, but
Suvarov soon cowed it into surrender by threats of a massacre,
which no one doubted that he would carry into execution.
At the same time, dissatisfied with the marching of the Austrian
infantry, he sent the following characteristic reproof to their
commander: "The march was in the service of the Kaiser.
Fair weather is for my lady's chamber, for dandies, for sluggards.
He who dares to cavil against his high duty (der Grosssprecfur
wider den koken Dienst) is, as an egoist, instantly to vacate his
command. Whoever is in bad health can stay behind. The
so-called reasoners (roisonncurs) do no army any good. . . ."
One day later, under this unrelenting pressure, the advanced
posts of the Allies reached Cremona and the main body the
Oglio. The pace became slower in the following days, as many
bridges had to be made, and meanwhile Moreau, Schercr's
successor, prepared with a mere 30,000 men to defend Lodi,
Cassano and Lecco on the Adda. On the 26th the Russian hero
attacked him all along the line. The moral supremacy had
passed over to the Allies. Mclas, under Suvarov's stem orders,
flung his battalions regardless of losses against the strong position
of Cassano. The story of 1796 repeated itself with the rdles
reversed. The passage was carried, and the French rearguard
under Serurier was surrounded and captured by an inferior corps
of Austrians. The Austrians (the Russians at Lecco were hardly
engaged) lost 6000 men, but they took 7000 prisoners, and in
all Moreau's little army lost half its numbers and retreated In
many disconnected bodies to the Tlcino, and thence to Alessandria.
Everywhere the Italians turned against the French, mindful of
the exactions of their commissaries. The strange Cossack
cavalry that western Europe had never yet seen entered Milan
on the 29th of April, eleven days after passing the Mincio, and
next day the city received with enthusiasm the old field marshal,
whose exploits against the Turks had long invested him with a
halo of romance and legend. Here, for the moment , his offensive
culminated. He desired to pass into Switzerland and to unite
his own, the archduke's, Hotze's and Bellegarde's armies in one
powerful mass. But the emperor would not permit the execution
of this scheme until all the fortresses held by the enemy in
Upper Italy should have been captured. In any case, Mac-
donald's army in southern Italy, cut off from France by the
rapidity of Suvarov's onslaught, and now returning with all
speed to join Moreau by force or evasion, had still to be dealt
with.
Suvarov's mobile army, originally 00,000 strong, had now
dwindled, by reason of losses and detachments for sieges, to
half that number, and serious differences arose between the
Vienna government and himself. If he offended the pride
of the Austrian army, he was at least respected as a leader who
gave it victories, but in Vienna he was regarded as a madman
who had to be kept within bounds. But at last, when he was
becoming thoroughly exasperated by this treatment, Macdonald
came within striking distance and the active campaign re-
commenced. In the second week of June, Moreau, who had
retired into the Apennines about Gavi, advanced with the in-
tention of drawing upon himself troops that would otherwise
have been employed against Macdonald. He succeeded, for
Suvarov with his usual rapidity collected 40,000 men at Aless-
andria, only to learn that Macdonald with 35,000 men was
coming up on the Parma road. When this news arrived, Mac-
donald had already engaged an Austrian detachment at Modem
and driven it back, and Suvarov found himself between Moreau
and Macdonald with barely enough men under his hand to
enable him to play the game of " interior lines." But at the
crisis the rough energetic warrior who despised " raisonneurs,"
displayed generalship of the first order, and taking in hand all his
scattered detachments, he manoeuvred them in the Napoleonic
fashion.
On the 14th Macdonald was calculated to be between Modena,
Rcggio and Carpi, but his destination was uncertain. Would be
continue to hug the Apennines to join Moreau, or
would he strike out northwards against Kray, who Tnbb/m.
with 20,000 men was besieging Mantua ? From
Alessandria it is four marches to Piacensa and nine to Mantua,
while from Reggio these places are four and two marches
respectively. Piacensa, therefore, was the crucial ^nfe*. Si
U)b
E&ENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS second coauthw
Macdonald continued westward, while, in the other case, nothing
could save Kray but the energetic conduct of HohcnzoUern's
detachment, which was posted near Reggio. This latter, however,
was soon forced over the Po, and Ott, advancing from Cremona
to join it, found himself sharply pressed in turn. The field marshal
had hoped that Ott and Hohcnzollern together would be able to
win him time to assemble at Parma, where he could bring on a
battle whichever way the French took. Hut on receipt of Ott's
report he was convinced that Macdonald had chosen the western
route, and ordering Ott to delay the French as long as possible by
stubborn rearguard actions and to put a garrison into Piacenza
tinder a general who was to hold out " on peril of his life and
honour," he collected what forces were ready to move and
hurried towards Piacenza, the rest being left to watch Moreau.
He arrived just in time. When after three forced marches the
main body (only 36,000 strong) reached Castcl San Giovanni,
Ott had been driven out of Piacenza, but the two joined forces
safely. Both Suvarov and Macdonald spent the 17th in closing
up and deploying for battle. The respective forces were Allies
30,000, French 35,000. Suvarov believed the enemy to be
only 26,000 strong, and chiefly raw Italian regiments, but his
temperament would not have allowed him to stand still even
had he known his inferiority. He had already issued one of his
peculiar battle-orders, which began with the words, "The
hostile army will be taken prisoners" and continued with
directions to the Cossacks to spare the surrendered enemy.
But Macdonald too was full of energy, and believed still that he
could annihilate Ott before the field marshal's arrival Thus
the battle of the Trebbia (June 17-19) was fought by both sides
in the spirit of the offensive. It was one of the severest struggles
in the Republican wars, and it ended in Macdonald's retreat
with a loss of 15.000 men— probably 6000 in the battle and
0000 killed and prisoners when and after the equilibrium was
broken— for Suvarov, unlike other generals, had the necessary
surplus of energy after all the demands made upon him by a
great battle, to order and to direct an effective pursuit. The
Allies lost about 7000. Macdonald retreated to Parma and
Modena, harassed by the peasantry, and finally recrossed the
Apennines and made his way to Genoa. The battle of the
Trebbia is one of the most clearly-defined examples in military
history of the result of moral force— it was a matter not merely
of energetic leading on the battlefield, but far more of educating
the troops beforehand to meet the strain, of ingraining in the
soldier the determination to win at all costs. " It was not,"
says Clausewitz, " a case of losing the key of the position, of
turning a flank or breaking a centre, of a mistimed cavalry charge
or a lost battery . . it is a pure trial of strength and expense of
force, and victory is the sinking of the balance, if ever so slightly,
in favour of one side. And we mean not merely physical, but
even, more moral forces.
To return now to the Alpine region, where the French offensive
had culminated at the end of March. Their defeated left was
behind the Rhine in the northern part of Switzerland, the half-
victorious centre athwart the Rhine between Mayenfeld and
Chur, and their wholly victorious right far within Tirol between
Glurns, Nauders and Landeck. But neither the centre nor the
right could maintain itself. The forward impulse given by
Suvarov spread along the whole Austrian front from left to right.
Dessolles' column (now under Loison) was forced back to
Cbiavenna. Bellegarde drove Lecourbe from position to position
towards the Rhine during April There Lecourbe added to the
remnant of his expeditionary column the outlying bodies of
Masslna's right wing, but even so he had only 8000 men against
Bellegarde 's 17,000, and he was now exposed to the attack of
Hotzc's 25,000 as well. The Luzienstdg fell to Hotze and Chur to
Bellegarde, but the defenders managed to escape from the
converging Austrian columns into the valley of the Reuss.
Having thus reconquered all the lost ground and forced the
French into the interior of Switzerland, Bellegarde and Hotze
parted company, the former marching with the greater part of his
forces to join Suvarov, the latter moving to his right to reinforce
the archduke. Only a chain of posts was left in the Rhine
Valley between Disentis and Feldkirch. The archduke's opera-
tions now recommenced.
Charles and Hotze stood, about the 15th of May, at opposite
ends of the lake of Constance. The two together numbered about
88,000 men, but both had sent away numerous detachments to the
flanks, and the main bodies dwindled to 35,000 for the archduke
and 20,000 for Hotze. Massena, with 4 5, 000 men in all, retired
slowly from the Rhine to the Thur. The archduke crossed the
Rhine at Stein, Hotze at Bakers, and each then cautiously felt his
way towards the other. Their active opponent attempted to
take advantage of their separation, and an irregular fight took
place in the Thur valley (May 25), but Massena, finding Hotze
close on his right flank, retired without attempting to force a
decision. On the 27th, having joined forces, the Austrian*
dislodged Massena from his new position on the Toss without
difficulty, and this process was repeated from time to time in the
next few days, until at last Massena halted in the 4fffWtf
position he had prepared for defence at Zurich. He jfr**.
had still but 25,000 of his 45,000 men in hand, for he
maintained numerous small detachments on his right, behind the
Zurchcr See and the Wallen See, and on his left towards Basel
These 25,000 occupied an entrenched position 5 m. in length;
against which the Austrians, detaching as usual many posts to
protect their flanks and rear, deployed only 42,000 men, of whom
8000 were sent on a wide turning movement and 8000 held in
reserve 4 m. in rear of the battlefield. Thus the frontal attack
was made with forces not much greater than those of the defence
and it failed accordingly (June 4). But Massena, fearing perhaps
to strain the loyalty of the Swiss to their French-made constitution
by exposing their town to assault and sack, retired on the 5th.
He did not fall back far, for his outposts still bordered the
Limmat and the Linth, while his main body stood in the valley if
the Aar between Baden and Lucerne. The archduke pressed
Massena as little as he had pressed Jourdan after Stokacb
(though in this case he had less to gain by pursuit), and awaited
the arrival of a second Russian army, 30,000 strong, under
Korsikov, before resuming the advance, meantime throwing out
covering detachments towards Basel, where Massena had a
division. Thus for two months operations, elsewhere than in
Italy, were at a standstill, while Massena drew in reinforcements
and organized the fractions of his forces in Alsace as a skeleton
army, and the Austrians distributed arms to the peasantry of
South Germany.
In the end, under pressure from Paris, it was Massena who
resumed active movements. Towards the middle of August,
Lecourbe, who formed a loose right wing of the French army in
the Reuss valley, was reinforced to a strength of 25,000 men, and
pounced upon the extended left wing of the enemy, which had
stretched itself, to keep pace with Suvarov, as far westward as the
St Gothard. The movement began on the 14th, and in two days
the Austrians were driven back from the St Gothard and the
Furka to the line of the Linth, with the loss of 8000 men and many
guns. At the same time an attempt to take advantage of
Massena 's momentary weakness by forcing the Aar at Dfttiagea
near its mouth failed completely (August 16-17). Only 200
men guarded the point of passage, but the Austrian engineers
had neglected to make a proper examination of the river, and
unlike the French, the Austrian generals had no authority to
waste their expensive battalions in forcing the passage in boats.
No one regarded this war as a struggle for existence, and no one
but Suvarov possessed the iron strength of character to send
thousands of men to death for the realization of a diplomatic
success— for ordinary men, the object of the Coalition was to
upset the treaty of Campo Formio. This was the end of the
archduke's campaign in Switzerland. Though he would have
preferred to continue it, the Vienna government desired him to
return to Germany. An Anglo-Russian expedition was about to
land in Holland,' and the French were assembling fresh forces on
the Rhine, and. with the double object of preventing an invasion of
1 For this expedition, which was repulsed by Brune in the battle
of Castricam, see Fortescue's Hist, of the British Army, vol iv., and
Sachot's Brunt en Holland*.
FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS
HOHENLINDEN]
South Germany and of inducing the French to augment their
forces in Alsace at the expense of those in Holland, the archduke
left affairs in Switzerland to HoUe and Korsakov, and marched
away with 35.000 men to join the detachment of Sztarray
(ao,ooo) that he had placed in the Black Forest before entering
Switzerland. His new campaign never rose above the level of a
war of posts and of manoeuvres about Mannheim and Philipps-
burg. In the latter stage of it Lecourbe commanded the French
and obtained a slight advantage.
Suvirov's last exploit in Italy coincided in time, but in no other
respect, with the skirmish at Dottingen. Returning swiftly from
the battlefield of the Trebbia, he began to drive back Moreau to
the Riviera. At this point Joubcrt succeeded to the command
on the French side, and against the advice of his generals, gave
battle Equally against the advice of his own subordinates, the
field marshal accepted it, and won his last great victory at Novi
on the 13th of August, Joubcrt being killed. This was followed
by another rapid march against a new French " Army of the Alps "
(Championnet) which had entered Italy by way of the Mont
Cents. But immediately after this he left all further operations in
Italy to Melas with 60,000 men and himself with the Russians and
an Austrian corps marched away, via Varese, for the St Gothard
to combine operations against Massena with Hotzc and Korsakov
It was with a heavy heart that he left the scene of his battles, in
which the force of his personality had carried the old-fashioned
" linear " armies for the last time to complete victory In the
early summer he had himself suggested, eagerly and almost
angrily, the concentration of his own and the archduke's armies
in Switzerland with a view, not to conquering that country, but
to forcing Jourdan and Massena into a grand decisive battle.
But, as we have seen, the Vienna government would not release
him until the last Italian fortress had been reoccupied, and
when finally he received the order that a little while before he had
so ardently desired, it was too late. The archduke had already
left Switzerland, and he was committed to a rcsultlcss warfare in
the high mountains, with an army which was a mere detachment
S«vJr»r ana< m lDe hope °f co-operating with two other dctach-
orrferrrfte ments far away on the other side of Switzerland- As
Switra* for the reasons which led to the issue of such an order,
*"** it can only be said that the bad feeling known to exist
between the Austrians and Russians induced England to recom-
mend, as the first essential of further operations, the separate
concentration of the troops of each nationality under their own
generals. Still stranger was the reason which induced the tsar to
give his consent. It was alleged that the Russians would be
healthier in Switzerland than the men of the southern plains!
From such premises as these the Allied diplomats evolved a new
plan of campaign, by which the Anglo-Russians under the duke of
York were to reconquer Holland and Belgium, the Archduke
Charles to operate on the Middle Rhine, Suvarov in Switzerland
and Melas in Piedmont— a plan destitute of every merit but that
of simplicity
It is often said that it is the duty of a commander to resign
rather than undertake an operation which he believes to be faulty.
So, however, Suvarov did not understand it In the simplicity
of his loyalty to the formal order of his sovereign he prepared to
carry out his instructions to the letter. Masscna's command
(77,000 men) was distributed, at the beginning of September,
along an enormous S, from the Simplon, through the St Gothard
and Glarus, and along the Linth, the ZUncher See and the
Limmat to Basel Opposite the lower point of this S, Suvarov
(28,000) was about to advance Hotze's corps (a 5, 000 Austrians),
extending from Utznach by Chur to Disentis, formed a thin line
roughly parallel to the lower curve of the S, Korsakov's Russians
(30,000) were opposite the centre at Zurich, while Nauendorff
with a small Austrian corps at WaMshut faced the extreme upper
point. Thus the only completely safe way in which Suvarov
could reach the Zurich region was by skirting the lower curve of
the S, under protection of Hotze. But this detour would be
long and painful, and the ardent old man preferred to cross the
mountains once for all at the St Gothard, and to follow the valley
of the Reuss to Altdorf and Schwys— t a to strike vertically
197
upward to the centre of the S— and to force his way through the
French cordon to Zurich, and if events, so far as concerned his
own corps, belied his optimism, they at any rale justified his
choice of the shortest route. For, aware of the danger gathering
in his rear, Massena gathered up all his forces within reach
towards his centre, leaving Lecourbe to defend the St Gothard
and the Reuss valley and Soult on the Linth. On the aath he
forced the passage of the Limmat at Dietikon. On the __
95th, in the second battle of Zurich, he completely ££**,
routed Korsakov, who lost 8000 killed and wounded,
large numbers of prisoners and 100 guns. All along the line the
Allies fell back, one corps after another, at the moment when
Suvarov was approaching the foot of the St Gothard.
On the a 1 st the field marshal's headquarters were at Bellinzona,
where he made the final preparations. Expecting to be four days
en route before he could reach the nearest friendly Smv A r ^ rlb
magazine, he took his trains with him, which inevitably th0 At ^ m
augmented the difficulties of the expedition. On the
24th Airolo was taken, but when the far greater task of
storming the pass Itself presented itself before them, even the
stolid Russians were terrified, and only the passionate protests
of the old man, who reproached his " children " with deserting
their father in his extremity, induced them to face the danger
At last after twelve hours' fighting, the summit was reached
The same evening Suvarov pushed on to Hospenthal, while a
flanking column from Disentis made its way towards Amstcg
over the Crispalt. Lecourbe was threatened in rear and pressed
in front, and his engineers, to hold off the Disentis column, had
broken the Devil's Bridge. Discovering this, he left the road,
threw his guns into the river and made his way by fords and
water-meadows to Gdschencn, where by a furious attack he
cleared the Disentis troops off his line of retreat. His rearguard
meantime held the ruined Devil's Bridge. This point and the
tunnel leading to it, called the UrnerLoch, the Russians at tempted
to force, with the most terrible losses, battalion after battalion
crowding into the tunnel and pushing the foremost ranks into
the chasm left by the broken bridge. But at last a ford was
discovered and the bridge, cleared by a turning movement,
was repaired. More broken bridges lay beyond, but at last
Suvarov joined the Disentis column near Gdschencn. When
Altdorf was reached, however, Suvarov found not only Lecourbe
in a threatening position, but an entire absence of boats on the
Lake of the Four Cantons. It was impossible (in those days the
Axenstrasse did not exist) to take an army along the precipitous
eastern shore, and thus passing through one trial after another,
each more severe than the last, the Russians, men and horses
and pack animals in an interminable single file, ventured on the
path leading over the Rinzig pass into the Muotta Thai. The
passage lasted three days, the leading troops losing men and
horses over the precipices, the rearguard from the fire of the
enemy, now in pursuit. And at last, on arrival in the Muotta
Thai, the field marshal received definite information that
Korsakov's army was no longer in existence. Yet even so it was
long before he could make up his mind to retreat, and the pursuers
gathered on all sides. Fighting, sometimes severe, and never
altogether ceasing, went on day after day as the Allied column,
now reduced to 15,000 men, struggled on over one pass after
another, but at last it reached Uanz on the Vorder Rhine (October
8) The Archduke Charles meanwhile had, on hearing of the
disaster of Zurich, brought over a corps from the Neckar, and
for some time negotiations were made for a fresh combined
operation against Massena. But these came to nothing, for the
archduke and Suvarov could not agree, either as to their own rela-
tions or as to the plan to be pursued. Practically, Suvirov's
retreat from Altdorf to Uanz closed the campaign. It was his
last active service, and formed a gloomy but grand climax to the
career of the greatest soldier who ever wore the Russian uniform.
Makengo and Hohenltnden
The disasters of 1709 sealed the fate of the Directory, and
placed Bonaparte, who returned from Egypt with the prestige
of a recent victory, in his natural place at civil and military
198
FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS
(HOHBNLiNDEN
bead of France. In the course of the campaign the field strength
of the French had been gradually augmented, and in spite of
losses now numbered 227,000 at the front. These were divided
into the Army of Batavia, Brune (25,000), the Army of the
Rhine, Moreau (146,000), the Army of Italy, Massina (56,000),
and, in addition, there were some 100,000 in garrisons and depots
in France.
Most of these field armies were in a miserable condition owing
to the losses and fatigues of the last campaign. The treasury
was empty and credit exhausted, and worse still — for spirit and
enthusiasm, as in 1704, would have remedied material de-
ficiencies — the conscripts obtained under Jourdan's law of 1798
(see Conscription) came to their regiments most unwillingly
Most of them, indeed, deserted on the way to join the colours.
A large draft sent to the Army of Italy arrived with 310 men
instead of 10,250, and after a few such experiences, the First
Consul decided that the untrained men were to be assembled in
the fortresses of the interior and afterwards sent to the active
battalions in numerous small drafts, which they could more
easily assimilate. Besides accomplishing the immense task of
reorganizing existing forces, he created new ones, including
the Consular Guard, and carried out at this moment of crisis
two such far-reaching reforms as the replacement of the civilian
drivers of the artillery by soldiers, and of the hired teams by
horses belonging to the state, and the permanent grouping of
divisions in army corps.
As early as the 25th of January 1800 the First Consul provided
for the assembly of all available forces in the interior in an
" Army of Reserve " He reserved to himself the
mt Reserve, command of this army, 1 which gradually came into
being as the pacification of Vendee and the return of
some of Brune's troops from Holland set free the necessary
nucleus troops. The conscription law was stringently re-
enforced, and impassioned calls were made for volunteers (the
latter, be it said, did not produce five hundred useful men).
The district of Dijon, partly as being central with respect to the
Rhine and Italian Armies, partly as being convenient for supply
purposes, was selected as the zone of assembly Chabran's
division was formed from some depleted corps of the Army of
Italy and from the depots of those in Egypt. Chambarlhac's,
chiefly of young soldiers, lost 5% of its numbers on the way to
Dijon from desertion— a loss which appeared slight and even
satisfactory after the wholesale dtbandadc of the winter months.
Lcchi's Italian legion was. newly formed from Italian refugees.
Boudet's division was originally assembled from some of the
southern garrison towns, but the units composing it were fre-
quently changed up to the beginning of May. The cavalry was
deficient in saddles, and many of its units were new formations.
The Consular Guard of course was a corps d'tiite, and this and
two and a half infantry divisions and a cavalry brigade coming
from the veteran " Army of the West " formed the teal back-
bone of the army. Most of the newer units were not even
armed till they had left Dijon for the front.
Such was the first constitution of the Army of Reserve. We
can scarcely imagine one which required more accurate and
detailed staff work to assemble it— correspondence with the
district commanders, with the adjutant-generals of the various
armies, and orders to the civil authorities on the lines of march,
to the troops themselves and to the arsenals and magazines.
No one but Napoleon, even aided by a Bcrthier, could have
achieved so great a task in six weeks, and the great captain,
himself doing the work that nowadays is apportioned amongst
a crowd of administrative staff officers, still found time to
administer France's affairs at home and abroad, and to think
out a general plan of campaign that embraced Moreau's,Massena's
and his own armies.
The Army of the Rhine, by far the strongest and best equipped,
lay on the upper Rhine. The small and worn-out Army of Italy
was watching the Alps and the Apennines from Mont Blanc to
1 He afterwards appointed Bcrthier to command the Army of
Reserve, but himself accompanied it and directed it, using Berthier
s* chief of tmff. ^
Genoa Between them Switzerland, secured by the victory of
Zurich, offered a starting-point for a turning movement on
either side— this year the advantage of the flank position was
recognized and acted upon. The Army of Reserve was assembling
around Dijon, within 200 m. of either theatre of war The
general plan was that the Army of Reserve should march through
Switzerland to close on the right wing of the Army of the Rhine.
Thus supported to whatever degree might prove to be necessary,
Moreau was to force the passage of the Rhine about Schaffhausen,
to push back the Austrians rapidly beyond the Lech, and then,
if they took the offensive in turn, to hold them in check for
ten or twelve days. During this period of guaranteed freedom
the decisive movement was to be made. The Army of Reserve,
augmented by one large corps of the Army of the Rhine, was to
descend by the SplQgen (alternatively by the St Got hard and
even by Tirol) into the plains of Lombardy. Magazines were
to be established at Zurich and Lucerne (not at Chur, lest the
plan should become obvious from the beginning), and all likely
routes reconnoitred in advance. The Army of Italy was at first
to maintain a strict defensive, then to occupy the Austrians
until the entry of the Reserve Army into Italy was assured, and
finally to manoeuvre to join it.
Moreau, however, owing to want of horses for his pontoon
train and also because of the character of the Rhine above
Basel, preferred to cross below that place, especially as in Alsace
there were considerably greater supply facilities than in a country
which had already been fought over and stripped bare With
the greatest reluctance Bonaparte let him have his way, and
giving up the idea of using the Splugcn and the St Got hard, began
to turn his attention to the more westerly passes, the St Bernard
and the Simplon. It was not merely Moreau's scruples that led
to this essential modification in the scheme At the beginning
of April the enemy took the offensive against Massena, On the
8th MelaVs right wing dislodged the French from the Mont
Cenis, and most of the troops that had then reached Dijon were
shifted southward to be ready for emergencies. By the 25th
Berthier reported that Massena was seriously attacked and that
he might have to be supported by the shortest route. Bonaparte s
resolution was already taken. He waited no longer for Moreau
HOUENUNDEN)
FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS
(who indeed so far from volunteering assistance, actually demanded
it for himself). Convinced from the paucityof news that Messina's
army was closely pressed and probably severed from France,
and feeling also that the Austrians were deeply committed
to their struggle with the Army of Italy, he told Berthier to
march with 40,000 men at once by way of the St Bernard unless
otherwise advised. Berthier protested that be had only 35,000
effectives, and the equipment and armament was still far from
complete— as indeed it remained to the end — but the troops
marched, though their very means of existence were precarious
from the time of leaving Geneva to the time of reaching Milan,
for nothing could extort supplies and money from the sullen
Swiss.
At the beginning of May the First Consul learned of the
serious plight of the Army of Italy Masslna with his right
wing was shut up in Genoa, Suchet with the left wing
2jp^*jm'« driven back to the Var Meanwhile Morcau had won
Zmlpatga. a preliminary victory at Stokach, and the Army of
Reserve had begun its movement to Geneva. With
these data the plan of campaign took a dear shape at last —
Massena to resist as long as possible, Suchet to resume the
offensive, if he could do so, towards Turin; the Army of Reserve
to pass the Alps and to debouch into Piedmont by Aosta; the
Army of the Rhine to send a strong force into Italy by the St
Gothard. The First Consul left Paris on the 6th of May.
Berthier went forward to Geneva, and still farther on the route
magazines were established at Villeneuve and St-Pierre.
Gradually, and with immense efforts, the leading troops of the
long column 1 were passed over the St Bernard, drawing their
artillery on sledges, on the 15th and succeeding days. Driving
away small posts of the Austrian army, the advance guard
entered Aosta on the x6th and Chatillon on the 18th and the
alarm was given. Melas, committed as he was to his Riviera
campaign, began to look to his right rear, but he was far from
suspecting the seriousness of his opponent's purpose.
Infinitely more dangerous for the French than the small
detachment that Melas opposed to them, or even the actual
^^ crossing of the pass, was the unexpected stopping
^*^ power of the little fort of Bard. The advanced guard
of the French appeared before it on the iotb, and after three
wasted days the infantry managed to find a difficult mountain
by-way and to pass round the obstacle. Ivrea was occupied
on {he 23rd, and Napoleon hoped to assemble the whole army
there by the 27th. But except for a few guns that with infinite
precautions were smuggled one by one through the streets of
Bard, the whole of the artillery, as well as a detachment (under
Chabran) to besiege the fort, had to be left behind. Bard sur-
rendered on the 2nd of June, having delayed the infantry of
the French army for four days and the artillery for a fortnight.
The military situation in the last week of May, as it presented
itself to the First Consul at Ivrea, was this. The Army of Italy
under Massena was closely besieged in Genoa, where provisions
were running short, and the population so hostile that the French
general placed his field artillery to sweep the streets. But
Massena was no ordinary general, and the First Consul knew
that while Massena lived the garrison would resist to the last
extremity. Suchet was defending Nice and the Var by vigorous
minor operations. The Army of Reserve, the centre of which
had reached at Ivrea the edge of the Italian plains, consisted
of four weak army corps under Victor, Duhesme, Lannes and
Murat. There were still to be added to this small army of 34,000
effectives, Turreau's division, which had passed over the Mont
Ccnis and was now in the valley of the Dora Riparia, Moncey'a
corps of the Army of the Rhine, which had at last been extorted
from Moreau and was due to pass the St Gothard before the end
of May, Chabran's division left to besiege Bard, and a small
force under Be then court, which was to cross the Simplon and
to descend by Arona (this place proved in the event a second
Bard and immobilized B6thcncourt until after the decisive
battle) Thus it was only the simplest part of Napoleon's task
to concentrate half of his army at Ivrea, and he had yet to brine
1 Only one division of the main body used the Little St Bernard, no ueen new up «& nrom.
199
necessity for time,
ce being brought
iewoftheimpend-
nce this conquest
,000 men into the
s early as the 14th
vrea the Army of
f May, in response
t Consul ordered
Turin road, " in
ews of Turreau,"
I along the Milan
26th defeated an
>ody was already
have been more
, which abandoned
isure to _^ _
, v. 30, "■
be rules of strategy
n practice through-
some at least of the
ancing directly on
jual forces without
ared." It is indeed
twees of the enemy,
ore difficult to pass
ly incentive to go
es over the discon-
irection, and thb he
im that will appear
effect that he might
[apoleonic principle
to Genoa, this in
my*s game, for they
ig west " in their
is the enemy would
relieve Genoa, and
se, which Napoleon
s army the enemy's
d in sore need, and
the Rhine, while at
«d line of retreat "
Id in fact make for
king the advantage
an, Napoleon says,
ind with confidence
sthcr the Austrian*
he right or the left
passed on and con-
inger to the Milan-
»y the rivers Ticino
ding an undeniable
' the movement to
:t was not the relief
las's field army, to
cd the hard-pressed
occupied during the
In the beginning
c " him, even if he
Italy From the
ten, on hearing bed
the more westerly
assdna's containing
age and reassembly
the minimum time
1 still the defeat of
enormous numerical
ing Moncey's, was
was that the points
enemy The more
3us was the whole
reached him at all-
Bernard line seem,
o disarm his critics,
. It was a fns all*
na's extremity, and
n he did. as a fact.
Lastly, so strongly
ing the deployment
trains on the Turin
ct a series of rapid
x that Btahftoovu*.
FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS
200
partial victories. Napoleon let them go, and devoted his whole
energy to creating for himself a " natural " position about Milan.
If he sinned, at any rate he sinned handsomely, and except that he
went to Milan by Vercelli instead of by Lausanne and Domodossola *
(on the safe aide of the mountains), his inarch is togistfcally beyond
cavil.
Napoleon's, immediate purpose, then, was to reassemble the
Army of Reserve in a zone of manoeuvre about Milan. This
was carried out in the first days of June. Lannes at Chivasso
stood ready to ward off a flank attack until the main army had
filed past on the Vercelli road, then leaving a small force to com-
bine with Turreau (whose column had not been able to advance
into the plain) in demonstrations towards Turin, he moved off,
still acting as right flank guard to the army, in the direction of
Pavia. The main body meanwhile, headed by Murat, advanced
on Milan by way of Vercelli and Magenta, forcing the passage of
the Ticino on the 3 ist of May at Turbigo and Buff alora. On the
same day the other divisions closed up to the Tidno,* and faithful
to his principles Napoleon had an examination made of the
little fortress of Novara, intending to occupy it as a place du
moment to help in securing his zone of manoeuvre. On the morn-
ing of the 2nd of June Murat occupied Milan, and in the evening
of the same day the headquarters entered the great city, the
Austrian detachment under Vukassovich (the flying right wing
of Melas's general cordon system in Piedmont) retiring to the
Adda. Duhesme's corps forced that river at Lodi, and pressed
on with orders to organize Crema and if possible Orzinovi as
temporary fortresses. Lcchi's Italians were sent towards
Bergamo and Brescia. Lannes meantime had passed Vercelli,
and on the evening of the 2nd his cavalry reached Pavia, where,
as at Milan, immense stores of food, equipment and warlike
stores were seized.
Napoleon was now safe in his " natural " position, and barred
one of the two main lines of retreat open to the Austrian*. But
his ambitions went further, and he intended to cross the Po and to
establish himself on the other likewise, thus establishing across
the plain a complete barrage between Mclas and Mantua. Here
his end outranged his means, as we shall see. But he gave himself
every chance that rapidity could afford him, and the moment that
some sort of a " zone of manoeuvre " had been secured between
the Tidno and the Oglio, he pushed on his main body— or rather
what was left after the protective system had been provided for
—to the Po. He would not wait even for his guns, which had at
last emerged from the Bard defile and were ordered to come to
Milan by a safe and circuitous route along the foot of the Alps
At this point the action of the enemy began to make itself
felt. Melas bad not gained the successes that he had expected
in Piedmont and on the Riviera, thanks to Massena's
obstinacy and to Suchet's brilliant defence of the Var.
These operations had led him very far afield, and the
protection of his over-long line of communications bad
caused him to weaken his large army by throwing off many
detachments to watch the Alpine valleys on his right rear
One of these successfully opposed Turreau in the valley of the
Dora Riparia, but another had been severely handled by Lannes
at Chivasso, and a third (Vukassovich) found itself, as wc know,
directly in the path of the French as they moved from Ivrca to
Milan, and was driven far to the eastward. He was further
handicapped by the necessity of supporting Ott before Genoa
and Elsnitz on the Var, and hearing of Lannes's bold advance on
Chivasso and of the presence of a French column with artillery
(Turreau) west of Turin, he assumed that the latter represented
the main body of the Army of Reserve— in so far indeed as he
believed in the existence of that army at all." Next, when
1 This may be accounted for by the fact that Napoleon's mind
was not yet definitively made up when hisadvanccd guard had already
begun to climb the St Bernard (12th). Napoleon s instructions for
Moncey were written on the 14th. The magazines, too, had to be
provided and placed before it was known whether Morcau't detach-
ment would be forthcoming.
* Six guns had by now passed Fort Bard and four of these were with
Murat and Duhesrae, two with Lannes.
' It Is supposed that the foreign spies at Dijon sent word to their
various employers that the Army was a bogy. In fact a great part
or it oever emend Dijoo at &U, and the troop* reviewed there by
[HOHENLINDfiN
Lannes moved away towards Pavia, Melas thought for a moment
that fate had delivered his enemy into his hands, and began to
collect such troops as were at hand at Turin with a view to cutting
off the retreat of the French on Ivrea while Vukassovich held
them in front It was only when news came of Moncey '5 arrival
in Italy and of Vukassovich's fighting retreat on Brescia that the
magnitude and purpose of the French column that had penetrated
by Ivrea became evident. Melas promptly dedded to give up
his western enterprises, and to concentrate at Alessandria,
preparatory to breaking his way through the network of small
columns— as the disseminated Army of Reserve still appeared
to be — which threatened to bar his retreat. But orders drculated
so slowly that he had to wait in Turin till the 8th of June for
Elsnitz, whose retreat was, moreover, sharply followed up and
made exceedingly costly by the enterprising Suchet Ott, too,
in spite of orders to give up the siege of Genoa at once and to
march with all speed to hold the Alessandria-Piacenza road,
waited two days to secure the prize, and agreed (June 4) to allow
Massena's army to go free and to join Suchet And lastly, the
cavalry of O'Reilly, sent on ahead from Alessandria to the
Stradella defile, reached that point only to encounter the French.
The barrage was complete, and it remained for Melas to break
it with the mass that he was assembling, with all these misfortunes
and delays, about Alessandria His chances of doing so were
anything but desperate.
On the 5th of June Murat, with his own corps and part of
Duhesme's, had moved on Piaccnza, and stormed the bridge-bead
there. Duhesme with one of his divisions pushed out on Crema
and Orzinovi and also towards Pizzighetone. Moneey's leading
regiments approached Milan, and Berthier thereupon sent on
Victor's corps to support Murat and Lannes. Meantime the half
abandoned line of operations, Ivrca- Vercelli, was briskly attacked
by the Austrians, who had still detachments on the side of Turin,
waiting for Elsnitz to rejoin, and the French artillery train was
once more checked. On the 6th Lannes from Pavia, crossing the
Po at San Cipriano, encountered and defeated a large force,
(O'Reilly's column), and barred the Alessandria-Parma main
road Opposite Piacenza Murat had to spend the day in gathering
material for his passage, as the pontoon bridge had been cut
by the retreating garrison of the bridge-head. On the eastern
border of the " zone of manoeuvre " Duhesme's various columns
moved out towards Brescia and Cremona, pushing back Vukasso-
vich. Meantime the last divisions of the Army of Reserve (two
of Moneey's excepted) were hurried towards Lannes's point of
passage, as Murat had not yet secured Piaccnza. On the 7th,
while Duhesme continued to push back Vukassovich and seized
Cremona, Murat at last captured Piaccnza, finding there immense
magazines. Meantime the army, division by division, passed
over, slowly owing to a sudden flood, near Bclgiojoso, and
Lannes's advanced guard was ordered to open communication
with Murat along the main road Stradella- Piaccnza. " Moments
are precious " said the First Consul. He was aware that Elsnitz
was retreating before Suchet, that Melas had left Turin for
Alessandria, and that heavy forces of the enemy were at or cast
of Tortona. He knew, too, that Murat had been engaged with
certain regiments recently before Genoa and (wrongly) assumed
O'Reilly's column, beaten by Lannes at San Cipriano, to have
come from the same quarter Whether this meant the deliverance
or the surrender of Genoa he did not yet know, but it was certain
that Massena's holding action was over, and that Melas wis
gathering up his forces to recover his communications. Hence
Napoleon's great object was concentration " Twenty thousand
men at Stradella," in his own words, was the goal of his efforts,
and with the accomplishment of this purpose the campaign enters
on a new phase
On the 8th of June, Lannes's corps was across, Victor following
as quickly as the flood would allow Murat was at Piacenza,
but the road between Lannes and Murat was not known to
be dear, and the First Consul made the establishment of the
Bonaparte were only conscripts and details. By the time that the
veteran divisions from the west and Paris arrived, cither the spiei
had been ejected or thdr news was sent off too late to be of use
MONTEBELLO)
FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS
connexion, and the construction of a third point of passage mid-
way between the other two, the principal objects of the day's
__. m work. The army now being disseminated between the
*tHnZZ?'' Alp> ' the AP^^nes, ^ n « Ticino and the Chiese, it
iaju. was of vital importance to connect up the various
parts into a well-balanced system. But the Napoleon
of 1800 solved the problem that lay at the root of his
strategy, " concentrate, but be vulnerable nowhere/' in a way
that compares unfavourably indeed with the methods of the
Napoleon of 1806. Duhesme was still absent at Cremona.
Lechi was far away in the Brescia country, Bcthencourt de-
tained at Arona. Moncey with about 15,000 men had to cover
an area of 40 m. square around Milan, which constituted the
original zone of manoeuvre, and if Melas chose to break through
the flimsy cordon of outposts on this side (the risk of which was
the motive for detaching Moncey at all) instead of at the Stradella,
it would take Moncey two days to concentrate his force on any
battlefield within the area named, and even then he would be
outnumbered by two to one. As for the main body at the
Stradella, its position was wisely chosen, for the ground was too
cramped for the deployment of the superior force that Melas
might bring up, but the strategy that set before itself as an
object 20,000 men at the decisive point out of 50,000 available,
is, to say the least, imperfect. The most serious feature in all this
was the injudicious order to Lannes to send forward his advanced
guard, and to attack whatever enemy he met with on the road to
Voghera. The First Consul, in fact, calculated that Melas could
not assemble 20,000 men at Alessandria before the 12th of
June, and he told Lannes that if he met the Austrian* towards
Voghera, they could not be more than 10,000 strong. A later
order betrays some anxiety as to the exactitude of these assump-
tions, warns Lannes not to let himself be surprised, indicates his
line of retreat, and, instead of ordering him to advance on Voghera,
authorizes him to attack any corps that presented itself at
Stradella. But all this came too late. Acting on the earlier
order Lannes fought the battle of Montebello on the gth. This
was a very severe running fight, beginning east of
fr< y* Casteggio and ending at Montebello, in which the
French drove the Austrian* from several successive
positions, and which culminated in a savage fight at close
quarters about Montebello itself. The singular feature of the
battle is the disproportion between the losses on either side
— French, 500 out of 12,000 engaged; Austrians, 2100 killed
and wounded and 2100 prisoners out of 14,000, These figures
are most conclusive evidence of the intensity of the French
military spirit in those days. One of the two divisions (Watrin's)
was indeed a veteran organization, but the other, Cbambarlhac's,
was formed of young troops and was the same that, in the march
to Dijon, had congratulated itself that only 5% of its men had
deserted. On the other side the soldiers fought for " the honour of
their arms "—not even with the courage of despair, for they were
ignorant of the " strategic barrage " set in front of them by
Napoleon, and the loss of their communications had not as yet
lessened their daily rations by an ounce.
Meanwhile, Napoleon had issued orders for the main body to
stand fast, and for the detachments to take up their definitive
covering positions. Duhesmc's corps was directed, from its
eastern foray, to Piaccnza, to join the main body. Moncey was
to provide for the defence of the Ticino line, Lechi to
form a " flying camp " in the region of Orzinovi-Brescia and
Cremona, and another mixed brigade was to control the Austrians
in Pizzighetone and in the citadel of Piaccnza. On the other
side of the Po, between Piaccnza and Montebello, was the main
body (Lannes, Murat and part of Victor's and Duhesme's corps),
and a flank guard was stationed near Pavia, with orders to keep
on the right of the army as it advanced (this is the first and only
hint of any intention to go westward) and to fall back fighting
should Melas come on by the left bank. One division was to be
always a day's march behind the army on the right bank, and
a flotilla was to ascend the Po, to facilitate the speedy reinforce-
ment of the flank guard. Farther to the north was a small
column on the road Milan- Vercelli. AH the protective troops,
201
except the division of the main body detailed as an eventual
support for the flank guard, was to be found by Moncey 's corps
(which had besides to watch the Austrians in the citadel of Milan)
and Ch a bran's and Lech is weak commands. On this same day
Bonaparte tells the Minister of War, Carnot, that Moncey hat
only brought half the expected reinforcements and that half of
these are unreliable. As to the result of the impending contest
Napoleon counts greatly upon the union of 18,000 men under
Massena and Suchet to crush Melas against the "strategic
barrage " of the Army of Reserve, by one or other bank of the
Po, and he seems equally confident of the result in either case.
If Genoa had held out three days more, he says, it would have
been easy to count the number of Melas's men who escaped.
The exact significance of this last notion is difficult to establish,
and all that could be written about it would be merely conjectural.
But it is interesting to note that, without admitting it, Napoleon
felt that his " barrage " might not stand before the flood. The
details of the orders of the 9th to the main body (written before
the news of Montebello arrived at headquarters) tend to the
closest possible concentration of the main body towards
Casteggio, in view of a decisive battle on the 12th or 13th.
But another idea had begun to form itself in his mind. Still
believing that Melas would attack him on the Stradella side,
and hastening bis preparations to meet this, he began to allow
for the contingency of Melas giving up or failing in his
attempt to re-establish his communication with the ^JJ
Mantovese, and retiring on Genoa, which was now
in his hands and could be provisioned and reinforced by sea.
On the 10th Napoleon ordered reserve ammunition to be sent
from Pavia, giving Serravalle, which is south of Novi, as its
probable destination. But this was surmise, and of the facts
he knew nothing. Would the enemy move east on the Stradella,
north-east on the Ticino or south on Genoa? Such reports as
were available indicated no important movements whatever,
which happened to be true, but could hardly appear so to the
French headquarters. On the nth, though he thereby forfeited
the reinforcements coming up from Duhesme's corps at Cremona,
Napoleon ordered the main body to advance to the Scrivia.
Lapoype's division (the right flank guard), which was observing
the Austrian posts towards Casale, was called to the south bank
of the Po, the zone around Milan was stripped so bare of troops
that there was no escort for the prisoners taken at Montebello,
while information sent by Chabran (now moving up from Ivrea)
as to the construction of bridges at Casale (this was a feint made
by Melas on the 10th) passed unheeded. The crisis was at hand,
and, clutching at the reports collected by Lapoype as to the
quietude of the Austrians toward Vaknxa and Casale, Bonaparte
and Berthkr strained wcry torn to\»tavaa» wafews*^^
202
FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS
(HOHEMLINDEM
Voghera aide in the hope of preventing the prey from slipping
away to Genoa.
On the 12th, consequently, the army (the ordre it batailU of
which had been considerably modified on the nth) moved to
the Scrivia, Lannes halting at Castelnuovo, Desaix (who had
just joined the army from Egypt) at Pontecurone, Victor at
Tortona with M mat's cavalry in front towards Alessandria.
Lapoype's division, from the left bank of the Po, was marching in
all haste to join Desaix. Moncey, Duhesme, Lechi and Chabran
were absent. The latter represented almost exactly half of
Berthier's command (30,000 out of 58,000), and even the con-
centration of 28,000 men on the Scrivia had only been obtained
by practically giving up the " barrage " on the left bank of the
Po. Even now the enemy showed nothing but a rearguard,
and the old questions reappeared in a new and acute form.
Was Melas still in Alessandria ? Was he marching on Valenza
and Casale to cross the Po ? or to Acqui against Suchet, or to
Genoa to base himself on the British fleet ? As to the first,
why had he given up his chances of fighting on one of the few
cavalry battlegrounds in north Italy — the plain of Marengo—
since he could not stay in Alessandria for any indefinite time ?
The second question had been answered in the negative by
Lapoype, but his latest information was thirty-six hours old.
As for the other questions, no answer whatever was forthcoming,
and the only course open was to postpone decisive measures
and to send forward the cavalry, supported by infantry, to gain
information.
On the 13th, therefore, Mural, Lannes and Victor advanced
into the plain of Marengo, traversed it without difficulty and
mmt mmmn. canning the villages held by the Austrian rearguard,
manatP ' established themselves for the night within a mile of
the fortress. But meanwhile Napoleon, informed we may suppose
of their progress, had taken a step that was fraught with the
gravest consequences. He had, as we know, no intention of
forcing on a decision until his reconnaissance produced the
information on which to base it, and he had therefore kept back
three divisions under Desaix at Pontecurone. But as the day
wore on without incident, he began to fear that the reconnaissance
would be profitless, and unwilling to give Mdas any further
start, he sent out these divisions right and left to find and to
hold the enemy, whichever way the latter had gone. At noon
Desaix with one division was despatched southward to Rivalta
to head off Mclas from Genoa and at 9 a.m. on the 14th, 1 Lapoype
was sent back over the Po to hold the Austrians should they
be advancing from Valenza towards the Ticino. Thus there
remained in hand only 21,000 men when at last, in the forenoon
of the 14th the whole of Melas's army, more than 40,000 strong,
moved out of Alessandria, not southward nor northward, but
due west into the plain of Marengo (9.9.). The extraordinary
battle that followed is described elsewhere. The outline of
it is simple enough. The Austrians advanced slowly and in the
face of the most resolute opposition, until their attack had
gathered weight, and at last they were carrying all before them,
when Desaix returned from beyond Rivalta and initiated a
series of countcrstrokes. These were brilliantly successful,
and gave the French not only local victory but the supreme
self-confidence that, next day, enabled them to extort from
Melas an agreement to evacuate all Lombardy as far as the
Mincio. And though in this way the chief prize, Melas's army,
escaped after all, Marengo was the birthday of the First
Empire.
One more blow, however, was required before the Second
Coalition collapsed, and it was delivered by Moreau. We have
seen that he had crossed the upper Rhine and defeated Kray
at Slokach. This was followed by other partial victories, and
Kray then retired to Ulm, where he reassembled bis forces,
hitherto scattered in a long weak line from the Neckar to Schaff-
hausen. Moreau continued bis advance, extending his forces
up to and over the Danube below Ulm, and winning several
combats, of which the most. important was that of Hocbsiadt,
'On the strength of a report, false as it turned out, that the
Austrian rearguard had broken the bridges of the Bo n nkfa.
fought on the famous battlegrounds of 1703 and 1704, and
memorable for the death of La Tour d'Auvergne, the " First
Grenadier of France " (June 19). Finding himself in danger of
envelopment, Kray now retired, swiftly and skilfully, across the
front of the advancing French, and reached Ingolstadt in safety.
Thence he retreated over the Inn, Moreau following him to the
edge of that river, and an armistice put an end for the moment
to further operations.
This not resulting in a treaty of peace, the war was resumed
both in Italy and in Germany. The Army of Reserve and the
Army of Italy, after being fused into one, under Massena'i
command, were divided again into a fighting army under Brune,
who opposed the Austrians (Bellegardc) on the Mincio, and a
political army under Mu rat .which re-established French influence
in the Peninsula. The former, extending on a wide front as
usual, won a few strategical successes without tactical victory,
the only incidents of which worth recording are the gallant
fight of Dupont's division, which had become isolated during a
manoeuvre, at Pozzolo on the Mincio (December 25) and the
descent of a corps under Macdonald from the Grisons by way of
the Splugcn. an achievement far surpassing Napoleon's and
even Suvirov's exploits, in that it was made after the winter
snows had set in.
In Germany the war for a moment reached the subtime.
Kray had been displaced in command by the young archduke,
John, who ordered the denunciation of the armistice
and a general advance. His plan, or that of his
advisers, was to cross the lower Inn, out of reach of
Moreau's principal mass, and then to swing round the French
flank until a complete chain was drawn across their rear. But
during the development of the manoeuvre, Moreau abo moved,
and by rapid marching made good the time he had lost in con-
centrating his over-dispersed forces. The weather was appalling,
snow and rain succeeding one another until the roads were
almost impassable. On the and of December the Austrians
were brought to a standstill, but the inherent mobility of the
Revolutionary armies enabled them to surmount all difficulties,
and thanks to the respite afforded him by the archduke's halt,
Moreau was able to see clearly into the enemy's plans and
dispositions. On the 3rd of December, while the Austrians in
many disconnected columns were struggling through the dark
and muddy forest paths about Hohenlinden, Moreau struck
the decisive blow. While Ney and Grouchy held fast, the head
of the Austrian main column at Hohenlinden, Richepanse's
corps was directed on its left flank. In the forest Richepanse
unexpectedly met a subsidiary Austrian column which actually
cut his column in two. But profiting by the momentary con-
fusion he drew off that part of his forces* which had passed
beyond the point of contact and continued his march, striking
the flank of the archduke's main column, most of which had sot
succeeded in deploy ingopposite Ney, at the village of Mattempost:
First the baggage train and then the artillery park fell into bis
hands, and lastly he reached the rear of the troops engaged
opposite Hohenlinden, whereupon the Austrian main body
practically dissolved. The rear of Richepanse's corps, after
disengaging itself from the Austrian column it had met in the
earlier part of the day, arrived at Mattempost in time to head off
thousands of fugitives who had escaped from the carnage at
Hohenlinden. The other columns of the unfortunate army
were first checked and then driven back by the French divisions
they met, which, moving more swiftly and fighting better in the
broken ground and the woods, were able to combine two brigades
against one wherever a fight developed. On this disastrous
day the Austrians lost 20,000 men, 1 2,000 of them being prisoners,
and 90 guns.
Marengo and Hohenlinden decided the war of the Second
Coalition as Rivoli had decided that of the First, and the Revolu-
tionary Wars came to an end with the armistice of Steyer
(December 25, 1800) and the treaty of Lunevflle (February 0,
1801). But only the first act of the great drama was accost
plished. After a short respite Europe entered upon the
Napoleonic Wars.
naval operations FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS
203
Bibliography.— By far the roost important modern works arc
A. Chuquet • Guerre* de la Revolution (11 monographs forming to-
tether a complete history of the campaigns of 1792-93), and the
publications of the French General Staff. The latter appear first,
as a rule, in the official " Revue d'histoire " and are then republished
in separate volumes, of which every year adds to the number. V.
Dupuis L'Armte^du nord 17031 Coutanceau's VArmie du nord
fapoUon and Camtagne de
pcrne do Varntte do risent
>ther works of importance
Ostein), Ceist umd Sloff im
rks on Massena's career
1 written in a somewhat
ertog Karl (Vienna, 1896) ;
ty; C. A. Furse, Marengo
Hdsug 1706 in Itatien and
onnal, Do Rostock 4 Ulm;
ilpes (Paris, 1891-1895);
dkerr (English and French
ltalie 1706; Kuhl, Bona-
HisL of Ike British Army,
des Gsutks dor Franzosen
German Military Readings,
mee sous la Revolution;
s. Das franxdsiseke Heer;
Colonel Camon (Guerre
x, Krieg gegen die /ran*.
hduke Charles. Grunds&tze
), and Gesck, des Feldtuges
feissberg, Ertkerwog Kan;
des Francois (27 volumes,
i dor Russtn am Folding
Danelewski-Miliutin, Dor
Paul I. (Munich, 1858);
" ' r«SS
(C.F.A.)
Jiug 1 796-1 797"
iKoisersloutern C*
Naval Operations
The naval side of the wars arising out of the French Revolution
was marked by unity, and even by simplicity. France had but
one serious enemy. Great Britain, and Great Britain had but
one purpose, to beat down France. Other states were drawn
into the strife, but it was as the allies, the enemies and at times
the victims, of the two dominating powers. The field of battle
was the whole expanse of the ocean and the landlocked seas.
The weapons, the methods and the results were the same. When
a general survey of the whole struggle is taken, its unity is
manifest. The Revolution produced a profound alteration in the
government of France, but none in the final purposes of its
policy. To secure for France its so-called " natural limits " —
the Rhine, the Alps, the Pyrenees and the ocean; to protect
both flanks by reducing Holland on the north and Spain on the
south to submission; to confirm the mighty power thus con-
stituted, by the subjugation of Great Britain, were the objects
of the Republic and of Napoleon, as they had been of Louis XIV.
The naval war, like the war on land, is here considered in the
first of its two phases— the Revolutionary (1792-09). (For the
Napoleonic phase (1800-15), see Napoleonic Campaigns.)
The Revolutionary war began in April 1 792. In the September
of that year Admiral Truguet sailed from Toulon to co-operate
with the French troops operating against the Austrians and
their allies in northern Italy. In December Latouche Trcville
was sent with another squadron to cow the Bourbon rulers of
Naples. The extreme feebleness of their opponents alone saved
the French from disaster. Mutinies, which began within ten
days of the storming of the Bastille (14th of July 1789), bad
disorganized their navy, and the effects of these disorders
continued to be felt so long as the war lasted. In February
1703 w *r broke out with Great Britain and Holland. In March
Spain was added to the list of the powers against which France
declared war. Her resources at sea were wholly inadequate
to meet the coalition she had provoked. The Convention did
indeed order that fifty-two ships of the line should be com*
missioned in the Channel, but it was not able in fact to do more
than send out a few diminutive and ill-appointed squadrons,
manned by mutinous crews, which kept close to the coast. The
British navy was in excellent order, but the many calls made
on it for the protection of world-wide commerce and colonial
possessions caused the operations in the Channel to be somewhat
languid. Lord Howe cruised in search of the enemy without
being able to bring them to action. The severe blockade which
in the later stages of the war kept the British fleet permanently
outside of Brest was not enforced in the earlier stages. Lord
Howe preferred to save his fleet from the wear and tear of
perpetual cruising by maintaining his headquarters at St Helens,
and keeping watch on the French ports by frigates. The French
thus secured a freedom of movement which in the course of
1704 enabled them to cover the arrival of a great convoy laden
with food from America (see First op Junk, Battle op). This
great effort was followed by a long period of languor. Its internal
defects compelled the French fleet in the Channel to play a very
poor part till the last days of 1 706. Squadrons were indeed sent
a short way to sea, but their inefficiency was conspicuously
displayed when. 6n the 17th of June 1795, a much superior
number of their line of battle ships failed to do any harm to the
small force of Cornwallis, and when on the 22nd of the same
month they fled in disorder before Lord Bridport at the Isle de
Groix.
Operations of a more decisive character had in the meantime
taken place both in the Mediterranean and in the West Indies.
In April 1793 the first detachment of a British fleet, which was
finally raised to a strength of 21 sail of the line, under the com-
mand of Lord Hood, sailed for the Mediterranean. By August
the admiral was off Toulon, acting in combination with a Spanish
naval force, France was torn by the contentions of Jacobins
and Girondins, and its dissensions led to the surrender of the
great arsenal to the British admiral and his Spanish colleague
Don Juan de Langara, on the 27 th of August. The allies were
joined later by a contingent from Naples. But the military
forces were insufficient to hold the land defences against the
army collected to expel them. High ground commanding the
anchorage was occupied by the besieging force, and on the 18th
of December 1793 the allies retired. They carried away or
destroyed thirty-three French vessels, of which thirteen were of
the line. But partly through the inefficiency and partly through
the ill-will of the Spaniards, who were indisposed to cripple the
French, whom they considered as their only possible allies against
Great Britain, the destruction was not so complete as had been
intended. Twenty-five ships, of which eighteen were of the line,
were left to serve as the nucleus of an active fleet in later years.
Fourteen thousand of the inhabitants fled with the allies to
escape the vengeance of the victorious Jacobins. Their suffer-
ings, and the ferocious massacre perpetrated on those who
remained behind by the conquerors, form one of the blackest
pages of the French Revolution. The Spanish fleet took no
further part in the war. Lord Hood now turned to the occupa-
tion of Corsica, where the intervention of the British fleet was
invited by the patriotic party headed by Pascual Paoli. The
French ships left at Toulon were refitted and came to sea in the
spring of 1794, but Admiral Martin who commanded them did
sot feel justified in giving battle, and his sorties were mere
demonstrations. From the 25th of January 1794 till November
1796 the British fleet in the Mediterranean was mainly occupied
in and about Corsica, securing the island, watching Toulon
ind co-operating with the allied Austrians and Piedmont esc
in northern Italy. It did much to hamper the coastwise com-
munications of the French. But neither Lord Hood, who went
borne at the end of 1794. nor his indolent successor Hotham,
was able to deliver an effective blow at the Toulon squadron.
The second of these officers fought two confused actions with
Admiral Martin in the Gulf of Lyons on the 16th of March and
the i2tb of July 1795, but though three French ships were cut
>ff and captured, the baffling winds and the placid disposition
>f Hotham united to prevent decisive results. A new spirit was
Introduced into the command of the British fleet when Sir
John Jervis, afterwards Earl Saint Vincent, succeeded Hothaa
in November 1795*
Jervis came to the Mediterranean with a high reputation,
which bad been much enhanced by his recent command in the
West Indies. In every war with France it was the natural policy
204
FRENCH REVOLUTIONARY WARS Pmvai. operations
of the British government to seize on its enemy's colonial
possessions, not only because of their intrinsic value, but because
they were the headquarters of active privateers. The occupation
of the little fishing stations of St Pierre and Miquclon (14th May
1793) and of Pondicbcrry in the East Indies (23rd Aug. 1793)
were almost formal measures taken at the beginning of every
war. But the French West Indian islands possessed intrinsic
strength which rendered their occupation a service of difficulty
and hazard. In 1793 they were torn by dissensions, the result
of the revolution in the mother country. Tobago was occupied
in April, and the French part of the great island of San Domingo
was partially thrown into British hands by the Creoles, who
were threatened by their insurgent slaves. During 1794 a
lively series of operations, in which there were some marked
alternations of fortune, took place in and about Martinique and
Guadeloupe. The British squadron, and the contingent of
troops it carried, after a first repulse, occupied them both in
March and April, together with Santa Lucia. A vigorous
counter-attack was carried out by the Terrorist Victor Hugues
with ability and ferocity. Guadaloupc and Santa Lucia were
recovered in August. Yet on the whole the British government
was successful in its policy of destroying the French naval power
in distant seas. The seaborne commerce of the Republic was
destroyed.
The naval supremacy of Great Britain was limited, and was
for a time menaced, in consequence of the advance of the French
armies on land. The invasion of Holland in 1794 led to the
downfall of the house of Orange, and the establishment of the
Batavian Republic. War with Great Britain under French
dictation followed in January 1795. In that year a British
expedition under the command of Admiral Keith Elphinstone
(afterwards Lord Keith) occupied the Dutch colony at the Cape
(August-September) and their trading station in Malacca. The
British colonial empire was again extended, and the command
of the sea by its fleet confirmed. But the necessity to maintain
a blockading force in the German Ocean imposed a fresh strain
on its naval resources, and the hostility of Holland closed a most
important route to British commerce in Europe. In 1795
Spain made peace with France at Basel, and in September 1796
re-entered the war as her ally. The Spanish navy was most
inefficient, but it required to be watched and therefore increased
the heavy strain on the British fleet. At the same time the rapid
advance of the French arms in Italy began to close the ports of
the peninsula to Great Britain. Its ships were for a time with-
drawn from the Mediterranean. Poor as it was in quality, the
Spanish fleet was numerous. It was able to facilitate the move-
ments of French squadrons sent to harass British commerce
in the Atlantic, and a concentration of forces became necessary.
It wis the more important because thecherished French scheme
for an attack on the heart of the British empire began to take
shape. While Spain occupied one part of the British fleet to the
south, and Holland another in the north, a French expedition,
which was to have been aided by a Dutch expedition from the
Texel, was prepared at Brest. The Dutch were confined to
harbour by the vigilant blockade of Admiral Duncan, afterwards
Lord Camperdown. But in December 1796 a French fleet com-
manded by Admiral Morard de Galle, carying 13,000 troops
under General Hoche, was allowed to sail from Brest for Ireland,
by the slack management of the blockade under Admiral Colpoys.
Being ill-fitted, ill-manned and exposed to constant bad weather
the French ships were scattered. Some reached their destination.
Ban try Bay, only to be driven out again by north-easterly gales.
The expedition finally returned after much suffering, and in
fragments, to Brest. Yet the year 1797 was one of extreme
trial to Great Britain. The victory of Sir John Jervis over the
Spaniards near Cape Saint Vincent on the 14th of February
(see Saint Vincent, Battle of) disposed of the Spanish fleet.
In the autumn of the year the Dutch, having put to sea, were
defeated at Camperdown by Admiral Duncan on the nth of
October. Admiral Duncan had the more numerous force,
sixteen ships to fifteen, and they were on the average heavier.
Attacking from windward he broke through the enemy's line
and concentrated on his rear and centre. Eight line of battle- 1
ships and two frigates were taken, but the good gunnery and
steady resistance of the Dutch made the victory costly. Be-
tween these two battles the British fleet was for a ti me menac ed
in its very existence by a succession of 'Mutiulu, tilt ludU'oi
much neglect of the undoubted grievances of the sailors. The f
victory of Camperdown, completing what the victory of Cape .
Saint Vincent had begun, seemed to put Great Britain beyond fear i."
of invasion. But the government of the Republic was intent »
on renewing the attempt. The successes of Napoleon at the head
of the army of Italy had reduced Austria to sign the peace of
Campo Formio.on the 17th of October i797,andhewasappointed
commander of the new army of invasion. It was still thought
necessary to maintain the bulk of the British fleet in European
waters, within call in the ocean. The Mediterranean was left
free to the French, whose squadrons cruised in the Levant,
where the Republic had become possessed of the Ionian Islands
by the plunder of Venice. The absence of a British force in the
Mediterranean offered to the government of the French Republic
an alternative to an invasion of Great Britain or Ireland, which
promised to be less hazardous and equally effective. It was
induced largely by the persuasion of Napoleon himself, and the
wish of the politicians who were very willing to sec him em-
ployed at a distance. The expedition to Egypt under his com-
mand sailed on the 19th of May 1798, having for its immediate
purpose the occupation of the Nile valley, and for its ultimate
aim an attack on Great Britain " from behind " in India (see
Nile, Battle or the). The British fleet re-entered the
Mediterranean to pursue and baffle Napoleon. The destruction
of the French squadron at the anchorage of Aboukir on the
1st of August gave it the complete command of the sea. A
second invasion of Ireland on a smaller scale was attempted
and to some extent carried out, while the great attack by Egypt
was in progress. One French squadron of four frigates carrying
1 1 So soldiers under General Humbert succeeded in sailing from
Rochcfort on the 6th of August. On the 22nd Humbert was
landed at Killala Bay, but after making a vigorous raid he was
compelled to surrender at Ballinamuck on the 8th of September.
Eight days after his surrender, another French squadron of one
sail of the line and eight frigates carrying 3000 troops, sailed
from Brest under Commodore Bompart to support Humbert.
It was watched and pursued by frigates, and on the 12th of
October was overtaken and destroyed by a superior British
force commanded by Sir John Borlase Warren, near Tory Island.
From the close of 1798 till ihtcoupd'Ual of the 18th Brumaire
(9th November) 1799, which established Napoleon as First
Consul and master of France, the French navy had only one
object— to reinforce and relieve the army cut off in Egypt by the
battle of the Nile. The relief of the French garrison in Malts
was a subordinate part of the main purpose. But the supremacy
of the British navy was by this time so firmly founded that
neither Egypt nor Malta could be reached except by small ships
which ran the blockade. On the .25th of April, Admiral Broil
did indeed leave Brest, after baffling the blockading fleet of
Lord Bridport, which was sent on a wild-goose chase to the south
of Ireland by means of a despatch sent out to be captured and to
deceive. Admiral Bruix succeeded in reaching Toulon, and bis
presence in the Mediterranean caused some disturbance. But,
though his twenty-five sail of the line formed the best •manned
fleet which the French had sent to sea during the war, and though
he escaped being brought to battle, he did not venture to steer
for the eastern Mediterranean. On the 13th of August be was
back at Brest, bringing with him a Spanish squadron carried
off as a hostage for the fidelity of the government at Madrid to
its disastrous alliance with France. On the day on which Bruix
re-entered Brest, the 13th of August 1799. a combined Russian
and British expedition sailed from the Downs to attack the
French army of occupation in the Batavian Republic. The
military operations were unsuccessful, and terminated in the
withdrawal of the allies. But the naval part was well executed
Vice-admiral Mitchell forced the entrance to the Texel, and 00
the 30th of August received the surrender of the remainder of the
FRENCH WEST AFRICA— FREPPEL
205
Dutch fleet— thirteen vessels in the Nieuwe Diep— the sailors
having refused 10 fight (or the republic. In spite of the failure on
land, the expedition did much to confirm the naval supremacy
of Great Britain by the entire suppression of the most seaman-
like of the forcea opposed to it.
Authorities.— Chevalier, Hitteirt de la marine francoise sons
invasion are exhaustively dealt with in Captain E. Desbrttre's
Profits et teutatmes de dibarquentenU aux lies Britanniques (Paris,
1900, Ac). (D. H.)
FRENCH WEST AFRICA (VA/rique occidental* franchise),
the common designation of the following colonies of France: —
(1) Senegal, (2) Upper Senegal and Niger, (3) Guinea, (4) the
Ivory Coast, (5) Dahomey; of the territory of Mauritania, and
of a large portion of the Sahara. The area is estimated at nearly
2,000,000 sq. m., of which more than half is Saharan territory
The countries thus grouped under the common designation
French West Africa comprise the greater part of the continent
west of the Niger delta (which is British territory) and south of the
tropic of Cancer. It embraces the upper and middle course of
the Niger, the whole of the basin of the Senegal and the south-
western part of the Sahara. Its most northern point on the coast
is Cape Blanco, and it includes Cape Verde, the most westerly
point of Africa. Along the Guinea coast the French possessions
are separated from one another by colonies of Great Britain and
other powers, but in the interior they unite not only with one
another but with the hinterlands of Algeria and the French
Congo.
In physical characteristics French West Africa presents three
types: (1) a dense forest region succeeding a narrow coast belt
greatly broken by lagoons, (2) moderately elevated and fertile
plateaus, generally below 2000 ft., such as the region enclosed
in the great bend of the Niger; (3) north of the Senegal and Niger,
the desert lands forming part of the Sahara (q.i ) The most
elevated districts are Futa J alio n, whence rise the Senegal,
Gambia and Niger, and Gon — both massifs along the south-
western edge of the plateau lands, containing heights of 5000
to 6000 ft. or more. Among the chief towns are Timbuktu and
Jenne on the Niger, Porto Novo in Dahomey, and St Louis and
Dakar in Senegal, Dakar being an important naval and com-
mercial port. The inhabitants are for the most part typical
Negroes, with in Senegal and in the Sahara an admixture of
Berber and Arab tribes. In the upper Senegal and Futa Jallon
large numbers of the inhabitants are Fula. The total population
of French West Africa is estimated at about 13,000,000. The
European inhabitants number about 12,00a
The French possessions in West Africa have grown by the
extension inland of coast colonies, each having an independent
origin. They were first brought under one general government
in 1895, when they were placed under the supervision of the
governor of Senegal, whose title was altered to meet the new
situation. Between that date and 1005 various changes in the
areas and administrations of the different colonies were made,
involving the disappearance of the protectorates and military
territories known as French Sudan and dependent on Senegal.
These were partly absorbed inthe coast colonies, whilst the central
portion became the colony of Upper Senegal and Niger. At
the same time the central government was freed from the direct
administration of the Senegal and Niger countries (Decrees of
Oct. 1002 and Oct. 1004) Over the whole of French West
Africa is a governor-general, whose headquarters are at Dakar '
He is assisted by a government council, composed of high
functionaries, including the lieutenant-governors of all colonics
under his control. The central government, like all other French
colonial administrations, is responsible, not to the colonists, but
to the home government, and its constitution is* alterable at
will by presidential decree save in matters on which the chambers
1 The organization of the new government was largely the work of
E. N. Roume (b 1858). governor-general 1902-1907. an able and
enu^oAdaX fonnerly director of Asian affairs at the colonial
have expressly legislated. To it is confided financial control
over the colonies, responsibility for the public debt, the direction
of the departments of education and agriculture, and the carrying
out of works of general utility. It alone communicates with
the home authorities. Its expenses are met by the duties levied
on goods and vessels entering and leaving any port of French
West Africa. It may make advances to the colonies under its
care, and may, in case of need, demand from them contributions
to the central exchequer. The administration of justice is
centralized and uniform for all French West Africa. The court
of appeal sits a{ Dakar. There is also a uniform system of land
registration adopted in 1006 and based on that in force in
Australia. Subject to the limitations indicated the five colonies
enjoy autonomy. The territory of Mauretania is administered
by a civil commissioner under the direct control of the governor-
general The colony of Senegal is represented in the French
parliament by one deputy.
Since the changes in administration effected in 1895 the com-
merce of French West Africa has shown a steady growth, the
volume of external trade increasing in the ten years 1895-1004
from £3,151,004 to £6,238,091. In 1007 the value of the trade
was £7.097,000; of this 53% was with France. Apart from
military expenditure, about £600,000 a year, which is borne by
France, French West Africa is self-supporting. The general
budget for 1006 balanced at £1,356,000. There is a public debt
of some £11,000,000, mainly incurred for works of general utility.
r See Senegal, French Guinea. Ivory Coast and Dahomey. For
Anglo-French boundaries east of the Niger see Sah a ra and Nigeria.
For the constitutional connexion between the colonies and France
see France- Colonies. An account of the economic situation of the
colonies is given by G. Francois in Le Couoemement ttnhal de
FAfrique occulentale Jrancatse (Paris, 1908). Consult also the annual
Report en the Trade, Agriculture, fir«. of French West AJrua issued by
the British foreign office A map of French West Africa by A.
Mounter and E. Barralier (6 sheets on the scale 1 2,000,000) was
published In Paris, 1903.
FRBNTANI, one of the ancient Samnite tribes which formed
an independent community on the east coast of Italy They
entered the Roman alliance after their capital, Frentrum, was
taken by the Romans in 305 or 304 B.C. (Livy ix. 16. 45). This
town either changed its name or perished some time after the
middle of the 3rd century B.C., when it was issuing coins of its
own with an Oscan legend. The town Larinum, which belonged
to the same people (Pliny, Nat. Hist. iii. 103), became latinized
before 200 B.C.. as its coins of that epoch bear a legend—
LARINOR(VM)— which cannot reasonably be treated as any.
thing but Latin. Several Oscan inscriptions survive from the
neighbourhood of Vasto (anc. Histonium), which was in the
Frentane area.
On the forms of the name, and for further details see R.S.Conway,
Italic Dialects, p. 206 ff and p. 212; for the coins id. No. 195-19°-
FREPPEL, CHARLES fihULE (1827-1891), French bishop and
politician, was born at Oberehnheim(Obernai), Alsace, on the 1st
of June 1827. He was ordained priest in 1849 and for a short
time taught history at the seminary of Strassburg, where he had
previously received his clerical training. In 1854 he was ap-
pointed professor of theology at the Sorbonnc, and became
known as a successful preacher. He went to Rome in 1869, at
the instance of Pius IX., to assist in the steps preparatory to the
promulgation of the dogma of papal infallibility. He was con-
secrated bishop of Angers in 1870 During the Franco-German
war Freppel organized a body of priests to minister to the French
prisoners in Germany, and penned an eloquent protest to the
emperor William I against the annexation of Alsace-Lorraine
In 1880 he was elected deputy for Brest and continued to
represent it until his death. Being the only priest in the Chamber
of Deputies since the death of Dupanloup, he became the chief
parliamentary champion of the Church, and, though no orator,
was a frequent speaker On all ecclesiastical affairs Freppel
voted with the Royalist and Catholic party, yet on questions in
which French colonial prestige was involved, such as the expedi-
tion to Tunis, Tong-King, Madagascar (1881, 1883-8S). he
supported the government of the day. He always remained a
staunch RoyaBst and went so t tr as to oppose Leo XIII *s policy
2o6
FRERE, SIR H. B. E,
of conciliating the Republic He died at Angers on the 12th of
December 1891. Freppel's historical and theological works
form jo vols., the best known of which are: Let Peres aposloliques
et Uur tpoque (1859); Les ApeUgistes cktitiens au II'sUcU
(a vols., i860); Saint Irirtie et t' eloquence chritienne dans la GonU
aux deux premiers sticks (1861); Tertullien (2 vols, 1863);
Saint CyprienetrAtlised'Afrique (1864); Clement d' Alexandria
(1865); Orighu (2 vols., 1867).
There are interesting lives by E. Coraut (Paris, 1893) and F-
Charpentier (Angers, 1904).
FRERE, 8IR HENRY BARTLE EDWARD (181 5-1884),
British administrator, born at Clydach in Brecknockshire, on
the 29th of March 1815, was the son of Edward Frcre, a member
of an old east county family, and a nephew of John Hookbam
Frere, of Anli- Jacobin and Aristophanes fame. After leaving
Haileybury, Bartle Frere was appointed a writer in the Bombay
civil service in 1834, and went out to India by way of Egypt,
crossing the Red Sea in an open boat from Kosseir to Mokha,
and sailing thence to Bombay in an Arab dhow. Having passed
his examination in the native languages, he was appointed
assistant collector at Poona in 1835. There he did valuable
work and was in 1842 chosen as private secretary to Sir George
Arthur, governor of Bombay. Two years later he became
political resident at the court of the rajah of Satan, where he
did much to benefit the country by the development of its com-
munion ions. On the rajah's death in 1848 he administered the
province both before and after its formal annexation in 1849.
In 1850 he was appointed chief commissioner of Sind, and took
ample advantage of the opportunities afforded him of developing
the province, He pensioned off the dispossessed amirs, improved
the harbour at Karachi, where he also established municipal
buildings, a museum and barracks, instituted fairs, multiplied
roads, canals and schools.
Returning to India in 1857 after a well-earned rest, Frere
was greeted at Karachi with news of the mutiny. His rule had
been so successful that he fell he could answer for the internal
peace of his province. He therefore sent his only European
regiment to Multan, thus securing that strong fortress against
the rebels, and sent further detachments to aid Sir John Lawrence
in the Punjab. The 178 British soldiers who remained in Sind
proved sufficient to extinguish such insignificant outbreaks
as occurred His services were fully recognized by the Indian
authorities, and he received the thanks of both houses of
parliament and was made K.C.B. He became a member of the
viceroy's council in 1859, and was especially serviceable in
financial matters. In 1862 he was appointed governor of
Bombay, where he effected great improvements, such as the
demolition of the old ramparts, and the erection of handsome
public offices upon a portion of the space, the inauguration of
the university buildings and the improvement of the harbour.
He established the Deccan College at Poona, as well as a college
for instructing natives in civil engineering. The prosperity-
due to the American Civil War — which rendered these develop-
ments possible brought in its train a speculative mania, which
led eventually to the disastrous failure of the Bombay Bank
(1866), an affair in which, from neglecting to exercise such means
of control as he possessed, Frere incurred severe and not wholly
undeserved censure. In 1867 he returned to England, was made
G.C.S.I., and received honorary degrees from Oxford and Cam-
bridge; he was also appointed a member of the Indian council.
In 1872 he was sent by the foreign office to Zanzibar to
negotiate a treaty with the sultan, Seyyid Burghash, for the
suppression of the slave traffic In 187s he accompanied the
prince of Wales to Egypt and India. The tour was beyond
expectation successful, and to Frere, from Queen Victoria
downwards, came acknowledgments of the service he had
rendered in piloting the expedition. He was asked by Lord
Beaconsfidd to choose between being made a baronet or G.C.B.
He chose the former, but the queen bestowed both honours
upon him. But the greatest service that Frere undertook on
behalf of his country was to be attempted not in Asia, but in
Africa. Sir Bartle landed at Cape Town as high commissioner
of South Africa on the 31st of March 1877 He had been chosen
by Lord Carnarvon in the previous October as the statesman
most capable of carrying his scheme of confederation into effect,
and within two years it was hoped that he would be the first
governor of the South African Dominion. He went out in
harmony with the aims and enthusiasm of his chief, " hoping to
crown by one great constructive effort the work of a bright and
noble life." In this hope he was disappointed. As he stated
at the close of his high commissionership, a great mistake seemed
to have been made in trying to hasten what could only result
from natural growth, and the state of South Africa during Frcre's
tenure of office was inimical to such growth.
Discord or a policy of blind drifting seemed to be the aiterna*
tives presented to Frere upon his arrival at the Cape. He
chose the former as the less dangerous, and the first year of
his sway was marked by a Kaffir war on the one hand and by a
rupture with the Cape (Molteno-Merriman) ministry on the
other. The Transkei Kaffirs were subjugated early in 1878 by
General Thesiger (the 2nd Lord Chelmsford) and a small force
of regular and colonial troops. The constitutional difficulty
was solved by Frere dismissing his obstructive cabinet and
entrusting the formation of a ministry to Mr (afterwards Sir)
Gordon Spngg. Frere emerged successfully from a year of crisis,
but the advantage was more than counterbalanced by the
resignation of Lord Carnarvon early in 1878, at a lime when
Frere required the steadiest and most unflinching support. He
had reached the conclusion that there was a widespread insurgent
spirit pervading the natives, which had its focus and strength
in the celibate military organization of Cetywayo and in the
prestige which impunity for the outrages he had committed
had gained for the Zulu king in the native mind. That organiza-
tion and that evil prestige must be put an end to, if possible
by moral pressure, but otherwise by force. Frere reiterated
these views to the colonial office, where they found a general
acceptance. When, however, Frere undertook the responsibility
of forwarding, in December 1878, an ultimatum to Cetywayo,
the home government abruptly discovered that a native war
in South Africa was inopportune and raised difficulties about
reinforcements. Having entrusted to Lord Chelmsford the
enforcement of the British demands, Frcre's immediate responsi-
bility ceased. On the uthof January 1879 the British troops
crossed the Tugcla. and fourteen days later the disaster of Isandhl-
wana was reported, and Frere, attacked and censured in the
House of Commons, was but feebly defended by the government.
Lord Beaconsficld, it appears, supported Frere, the majority
of the cabinet were inclined to recall him. The result was the
unsatisfactory compromise by which he was censured and begged
to stay on. Frere wrote an elaborate justification of his conduct,
which was adversely commented on by the colonial secretary
(Sir Michael Hicks Beach), who " did not see why Frere should
take notice of attacks, and as to the war, all African wars had
been unpopular." Frcre's rejoinder was that no other sufficient
answer had been made to his critics, and that he wished to place
one on record. " Few may now agree with my view as to the
necessity of the suppression of the Zulu rebellion. Few, I fear,
in this generation. But unless my countrymen are much changed,
they will some day do me justice. I shall not leave a name to be
permanently dishonoured."
The Zulu trouble and the disaffection that was brewing in
the Transvaal reacted upon each other in the most disastrous
manner. Frere had borne no part in the actual annexation of
the Transvaal, which was announced by Sir Thcophilus Shepstone
a few days after the high commissioner's arrival at Cape Town.
The delay in giving the country a constitution afforded a pretext
for agitation to the malcontent Boers, a rapidly increasing
minority, while the reverse at Isandhlwana had lowered British
prestige. Owing to the Kaffir and Zulu wars Sir Bartle bad
hitherto been unable to give his undivided attention to the state
of things in the TransvaaL In April 1879 he was at last able to
visit that province, and the conviction was forced upon him
that the government had been unsatisfactory in many ways
The country was very unsettled. A large camp, numbering
FRERE, J. H.— FRERE-ORBAN
4000 disaffected Boers, had been formed near Pretoria, and
tbey were terrorizing the country. Frere visited them unarmed
and practically alone. Even yet all might have been well, for
be won the Boers' respect and liking. On the condition that the
Boers dispersed, Frere undertook to present their complaints
to the British government, and to urge the fulfilment of the
promises that had been made to them. They parted with mutual
good feeling, and the Boers did eventually disperse — on the very
day upon which Frere received the telegram announcing the
government's censure. He returned to Cape Town, and his
journey back was in the nature of a triumph. But bad news
awaited him at Government House — on the 1st of June 1879 the
prince imperial had met his death in Zululand — and a few hours
later Frere heard that the government of the Transvaal and
Natal, together with the high commissionership in the eastern
part of South Africa, had been transferred from him to Sir
Garnet Wolsetey.
When Gladstone's ministry came into office in the spring of
x88o, Lord Kimberley had no intention of recalling Frere. In
June, however, a section of the Liberal party memorialized
Gladstone to remove him, and the prime minister weakly com-
plied (1st August 1880). Upon his return Frere replied to the
charges relating to his conduct respecting Afghanistan as well as
South Africa, previously preferred in Gladstone's Midlothian
speeches, and was preparing a fuller vindication when he died
at Wimbledon from the effect of a severe chill on the 29th of May
1884. He was buried in St Paul's, and in 1888 a statue of Frere
upon the Thames embankment was unveiled by the prince of
Wales. Frere edited the works of his uncle, Hookham Frer^,
and the popular story-book, Old Deccan Days, written by his
daughter, Mary Frere. He was three times president of the
Royal Asiatic Society.
His Life and Correspondence, by John Martineau, was published
in 1895. For the South African anti-confederation view, sec P A.
Molteno's Life and Times of Sir John Charles Molteno (2 vols., London
1900). See also South Africa: History.
FRERE, JOHN HOOKHAM (1760-1846), English diplomatist
and author, was born in London on the. 21st of May 1769. His
father, John Frere, a gentleman of a good Suffolk family, had been
educated at Caius College, Cambridge, and would have been
senior wrangler in 1763 but for the redoubtable competition of
Paley; his mother, daughter of John Hookham, a rich London
merchant, was a lady of no small culture, accustomed to amuse
her leisure with verse-writing. His father's sister Eleanor, who
married Sir John Fenn (1 730-1 794), the learned editor of the
Paston Letters, wrote various educational works for children
under the pseudonyms " Mrs Lovechild " and " Mrs Teach well"
Young Frere was sent to Eton in 1785, and there began an
intimacy with Canning which greatly affected his after life.
From Eton he went to his father's college at Cambridge, and
graduated B.A. in 1792 and MA. in 1795. He entered public
service in the foreign office under Lord Grenville, and sat from
1796 to 1802 as member of parliament for the dose borough of
West Looe in Cornwall.
From his boyhood he had been a warm admirer of Pitt, and
along with Canning he entered heart and soul into the defence
of his government, and contributed freely to the pages of the
Anti-Jacobin, edited by Gifford. He contributed, in collabora-
tion with Canning, " The Loves of the Triangles," a clever
parody of Darwin's " Loves of the Plants," " The Needy Knife-
Grinder " and " The Rovers." On Canning's removal to the
board of trade in 1799 be succeeded him as under-secretary of
state; in October 1800 he was appointed envoy extraordinary
and plenipotentiary to Lisbon; and in September 1802 he was
transferred to Madrid, where he remained for two years. He was
recalled on account of a personal disagreement he bad with the
duke of Alcudia, but the ministry showed its approval of his
action by a pension of £1700 a year. He was made a member of
the privy council in 1805; in 1807 he was appointed pleni-
potentiary at Berlin, but the mission was abandoned, and Frere
was again tent to Spain in 1808 as plenipotentiary to the Central
Junta. The condition of Spain rendered his position a very
207
responsible and difficult one. When Napoleon began to advance
on Madrid it became a matter of supreme importance to decide
whether Sir John Moore, who was then in the north of Spain,
should endeavour to anticipate the occupation of the capital or
merely make good his retreat, and if he did retreat whether he
should do so by Portgual or by Galida. Frere was strongly of
opinion that the bolder was the better course, and he urged his
views on Sir John Moore with an urgent and fearless persistency
that on one occasion at least overstepped the limits of his
commission. After the disastrous retreat to Corunna, the public
accused Frere of having by his advice endangered the British
army, and though no direct censure was passed upon his conduct
by the government, he was recalled, and the marquess of
Wellesley was appointed in his place.
Thus ended Frere's public life. He afterwards refused to under-
take an embassy to St Petersburg, and twice declined the honour
of a peerage. In 18x6 he married Elizabeth Jemima, dowager
countess of Erroll, and in 1820, on account of her failing health,
he went with her to the Mediterranean. There he finally set tied
in Malta, and though he afterwards visited England more than
once, the rest of his life was for the most part spent in the island
of his choice. In quiet retirement he devoted himself to litera-
ture, studied his favourite Greek authors, and taught himself
Hebrew and Maltese. His hospitality was well known to many
an English guest, and his charities and courtesies endeared him
to his Maltese neighbours. He died at the Pieti Valet ta on
the 7th of January 1846. Frere's literary reputation now rests
entirely upon his spirited verse translations of Aristophanes,
which remain in many ways unrivalled. The principles according
to which he conducted his task were elucidated in an article on
Mitchell's Aristophanes, which he contributed to The Quarterly
Review, vol. zxiii. The translations of The Acharnians, The
Knights, The Birds, and The Frogs were privately printed, and
were first brought into general notice by Sir G. Cornewall Lewis
in the Classical Museum for 1847. They were followed some
time after by Thecgnis Restitutus, or the personal history of the
poet Theognis, reduced from an analysis of his existing fragments.
In 1 81 7 be published a mock-heroic Arthurian poem entitled
Prospectus and Specimen of an intended National Worh, by
William and Robert Whistlccraft, of Stovmarket in Suffolk,
Harness and Collar Makers, intended to comprise the most interest-
ing particulars relating to King Arthur and his Round Table.
William Tennant in Anster Pair had used the otlava rima as a
vehicle for semi-burlesque poetry five years earlier, but Frere's
experiment is interesting because Byron borrowed from it the
measure that he brought to perfection in Don Juan.
Frere's complete works were published in 1871, with a memoir
by his nephews. W. E. and Sir Bartle Frere. and reached a second
edition in 1874. Compare alsoGabrielle Festing, J. H. Frere and kit
Friends (1899).
FR&RE. PIERRE 6D0UARD (1810-1886), French painter,
studied under Delaroche, entered the £cole des Beaux-Arts in
1836 and exhibited first at the Salon in 1843. The marked
sentimental tendency of his art makes us wonder at Ruskin's
enthusiastic eulogy which finds in Frere's work " the depth of
Wordsworth, the grace of Reynolds, and the holiness of Angeiico."
What we can admire in his work is his accomplished craftsman-
ship and the intimacy and tender homeliness of his conception.
Among his chief works arc the two paintings, " Going to School M
and " Coming from School," " The Little Glutton " (his first
exhibited picture) and " L'Excrcice " (Mr Astor's collection)
A journey to Egypt in i860 resulted in a small series of Orientalist
subjects, but the majority of Frere's paintings deal with the life
of the kitchen, the workshop, the dwellings of the humble, and
mainly with the pleasures and little troubles of the young,
which the artist brings before us with humour and sympathy.
He was one of the most popular painters of domestic genre in
the middle of the 19th century.
FRERE-ORBAN, HUBERT JOSEPH WALTHEB (181 2-1896),
Belgian statesman, was born at Liege on the 24th of April 181 2.
His family name was Frtre, to which on his marriage be added
his wife's name of Orban. After studying law in Paris, he
208
FRERET— FRERON, L. M S.
practised as a barrister at Liege, took a prominent part in the
Liberal movement, and in June 1847 was returned to the Chamber
as member for Liege. In August of the same year he was ap-
pointed minister of public works in the Rogier cabinet, and from
1848 to 1852 was minister of finance. He founded the Banque
Nationale and the Caisse d'£pargne, abolished the newspaper
tax, reduced the postage, and modified the customs duties as
a preliminary to a decided free-trade policy The Liberalism
of the cabinet, in which Frere-Orban exercised an influence
hardly inferior to that of Rogier, was, however, distasteful to
Napoleon III. Frere-Orban, to facilitate the negotiations for
a new commercial treaty, conceded to France a law of copyright,
which proved highly unpopular in Belgium, and he resigned
office, soon followed by the rest of the cabinet. His work
La Mainmorte ci la chariti (1 854-1 857), published under the
pseudonym of "Jean van Damme," contributed greatly to
restore his party to power in 1857, when he again became
minister of finance. He now embodied his free-trade principles 1 n
commercial treaties with England and France, and abolished the
acirot duties and the tolls on the national roads. He resigned
in 1 86 1 on the gold question, but soon resumed office, and in
1868 succeeded Rogier as prime minister. In i860 he defeated
the attempt of France to gain control of the Luxemburg railways,
but, despite this service to his country, fell from power at' the
elections of 1870. He retained to office in 1878 as president of
the council and foreign minister. He provoked the bitter opposi-
tion of the Clerical party by his law of 1879 establishing secular
primary education, and in 1880 went so far as to break on* diplo-
matic relations with the Vatican He next found himself at
variance with the Radicals, whose leader, Janson, moved the
introduction of universal suffrage. Frere-Orban, while rejecting
the proposal, conceded an extension of the franchise (1883);
but the hostility of the Radicals, and the discontent caused by a
financial crisis, overthrew the government at the elections of
1884. Frere-Orban continued to take an active part in politics
as leader of the Liberal opposition till 1804, when he failed to
secure re-election. He died at Brussels on the 2nd of January
1806. Besides the work above mentioned, he published La
Question monitaire (1874), La Question monitaire en Belgique
in 1889; Eckange de vues enlrc MM Frere-Orban etE.de Laveleye
(1800), and La Revision constitutionneUe en Belgique el ses
constquences (1894). He was also the author of numerous
pamphlets, among which may be mentioned his last work.
La Situation prisenle (1895).
FRftRET, NICOLAS (1688-1749), French scholar, was born
at Paris on the 15th of February 1688. His father was procureur
to the parlement of Paris, and destined him to the profession
of the law. His first tutors were the historian Charles Rollin
and Father Desmolets (1677-1760). Amongst his early studies
history, chronology and mythology held a prominent place.
To please his father he studied law and began to practise at the
bar; but the force of his genius soon carried him into his own
path. At nineteen he was admitted to a society of learned men
before whom he read memoirs on the religion of the Greeks,
on the worship of Bacchus, of Ceres, of Cybele and of Apollo.
He was hardly twenty-six years of age when he was admitted
as pupil to the Academy of Inscriptions. One of the first
memoirs which he read was a learned and critical discourse,
Sur rorigine des Francs ( 1 7 14). He maintained that the Franks
were a league of South German tribes and not, according to the
legend then almost universally received, a nation of free men
deriving from Greece or Troy, who had kept their civilization
intact in the heart of a barbarous country These sensible
views excited great indignation in the Abbe" Vertot, who de-
nounced Frfret to the government as a libeller of the monarchy.
A Utlre de cachet was issued, and Freret was sent to the Bastille
During his three months of confinement he devoted himself to
tne study of the works of Xenopbon, the fnrit of which appeared
later in his memoir on the Cyropaedia. From the time of his
liberation in March 171 5 his life was uneventful In January
1716 he was received associate of the Academy of Inscriptions,
and in December 1742 he was made perpetual secretary. He
worked without intermission for the interests of the Academy,
not even claiming any property in his own writings, which were
printed in the Recuetl de t'ocodimie da inscriptions. The list
of his memoirs, many of them posthumous, occupies four columns
of the NouveUe Biograpkte gtntrdt. They treat of history,
chronology, geography, mythology and religion. Throughout
he appears as the keen, learned and original critic; examining
into the comparative value of documents, distinguishing between
the mythical and the historical, and separating traditions with
an historical element from pure fables and legends. He rejected
the extreme pretensions of the chronology of Egypt and China,
and at the same time controverted the scheme of Sir Isaac
Newton as too limited. He investigated the mythology not only
of the Greeks, but of the Celts, the Germans, the Chinese and
the Indians. He was a vigorous opponent of the theory that
the stories of mythology may be referred to historic originals.
He also suggested that Greek mythology owed much to the
Phoenicians and Egyptians He was one of the first scholars of
Europe to undertake the study of the Chinese language; and in
this he was engaged at the lime of his committal to the Bastille.
He died in Paris on the 8th of March 1 740.
Long after his death several works of an atheistic character were
falsely attributed to him. and were long believed 10 be his. The most
famous of these spurious works are the Examen critique des apotogules
de ta religion ckretienne (1766), and the Utlre de TkrasybuleiLoucippt,
printed in London about 1768. A very defective and inaccurate
edition of Freret's works was published in 1796-1799. A new and
complete edition was projected by Champollion-Figeac, but or this
only the first volume appeared (1825). ft contains a life of Fretet
His manuscripts, after passing through many hands, were deposited
in the library of the Institute. The best account of his works b
" Examen critique des ouvrages composes par Freret " in C. A.
Wakkenaer's Recuetl des notices, Ac. (1841-1850) See also Querard's
France Ittteraire
FRftRON, fiLIB CATHERINE (1710-1776), French critic and
controversialist, was born at Quimper in 1 719. He was educated
by the Jesuits, and made such rapid progress in his studies
that before the age of twenty he was appointed professor at the
college of Loujs-le- Grand He became a contributor to the
Observations sur les tents modernes of the abbe" Guyot Desfon-
taines. The very fact of his collaboration with Desfontaines,
one of Voltaire's bitterest enemies, was sufficient to arouse the
latter 's hostility, and although Freron had begun his career as
one of his admirers, his attitude towards Voltaire soon changed.
Freron in 1746 founded a similar journal of his own, entitled
Lettres de la Comtesse de It was suppressed in 1 749, but he
immediately replaced it by Lettres sur quelques tcrtls de c* temps,
which, with the exception of a short suspension in 1752, 00
account of an attack on the character of Voltaire, was continued
till 1754, when it was succeeded by the more ambitious Ahum
litttrawe His death at Paris on the loth of March 1776 is said
to have been hastened by the temporary suppression of this
journal. Freron is now remembered solely for his attacks on
Voltaire and the Encyclopaedists, and by the retaliations tbey
provoked on the part of Voltaire, who, besides attacking him ia
epigrams, and even incidentally in some of his tragedies, directed
against him a virulent satire, Le Pauvre diabU, and made him
the principal personage in a comedy L'luossaise, in which the
journal of Fneron is designated L'Ane lUUratrc A further
attack on Freron entitled Anecdotes sur Frtron (1760X
published anonymously, is generally atlnbuted to Voltaire.
Freron was the author of Ode sur la batatlle de Fontenoy (174$).
Htstotre de Marie Stuart (1742, 2 vols.), and Hutoire de tempo*
d'AUemagne % (1771, 8 vols.). "* **
See Ch Nisard, Les Ennemu U
Voltaire "(1853). 6espois. Journalistes et journaux du XVI It*
sthle. Barthelemy, Les confessions de Friron; Ch. Monselet,
Frtron ou I'tUustre critique (1864). Friron, 50 me. souvenirs, Ac
(1876)
FRfttON. LOUIS MARIS STANISLAS (1754-1802), French
revolutionist, son of the preceding, was born at Pans on the 17th
of August 1754. His name was, on the death of his father,
attached to V Annie litttrairt, which was continued till 1790
and edited successively by the abbes G. M Royou and J L
Geoffroy On the outbreak of the revolution Freron, who was a
schoolfellow of Robespierre and Camille Desmoulins, estib lis hfd
FRESCO— FRESNILLO
209
the violent journal VOraltur iu peuple. Commissioned, along
with Bams in 1793, to establish the authority of the con-
vention at Marseilles and Toulon, he distinguished himself
in the atrocity of his reprisals, but both afterwards joined the
Thermidoriens, and Frtron became the leader of the jeunesse
dorU and of the Thermidorian reaction. He brought about the
accusation of Fouquier-Tinville, and of J. B. Carrier, the deporta-
tion of B. Barerc, and the arrest of the last Montagnards. He
made his paper the official journal of the reactionists, and being
sent by the Directory on a mission of peace to Marseilles he
published in 1706 Mimoire historique sur la reaction royal* el
sur Us nalkcurs du midi. He was elected to the council of the
Five Hundred, but not allowed to take his seat. Failing as
suitor for the hand of Pauline Bonaparte, one of Napoleon's
sisters, be went in 1799 as commissioner to Santo Domingo and
died there in 1802. General V. M. Leclerc, who had married
Pauline Bonaparte, also received a command in Santo Domingo
in 1801, and died in the same year as his former rival.
FRESCO (Ital. for cod, " fresh "), a term introduced into
English, both generally (as in such phrases as alfresco, " in the
fresh air "), and more especially as a technical term for a sort
of mural painting on plaster. In the latter sense the Italians
distinguished painting a sccco (when the plaster had been allowed
to dry) from a fresco (when it was newly laid and still wet) . The
nature and history of fresco-painting is dealt with in the article
Painting.
FRBSCOBALDI. GIROLAMO (1585-1644), Italian musical
composer, was born in 1583 at Ferrara. Little is known of his
life except that he studied music under Alcssandro Millcvillc,
and owed his first reputation to his beautiful voice. He was
organist at St Peter's in Rome from 1608 to 1628. According to
Baini no less than 30,000 people flocked to St Peter's on his first
appearance there. On the 20th of November 1628 he went to
live in Florence, becoming organist to the duke. From December
1633 to March 1643 he was again organist at St Peter's. Bui in
the last year of his life he was organist in the parish church of
San Lorenzo in Monte. He died on the 2nd of March 1644, being
buried at Rome in the Church of the Twelve Apostles, Fresco-
baldi also excelled as a teacher, Frohberger being the most
distinguished of his pupils. Frescobaldi's compositions show
the consummate art of the early Italian school, and his works
for the organ more especially are full of the finest devices of
fugal treatment. He also wrote numerous vocal compositions,
such as canzone, motets, hymns, &c, a collection of madrigals
for five voices (Antwerp, 1608) being among the earliest of his
published works.
FRESEKIUS. KARL REMIGIUS (181&-1897), German chemist,
was born at Frank f or t-on- Main on the 28th of December 1818.
After spending some time in a pharmacy in his native town, he
entered Bonn University in 1840, and a year later migrated to
Giessen, where he acted as assistant in Liebig's laboratory, and
in 1843 became assistant professor. In 1845 he was appointed
to the chair of chemistry, physics and technology at the Wies-
baden Agricultural Institution, and three years later he became
the first director of the chemical laboratory which he induced
the Nassau government to establish at that place. Under his
care this laboratory continuously increased in size and popularity,
a school of pharmacy being added in 1862 (though given up in
1877) and an agricultural research laboratory in 1868. Apart
from his administrative duties Frcscnius occupied himself almost
exclusively with analytical chemistry, and the fullness and
accuracy of his text-books on that subject (of which that on
qualitative analysis first appeared in 1841 and that on quantita-
tive in 1846) soon rendered them standard works. Many of his
original papers were published in the Zeilsckrifl filr analytische
Ckemic, which he founded in 1^62 and continued to edit till his
death. He died suddenly at Wiesbaden on the nth of June
1897. In 1 88 1 he handed over the directorship of the agricultural
research station to his son, Remigius Heinrich Fresenius (b.
184 7) , who was trained under H. Kolbe at Leipzig. Another son,
Theodor Wilhelm Fresenius (b. 1856), was educated at Strassburg
and occupied various positions la the Wiesbaden laboratory.
XI +*
FRESHWATER, a watering place in the Isle of Wight,
England, um.W. by S. of Newport by rail. Pop.(iQoi) 3306.
It is a scattered township lying on the peninsula west of the
river Var, which forms the western extremity of the island. The
portion known as Freshwater Catc fronts the English Channel
from the strip of low-lying coast interposed between the cliffs
of the peninsula and those of the main part of the island. The
peninsula rises to 307 ft. in Headon Hill, and the cliffs are
magnificent. The western promontory is flanked on the north
by the picturesque Alum Bay, and the lofty detached rocks
known as the Needles lie off it. Farringford House in the parish
was for some lime the home of Alfred, Lord Tennyson, who is
commemorated by a tablet in All Saints' church and by a great
cross on the high downs above the town. There are golf links
on the downs.
FRESNEL, AUGUSTXK JEAN (1788-1827), French physicist,
the son of an architect, was born at Broglic (Eure) on the 10th
of May 1788. His early progress in learning was slow, and when
eight years old he was still unable to read. At the age of thirteen
he entered the £cole Centrale in Caen, and at sixteen and a half
the £cole Polylcchniquc, where he acquitted himself with dis-
tinction. Thence he went to the £cole des Ponts et Chaussees.
He served as an engineer successively in the departments of
Vendee, Drome and Illc-et-Villaine; but his espousal of the
cause of the Bourbons in 1814 occasioned, on Napoleon's re-
accession to power, the loss of his appointment. On the second
restoration he obtained a post as engineer in Paris, where much
of his life from that time was spent. His researches in optics,
continued until his death, appear to have been begun about the
year 1814, when he prepared a paper on the aberration of light,
which, however, was not published. In 1818 he read a memoir
on diffraction for which in the ensuing year he received the prize
of the Acadcmie des Sciences at Paris. He was in 1823 unani-
mously elected a member of the academy, and in 1825 he
became a member of the Royal Society of London, which in 1827,
at the time of his last illness, awarded him the Rumford medal.
In 1810 he was nominated a commissioner of lighthouses, for
which he was the first to construct compound lenses as substitutes
for mirrors. He died of consumption at Ville-d'Avray, near
Paris, on the 14th of July 1827.
The undulatory theory of light, first founded upon experi-
mental demonstration by Thomas Young, was extended to a
large class of optical phenomena, and permanently established
by his brilliant discoveries and mathematical deductions. By
the use of two plane mirrors of metal, forming with each other
an angle of nearly 180°, he avoided the diffraction caused in
the experiment of F. M. Grimaldi (1618-1663) on interference
by the employment of apertures for the transmission of the light,
and was thus enabled in the most conclusive manner to account
for the phenomena of interference in accordance with the
undulatory theory. With D. F. J. Arago he studied the laws
of the interference of polarized rays. Circularly polarized light
he obtained by means of a rhomb of glass, known as " Fresnel's
rhomb," having obtuse angles of 126°, and acute angles of 54°.
His labours in the cause of optical science received during his
lifetime only scant public recognition, and some of his papers
were not printed by the Academic des Sciences till many years
after his decease. But, as he wrote to Young in 1824, in him
" that sensibility, or that vanity, which people call love of glory"
had been blunted. " All the compliments," he says, " that 1 have
received from Arago, Laplace and Riot never gave me so much
pleasure as the discovery of a theoretic truth, or the confirmation
of a calculation by experiment."
See Dulcau. "Notice sur Fresncl," Revue tncy. t. xxxix.;
Aragp, CEuvres computes, t. i. ; and Dr G. Peacock, Miscellaneous
Works of Thomas Young, vol. L
FRESNILLO, a town of the state of Zacatccas, Mexico, 37 m.
N.W. of the city of Zacatecas on a branch of the Santiago river.
Pop. (1000) 6309. It stands on a fertile plain between the Santa
Cruz and Zacatecas ranges, about 7700 ft. above sea-level, has
a temperate climate, and b surrounded by an agricultural
district producing Indian com and wheat. It b a clean, well-
210
FRESNO— FREWEN
built town, whose chief distinction is its school of mines founded
in 1853. Fresnillo has large amalgam works for the reduction
of silver ores. Its silver mines, located in the neighbouring
Proa no hill, were discovered in 1560, and were for a time among
the most productive in Mexico. Since 1833, *hcn their richest
deposits were reached, the output has greatly decreased. There
is a station near on the Mexican Central railway.
FRESNO, a city and the county-seat of Fresno county, Cali-
fornia, U.S.A., situated in the San Joaquin valley (altitude
about 300 ft.) near the geographical centre of the state. Pop.
(1880) n 12; (1800) 10,818; (1000) 12,47°. of whom 3299 were
foreign-born and 1279 were Asiatics; (1910 census) 24,892.
The city is served by the Southern Pacific and the Atchison,
Topcka & Santa F£ railways. The county is mainly a vast
expanse of naturally arid plains and mountains. The valley is
the scene of an extensive irrigation system, water being brought
(first in 1872-1876) from King's river, 20 m. distant; in 1005
500 sq. m. were irrigated. Fresno is in a rich farming country,
producing grains and fruit, and is the only place in America
where Smyrna figs have been grown with success; it is the centre
of the finest raisin country of the state, and has extensive vine-
yards and wine-making establishments. The city's principal
manufacture is preserved (dried) fruits, particularly raisins;
the value of the fruits thus preserved in 190s was $6,942,440,
being 70- 5% of the total value of the factory product in that year
($9,849,001). In 1 000- 1 90 5 the factory product increased
257-9%, a ratio °f increase greater than that of any other city
in the state. In the mountains, lumbering and mining are
important industries; lumber is carried from Shaver in the
mountains to Clovis on the plains by a V-shaped flume 42 m.
long, the waste water from which is ditched for irrigation. The
petroleum field of the county is one of the richest in California.
Fresno is the business and shipping centre of its county and of the
surrounding region. The county was organized in 1856. In
1872 the railway went through, and Fresno was laid out and
incorporated. It became the county-seat in 1874 and was
chartered as a city in 1885.
FRESNOY, CHARLES ALPHONSE DU (1611-1665), French
painter and writer on his art, was born in Paris, son of an apothe-
cary. He was destined for the medical profession, and well
educated in Latin and Greek; but, having a natural propensity
for the fine arts, he would not apply to his intended vocation,
and was allowed to learn the rudiments of design under Perrier
and Vouet. At the age of twenty-one he went off to Rome, with
no resources; he drew ruins and architectural subjects. After
two years thus spent he re-encountered his old fellow-student
Pierre Mignard, and by his aid obtained some amelioration of his
professional prospects. He studied Raphael and the antique,
went in 1633 to Venice, and in 1656 returned to France. During
two years he was now employed in painting altar-pieces in the
chateau of Raincy, landscapes, &c. His death was caused by
an attack of apoplexy followed by palsy; he expired at Villiers
le Bel, near Paris. He never married. His pictorial works arc
few; they arc correct in drawing, with something of the Caracci
in design, and of Titian in colouring, but wanting fire and ex-
pression, and insufficient to keep his name in any eminent repute.
He is remembered now almost entirely as a writer rather than
painter. His Latin poem, Dc arte graphic a, was written during
his Italian sojourn, and embodied his observations on the art
of painting; it may be termed a critical treatise on the practice
of the art, with general advice to students. The precepts are
sound according to the standard of his time; the poetical
merits slender enough. The Latin style is formed dhicfly on
Lucretius and Horace. This poem was first published by
Mignard, and has been translated into several languages. In
1684 it was turned into French by Roger de Piles; Dryden
translated the work into English prose; and a rendering into
verse by Mason followed, to which Sir Joshua Reynolds added
some annotations.
FJtBT. (j) (From O. Eng. frctart, a word common in various
forms to Teutonic languages; cf. Cer. frcsun, to cat greedily),
properly to devour, hence to gnaw, so used of the slow corroding
action of chemicals, water, &c., and hence, figuratively, to chafe
or irritate. Possibly connected with this word, in sense of rubbing,
is the use of " fret " for a bar on the fingerboard of a banjo,
guitar, or similar musical instruments to mark the fingering.
(2) (Of doubtful origin; possibly from the O. Eng. /rarfi'tw, orna-
ments, but its use is paralleled by the Fr./rrtte, trellis or lattice),
network, a term used in heraldry for an interlaced figure, but
best known as applied to the decoration used by the Greeks
in their temples and vases: the Greek fret consists of a series
of narrow bands of different lengths, placed at right angles to
one another, and of great variety of design. It is an ornament
which owes its origin to woven fabrics, and is found on the
ceilings of .the Egyptian tombs at Benihasan, Siout and elsewhere.
In Greek work it was painted on the abacus of the Dork capital
and probably on the architraves of their temples; when employed
by the Romans it was generally carved; the Propylaea of the
temple at Damascus and the temple at Atil being examples of
the 2nd century. It was carved in large dimensions on some
of the Mexican temples, as for instance on the palace at Mill*
with other decorative bands, all of which would seem to have
been reproductions of woven patterns, and had therefore an
independent origin. It is found in China and Japan, and in the
latter country when painted on lacquer is employed as a fret-
diaper, the bands not being at right angles to one another but
forming acute and obtuse angles. In old English writers a wider
signification was given to it, as it was applied to raised patterns
in plaster on roofs or ceilings, which were not confined to the
geometrical fret but extended to the modelling of flowers,
leaves and fruit; in such cases the decoration was known as
fret- work. In France the fret is better known as the " meander."
FREUDEHSTADT, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of
Wurttemberg, on the right bank of the Murg, 40 m. S.W. from
Stuttgart, on the railway to Hochdorf. Pop. 7000. It has a
Protestant and a Roman Catholic church, some small manu-
factures of doth, furniture, knives, nails and glass, and is
frequented as a climatic health resort. It was founded in 1599
by Protestant refugees from Salzburg.
FREUND, WILHELM (1806- 1894), German philologist and
lexicographer, was born at Kempen in the grand duchy of Posen
on the 27th of January 1806. He studied at Berlin, Bceslau and
Halle, and was for twenty years chiefly engaged in private
tuition. From 1855-1870 he was director of the Jewish school
at Gleiwitz in Silesia, and subsequently retired to Breslau, where
he died on the 4th of June 1894. Although chiefly known
for his philological labours, Freund took an important part in
the movement for the emancipation of his Prussian coreligionists,
and the Judengesctz of 1847 was ,n great measure the result
of a his efforts. The work by which he is best known is his W drier-
buck der lalcinischen Spraehe (1834-184$), practically the basis
of all Latin-English dictionaries. His Wit studirrt man klasrisckt
Philologicf (6th cd., 1003) and Triennium philologicum (2nd e<L,
1 878- 1 885) are valuable aids to the classical student.
1 FREWEN, ACCEPTED (1588-1664), archbishop of York, was
born at North iam, in Sussex, and educated at Magdalen College,
Oxford, where in 1612 he became a fellow. In 16 17 and 16:1
the college allowed him to act as chaplain to Sir John Digby,
ambassador in Spain. At Madrid he preached a sermon which
pleased Prince Charles, afterwards Charles I., and the latter on
his accession appointed Frewen one of his chaplains. In 1635
he became canon of Canterbury and vice-president of Magdalen
College, and in the following year he was elected president.
He was vice-chancellor, of the university in 1628 and 16*9,
and again in 1638 and 1639. It was mainly by his instrument-
ality that the university plate was sent to the king at York in
1642. Two years later be was consecrated bishop of Lichfield
and Coventry, and resigned his presidentship. Parliament
declared his estates forfeited for treason in 1652, and Cromwell
afterwards set a price on his head. The proclamations, however,
designated him Stephen Frewen, and he was consequently able
to escape into France. At the Restoration he reappeared is
public, and in 1660 he was consecrated archbishop of York. Ii ^
1061 ta acltd as &airaa& <A tta Savoy conference. - , 3
FREY— FREYCINET
'FRET (Old Norse, Freyr) son of Njord, one of the chief deities
hi the northern pantheon and the national god of the Swedes.
He is the god of fruitfulness, the giver of sunshine and rain, and
thus the source of all prosperity. (See Teutonic Peoples,
adfin)
FREYBURG (Freybukg an dzx Unstkut], a town of
Germany, in Prussian Saxony, in an undulating vine-dad
country on the Unstrut, 6 m. N. from Naumberg-on-the-Saale,
on the railway to Artern. Pop. 3200. It has a parish church,
a mixture of Gothic and Romanesque architecture, with a
handsome tower. It is, however, as being the " Mecca " of the
German gymnastic societies that Freyburg is best known. Here
Friedrich Ludwig Jahn (1778-1858), the father of German
gymnastic exercises, lies buried. Over his grave is buih the
Turnhalle, with a statue of the M master," while hard by it the
Jahn Museum in Romanesque style, erected in 1003. Freyburg
produces sparkling wine of good quality and has some other
small manufactures. On a hill commanding the town is the
castle of Neuenburg, built originally in 1062 by Louis the Leaper,
count in Thuringia, but in its present form mainly the work of
the dukes of Saxe-Weissenfels.
FREYCINET. CHARLES LOUIS DB SAULCES DB (1828- ),
French statesman, was born at Foix on the 14th of November
1828. He was educated at the £cole Porytechnique, and entered
the government service as a mining engineer. In 1858 he was
appointed traffic manager to the Compagnie de chemins de fer
du Midi, a post in which he gave proof of his remarkable talent
for organisation, and in 1862 returned to the engineering service
(in which he attained in 1886 the rank of inspector-general).
He was sent on a number of special scientific missions, among
which may be mentioned one to England, on which he wrote
a notable Mimoire sur U travail desfemmes el des enfants dam les
manufactures de VAngleterre (1867). On the establishment of
the Third Republic in September 1870, be offered his services
to Gambetta, was appointed prefect of the department of Tarn-et-
Garronne, and in October became chief of the military cabinet.
It was mainly his powers of organization that enabled Gambetta
to raise army after army to oppose the invading Germans. He
showed* himself a strategist of no mean order; but the policy
of dictating operations to the generals in the field was not
attended with happy results. The friction between him and
General d'AurclIe de Paladines resulted in the loss of the ad-
vantage temporarily gained at Orleans, and he was responsible
for the campaign in the east, which ended in the destruction of
Bourbaki's army. In 187 1 he published a defence of his admini-
stration under the title of La Guerre en province pendant le siege de
Paris. He entered the Senate in 1 876 as a follower of Gambetta ,
and in December 1877 became minister of public works in the
Dufaure cabinet. He carried a great scheme for the gradual
acquisition of the railways by the state and the construction of
new lines at a cost of three milliards, and for the development
of the cr.nal system at a further cost of one milliard. He retai ned
bis post in the ministry of Waddington, whom he succeeded in
December 1879 as president of the council and minister for
foreign affairs. He pissed an amnesty for the Communists,
but in attempting to steer a middle course on the question of the
religious associations, lost the support of Gambetta, and resigned
in September 1880. In January 1882 he again became president
of the council and minister for foreign affairs. His refusal to
join England in the bombardment of Alexandria was the death-
knell of French influence in Egypt. He attempted to com-
promise by occupying the Isthmus of Suez, but the vote of credit
was rejected in the Chamber by 41 7 votes to 75, and the ministry
resigned. He returned to office in April 1885 as foreign minister
in the Brisson cabinet, and retained that post when, in January
1886, he succeeded to the premiership. He came into power
with an ambitious programme of internal reform; but except
that he settled the question of the exiled pretenders, his successes
were won chiefly in the sphere of colonial extension. In spite of
his unrivalled skill as a parliamentary tactician, he failed to
keep his party together, and was defeated on 3rd December
1886. In the following year, after two unsuccessful attempts
211
to construct new ministries he stood for the presidency of the
republic; but the radicals, to whom his opportunism was
distasteful, turned the scale against him by transferring the
votes to M. Sadi Carnot.
In April 1888 he became minister of war in the Floquet cabinet
— the first civilian since 1848 to bold that office. His services
to France in this capacity were the crowning achievement of his
life, and he enjoyed the conspicuous honour of holding his office
without a break for five years through as many successive
administrations—those of Floquet and Tirard, his own fourth
ministry (March 2890-February 1892), and the Loobet and
Ribot ministries. To him were due the introduction of the
three-years* service and the establishment of a general staff,
a supreme council of war, and the army commands. His premier-
ship was marked by heated debates on the clerical question, and
it was a hostile vote on his Bill against the religious associations
that caused the fall of his cabinet. He failed to clear himself
entirely of complicity in the Panama scandals, and in January
1893 resigned the ministry of war. In November 1808 he once
more became minister of war in the Dupuy cabinet, but resigned
office on 6th May 1809. He has published, besides the works
already mentioned, Traill de micanique rationneUe (1858); De
l' analyse infinitisimale (i860, revised ed., 1881); Des.pentes
Sconomiques en chemin defer (1861); Emploi des eaux d 3 1 gout en
agriculture (1869); Principes de Passainissement des villes and
TraiU d'assainissemenl industriel (1870); Essai sur la pkilosopkie
des sciences (1896); La Question d'£gypte (1905); besides some
remarkable " Pcnsles " contributed to the Contemporain under
the pseudonym of " Alceste." In 1882 he was elected a member
of the Academy of Sciences, and in 1800 to the French Academy
in succession to £mile Augier.
FREYCINET, LOUIS CLAUDE DBSAULSES DB (1770-1842),
French navigator, was born at Mont&mart, Drome, on the 7th
of August 1779. In 1793 he entered the French navy. After
taking part in several engagements against the British, he joined
in 1800, along with his brother Louis Henri Freydnet (1777-
1840), who afterwards rose to the rank of admiral, the expedition
sent out under Captain Baudin in the " Naturaliste " and
" Geographe " to explore the south and south-west coasts of
Australia. ' Much of the ground already gone over by Flinders
was revisited, and new names imposed by this expedition, which
claimed credit for discoveries really made by the English navi-
gator. An inlet on the coast of West Australia, in 26 S., is
called Freycinet Estuary; and a cape near the extreme south-
west of the same coast also bears the explorer's name. In 1805
he returned to Paris, and was entrusted by the government
with the work of preparing the maps and plans of the expedition;
he also completed the narrative, and the whole work appeared
under the title of Voyage de decouvertes aux tents auslrales
(Paris, 1807-1816). In 1817 he commanded the " Uranie,"
in which Arago and others went to Rio de Janeiro, to take a series
of pendulum measurements. This was only part of a larger
scheme for obtaining observations, not only in geography and
ethnology, but in astronomy, terrestrial magnetism, and meteor-
ology, and for the collection of specimens in natural history.
On this expedition the hydrographic operations were conducted
by Louis Isidore Duperry (1 786-1 865) who in 1822 was appointed
to the command of the " Coquille," and during the next three
years carried out scientific explorations in the southern Pacific
and along the coast of South America. For three years
Freycinet cruised about, visiting Australia, the Marianne,
Sandwich, and other Pacific islands, South America, and other
places, and, notwithstanding the loss of the " Uranie " on the
Falkland Islands during the return voyage, returned to France
with fine collections in all departments of natural history, and
with voluminous notes and drawings which form an important
contribution to a knowledge of the countries visited- The
results of this voyage were published under Freycinet 's super-
vision, with the title of Voyage autour du monde sur les corvettes
U V Uranie" et "la Physicienne" in 1824-2844, in 13 quarto
volumes and 4 folio volumes of fine plates and maps. Frevcinftt
wis admitted into tab kcaAcorj ^Vlkftrartfcft TSAy*asVw^<aa.
212
FREYIA— FRIBOURG
of the founders of the Paris Geographical Society. He died at
Freycinet, Drome, on the 18th of August 1842.
FREYIA, the sister of Frey, and the most prominent goddess in
Northern mythology. Her character seems.in general to have
resembled that of her brother. (See Teutonic Peoples, ad fin.)
FREYTAG. GEOHG W1LHELM FRIEDRICH (1788-1862),
German philologist, was born at Luneburg on the 19th of
September 1788. After attending school he entered the univer-
sity of Gdttingen as a student of philology and theology; here
from 181 1 to 1813 he acted as a theological tutor, but in the latter
year accepted an appointment as sub-librarian at Konigsberg.
In 1815 he became a chaplain in the Prussian army, and in that
capacity visited Paris. On the proclamation of peace he resigned
his chaplaincy, and returned to his researches in Arabic, Persian
and Turkish, studying at Paris under De Sacy. In 1810 he was
appointed to ihc professorship of oriental languages in the new
university of Bonn, and this post be continued to bold until his
death on the 16th of November 1861.
Besides a compendium of Hebrew grammar (Kursgefasste Gram-
matik der hebrauchen Sprache, 1 835), and a treatise on Arabic
versification {DanUllung der arabischen Vcrskunst, 1830), he edited
two volumes of Arabic songs {Hamasae carmtna, 1828-1852) and
three of Arabic proverbs (Arabum protrbia, 1838-1843). But his
principal work was the laborious and praiseworthy Lexicon Arabico-
lalinum (Halle, 1830-1837), an abridgment of which was published
in 1837.
FREYTAG, GUSTAV (1816-1895), German novelist, was born
at Kreuzburg, in Silesia, on the 13th of July 18 16. After attend-
ing the gymnasium at Ols, he studied philology at the universities
of Breslau and Berlin, and in 1838 took the degree with a remark-
able dissertation, De initiis poeseos scaiicae apud Germanos.
In 1839 he settled at Breslau, as Privatdocent in German
language and literature, but devoted his principal attention to
writing for the stage, and achieved considerable success with
the comedy Die Brautfahrl, odcr Kurtz ton der Rosen (1844).
This was followed by a volume of unimportant poems, In
Breslau (1845) and the dramas Die Valentine (1846) and Graf
Waldemar (1847). He at last attained a prominent position
by his comedy, Die Joumalisten (1853), one of the best German
comedies of the 19th century. In 1847 he migrated to Berlin,
and in the following year took over, in conjunction with
Julian Schmidt, the editorship of Die Grenxboten, a weekly
journal which, founded in 1841, now became the leading organ of
German and Austrian liberalism. Freylag helped to conduct it
until 1861, and again from 1867 till 1870, when for a short time
he edited a new periodical, Im neuen Reich. -His literary fame
was made universal by the publication in 1855 of his novel,
Soil und Haben, which was translated into almost all the languages
of Europe. It was certainly the best German novel of its day,
impressive by its sturdy but unexaggcrated realism, and in many
parts highly humorous. Its main purpose is the recommendation
of the German middle class as the soundest element in the nation,
but it also has a more directly patriotic intention in the contrast
which it draws between the homely virtues of the Teuton and the
shiftlessness of the Pole and the rapacity of the Jew. As a
Silcsian, Freytag had no great love for his Slavonic neighbours,
and being a native of a province which owed everything to
Prussia, he was naturally an earnest champion of Prussian
hegemony over Germany. His powerful advocacy of this idea
in his Graaboten gained him the friendship of the duke of Saxe-
Coburg-Gotha, whose neighbour he had become, on acquiring the
estate of Siebleben near Gotha. At the duke's request Freytag
was attached to the staff of the crown prince of Prussia in the
campaign of 1870, and was present at the battles of Worth and
Sedan. Before this he had published another novel, Die verlorene
Handschrift (1864), in which he endeavoured to do for German
university life what in Soil und Haben he bad done for commercial
life. The hero is a young German professor, who is so wrapt up
in his search for a manuscript by Tacitus that he is oblivious
to an impending tragedy in his domestic life. The book was,
however, less successful than its predecessor. Between 1859 and
1867 Freytag published in five volumes Bilder aus der deutsehen
Vergangeuheit, a most valuable work on popular lines, illustrating
the history and manners of Germany. In 1872 be began i
work with a similar patriotic purpose, Die Ahnen, a series of
historical romances in which he unfolds the history of a German
family from the earliest times to the middle of the 19th century.
The series comprises the following novels, none of which, however,
reaches the level of Freytag's earlier books, (x) /«j# und Ingra-
ban (1872), (2) Das Nest der Zaunhbnige (1874), (3) DUBrOder
vom deutsehen House (1875), (4) Marcus Konif (1876), (5) Die
Geschwister (1878), and (6) in conclusion, Aus einer klthun Stodt
(1880). Among Freytag's other works may be noticed Die
Technik des Dramas (1863); an excellent biography of the Baden
statesman Karl Mathy (1869); an autobiography (Erinnerungen
aus meinen Leben, 1887); his Gesammelte Aujs&tte, chiefly
reprinted from the Greneboten (x888); Der Kronprint und die
deutsche Kaiserkrone; Er inner ungsbidtler (1889). He died at
Wiesbaden on the 30th of April 1895.
Freytag's Gesammelte Wirra* were published in 32 vols, at Leipzig
(1886-1888); his Vermischu Aujsdtse have been edited by E. Elster,
2 vols. (Leipzig, 1001-1903). On Freytag's life see, besides his
autobiography mentioned above, the lives By C. Alberti (Leipzig,
1890) and F. Sciler (Leipzig, 1898).
FRIAR (from the Lai. /rater, through the Fr. frere), the
English generic name for members of the mendicant religious
orders. Formerly it was the title given to individual members
of these orders, as Friar Laurence (in Romeo and Juliet), but this
is not now common. In England the chief orders of friars wen
distinguished by the colour of their habit: thus the Franciscans
or Minors were the Grey Friars; the Dominicans or Preachers
were the Black Friars (from their black mantle over a white
habit), and the Carmelites were the White Friars (from their
white mantle over a brown habit): these, together with the
Austin Friars or Hermits, formed the four great mendicant
orders— Chaucer's "alle the ordres foure." Besides the four
great orders of friars, the Trinitarians (?.»•), though really
canons, were in England called Trinity Friars or Red Friars; the
Crutched or Crossed Friars were often identified with them, but
were really a distinct order; there were also a number of lesser
orders of friars, many of which were suppressed by the second
council of Lyons in 1274. Detailed information on these orders
and on their position in England is given in separate articles.
The difference between friars and monks is explained in ankle
Monastiosk. Though the usage is not accurate, friars, and also
canons regular, are often spoken of as monks and included among
the monastic orders.
See Fr. Cuthbert. The Friars and how they came to England,
pp. 11-32 (1901); also F. A. Gasquet, English Monastic Life, pp. 234-
249 (1901), where special information on all the English friars a
coveniently brought together (E. C B.)
FRIBOURG [Ger. Freiburg], one of the Swiss Cantons, io
the western portion of the country, and taking its name from
the town around which the various districts that compose it
gradually gathered. Its area is 6463 sq. m., of which 568 aq. m.
are classed as " productive " (forests covering 119 sq. m. and
vineyards -8 sq. m.); it boasts of no glaciers or eternal snow.
It is a hilly, not mountainous, region, the highest summits (of
which the Vanil Noir, 7858 ft., is the loftiest) rising in the Gruycrc
district at its south-eastern extremity, the best known being
probably the Moleson (658a ft.) and the Berra (5653 ft.). Bat
it is the heart of pastoral Switzerland, is famed for its cheese and
cattle, and is the original home of the " Ranrdes V aches" the
melody by which the herdsmen call their cattle home at milking
time. It is watered by the Sarine or Saane river (with its tribu-
taries the Singine or Sense and the Glane) that flows through the
canton from north to south, and traverses its capital tova.
The upper course of the Broye (like the Sarine, a tributary of
the Aar) and that of the Veveyse (flowing to the Lake of Geneva)
are in the southern portion of the canton. A small share of the
lakes of Neuchatel and of Morat belongs to the canton, whereto
the largest sheet of water is the Lac Noir or Schwarxsee. A
sulphur spring rises near the last-named lake, and there are other
such springs in the canton at Montbarry and at Bonn, near the
capital. There are about 150 m. of railways in the canton, tat
main line from Lausanne to Bern past Fribourj^ninning throug*
FRIBOURG
213
are also lines from Fribourg to Moral and to Estavayer,
m Romont (on the main line) a line runs to Bulk, and
ras extended to Gessenay or Saanen near the head of the
• Saane valley. The population of the canton amounted
to 127,951 souls, of whom 108440 were Romanists,
rotestants, and 167 Jews. The canton is on the linguistic
in Switzerland, the line of division running nearly due
d south through it, and even right through its capital,
there were 78,353 French-speaking inhabitants, and
krman -speaking, the latter being found chiefly in the
stern (Moral region) and north-eastern (Singine valley)
, as well as in the upper valley of the Jogne or Jaun in
h-east. Besides the capital, Fribourg (?.*.), the only
: any importance are Bulk (3330 inhabitants), Chatcl
1 (3509 inhabitants), Morat Op.) or Murtcn (2263 in-
s), Romont (2 no inhabitants), and Estavayer le Lac
i am Sec (1636 inhabitants).
anion is pre-eminently a pastoral and agricultural
tobacco, cheese and timber being its chief products,
istrics are comparatively few: straw-plaiting, watch-
[Semsales), paper-making (Marly), lime-kilns, and, above
huge Catller chocolate factory at Broc. It forms part
iocese of Lausanne and Geneva, the bishop living since
Fribourg. It is a stronghold of the Romanists, and still
many monasteries and nunneries, such as the Carthusian
t Valsainte, and the Cistercian nuns at La Fillc Dieu
faigrauge. The canton is divided into 7 administrative
, and contains 283 communes. It sends 2 members
by the cantonal legislature) to the Federal Stdnderatk,
nembers to the Federal Nalionalrath. The cantonal
tion has scarcely been altered since 1857, and is remark-
containing none of the modern devices (referendum,
e, proportional representation) save the right of " initia-
ojoyed by 6000 citizens to claim the revision of the
I constitution. The executive council of 7 members is
'or 5 years by the cantonal legislature, which consists
>ers (holding office for 5 years) elected in the proportion
> every 1200 (or fraction, over 800) of the population.
(W. A. B. C.)
9URG (Ger. Freiburg], the capital of the Swiss canton
lame. It is built almost entirely on the left bank of the
the oldest bit (the Bourg) of the town being just above
r bank, flanked by the Neuvevilk and Auge quarters,
st (with the Planchc quarter on the right bank of the
>rming the Villc Basse. On the steeply rising ground
vest of the Bourg is the Quartier des Places, beyond
to the west and south-west, is the still newer Perollcs
where are the railway station and the new University;
t (with the Bourg) constituting the VUU Haute. In
e population of the town was 15,704, of whom 13,270
imanists and 109 Jews, while 9701 were French-speaking,
5 German-speaking, these last being mainly in the Villc
Its linguistic history is curious. Founded as a German
le French tongue became the official language during the
part of the 14th and 15th centuries, but when it joined
ss Confederation in 148 1 the German influence came to
, and German was the official language from 1483 to 1798,
tg thus associated with the rule of the patricians. From
18x4, and again from 1830 onwards, French prevailed,
esent, though the new University is a centre of German
e.
urg is on the main line of railway from Bern (20 m.) to
ie (41 m.). The principal building in the town is the
Le church of St Nicholas, of which the nave dates from the
th centuries, while the choir was rebuilt in the 17th
. It is a fine building, remarkable in itself, as well as
ofty, late 15th century, bell-tower (249 ft. high), with a
J of bells; its famous organ was built between 1824 and
' Aloys Mooser (a native of the town), has 7800 pipes,
played daily in summer for the edification of tourists,
.onerous monasteries in and around the town, its old-
Mi aspect, its steep and narrow streets, give it a moat
striking appearance. One of the most conspicuous buildings in
the town is the college of St Michael, while in front of the 16th
century town hall is an ancient lime tree stated (but this is very
doubtful) to have been planted on the day of the victory of Morat
(June 22, 1476). In the Lycee is the Cantonal Museum of Fine
Arts, wherein, besides many interesting objects, is the collection
of paintings and statuary bequeathed to the town in 1879 by
Duchess Adela Colonna (a member of the d'Affry family of
Fribourg), by whom many were executed under the name of
" Marcello." The deep ravine of the Sarine is crossed by a very
fine suspension bridge, constructed 1832-1834 by M. Chaley,
of Lyons, which is 167 ft. above the Sarine, has a span of 808 ft.,
and consists of 6 huge cables composed of 3294 strands. A
loftier suspension bridge is thrown over the Gotteron stream
just before it joins the Sarine: it is 500 ft. long and 246 ft. in
height, and was built in 1840. About 3 m. north of the town
is the great railway viaduct or girder bridge of Grandfey, con-
structed in 1862 (1092 ft. in length, 249 ft. high) at a cost of
2} million francs. Immediately above the town a vast dam
(591 ft. long) was constructed across the Sarine by the engineer
Ritter in 1870-1872, the fall thus obtained yielding a water-
power of 2600 to 4000 horse-power, and forming a sheet of water
known as the Lac de Perolles. A motive force of 600 horse-
power, secured by turbines in the stream, is conveyed to the
plateau of Plrolles by " telodynamic " cables of 2510 ft. in
length, for whose passage a tunnel has been pierced in the rock.
On the Perollcs plateau is the International Catholic University
founded in 1889.
History. — In 11 78 the foundation of the town (meant to hold
in check the turbulent nobles of the neighbourhood) was com-
pleted by Berchthold IV., duke of Z&hringen, whose father Conrad
had founded Freiburg in Breisgau in 1120, and whose son,
Berchthold V., was to found Bern in 1191. The spot was chosen
for purposes of military defence, and was situated in the Uccht-
land or waste land between Alamannian and Burgundian
territory. He granted it many privileges, modelled on the
charters of Cologne and of Freiburg in Breisgau, though the oldest
existing charter of the town dates from 1249. On the extinction
of the mak line of the Zahringcn dynasty, in 1218, their lands
passed to- Anna, the sister of the last duke and wife of Count
Ulrich of Kyburg. That house kept Fribourg till it too became
extinct, in 1264, in the male line. Anna, the heiress, married
about 1273 Eberhard, count of Habsburg-Laufenburg, who sold
Fribourg in 1277 for 3000 marks to his cousin Rudolf, the head
of the house of Habsburg as well as emperor. The town had to
fight many a hard battle for its existence against Bern and the
count of Savoy, especially between 144S and 1452. Abandoned
by the Habsburgs, and desirous of escaping from the increasing
power of Bern, Fribourg in 1452 finally submitted to the count
of Savoy, to whom it had become indebted for vast sums of money.
Yet, despite all its difficulties, it was in the first half of the 15th
century that Fribourg exported much leather and cloth to France,
Italy and Venice, as many as 10,000 to 20,000 bales of cloth being
stamped with the seal of the town. When Yolandc, dowager
duchess of Savoy, entered into an alliance with Charles the Bold,
duke of Burgundy, Fribourg joined Bern, and helped to gain the
victories of Grandson and'of Morat (1476).
In 1477 the town was finally freed from the rule of Savoy,
while in 1481 (with Solcure) it became a member of the Swiss
Confederation, largely, it is said, through the influence of the
holy man, Bruder Klaus (Niklaus von der Fltte). In 1475
the town had taken Wens and Arcondcl from Savoy, and in
1536 won from Vaud much territory, including Romont, Rue,
Child St Denis, Estavayer, St Aubin (by these two conquests its
dominion reached the Lake of Ncuchatcl), as well as Vuissens and
Surpierre, which still form outlying portions (physically within
the canton of Vaud) of its territory, while in 1537 it took Bulk
from the bishop of Lausanne. In 1 502-1 504 the lordship of
Bellegarde or Jaun was bought, while in 1555 it acquired (jointly
with Bern) the lands of the last count of the Gruytre, and thus
obtained the rich district of that name. From 1475 it rule*
(with Bern) the bailiwicks of Morat, Grandson, Orbe and
214 FRICTION
A upon B, or to move the body B itself, according to lb* friction)
conditions. In the absence of friction it would simply cause A
to slide on B, so that we may call it an effort tending to make
A slide on B. The friction is the resistance offered by the surface
of B to any such motion. But the value of this resistance is not
in any way a function of the effort itself,— it depends chiefly
upon the pressure normal to the surfaces and the nature of the
surfaces. It may therefore be either less or greater than the
effort. If less, A slides over B, the rate of motion being deter-
mined by the excess of the effort over the resistance (friction).
But if the latter be greater no sliding can occur, £*. A cannot,
under the action of the supposed force, move upon B. The effort
between the surfaces exists, however, exactly as before,— and
it must now tend to cause the motion of B. But the body B is
fixed,— or, in other words, we suppose its resistance to motion
greater than any effort which can tend to move it, — hence no
motion takes place. It must be specially noticed, however,
that it is not the friction between A and B that has prevented
motion, this only prevented A moving on B, — it is the force
which keeps B stationary, whatever that may be, which has
finally prevented any motion taking place. This can be easily
seen. Suppose B not to be fixed, but to be capable of moving
against some third body C (which might, e.g. t contain cylindrical
bearings, if B were a drum with its shaft), itself fixed,— and
further, suppose the frictional resistance between B and C to
be the only resistance to B's motion. Then if this be less than
the effort of A upon B, as it of course may be, this effort will cause
the motion of B. Thus friction causes motion, for had there
been no frictional resistance between the surfaces of A and of B,
the latter body would have remained stationary, and A only
would have moved. In the case supposed, therefore, the friction
between A and B is a necessary condition of B receiving any
motion from the external force applied to A.
Without entering here on the mathematical treatment of
the subject of friction, some general conclusions may be pointed
out which have been arrived at as the results of experiment.
The "laws" first enunciated by C. A. Coulomb (1781), and after-
wards confirmed by A. J. Morin (1830-1834), have been found to
hold good within very wide limits. These are: (1) that the fric-
tion is proportional to the normal pressure between the surfaces
of contact, and therefore independent of the area of those surfaces,
and (2) that it is independent of the velocity with which the
surfaces slide one on the other. For many practical purposes
these statements are sufficiently accurate, and they do in fact
sensibly represent the results of experiment for the pressures
and at the velocities most commonly occurring. Assuming the
correctness of these, friction is generally measured in terms
simply of the total pressure between the surfaces, by multiplying
it by a " coefficient of friction " depending on the material of
the surfaces and their state as to smoothness and lubrication.
But beyond certain limits the "laws" stated are certainly
incorrect, and are to be regarded as mere practical rules, of
extensive application certainly, but without any pretension to
be looked at as really general laws. Both at very high and very
low pressures the coefficient of friction is affected by the intensity
of pressure, and, just as with velocity, it can only be regarded'
as independent of the intensity and proportional simply to the
total load within more or less definite limits.
Coulomb pointed out long ago that the resistance of a body
to be set in motion was in many cases much greater than the
resistance which it offered to continued motion; and since his
time writers have always distinguished the " friction of rest,"
or static friction, from the "friction of motion," or kinetic
friction. He showed also that the value of the former depended
often both upon the intensity of the pressure and upon the
length of time during which contact had lasted, both of which
facts quite agree with what we should expect from our know-
ledge of the physical nature, already mentioned, of the causes
of friction. It seems not unreasonable to expect that the
influence of time upon friction should show itself in a comparison
of very slow with very rapid motion, as well as in a comparison
of starting (i.e. motion after a long time of rest) with continued
FRIDAY— FRIEDLAND
215
notion. That the friction at the higher velocities occurring in
engineering practice is much less than at common velocities
has been shown by several modern experiments, such as those
of Sir Douglas Galton (see Rtport Brit. Assoc., 1878, and Proc.
Inst. Meek. Eng., 1878, 1879) on the friction between brake-blocks
and wheels, and between wheels and rails. But no increase in
the coefficient of friction had been detected at slow speeds,
until the experiments of Prof. Fleeming Jenkin (Phil. Trans.,
i&77» pt. a) showed conclusively that at extremely low velocities
(the lowest measured was about -oooj ft. per second) there is a
sensible increase of frictional resistance in many cases, most
notably in those in which there is the most marked difference
between the friction of rest and that of motion. These experi-
ments distinctly )x>int to the conclusion, although without
absolutely proving it, that in such cases the coefficient of kinetic
friction gradually increases as the velocity becomes extremely
small, and passes without discontinuity into that of static
friction. (A. B. W. K.; W. E. D.)
FRIDAY (A.S. frige-dag, fr. frige, gen. of frigu, love, or the
goddess of love— the Norse Frigg, — the dag, day; cf. Icelandic
frjddagr, O.H. Ger. friatag, frigatag, mod. Ger. Freitog),
the sixth day of the week, corresponding to the Roman Dies
Veneris, the French Vendrcdi and Italian Venerdi. The ill-luck
associated with the day undoubtedly arose from its connexion
with the Crucifixion; for the ancient Scandinavian peoples
regarded it as the luckiest day of the week. By the Western
and Eastern Churches the Fridays throughout the year, except
when Christmas falls on that day, have ever been observed as
days of fast in memory of the Passion. The special day on
which the Passion of Christ is annually commemorated is
known as Good Friday (q.v.). According to Mahommedan
tradition, Friday, which is the Moslem Sabbath, was the day on
which Adam was created, entered Paradise and was expelled,
and it was the day of his repentance, the day of his death, and
win be the Day of Resurrection.
FRIEDBERG, the name of two towns in Germany.
1. A small town in Upper Bavaria, with an old castle, known
mainly as the scene of Moreau's victory of the 24th of August
1796 over the Austrian s.
2. Friedberg in der Wetterau, in the grand duchy of
Hesse-Darmstadt, on an eminence above the Usa, 14 m. N. of
Frankfort -on-Main, on the railway to Cassel and at the junction
of a line to Hanau. Pop. (1905) 7702. It is a picturesque
town, still surrounded by old walls and towers, and contains many
medieval buildings, of which the beautiful Gothic town church
(Evangelical) and the old castle are especially noteworthy.
The grand-ducal palace has a beautiful garden. The schools
include technical and agricultural academies and a teachers'
seminary. It has manufactures of sugar, gloves and leather,
and breweries. Friedberg is of Roman origin, but is first men-
tioned as a town in the nth century. In 121 1 it became a free
imperial city, but in 1349 was pledged to the counts of Sch wan-
burg, and subsequently often changed hands, eventually in
1 So 2 passing to Hesse-Darmstadt.
See Dieffenbach, Geschichte dcr Siadt und Burg Friedberg (Darms.,
1857).
FRIEDEL, CHARLES (1832-1899), French chemist and miner-
alogist, was born at Strassburg on the 12th of March 1832.
After graduating at Strassburg University he spent a year in
the counting-house of his father, a banker and merchant, and
then in 1851 went to live in Paris with his maternal grandfather,
Georges Louis Duvernoy (1777-1855), professor of natural
history and, from 1850, of comparative anatomy, at the College
de France. In 1854 he entered C. A. Wurtz's laboratory, and
in 2856, at the instance of H. H. de Scnarrnont (1808-1862), was
appointed conservator of the mineralogical collections at the
Ecole des Mines. In 1871 he began to lecture in place of A. L.
O. L. Des Cloizeaux (1817-1897) at the ficole Normale, and in
1876 be became professor of mineralogy at the Sorbonne, but on
the death of WurU in 1884 he exchanged that position for
the chair of organic chemistry. He died at Montauban on the
20th of April 1899. Friedel achieved distinction both in miner-
alogy and organic chemistry. In the former be was one of the
leading workers, in collaboration from 1879 to 1887 with £mile
Edmond Sarasin (1843-1890), at the formation of minerals by
artificial means-, particularly in the wet way with the aid of heat
and pressure, and he succeeded in reproducing a large number
of the natural compounds. In 1893, as the result of an attempt
to make diamond by the action of sulphur on highly carburet ted
cast iron at 45o°-50o° C. he obtained a black powder too small in
quantity to be analysed but hard enough to scratch corundum.
He also devoted much attention to the pyroelectric phenomena
of crystals, which served as the theme of one of the two memoirs
be presented for the degree of D.Sc. in 1869, and to the deter-
mination of crystallographic constants. In organic chemistry,
his study of the ketones and aldehydes, begun in 1857, provided
him with the subject of bis other doctoral thesis. In 1862 he
prepared secondary propyl alcohol, and in 1863, with James
Mason Crafts (b. 1839), for many years a professor at the Massa-
chusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, he obtained various
organometallic compounds of silicon. A few years later further
work, with Albert Ladenburg, on the same element yielded
silicocliloroform and led to a demonstration of the close analogy
existing between the behaviour in combination of silicon and
carbon. In 1871, with R. D. da Silva (b. 1837) be synthesized
glycerin, starting from propylene. In 1877, with Crafts, he
made the first publication of the fruitful and widely used method
for synthesizing benzene homologues now generally known as
the " Friedel and Crafts reaction." It was based on an accidental
observation of the action of metallic aluminium on amyl chloride,
and consists in bringing together a hydrocarbon and an organic
chloride in presence of aluminium chloride, when the residues
of the two compounds unite to form a more complex body.
Friedel was associated with Wurtz in editing the latter's Diction-
naire de chime, and undertook the supervision of the supplements
issued after 1884. He was the chief founder of the Revue generate
de chimie in 1899. His publications include a Notice sur la vie
et les travaux de Wurts (1885), Cours de chimie organique (1887)
and Cours de mineralogie (1893). He acted as president of the
International Congress held at Geneva in 1892 for revising the
nomenclature of the fatty acid series.
Sec a memorial lecture by T. M. Crafts, printed in the Journal of
the London Chemical Society for 1900.
FRIEDLAND, a town of Bohemia, Austria, 103 m. N.E. of
Prague by rail Pop. (1900) 6229. Besides the old town, which
is still surrounded by walls, it contains three suburbs. The
principal industry is the manufacture of woollen and linen cloth.
Friedland is chiefly remarkable for its old castle, which occupies
an imposing situation on a small hill commanding the town.
A round watch-tower is said to have been built on its site as
early as 1014; and the present castle dates from the 13th century.
It was several times besieged in the Thirty Years' and Seven
Years' Wars. In 1622 it was purchased by Wallenstcin, who
took from it bis title of duke of Friedland. After his death it
was given to Count Mathias Gallas by Ferdinand II., and since
17 57 it has belonged to the Count Clam Gallas. It was magnifi-
cently restored in 1 868-1 869.
FRIEDLAND, the name of seven towns in Germany. The
most important now is that in the grand duchy of Mecklenburg-
Strelitz, on the Miihlentcich, 35 m. N.E. of Strelitz by the
railway to Ncu-Brandenburg. Pop. 7000. It possesses -a fine
Gothic church and a gymnasium, and has manufactures of
woollen and linen cloth, leather and tobacco. Friedland was
founded in 1244 by the margraves John and Otto III. of
Brandenburg.
FRIEDLAND, a town of Prussia, on the Alle, 27 m. S.E. of
KGnigsberg (pop. 3000), famous as the scene of the battle
fought between the French under Napoleon and the Russians
commanded by General Bcnnigsen, on the 14th of June 1807
(see Napoleonic Campaigns). The Russians had on the 13th
driven the French cavalry outposts from Friedland to the west-
ward, and Bennigsen's main body began to occupy the town in
the night. The army of Napoleon was set in motion for Friedland,
but it was still dispersed on its various march routes, and the
2l6
FRIEDMANN— FRIEDRICHRODA
first stage of the engagement was thus, as usual, a pure " en-
counter-battle." The corps of Marshal Lannes as "general
advanced guard " was first engaged, in the Sortlack Wood and
in front of Posthenen (2.30-3 a.m. on the 14th). Both sides now
used their cavalry freely to cover the formation of lines of battle,
and a race between the rival squadrons for the possession of
Heinrichsdorf resulted in favour of the French under Grouchy.
Lannes in the meantime was fighting hard to hold Bennigsen,
fot Napoleon feared that the Russians meant to evade him again.
Actually, by 6 a.m. Bennigsen had nearly 50,000 men across the
river and forming up west of Friedland. His infantry, in two
lines, with artillery, extended between the Heinricbsdorf-Friedland
road and the upper bends of the river. Beyond the right of the
infantry, cavalry and Cossacks extended the line to the wood
N.E. of Heinrichsdorf, and small bodies of Cossacks penetrated
even to Schwonau. The left wing also had some cavalry and,
beyond the Alle, batteries were brought into action to cover it.
A heavy and indecisive fire-fight raged in the Sortlack Wood
between the Russian skirmishers and some of Lannes's troops.
The head of Mortier's (French and Polish) corps appeared at
Heinrichsdorf and the Cossacks were driven out of Schwonau.
Lannes held his own, and by noon, when Napoleon arrived,
40,000 French troops were on the scene of action. His orders
were brief: Ney's corps was to take the line between Posthenen
and the Sortlack Wood, Lannes closing on his left, to form the
centre, Mortier at Heinrichsdorf the left wing. Victor and the
Guard were placed in reserve behind Posthenen. Cavalry
masses were collected at Heinrichsdorf. The main attack was
to be delivered against the Russian left, which Napoleon saw at
once to be cramped in the narrow tongue of land between the
river and the Posthenen mill-stream. Three cavalry divisions
were added to the general reserve. The course of the previous
operations had been such that both armies had still large de-
tachments out towards Kontgsberg. The afternoon was spent by
the emperor in forming up the newly arrived masses, the deploy-
ment being covered by an artillery bombardment. At 5 o'clock
all was ready, and Ney, preceded by a heavy artillery fire,
rapidly carried the Sortlack Wood. The attack was pushed on
toward the Alle. One of Ncy's divisions (Marchand) drove part
of the Russian left into the river at Sortlack. A furious charge
of cavalry against Marchand's left was repulsed by the dragoon
division of Latour-Maubourg. Soon the Russians were huddled
together in the bends of the Alle, an easy target for the guns of
Ney and of the reserve. Ney's attack indeed came eventually
to a standstill; Bennigsen's reserve cavalry charged with great
effect and drove him back in disorder. As at Eyiau, the approach
of night seemed to preclude a decisive success, but in June and
on firm ground the old mobility of the French reasserted
its value. The infantry division of Dupont advanced rapidly
from Posthenen, the cavalry divisions drove back the Russian
squadrons into the now congested masses of foot on the river
bank, and finally the artillery general Senannont advanced a
mass of guns to case-shot range. It was the first trample of
the terrible artillery preparations of modern warfare, and the
Russian defence collapsed in a few minutes. Ney's rrhairited
infantry were able to pursue the broken regiments of Bennigsen's
left into the streets of Friedland. Lannes and Mortier bad aO
this time held the Russian centre and right on its ground, and
their artillery had inflicted severe losses. When Friedland itsdf
was seen to be on fire, the two marshals launched their infantry
attack. Fresh French troops approached the hattlrfidd.
Dupont distinguished himself for the second time by fording
the mill-stream and assailing the left flank of the Russian centre.
This offered a stubborn resistance, but the French steadily
forced the line backwards, and the battle was soon over. The
losses incurred by the Russians in retreating over the river at
Friedland were very heavy, maiiy soldiers being drowned.
Farther north the still unbroken troops of the right wing drew
off by the Allenburg road; the French cavalry of the left wing,
though ordered to pursue, remaining, for some reason, inactive.
The losses of the victors were reckoned at 12,100 out of 86,000,
or 14%, those of the Russians at 10,000 out of 46,000, or 21%
(Berndt, Zahl im Kricge).
FRIEDMANN, MEIR (1831-1008), Hungarian Jewish scholar.
His editions of the Midrash are the standard texts. His chief
editions were the Si/re (1864), the MckkiUa (1870), PesiqU
Rabbaiki (1880). At the time of- his death he was editing the
Sijra. Friedmann, while inspired with regard for tradition, dealt
with the Rabbinic texts on modern scientific methods, and ren-
dered conspicuous service to the critical investigation of the
Midrash and to the history of early homilies. (L A.)
FRIEDRICH, JOHANN (1836- ), German theologian, was
born at Poxdorf in Upper Franconia on the 5th of May 1836,
and was educated at Bamberg and at Munich, where in 1865 be
was appointed professor extraordinary of theology. In 1869 he
went to the Vatican Council as secretary to Cardinal Hobenlobe,
and took an active part in opposing the dogma of papal infalli-
bility, notably by supplying the opposition bishops with histori-
cal and theological material. He left Rome before the council
dosed. " No German ecclesiastic of his age appears to have won
for himself so unusual a repute as a theologian and to have held
so important a position, as the trusted counsellor of the leading
German cardinal at the Vatican Council. The path was fairly
open before him to the highest advancement in the Church of
Rome, yet he deliberately sacrificed all such hopes and placed
himself in the van of a hard and doubtful struggle" {The Guariio*,
1872, p. 1004). Sentence of excommunication was passed on
Fried rich in April 187 1, but be refused to acknowledge it and
was upheld by the Bavarian government. He continued to
perform ecclesiastical functions and maintained his academic
position, becoming ordinary professor in 1872. In z88a be vat
transferred to the philosophical faculty as professor of history.
By this time he had to some extent withdrawn from the ad-
vanced position which he at first occupied in organizing the OU
Catholic Church, for he was not in agreement with its aboBtion
of enforced celibacy.
Friedrich was a proline writer; among his chief works are:
Johann Wessd (1862); Die Lehre des Johann Hus (1862); Jtvcfa*
gesckichte Deutschiamds (186 7- 1 869); Tugebueh wdkrend des Vakhe*.
Canals gejukrt (1871); Zur Vertetdigtmg meines Tamcbucks (1872);
BcUrdge zur Kirthengesckichte des 18 ten Jahrk. (1876) ; Gesckidtk its
Valikan. KonaJs (1877-1886); Beiirdee zur Gesck. da Jesmttsmdm
(1881); Das PapsUum (1892); /. v. DWiu&r (1 899-1901).
FRIEDRICHRODA, a summer resort in the duchy of Saxe*
Coburg-Gotha, Germany, at the north foot of the Thurisgiaa
Forest, 13 m. by rail S.W. from Gotha. Pop. 4500. It is sur-
rounded by fir-dad bills and possesses numerous
FRIEDRICHSDORF— FRIENDLY SOCIETIES
217
villa residences, a Kurkaus, sanatorium, &c In the immediate
neighbourhood is the beautiful ducal hunting seat of Reinbards-
brunn, built out of the ruins of the famous Benedictine monastery
founded in 1085.
FRIEDRICHSDORF, a town of Germany, in the Prussian
province of Hesse-Nassau, on the southern slope of the Taunus
range, 3 m. N.E. from Homburg. Pop. 130a It has a French
Reformed church, a modern school, dyeworks, weaving mills,
tanneries and tobacco manufactures. Friedrichsdorf was founded
in 1687 by Huguenot refugees and the inhabitants still speak
French. There is a monument to Philipp Reis (1834-1874),
who in i860 first constructed the telephone while a science
master at the school.
FRIHDRICHSHAFEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom
of Wtkrttemberg, on the east shore of the Lake of Constance, at
the junction of railways to Bretten and Lindau. Pop. 4600.
It consists of the former imperial town of Buchhorn and the
monastery and village of Hofen. The principal building is the
palace, formerly the residence of the provosts of Hofen, and
now the summer residence of the royal family. To the palace
is attached the Evangelical parish church. The town has a
hydropathic establishment and is a favourite tourist resort.
Here are also the natural history and antiquarian collections of
the Lake Constance Association. Buchhorn is mentioned (as
Buachihora or Puchihorn) in documents of 837 and was the
seat of a powerful countship. The line of counts died out in
1080, and the place fell first to the Welfs and in 1191 to the
Hohenstaufen. In 1275 it was made a free imperial city by
King Rudolph I. In 1802 it lost this status and was assigned
to Bavaria, and in 1810 to WQrttemberg. The monastery of
Hofen was founded in 1050 as a convent of Benedictine nuns,
but was changed in 1420 into a provostship of monks. It was
suppressed in 1802 and in 1805 came to Wurttemberg. King
Frederick I., who caused the harbour to be made, amalgamated
Buchhorn and Hofen under the new name of Friedrichshafen.
FRIEDRICHSRTJH, a village in the Prussian province of
Schleswig-Holstein, 15 m. S.E. of Hamburg, with a station on
the main line of railway to Berlin. It gives its name to the
famous country seat of the Bismarck family. The house is a
plain unpretentious structure, but the park and estate, forming
a portion of the famous Sachsenwald, are attractive. Close by,
on a knoll, the Schneckenberg, stands the mausoleum in
which the remains of Prince Otto von Bismarck were entombed
on the 16th of Mar ch 18 99.
FRIENDLY 1 SOCIETIES. These organizations, according to
the comprehensive definition of the Friendly Societies Act 1806,
which regulates such societies in Great Britain and Ireland,
are " societies for the purpose of providing by voluntary subscrip-
tions of the members thereof, with or without the aid of donations,
for the relief or maintenance of the members, their husbands,
wives, children, fathers, mothers, brothers or sisters, nephews
or nieces, or wards being orphans, during sickness or other
infirmity, whether bodily or mental, in old age, or in widowhood,
or for the relief or maintenance of the orphan children of members
during minority; for insuring money to be paid on the birth of
a member's child, or on the death of a member, or for the funeral
expenses of the husband, wife, or child of a member, or of the
widow of a deceased member, or, as respects persons of the
Jewish persuasion, for the payment of a sum of money during
the period of confined mourning; for the relief or maintenance
of the members when on travel in search of employment or when
in distressed circumstances, or in case of shipwreck, or loss
or damage of or to boats or nets; for the endowment of members
or nominees of members at any age; for the insurance against
fire to any amount not exceeding £15 of the tools or implements
of the trade or calling of the members "—and are limited in
their contracts for assurance of annuities to £52 (previous to the
1 The word " friend " (O.E. freond. Ger. Freund, Dutch Vriend) is
derived from an old Teutonic verb meaning to love. While used
geneially as the opposite to enemy, it is specially the term which
connote* any degree, but particularly a high degree of personal
goodwill, affection or regard, from which the element of texmu love
b absent.
Friendly Societies Act 1008 the sum was £50), and for insurance
of a gross sum to £300 (previous to the act of 1008 the sum was
£200). They may be described in a more popular and condensed
form of words as the mutual insurance societies of the poorer
classes, by which they seek to aid each other in the emergencies
arising from sickness and death and other causes of distress. A
phrase in the first act for the encouragement and relief of friendly
societies, passed in 1793, designating them " societies of good
fellowship," indicates another useful phase of their operations.
The origin of the friendly society is, probably in all countries,
the burial club. It has been the policy of every religion, if indeed
it is not a common instinct of humanity, to surround the disposal
of a dead body with circumstances of pomp and expenditure,
often beyond the means of the surviving relatives. The appeal
for help to friends and neighbours which necessarily follows is
soon organized into a system of mutual aid, that falls in naturally
with the religious ceremonies by which honour is done to the
dead. Thus in China there arc burial societies, termed " long-life
loan companies," in almost all the towns and villages. Among
the Greeks the IpaKH combined the religious with the provident
element (see Charity and Charities). From the Greeks the
Romans derived their fraternities of a similar kind. The Teutons
in like manner had their gilds. Whether the English friendly
society owes its origin in the higher degree to the Roman or the
Teutonic influence can hardly be determined. The utility of
providing by combination for the ritual expenditure upon burial
having been ascertained, the next step— to render mutual assist-
ance in circumstances of distress generally— was an easy one,
and we find it taken by the Greek Ipavoc and by the English
gilds. Another modification — that the societies should consist not
so much of neighbours as of persons having the same occupation
— soon arises; and this is the germ of our trade unions and
our city companies in their original constitution. The interest,
however, that these inquiries possess is mainly antiquarian.
The legal definition of a friendly society quoted above points to
an organization more complex than those of the ancient fraterni-
ties and gilds, and proceeding upon different principles. It
may be that the one has grown out of the other. The common
element of a provision for a contingent event by a joint contribu-
tion is in both; but the friendly society alone has attempted
to define with precision what is the risk against which it intends
to provide, and what should be the contributions of the members
to meet that risk.
United Kingdom. — It would be curious to endeavour to trace
bow, after the suppression of the religious gilds in the 16th
century, and the substitution of an organized system of relief
by the poor law of Elizabeth for the more voluntary and casual
means of relief that previously existed, the modern system of
friendly societies grew up. The modern friendly society, particu-
larly in rural districts, clings with fondness to its annual feast
and procession to church, its procession of all the brethren on
the occasion of the funeral of one of them, and other incidents
which are almost obviously survivals of the customs of medieval
gilds. The last recorded gild was in existence in 1628, and there
are records of friendly societies as early as 1634 and 1639. The
connecting links, however, cannot be traced. With the exception
of a society in the port of Borrowstounness on the Firth of Forth,
no existing .friendly society is known to be able to trace back its
history beyond a date late in the 17th century, and no records
remain of any that might have existed in the latter half of the
16th century or the greater part of the 17th. One founded in
1666. was extant in 1850, but it has since ceased to exist. This
is not so surprising as it might appear. Documents which exist
in manuscript only are much less likely to have been preserved
since the invention of printing than they were before; and such
would be the simple rules and records of any society that might
have existed during this interval — if, indeed, many of them
kept records at all. On the whole, it seems probable therefore
that the friendly society is a lineal descendant of the ancient
gild— the idea never having wholly died out, but having been
kept up from generation to generation in a su cc ess ion of small
and scattered societies.
218
FRIENDLY SOCIETIES
At the same time, it seems probable that the friendly society
of the present day owes its revival to a great extent to the Protest-
ant refugees of Spitalfields, one of whose societies was founded
in 1703, and has continued among descendants of the same
families, whose names proclaim their Norman origin. This
society has distinguished itself by the intelligence with which it
has adapted its machinery to the successive modifications of the
law, and it completely reconstructed its rules under the provisions
of the Friendly Societies Acts 1875 and 1876.
Another is the society of Lintot, founded in London in 1708,
in which the office of secretary was for more than half a century
filled by persons of the name of Levcsque, one of whom published
a translation of its original rules. No one was to be received into
the society who was not a member, or the descendant of a mem-
ber, of the church of Lintot, of recognized probity, a good Pro-
testant, and well-intentioned towards the queen [Anne] and
faithful to the government of the country No one was to be
admitted below the age of eighteen, or who had not been received
at holy communion and become member of a church. A
member should not have a claim to relief during his first year's
membership, but if he fell sick within the year a collection should
be made for him among the members. The foreign names still
borne by a large proportion of the members show that the con-
nexion with descendants of the refugees is maintained.
The example of providence given by these societies was so
largely followed that Rose's Act in 1793 recognized the existence
of numerous societies, and provided encouragement for them in
various ways, as well as relief from taxation to an extent which
in those days must have been of great pecuniary value, and ex-
emption from removal under the poor law. The benefits offered
by this statute were readily accepted by the societies, and the
vast number of societies which speedily became enrolled shows
that Rose's Act met with a real public want. In the county of
Middlesex alone nearly a thousand societies were enrolled within
a very few years after the passing of the act, and the number in
some other counties was almost as great The societies then
formed were nearly all of a like kind— small clubs, in which the
feature, of good fellowship was in the ascendant, and that of
provident assurance for sickness and death merely accessory.
This is indicated by one provision which occurs in many of the
early enrolled rules, viz. that the number of members shall be
limited to 6i, 81 or 101, as the case may be. The odd 1 which
occurs in these numbers probably stands for the president or
secretary, or is a contrivance to ensure a clear majority. Several
of these old societies are still in existence, and can point to a
prosperous career based rather upon good luck than upon
scientific calculation. Founded among small tradesmen or
persons in the way to thrive, the claims for sickness were only
made in cases where the sickness was accompanied by distress,
and even the funeral allowance was not always demanded.
The societies generally not being established upon any scientific
principle, those which met with this prosperity were the excep-
tion to the rule; and accordingly the cry that friendly societies
were failing in all quarters was as great in 1819 as in 1869. A
writer of that time speaks of the instability of friendly societies
as " universal "; and the general conviction that this was so
resulted in the passing of the act of 1819. It recites that " the
habitual reliance of poor persons upon parochial relief, rather
than upon their own industry, tends to the moral deterioration
of the people and to the accumulation of heavy burthens upon
parishes; and it is desirable, with a view as well to the reduction
of the assessment made for the relief of the poor as to the improve-
ment of the habits of the people, that encouragement should be
afforded to persons desirous of making provision for themselves*
or their families out of the fruits of their own industry. By the
contributions of the savings of many persons to one common
fund the most effectual provision may be made for the casualties
affecting all the contributors; and it is therefore desirable to
afford further facilities and additional security, to persons who
may be willing to unite in appropriating small sums from time
to time to a common fund for the purposes aforesaid, and it is
desirable to protect such persons from the effects of fraud or
miscalculation." This preamble went on to recite that the
provisions of preceding acts had been found insufficient for these
purposes, and great abuses had prevailed in many societies
established under their authority. By this statute a friendly
society was defined as " an institution, whereby it is intended
to provide, by contribution, on the principle of mutual insurance,
for the maintenance or assistance of the contributors thereto,
their wives or children, in sickness, infancy, advanced age,
widowhood or any other natural state or contingency, whereof
the occurrence is susceptible of calculation by way of average."
It will be seen that this act dealt exclusively with the scientific
aspect of the societies, and had nothing to say to the element
of good fellowship. Rules and tables were to be submitted by
the persons intending to form a society to the justices, who,
before confirming them, were to satisfy themselves that the con-
tingencies which the society was to provide against were within
the meaning of the act, and that the formation of the society
would be useful and beneficial, regard being had to the existence
of other societies in the same district. No table* or rules con,
nected with calculation were to be confirmed by the justices until
they had been approved by two persons at least, known to be
professional actuaries or persons skilled in calculation, as fit
and proper, according to the most correct calculation of which
the nature of the case would admit. The justices in quarter
sessions were also by this act authorized to publish general rules'
for the formation and government of friendly societies within
their county. The practical effect of this stat ute in requiring that
the societies formed under it should be established on sound
principles does not appear to have been as great as might have
been expected. The justices frequently accepted as " persons
skilled in calculation " local schoolmasters and others who had
no real knowledge of .the technical difficulties of the subject,
while the restrictions upon registry served only to increase the
number of societies established without becoming registered.
In 1829 the law relating to friendly societies was entirely re-
constructed by an act of that year, and a barrister was appointed
under that act to examine the rules of societies, and ascertain
that they were in conformity to law and to the provisions of the
act. The barrister so appointed was John Tidd Pratt (1797-
1870); and no account of friendly societies would be complete
that did not do justice to the remarkable public service rendered
by this gentleman. For forty years, though he had by statute
really very slight authority over the societies, his name exercised
the widest influence, and the numerous reports and publications
by which he endeavoured to impress upon the public mind sound
principles of management of friendly societies, and to expose
those which were managed upon unsound principles, made him
a terror to evil-doers. On the other hand, he lent with readiness
the aid of his legal knowledge and great mental activity to assist-
ing well-intentioned societies in coming within the provisions
of the acts, and thus gave many excellent schemes a legal
organization.
By the act of 1829, in lieu of the discretion as to whether the
formation of the proposed society would be useful and beneficial,
and the requirement of the actuarial certificate to the tables, it was
enacted that the justices were to satisfy themselves that the
tables proposed to be used might be adopted with safety to all
parties concerned. This provision, of course, became a dead
letter and was repealed in 1834. Thenceforth, societies were
free to establish themselves upon what conditions and with what
rates they chose, provided only they satisfied the barrister that
the rules were " calculated to carry into effect the intention of the
parties framing them," and were " in conformity to law. 1 *
By an act of 1846 the barrister certifying the rules
was constituted "Registrar of Friendly Societies," and the
rules of all societies were brought together under his custody.'
An actuarial certificate was to be obtained before any society
could be registered " for the purpose of securing any benefit
dependent on the laws of sickness and mortality.'' In x8so the
acts were again repealed and consolidated with amendments.
Societies were divided into two classes, " certified " and
" registered." The certified societies were such as obtained 1
FRIENDLY SOCIETIES
certificate to their tables by an actuary possessing a given quali-
fication, who was required to set forth the data of sickness and
mortality upon which he proceeded, and the rate of interest
assumed in the calculations. All other societies were to be
simply registered. Very few societies were constituted of the
'* certified " class. The distinction of classes was repealed and
the acts were again consolidated in 1855. Under this act, which
admitted of all possible latitude to the framers of rules of societies,
31,875 societies were registered, a large number of them being
lodges or courts of affiliated orders, and the act continued in
force till the end of 1875.
The Friendly Societies Act 1875 and the several acts amending
it are still, in effect, the law by which these societies are regulated,
though in form they have been replaced by two consolidating
acts, via. the Friendly Societies Act 1806 and the Collecting
Societies and Industrial Assurance Companies Act 1896. This
legislation still bears the permissive and clastic character which
marked the more successful of the previous acts, but it provides
ampler means to membersof ascertaining and remedying defectsof
management and of restraining fraud. The business of registry is
under the cont rol of a chief registrar, who has an assistant registrar
in each of the three countries, with an actuary. An appeal to the
chief registrar in the case of the refusal of an assistant registrar
to register a society or an amendment of rules, and in the case of
suspension or cancelling of registry, is interposed before appeal
is to be made to the High Court. Registry under a particular
name may be refused if in the opinion of the registrar the name
is likely to deceive the members or the public as to the nature
of the society or as to its identity. It is the duty of the chief
registrar, among other things, to require from every society a
return in proper form each year of its receipts and expenditure,
funds and effects; and also once every five years a valuation of
its assets and liabilities. Upon the application of a certain
proportion of the members, varying according to the magnitude
of the society, the chief registrar may appoint an inspector to
examine into its affairs, or may call a general meeting of the
members to consider and determine any matter affecting its
interests. These are powers which have been used with excellent
effect. Cases have occurred, in which fraud has been detected
and punished by this means that could not probably have been
otherwise brought to light. In others a system of mismanagement
has been exposed and effectually checked. The power of calling
special meetings has enabled societies to remedy defects in their
rules, to remove officers guilty 9! misconduct, &c, where the
procedure prescribed by the rules was for some reason or other
inapplicable. Upon an application of a like proportion of mem-
bers the chief registrar may, if he finds that the funds of a society
are insufficient to meet the existing claims thereon, or that
the rates of contribution are insufficient to cover the benefits
assured (upon which he consults his actuary), order the society
to be dissolved, and direct how its funds are to be applied.
Authority is given to the chief registrar to direct the expense
(preliminary, incidental, &c.) of an inspection or special
meeting to be defrayed by the members or officers, or former
members or officers, of a society, if he does not think they
should be defrayed either by the applicants or out of the
society's funds. He is also empowered, with the approval of
the treasury, to exempt any friendly society from the provisions
of the Collecting Societies Act if he considers it to be one to
which those provisions ought not to apply. Every society regis-
tered after 1895, to which these provisions do apply, is to use the
words " Collecting Society " as the last words of its name.
The law as to the membership of infants has been altered three
times. The act of 1875 allowed existing societies to continue
any rule or practice of admitting children as members that was
in force at its passing, and prohibited membership under sixteen
years of age in any other case, except the case of a juvenile
society composed wholly of members under that age. The
treasury made special regulations for the registry of such juvenile
societies. In 1887 the maximum age of their members wai
extended to twenty-one. In 1805 it was enacted that no society
should have any members under one year of age, whcthei
219
or not; and that every society
: admitting members at any age
dly Societies Act 1908 member-
nder the age of one year. The
of 1895 coming into operation,
e registry of juvenile societies;
; to submit for registry societies
idcr twenty-one, these societies
ties, except in the circumstances
*rs and a committee of manage-
• of the committee of any society
I age. In order to promote the
i proceeding of creating societies
:t, which, by the conditions of
self-governing, the act provides
; juvenile societies and ordinary
jibuting the members and the
ng a number of branches. The
ng working lads to sickness is
cntly accumulate funds, which,
euy, remain unclaimed and axe
6 was the result of the labours of
ity, presided over by Sir Stafford
eigh), which sat from 1870 to 1874,
ouiry into the organization ami
friendly societies. Their reports
uebooks. They divided registered
liated societies or " orders,'* such
Idfcllows, the Ancient Order of
is, &c. These societies have a
nc large town, as in the case of the
n place to place, as in that of the
dy, the country is (in most cases)
»5
3
t
w
stered as a separate society except
rom the order that it had seceded
was further enacted that no such
pulsion, use any name or number
f the order. The orders generally,
aref ully supervised the valuations
and, as far as circumstances have
>rced upon the branches measures
tiich the valuations have disclosed,
lich branches disposed to make an
matter may be assisted out of a
is made up of " general societies,'*
of which the commissioners enu-
imbers,and funds amounting to a
county societies." These societies
>y those for whose benefit they are
gh rates of contribution, in order
" is a very numerous one. Among
t be mentioned the " Chelmsford
i Sussex Mutual," the '
ningham General Provident." la
220
FRIENDLY SOCIETIES
this group might also be included the interesting societies which are
established among the Jewish community. They differ from ordinary
friendly societies partly in the nature of the benefits granted upon
death, which are intended to compensate for loss of employment
during the time of ceremonial seclusion enjoined by the Jewish law,
which is called " sitting shiva." They also provide a cab for the
mourners and rabbi, and a tombstone for the departed, and the
tame benefits as an ordinary friendly society during sickness. Some
also provide a place of worship. Oi these the " Pursuers of Peace "
(enrolled in December 1797), the " Bikhur Cholim, or Visitors
of the Sick " (April 1798), the " Hosier Holim " (1804), may be
mentioned.
Class 5 was " local village and country societies," including the
small public-house clubs which abound in the villages and rural
districts, a large proportion of which are unregistered.
Class 6 was formed of " particular trade societies."
Class 7 was " dividing societies." These were before 1875 un-
authorised by law, though they were very attractive to the members.
Their practice is usually to start afresh every January, paying a
subscription somewhat in excess of that usually charged by an
ordinary friendly society, out of which a sick allowance is granted
to any member who may fall sick during the year, and at Christmas
the balance not so applied is divided among the members equally,
with the exception of a small sum left to begin the new year with.
The mischief of the system is that, as there is no accumulation of
funds, the society cannot provide for prolonged sickness or old age.
and must either break up altogether or exclude its sick and aged
members at the very time when they most need its help. This,
however, has not impaired the popularity of the societies, and the
act of 1875, framed on the sound principle that the protection of
the law should not be withheld from any form of association, enables
a society to be registered with a rule for dividing its funds, provided
only that all existing claims upon the society are to be met before
a division takes place.
Class 8, " deposit friendly societies," combine the characteristics
of a savings bank with those of a friendly society. They were
devised by the Hon. and Rev. S. Best, on the principle that a certain
proportion of the sick allowance is to be raised out of a member's
separate deposit account, which, if not so used, is retained for his
benefit. Their advantages arc in the encouragement they offer to
saving, and in meeting the selfish objection sometimes raised to
It has never been lawful to assure more than £6 on the death of a
To many such persons these societies, despite all their errors of
constitution and management, have been of great benefit. The great
source of these errors Lies in a tendency on the part of the managers
of the societies to forget that they are simply trustees, and to look
upon the concern as their own personal property to be managed .for
their own benefit. These societies are of two kinds, local and general.
For the general societies the act of 1875 made certain stringent
provisions. Each member was to be furnished with a copy ofthe
rules for one penny, and a signed policy for the same charge. For-
feiture of benefit for non-payment is not to be enforced without
fourteen days' written notice. The transfer of a member from one
society to another was not to be made without his written consent
and notice to the society affected. No collector is to be a manager,
or vote or take part at any meeting. At least one general meeting
was to be held every year, of which notice must be given either by
advertisement or by letter or post card to each member. The
balance-sheet is to be open for inspection seven days before the
meeting, and to be certified by a public accountant, not an officer of
the society. Disputes could be settled by justices, or county courts,
notwithstanding anything in the rules of the society to the contrary.
Closely associated with the question of the management of these
societies is that of the risk incurred by infant We, through the
facilities offered by these societies for making insurances on the
death of children. That this is a real risk is certain from the records
of the assizes, and from many circumstances of suspicion ; but the
extent of it cannot be measured, and has probably been exaggerated.
In their rules may be found such a provision as that a member shafl
be fined who docs not " behave as becometh an Orangewomaa."
Many are unregistered. In the northern counties of England they are
sometimes termed " life boxes," doubtless from the old custom of
placing the contributions in a box. The trustees, treasurer, and
committee are usually females, but very frequently the secretary
is a man, paid a small salary.
Under Class 12 the commissioners included the s o ciet ies for
various purposes which were authorized by the secretary oi state to
be registered under the Friendly Societies Act of 1855, comprising
working-men's clubs, and certain specially authorised societies.
as well as others that are now defined to be friendly societies. Among
these purposes are assisting members in search of employment;
assisting members during slack seasons of trade; granting temporary
relief to members in distressed circumstances; purchase of coals and
other necessaries to be supplied to members; relief or maintenance
in case of lameness, blindness, insanity, paralysis, or bodily hurt
:idcnts; also, the assurance against loss by disease or
ttle employed in trade or agriculture; relief in case of
r loss or damage to boats or nets; and societies for social
mutual helpfulness, mental and moral improvement,
reation, &c, called working-men's clubs,
was composed of cattle insurance societies,
e the thirteen classes into which the co
istered friendly societies. There were 26,034 societies
certified under the various acts for friendly s oci et ies
tween 1793 and 1855; *nd< as we have seen, 31,875
mistered under the act of 1855 before the 1st January
the act of 1875 came into operation. The total there-
eties to which a legal constitution had been given was
47,909. Of these 26,087 were presumed to be in existence when
the registrar called for his annual return, but only 11,282 furnished
the return required. These had 3404,187 members, and £9.336,946
funds. Twenty-two societies returned over 10,000 members each;
nine over 30,000. One society (the Royal Liver Friendly Society,
Liverpool, the largest of the collecting societies) returned 682*371
members. The next in order was one of the same .class, the United
Assurance Society, Liverpool, with 159,957 members; but in all
societies of this class the membership consists very largely of in-
fants. The average of members in the 11,260 societies with less
than 10,000 members each was only 171.
Such were the registered societies; but there remained bemad a
large body of unregistered societies. With increased knowl e dge of
the advantages of registration, 1 and of the true principles upon
which friendly societies should be established, the number of as-
registered societies, in comparison with those registered, ought to
become much less.
On the actuarial side it b in the highest degree essential to the
interests of their members that friendly societies should be finandsDy
sound, — in other words, that they should throughout their eristenrr
be able to meet the engagements into which they have entered with
their members. For this purpose it is necessary that the members'
contributions should be so fixed as to prove adequate, with proper
management, to provide the benefits promised to the m e m ber s .
These benefits almost entirely depend upon the contingencies of
health and life; that is, they take the form of payments to members
when sick, of payments to members upon attaining given age* or
of payments upon members' deaths, and frequently a metaber is
1 These may be briefly summed up thus: — (1) power to hold land
and vesting of property in trustees by mere appointment; (2) remedy
against misapplication of funds; (3") priority in bankruptcy or oa
death of officer; (4) transfer of stock by.'direction of chief registrar;
(5) exemption from stamp duties; (6) membership el mason;
(7) certificates of birth and death at reduced cost; (8) investment
with National Debt Commissioners; (a) reduction of fines 00 admis-
sion to copyholds; (10) discharge of mortgages by mere receipt:
(11) obligation on officers to render accounts; (ta) settlement of
disputes { (13) insurance of funeral expenses for wives and childres
without insurable interest; (14) nomination at death; (15) payment
without administration ; (16) services of public auditors and * '
(17) registry of documents, of which copies may be*put m c
FRIENDLY SOCIETIES
•stored for all these benefits, viz. * weekly payment if at any time
afck before attaining a certain age, a weekly payment for the
remainder of life after attaining that age, and a sum to be paid upon
his death. Of course the object of the allowance in sickness b to
provide a substitute for the weekly wage lost in consequence of being
unable to work, and the object of the weekly payment after attaining
a certain age, when the member will probably be too infirm to be
able to earn a living by the exercise of hb calling or occupation, b
to provide him with the necessaries of life, and so enable him to
five subsequent quinquennial periods. It was resolved that these
should be tabulated once for all, and it was considered that they
would afford sufficient material for the construction of tables of
sickness and mortality th.it might be adopted for the future as
standard tables for friendly societies; and that it would be
inexpedient to impose any longer on the societies the burden of
making such returns. This requirement of the act was accordingly
repealed in 1882. The result of the tabulation appeared in 1890,
in a bluebook of 1367 folio pages, containing tables based upon the
experience of nearly four and a half million years of life. These
tables showed generally, as compared with previous observations,
an increased liability to sickness. This inference has been confirmed
by the observations of Mr Alfred VV. Watson, actuary to the Inde-
pendent Order of Oddfellows, Manchester Unity Friendly Society,
on hb investigation of the sickness and mortality experience of that
society during the five years 1893-1897, which extended over
800,000 individuals, more than 3,000,000 years of life and 7,000,000
weeks of sickness.
The establishment of the National Conference of Friendly Societies
by the orders and a few other societies has been of great service in
obtaining improvements in the law, and in enabling the societies
strongly to represent to the government and the legislature any
grievance entertained by them. A complaint that membership of a
shop club was made by certain employers a condition of employment,
and that the rules of the club required the members to withdraw
from other societies, led to the appointment .of a departmental
committee, who recommended that such a condition of employment
should be made illegal, except in certain cases, and that in every
case it should be illegal to make the withdrawal from a society a
condition of employment. In 1903 an act was passed based upon
this recommendation.
It b an increasing practice among societies of combining together
to obtain medical attendance and medicine for their members by
the formation of medical associations. In 1895 trade unions were
enabled to join in such associations, and it was provided that a
contributing society or union should not withdraw from an associa-
tion except upon three months' notice. The working of these
associations has been viewed with dissatisfaction by members of the
medical profession, and it has been suggested that a board of con-
ciliation should be formed consisting of representatives of the
Conference of Friendly Societies and otan equal number of medical
men.
The following figures are derived from returns of registered
societies and branches of registered societies to the beginning of 1905 :
221
British Empire.— In many of the British colonies legislation
on the subject similar to that of the mother-country has been
adopted. In those forming the Commonwealth of Australia
and in New Zealand the affiliated orders hold the field, then
being few, if any, independent friendly societies. The state
of Victoria has more than 1000 lodges with more than 100,000
members and nearly 1} million pounds funds, averaging nearly
£14 per member. Besides the registrar there b a government
actuary for friendly societies, by whom the liabilities and
accounts of all societies are valued every five years, a method
which ensures uniformity in the processes of valuation. The
friendly societies in the other Australasian states are not
so numerous nor so wealthy, but are in each case under the
supervision of vigilant public officials. In New Zealand a friendly
society was established at New Plymouth in 1841, the first year
of that settlement. The formation of a society at Nelson was
resolved upon by the emigrants on shipboard on their passage
out, and the first meeting was held among the tall fern near the
beach a few days after they landed. The societies have now a
registrar, an actuary, a revising barrister and two public valuers.
Investigations have been made into their sickness experience,
with results which compare favourably with those of the Man-
chester Unity and the registry office in the mother-country
until the higher ages, when greater sickness appears to result
from lower mortality. The average funds per member are
£19,105. Nearly four-fifths are invested in the purchase or on
mortgage of real estate.
In Cape Colony no society b allowed to register unless it be
shown to the satisfaction of the registrar that the contributions
which it proposes to charge are adequate to provide for the
benefits which it undertakes to grant. The consequence b that
little more than one-third of the existing societies are registered.
In the Dominion of Canada, province of Ontario, extensive
powers of control are given to the registrar, and societies arc not
admitted to registry without strict proof of their compliance
with the conditions of registry imposed by the law. Very full
returns of their transactions are required and published, and
registry b cancelled when any of the conditions of registry
cease to be observed. These conditions apply not only to societies
existing in Ontario, but to foreign societies transacting business
there.
In several of the West Indian Islands statutes ha<re been
passed on the model of British legislation and registrars have
been appointed.
European Countries. — In foreign countries the development
of friendly societies has proceeded upon different lines. Belgium
has a Commission royaJe permancnle da socitUs de secours muiucl.
Under laws passed in 185 1 and 1804 societies are divided into
two classes, recognized and not recognized. The recognized
societies were in 1886 only about hall as many as the unrecog-
nized. There were in 1904 nearly 7000 recognized societies
with 700,000 members. They enjoy the privileges of incorpora-
tion, exemption from stamp duty, gratuitous announcement in
the official Moniteur and may have free postage.
In France under the second empire a scheme was prepared
for assisting friendly societies by granting them collective
insurances under government security. The societies have
the privilege of investing their funds in the Caisse des Depots
et Consignations, corresponding to the English National Debt
commission. The dual classification
of societies in France b into those
" authorized " and those " approved."
By a law of the 1st of April 1898 a
friendly society may be established by
merely depositing a copy of its rules
and list of officers with the sousprefet.
Approved societies are entitled to
certain state subventions for assisting
in the purchase of old-age pensions and
otherwise. A higher council has been
established to advise on their working.
In Germany a law was passed on
Hi
FRIENDLY SOCIETIES
the 7th of April 1876 (amended on the 1st of June 1884)
which prescribed for registered friendly societies many things
which in England are left to the discretion of their founders;
and it provided for an amount of official interference in their
management that is wholly unknown here. The superintend-
ing authority had a right to inspect the books of every
society, whether registered or not, and to give formal notice
to a society to call in arrears, exclude defaulters, pay benefits
or revoke illegal resolutions. A higher authority might, in
certain cases, order societies to be dissolved. These pro-
visions related to voluntary societies; but it was competent
for communal authorities also to order the formation of a friendly
society, and to make a regulation compelling all workmen not
already members of a society to join it. Since then the great
series of imperial statutes has been passed, commencing in 1883
with that for sickness insurance, followed in 1884 by that for
workmen's accident insurance, extended to sickness insurance
in 1885, developed in the laws relating to accident and sickness
insurance of persons engaged in agricultural and forestry pursuits
in 1886, of persons engaged in the building trade and of seamen
and others engaged in seafaring pursuits in 1887, and crowned
by the law relating to infirmity and old-age insurance in 1889.
Mr H. linger, a distinguished actuary, remarks that the whole
German workman's insurance and its executive bodies (sickness
funds, trade associations, insurance institutions) are constantly
endeavouring to improve the position of the workmen in a social
and sanitary aspect, to the benefit of internal peace and the
welfare of the German empire.
In Holland it is stated that the number of burial clubs and
sickness benefit societies appears to be greater in proportion
to the population than in any other country; but that the burial
clubs do not rest upon a scientific basis, and have an unfavour-
able influence upon infant mortality. Half the population are
insured in some burial club or other. The sick benefit societies
are, as in England, some in a good and some in a bad financial
condition; and legislation follows the English system of com-
pulsory publicity, combined with freedom of competition.
In Spain friendly societies have grown out of the religious
gilds. They are regulated by an act of 1887. Their actuarial
condition appears to be backward, but to show indications of
improvement. (E. W. B.)
United Staks.—VndcT the title of fraternal societies are
included in the United States what are known in England as
friendly societies, having some basis of mutual help to members,
mutual insurance associations and benefit associations of all
kinds. There are various classes and a great variety of forms
of fraternal associations. It is therefore difficult to give a concrete
historical statement of their origin and growth; but, dealing
with those having benefit features for the payment of certain
amounts in esse of sickness, accident or death, it is found that
their history in the United States is practically within the last
half of the 19th century. The more important of the older
organizations are the Improved Order of Red Men, founded in
1 77 1 and reorganised in 1834; Ancient Order of Foresters,
1836; Ancient Order of Hibernians of America, 1836; United
Ancient Order of Druids, 1839; Independent Order of Recha-
bites, 1842; Independent Order of B'nai B'rith, founded in 1843;
Order of the United American Mechanics, 1845; Independent
Order of Free Sons of Israel, 1849; Junior Order of United
American Mechanics, 1853. A very Urge proportion, probably
more than one-half, of the societies which have secret organisa-
tions pay benefits in case of sickness, accident, disability, and
funeral expenses in case of death. This class of societies grew
out of the English friendly societies and have masonic character-
istics. The Freemasons and other secret societies, while not all
having benefit features in their distinctive organisations, have
auxiliary societies with such features. There is also a class of
secret societies, based largely on masonic usages, that have for
their principal object the payment of benefits in some form.
These are the Oddfellows, the Knights of Pythias, the Knights
of Honour, the Royal Arcanum and some others. Many trade
union have now adopted benefit features, especially the Typo-
graphical Union, while many subordinate unions and great
publishing houses have mutual relief associations purely of a local
character, and some of the more important newspapers have such
mutual relief or benefit societies. The New York trade unions,
taken as a whole, have paid out large sums of money In benefits
where members have been out of work, or are sick, or are on strike
or have died. The total paid in one year for all these benefits
was over $500,000.
It is impossible to give the membership of all the fraternal
associations in the United States; but, including Oddfellows,
Freemasons, purely benefit associations and all the class of the
larger fraternal organizations, the membership is over 6,000,000.
Among the more important, so far as membership is concerned,
are the Knights of Pythias, the Oddfellows, the Modern Wood-
men of America, the Ancient Order of United Workmen, Im-
proved Order of Red Men, Royal Arcanum, Knights of the
Maccabees, Junior Order of United American Mechanics,
Foresters of America, Independent Order of Foresters, &c.
These and other organizations pay out a vast amount of money
every year in the various forms.
Since about the year 1870 a new form of benefit organization has
come into existence. This is a fife insurance based on the a
plan, assessments being levied whenever a member dies;
or, as more recently, regular assessments being made in
advance of death, as post-mortem assessments have proved
a fallacious method of securing the means of paying
death benefits. There are about 200 mutual benefit insurance
companies or associations in the United States conducted on the
" lodge system "; that is to say, they have regular meetings for
social purposes and for general improvement, and in their work there
is found the mysticism, forms and ceremonies which belong to
secret societies generally. These elements have proved a very strong
force in keeping this class of associations fairly intact. The tl work "
of the lodges in the initiation of members and their passing through
various degrees ' " and in small places,
remote from th «e lodges constitute
a resort where r r various talents. !■
most of them th< are prominent. The
amount of insura carry in such associa-
tions is small. ie 01 the first of this
class, policies rai -anted. In the Royal
Arcanum the m of insurance may be
called co-operati :h make the organiza-
tions practising a ssessm e nt insurance
companies havi ember*. These co-
operative insura the federal plan— as
the Knights of 1 cal assemblies, where
the lodge-room ;amzations, to which
the local bodies tl organization, which
conducts all th< its executive officers.
The local societi towards the support
of the state an originally they paid
death assessmcr »y regular monthly
assessments, in of the post-mortesi
assessment. T ganitations have ia
conducting the i g the average age of
membership at j se m the average the
assessments increase, and many such organizations have had great
trouble to convince younger members that their assessments should
be increased to make up for the heavy losses among the older m e mbers .
The experience of these purely insurance associations has not beat
sufficient yet to demo n s t rate their absolute soundness or desirability,
but they have enabled a large number ofpersons of limited mean
to carry insu
interfered wit
have stimulat
and have real
A modern
relief departn
departments ;
benefit featum
providing the
of death, but
case of uckm
tributing to 1
financial mot
States which
Pennsylvania
Ohio, the Ct
The relief dq
public, beat
interests an
and harmonious, and can be promoted more I
ia by antagonism and strife.'*
FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF
The railway employes support one-twentieth of the entire popula-
tion, and most of their associations maintain organizations to provide
their members with relief and insurance. The Brotherhood of
Locomotive Engineers, the Order of Railway Conductors of America,
the Brotherhood of Locomotive Firemen, the Brotherhood of
Railway Trainmen, the Brotherhood of Railway Trackmen, the
Switchmen's Union, the Brotherhood of Railway Carmen, and the
Order of Railway Telegraphers, all have relief and benefit features.
The oldest and largest of these is the International Brotherhood of
Locomotive Engineers, founded at Detroit in August 1865. Like
other labour organizations of the higher class of workmen, the
objects of the brotherhoods of railway employes are partly social
and partly educational, but in addition to these great purposes they
seek to protect their members through relief and benefit features.
Of course the relief departments of the railway companies are
competitors of the relief and insurance features of the railway
employes orders, but* both methods of providing assistance have
proved successful and beneficial.
For a history of the various American organizations, see Albert C.
Stevens, The Cyclopaedia of Fraternities (New York, 1809); Fads
for FrakrnulisU, published by the Fraternal Monitor, Rochester,
N.Y.; for annual statements, "The World Almanac," " Railway
Relief Departments," " Brotherhood Relief and Insurance of
Railway Employes," " Mutual Relief and Benefit Associations
in the Printing Trade," " Benefit Features of American Trade
Unions," Bulletin* Nos. 8, 17, 19 and 22 of the U.S. Department
of Labour. (C. D. W.)
^ FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF, the name adopted by a body of
Christians, who, in law and general usage, are commonly called
Quakers. Though small in number, the Society occupies a
position of singular interest. To the student of ecclesiastical
history it is remarkable as exhibiting a form of Christianity
widely divergent from the prevalent types, being a religious
fellowship which has no formulated creed demanding definite
subscription, and no liturgy, priesthood or outward sacrament,
and which gives to women an equal place with men in church
organization. The student of English constitutional history
will observe the success with which Friends have, by the mere
force of passive resistance, obtained, from the legislature and the
courts, indulgence for all their scruples and a legal recognition
of their customs. In American history they occupy an
important place because of the very prominent part which
they played in the colonization of New Jersey and Penn-
sylvania.
The history of Quakerism in England may be divided into
three periods: — (1) from the first preaching of George Fox in
1647 to the Toleration Act 1689; (2) from 1689 to the evangelical
movement in 1835; (3) from 1835 to the present time.
1. Period 1047-Jotfp.— George Fox (1624-1601), the son of a
weaver of Drayton-in-the-Clay (now called Fenny Drayton) in
, Leicestershire, was the founder of the Society. He
/£* began his public ministry in 1647, but there is no
evidence to show that he set out to form a separate
religious body. Impressed by the formalism and deadncss of
contemporary Christianity (of which there is much evidence
in the confessions of the Puritan writers themselves) he empha-
sized the importance of repentance and personal striving after
the truth. When, however, bis preaching attracted followers,
a community began to be formed, and traces of organization
and discipline may be noted in very early times. In 1652 a
number of people in Westmorland and north Lancashire who
had separated from the common national worship, 1 came under
the influence of Fox, and it was this community (if it can be so
called) at Preston Patrick which formed the nucleus of the
Quaker church. For two years the movement spread rapidly
throughout the north of England) and in 1654 more than sixty
ministers went to Norwich, London; Bristol, the Midlands,
Wales and other parts. Fox and his fellow-preachers spoke
whenever opportunity offered, — sometimes in churchcs(dcclining,
for the most part, to occupy the pulpit), sometimes in barns,
sometimes at market crosses. The insistence on an inward
spiritual experience was the great contribution made by Friends
'At the time referred to. and during the Commonwealth, the
pulpits of the cathedrals and churches were occupied by Episcopalians
of the Richard Baxter type, Presbyterians, Independents ana a few
Baptists. It b these, and not the clergy of the Church of England,
who are continually referred to by George Fox as " priests.''
223
to the religious life of the time, and to thousands it came as a new
revelation. There is evidence to show that the arrangement
for this " publishing of Truth" rested mainly with Fox, and
that the expenses of it and of the foreign missions were borne
out of a common fund. Margaret Fell (1614-1702), wife of
Thomas Fell (1508-1658), vice-chancellor of the duchy of Lan-
caster, and afterwards of George Fox, opened her house, Swarth-
more Hall near Ulverston, to these preachers and probably
contributed largely to this fund.
Their insistence on the personal aspect of religious experience
made it impossible for Friends to countenance the setting apart
of any man or building for the purpose of divine worship to
the exclusion of all others. The operation of the Spirit was in
no way limited to time, or individual or place. The great stress
which they laid upon this aspect of Christian truth caused them
to be charged with unbelief in the current orthodox views as
to the inspiration of the Scriptures, and the person and work of
Christ, a charge which they always denied. Contrary to the
Puritan teaching of the time, they insisted on the possibility,
in this life, of complete victory over sin. Robert Barclay, writing
some twenty years later, admits of degrees of perfection, and the
possibility of a fall from it (Apology, Prop. viii.). Such teaching
necessarily brought Fox and his friends into conflict with all
the religious bodies of England, and they were continually
engaged in strife with the Presbyterians, Independents, Baptists,
Episcopalians and the wilder sectaries, such as the Ranters and
the Muggtetonians. The strife was often conducted on both sides
with a zeal and bitterness of language which were character-
istic of the period. Although there was little or no stress laid
on either the joys or the terrors of a future life, the movement
was not infrequently accompanied by most of those physical
symptoms which usually go with vehement appeals to the
conscience and emotions of a rude multitude. It was owing to
these physical manifestations that the name " Quaker " was
either first given or was regarded as appropriate when given for
another reason (see Fox's Journal concerning Justice Bennet at
Derby in 1650 and Barclay's Apology, Prop, x 1, § 8). The early
Friends definitely asserted that those who did not know quaking
and trembling were strangers to the experience of Moses, David
and other saints.
Some of the earliest adherents indulged in extravagances of
no measured kind. Some of them imitated the Hebrew prophets
in the performance of symbolic acts of denunciation, foretelling
or warning, going barefoot, or in sackcloth or undress, and, in a
few cases, for brief periods, altogether naked; even women in
some cases distinguished themselves by extravagance of conduct.
The case of James Nayler (i6i7?-i66o), who, in spite of Fox's
grave warning, allowed Messianic homage to be paid to him, is the
best known of these instances; they are to be explained partly
by mental disturbance, resulting from the undue prominence of
a single idea, and partly by the general religious excitement of
the time and the rudeness of manners prevailing in the classes of
society from which many of these individuals came. It must be
remembered that at this time, and for long after, there was no
definite or formal membership or system of admission to the
society, and it was open to any one by attending the meetings
to gain the reputation of being a Quaker.
The activity of the early Friends was not confined to England
or even to the British Isles. Fox and others travelled in America
and the West India Islands; another reached Jerusalem and
preached against the superstition of the monks; Mary Fisher
(fl. 1652-1697), "a religious maiden," visited Smyrna, the
Morea and the court of Mahommed IV. at Adrianople; Alex-
ander Parker (1 628-1689) went to Africa; others made their
way to Rome; two women were imprisoned by the Inquisition
at Malta; two men passed into Austria and Hungary; and
William Penn, George Fox and several others preached in
Holland and Germany.
It was only gradually that the Quaker community clothed
itself with an organization. The beginning of this appears to be
due to William Dewsbury (1621-1688) and George Fox; it was
not until 1666 that a complete system of church organisation
224
was established. The introduction of an ordered system and
discipline was, naturally, viewed with some suspicion by people
taught to believe that the inward light of each individual man
was the only true guide for his conduct. The project met with
determined opposition for about twenty years (1675-1695)
from persons of considerable repute in the body. John Wilkinson
and John Story of Westmorland, together with William Rogers
of Bristol, raised a party against Fox concerning the management
of the affairs of the society, regarding with suspicion any fixed
arrangement for meetings for conducting church business, and
in fact hardly finding a place for such meetings at all. They
stood for the principle of Independency against the Presbyterian
form of church government which Fox had recently established
in the " Monthly Meetings " (see below). They opposed all
arrangement for the orderly distribution of travelling ministers
to different localities, and even for the payment of their expenses
(see above); they also strongly objected to any disciplinary
power being entrusted to the women's separate meetings for
business, which had become of considerable importance after
the Plague (1665) and the Fire of London (1666) in consequence
of the need for poor relief. They also claimed the right to meet
secretly for worship in time of persecution (see below). They
drew a considerable following away with them and set up a
rival organization, but before long a number returned to their
original leader. William Rogers set forth his views in The
Christian Quaker, 1680; the story of the dissension is told, to
some extent, in The Inner Life of the Religious Societies of the
Commonwealth, by R. Barclay (not the " Apologist "); the best
account is given in a pamphlet entitled Mean's Mother by John
S. Rowntree.
Robert Barclay (q.v.), a descendant of an ancient Scottish
family, who had received a liberal education, principally in Paris,
at the Scots College, of which his uncle was rector, joined the
Quakers about 1666, and William Penn (qj>.) came to them about
two years later. The Quakers had always been active contro-
versialists, and a great body of tracts and papers was issued by
them; but hitherto these had been of small account from a
literary point of view. Now, however, a more logical and
scholarly aspect was given to their literature by the writings of
Barclay, especially his Apology for the True Christian Dwinity
published in Latin (1676) and in English (1678), and by the
works of Penn, amongst which No Cross No Crown and the
Hiasims or Fruits of Solitude are the best known.
During the whole time between their rise and the passing of
the Toleration Act 1689, the Quakers were the object of almost
continuous persecution which they endured with
%j££ w ~ extraordinary constancy and patience; they insisted
on the duty of meeting openly in time of persecu-
tion, declining to hold secret assemblies for worship as other
Nonconformists were doing. The number who died in prison
approached 400, and at least 100 more perished from violence
and ill-usage. A petition to the first parliament of Charles II.
stated that 3179 had been imprisoned; the number rose to 45°°
fn 1662, the Fifth Monarchy outbreak, in which Friends were
in no way concerned, being largely responsible for this increase.
There is no evidence to show that they were in any way con-
nected with any of the plots of the Commonwealth or Restoration
periods. A petition to James II. in 168s stated that 1460 were
then in prison. Under the Quaker Act of 1662 and the Con-
venticle Act of 1664 a number were transported out of England,
and under the last-named act and that of 1670 (the second
Conventicle Act) hundreds of households were despoiled of all
their goods. The penal laws under which Friends suffered may
be divided chronologically into those of the Commonwealth and
the Restoration periods. Under the former there were a few
charges of plotting against the government. Several imprison-
ments, including that of George Fox at Derby in 1650-1651. were
brought about under the Blasphemy Act of 1650, which inflicted
penalties on any one who asserted himself to be very God or equal
with God, a charge to which the Friends were peculiarly liable
owing to their doctrine of perfection. After a royalist insurrec-
tion in 1655, a proclamation was issued announcing that persons
FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF
suspected of Roman Catholicism would be required to take an
oath abjuring the papal authority and transubstantiation. The
Quakers, accused as they were of being Jesuits, and refusing to
take the oath, suffered under this proclamation and under the
more stringent act of 1656. A considerable number were flogged
under the Vagrancy Acts (39 Eliz. c. 4; 7 Jac. L c. 4), which were
strained to cover the case of itinerant Quaker preachers. They
also came under the provisions of the acts of 1644, 1650 and 1656
directed against travelling on the Lord's day. The interruption
of preachers when celebrating divine service rendered the offender
liable to three months' imprisonment under a statute of the first
year of Mary, but Friends generally waited to speak till the
service was over. 1 The Lord's Day Act 1656 also enacted
penalties against any one disturbing the service, but apart from
statute many Friends were imprisoned for open contempt of
ministers and magistrates. At the Restoration 700 Friends,
imprisoned for contempt and some minor offences, were set at
liberty. After the Restoration there began a persecution of
Friends and other Nonconformists as such, notwithstanding the
king's Declaration of Breda which had proclaimed liberty for
tender consciences as long as no disturbance of the peace was
caused. Among the most common causes of imprisonment was
the practice adopted by judges and magistrates of tendering to
Friends (particularly when no other charge could be proved
against them) the Oaths of Supremacy and Allegiance (5 Eli*,
c. 1 & 7 Jac. L c. 6). The refusal in any circumstance to take
an oath led to much suffering. The Act 3 Jac L c 4, passed
in consequence of the Gunpowder Plot, against Roman Catholics
for not attending church, was put in force against Friends, and
under it enormous fines were levied. The Quaker Act 166a
and the Conventicle Acts of 1664 and 1670, designed to enforce
attendance at church, and inflicting severe penalties on those
attending other religious gatherings, were responsible for the
most severe persecution of ail. The act of 1 670 gave to informers
a pecuniary interest (they were to have one-third of the fine
imposed) in hunting down Nonconformists who broke the law,
and this and other statutes were unduly strained to secure con-
victions. A somewhat similar act of 35 Eliz. c. 1 ., enacting even
more severe penalties, had never been repealed, and was some-
times put in force against Friends. The Militia Act 1663 (H Car.
II. c 3), enacting fines against those who refused to find a man for
the militia, was occasionally put in force. The refusal to pay
tithes and other ecclesiastical demands led to continuous and
heavy distraints, under the various laws made in that behalf.
This state of things continued to some extent into the 19th
century. For further information see " The Penal Laws affect-
ing Early Friends in England " (from which the foregoing sum-
mary is taken) by Wm. Chas. Braithwaite in The First Publishers
of Truth. On the 15th of March 1672 Charles II. issued his
declaration suspending the penal laws in ecclesiastical matters,
and shortly afterwards, by pardon under the great seal, be
released nearly 500 Quakers from prison, remitted their fines and
released such of their estates as were forfeited by praemunire.
It is of interest to note that, although John Bunyan was bitterly
opposed to Quakers, his friends, on hearing of the petition
contemplated by them, requested them to insert his name on the
list, and in this way he gained his freedom. The dissatisfaction
which this exercise of the royal prerogative aroused induced the
king, in the following year, to withdraw his proclamation, and,
notwithstanding appeals to him, the persecution continued
intermittently throughout his "reign. On the accession of James
II. the Quakers addressed him (see above) with some hope 00
account of his known friendship for William Penn, and the king
not long afterwards directed a stay of proceedings in all matters
pending in the exchequer against Quakers on the ground of non-
attendance at the national worship. In 1687 came his declaration
for liberty of conscience, and, after the Revolution of 1688, the
Toleration Act 1689 put an end to the persecution of Quakers
(along with other Dissenters) for non-attendance at church.
1 On the whole subject of preaching " after the priest had done."
see Barclay's Inner Life of the Religious Societies e$ the Common-
wealth, ch. xii.
FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF
225
For many years after this they were liable to imprisonment for
non-payment of tithes, and, together with other Dissenters,
they remained under various civil disabilities, the gradual removal
of which is part of the general history of England. In the years
succeeding the Toleration Act at least twelve of their number
were prosecuted (often more than once in the spiritual and other
courts) for keeping school without a bishop's licence. It k
coming to be recognized that the growth of religious toleration
owed much to the early Quakers who, with the exception of a
few Baptists at the first, stood almost alone among Dissenters in
holding their public meetings openly and regularly.
The Toleration Act was not the only law of William and Mary
which benefited Quakers. The legislature has continually had
regard to their refusal to take oaths, and not only the said
act but also another of the same reign, and numerous others,
subsequently passed, have respected the peculiar scruples of
Friends (see Davis's Digest of Legislative Enactments relating
to Friends, Bristol, 1820).
2. Period 1689-1835. — From the beginning of the 18th
century the zeal of the Quaker body abated. Although many
" General " and other meetings were held in different
parts of the country for the purpose of setting forth
Quakerism, the notion that the whole Christian church
would be absorbed in it. and that the Quakers were, in fact, the
church, gave place to the conception that they were " a peculiar
people " to whom, more than to others, had been given an under-
standing of the will of God. The Quakerism of this period was
largely of a traditional kind; it dwelt with increasing emphasis
on the peculiarities of its dress and language; it rested much
Upon discipline, which developed and hardened into rigorous
forms; and the correction or exclusion of its members occupied
more attention than did the winning of converts.
Excluded from political and municipal life by the laws which
required either the taking of an oath or joining in the Lord's
Supper according to the rites of the Established Church, exclud-
ing themselves not only from the frivolous pursuits of pleasure,
but from music and art in general, attaining no high average
level of literary culture (though producing some men of eminence
in science and medicine), the Quakers occupied themselves
mainly with trade, the business of their Society, and the calls of
philanthropy. From early times George Fox and many others
had taken a keen interest in education, and in 1779 there was
founded at Ack worth, near Pontefract, a school for boys and
girls; this was followed by the reconstitution, in 1808, of a
school at Sidcot in the Mcndips, and in 18*11, of one in Islington
Road, London; it was afterwards removed to Croydon, and,
later, to Saffron Walden. Others have since been established
at York and in other parts of England and Ireland. None of
them arc now reserved exclusively for the children of Friends.
During this period Quakerism was sketched from the outside
by two very different men. Voltaire (Dictionnaire Phibsopkique,
" Quaker," " Toleration ") described the body, which attracted
his curiosity, his sympathy and his sneers, with all his brilliance.
Thomas Clarkson (Portraiture of Quakerism) has given an
elaborate and sympathetic account of the Quakers as he knew
them when be travelled amongst them from house to house on his
crusade against the slave trade.
3. From 1835. — During the 18th century the doctrine of the
Inward Light acquired such exclusive prominence as to bring
about a tendency to disparage, or, at least, to neglect, the written
word (the Scriptures) as being " outward " and non-essential.
In the early part of the 19th century an American Friend, Elias
Hicks, pressed this doctrine to its furthest limits, and, in doing so,
he laid stress on " Christ within " in such a way as practically
to take little account of the person and work of the " outward,"
i.e. the historic Christ. The result was a separation of the Society
in America into two divisions which persist to the present day
(sec below, " Quakerism in America "). This led to a counter
movement in England, known as the Beacon Controversy,
from the name of a warning publication issued by Isaac Crewdson
of Manchester in 1835, advocating views of a pronounced " evan-
gelical " type. Much controversy ensued, and a certain number
of Friends (Beaconites as- tbey are sometimes called) departed
from the parent stock. They left behind them, however, many
influential members, who may be described as a middle party,
and who strove to give a more " evangelical " tone to Quaker
doctrine. Joseph John Gurney of Norwich, a brother of Eliza-
beth Fry, by means of his high social position and his various
writings (some published before 1835), was the most prominent
actor in this movement. Those who quitted the Society main-
tained, for some little time, a separate organization of their
own, but sooner or later most of them joined the Evangelical
Church or the Plymouth Brethren.
Other causes have been at work modifying the Quaker society.
The repeal of the Test Act, the admission of Quakers to Parlia-
ment in consequence of their being allowed to affirm instead of
taking the oath (1832, when Joseph Pease was elected for South
Durham), the establishment of the University of London, and,
more recently, the opening of the universities of Oxford and
Cambridge to Nonconformists, have all had their effect upon the
body. It has abandoned its peculiarities of dress and language,
as well as its hostility to music and art, and it has cultivated a
wider taste in literature. In fact, the number of men, either
Quakers or of Quaker origin and proclivities, who occupy
positions of influence in English life is large in proportion to
the small body with which they are connected. During the 19th
century the interests of Friends became widened and they are
no longer a close community.
Doctrine. — It is not easy to state with certainty the doctrines
of a body which (in England at least) has never demanded sub-
scription to any creed, and whose views have undoubtedly
undergone more or less definite changes. There is not now the
sharp distinction which formerly existed between Friends and
other non-sacerdotal evangelical bodies; these have, in theory
at least, largely accepted the spiritual message of Quakerism.
By their special insistence on the fact of immediate communion
between God and man, Friends have been led into those views
and practices which still mark them off from their fellow-
Christians.
Nearly all their distinctive views {e.g. their refusal to take
oaths, their testimony against war, their disuse of a professional
ministry, and their recognition of women's ministry) were being
put forward in England, by various individuals or sects, in the
strife which raged during, the intense religious excitement of the
middle of the 17th century. Nevertheless, before the rise of the
Quakers, these views were nowhere found in conjunction as held
by any one set of people; still less were they regarded as the
outcome of any one central belief or principle. It is rather in
their emphasis on this thought of Divine communion, in their
insistence on its reasonable consequences (as it seems to them),
that Friends constitute a separate community. The appoint-
ment of one man to preach, to the exclusion of others, whether
he feels a divine call so to do or not, is regarded as a limitation
of the work of the Spirit and an undue concentration of that
responsibility which ought to be shared by a wider circle. For
the same reason they refuse to occupy the time of worship with
an arranged programme of vocal service; they meet in silence,
desiring that the service of the meeting shall depend
on spiritual guidance. Thus it is left to any man or , <rit ^
woman to offer vocal prayer, to read the Scriptures,
or to utter such exhortation or teaching as may seem to be
called for. Of late years, in certain of their meetings on Sunday
evening, it has become customary for part of the time to be
occupied with set addresses for the purpose of instructing the
members of the congregation, or of conveying the Quaker message
to others who may be present, all their meetings for worship
being freely open to the public In a few meetings hymns are
occasionally sung, very rarely as part of any arrangement,
but almost always upon the request of some individual for a
particular hymn appropriate to the need of the congregation.
The periods of silence are regarded as times of worship equally
with those occupied with vocal service, inasmuch as Friends
held that robustness of spiritual life is beat promoted by earnest
striving on the part of each one to fctow the will of God I or
226
FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF
himself, and to be drawn into Christian fellowship with the
other worshippers. The points on which special stress is laid
are: — (i) the share of responsibility resting on each individual,
whether called to vocal service or not, for the right spiritual
atmosphere of the Meeting, and for the welfare of the congrega-
tion; (2) the privilege which may be enjoyed by each worshipper
of waiting upon the Lord without relying on spoken words,
however helpful, or on other outward matters; (3) freedom
for each individual (whether a Friend or not) to speak, for the
help of others, such message as he or she may feel called to utter;
(4) a fresh sense of a divine call to deliver the message on that
particular occasion, whether previous thought has been given
to it or not. The idea which ought to underlie a Friends' meeting
is thus set forth by Robert Barclay: " When I came Into the
silent assemblies of God's people, I felt a secret power among
them, which touched my heart, and as I gave way onto it, I
found the evil weakening in me and the good raised up " (Apology,
xi. 7). In many places Friends have felt the need of bringing
spiritual help to those who are unable to profit by the somewhat
severe discipline of their ordinary manner of worship. To meet
this need they hold (chiefly on Sunday evenings) meetings which
are not professedly " Friends' meetings for worship," but which
are services conducted on lines similar to those of other religious
bodies, with, in some cases, a portion of time set apart for silent
worship, and freedom for any one of the congregation to utter
words of exhortation or prayer.
From the beginning Friends have not practised the outward
ordinances of Baptism and the Lord's Supper, even in a non-
sacerdotal spirit. They attach, however, supreme value to the
realities of which the observances are reminders or types— on the
Baptism which is more than putting away the filth of the flesh,
and on the vital union with Christ which is behind any outward
ceremony. Their testimony is not primarily against these
outward observances; their disuse of them is due to a sense
of the danger of substituting the shadow for the reality. They
believe that an experience of more than 250 years gives ample
warrant for the belief that Christ did not command them as a
perpetual outward ordinance; on the contrary, they hold that
it was alien to His method to lay down minute, outward rules
for all time, but that He enunciated principles which His Church
should, under the guidance of the Holy Spirit, apply to the
varying needs of the day. Their contention that every event of
life may be turned into a sacrament, a means of grace, is summed
up in the words of Stephen Grellet: "I very much doubt
whether, since the Lord by His grace brought me into the faith
of His dear Son, I have ever broken bread or drunk wine, even
In the ordinary course of life, without the remembrance of, and
some devout feeling regarding, the broken body and the blood-
shedding of my dear Lord and Saviour."
When the ministry of any man or woman has been found to
be helpful to the congregation, the Monthly Meeting (see below)
Mimlsttn. mav ' a ' ter so ^ einn consideration, record the fact that
it believes the individual to have a divine call to the
ministry, and that it encourages him or her to be faithful to the
gift. Such ministers are said to be " acknowledged " or " re-
corded "; they are emphatically nol appointed to preach, and
the fact of their acknowledgment is not regarded as conferring
any special status upon them. The various Monthly Meetings
appoint Elders, or some body of Friends, to give advice of
encouragement or restraint as may be needed, and, generally,
to take the ministry under their care.
With regard to the ministry of women, Friends hold that
there is no evidence that the gifts of prophecy and teaching are
Wmhm, c 01 **" 1 ^ t0 one ***- O" tne contrary, they see that a
manifest blessing has rested on women's preaching,
and they regard its almost universal prohibition as a relic of the
seclusion of women which was customary in the countries where
Christianity took its rise. The particular prohibition of Paul
(x Co<*. xiv. 34, 35) they regard as due to the special circumstances
of time and place.
Friends have always held that war is contrary to the precepts
and spirit of the Gospel, believing that it springs from the lower
impulses of human nature, and not from the seed of divine life
with its infinite capacity of response to the Spirit of God. Their
testimony is not based primarily on any objection 10 Wmt
the use of force in itself, or even on the fact that
war involves suffering and loss of life; their root objection is
based on the fact that war is both the outcome and the cause of
ambition, pride, greed, hatred and everything that is opposed to
the mind of Christ; and that no end to be attained can justify
the use of such means. While not unaware that with this, as
with all moral questions, there may be a certain borderland of
practical difficulty, Friends endeavour to bring all things to the
test of the Realities which, though not seen, are eternal, and
to hold up the ideal, set forth by George Fox, of living in the
virtue of that life and power which takes away the occasion oj
war.
Friends have always held that the attempt to enforce truth-
speaking by means of an oath, in courts of law and elsewhere,
tends to create a double standard of truth. Tbey find fr>f|M
Scripture warrant for this belief in Matt. v. 33-37 and
James v. 1 3. Their testimony in this respect is the better under-
stood when we bear in mind the large amount of perjury in the
law courts, and profane swearing in general which prevailed
at the lime when the Society took its rise. " People swear to
the end that they may speak truth; Christ would have men
speak truth to the end they might not swear " (W. Penn, A
Treatise of Oaths).
With regard to the fundamental doctrines of Christianity
the belief of the Society of Friends does not essentially differ
from that of other Christian bodies. At the same lime nfn f mIi
their avoidance of exact definition embodied in a rigid
creed, together with their disuse of the outward ordinances of
Baptism and the Supper, has laid them open to considerable
misunderstanding. . As will have been seen, they hold an exalted
view of the divinity and work of Christ as the Word become
flesh and the Saviour of the world; but they have always shrunk
from rigid Trinitarian definitions. They believe that the same
Spirit who gave forth the Scriptures still guides men to a right
understanding of them. "You profess the Holy Scriptures:
but what do you witness and experience? What interest have
you in them ? Can you set to your seal that they axe true by
the work of the same spirit in you that gave them forth in the
holy ancients?" (William Penn, A Summons or Call to Chr*S'
tendom). At certain periods this doctrine, pushed to an extreme,
has led to a practical undervaluing of the Scriptures, but of late
times it has enabled Friends to face fearlessly the conclusions
of modern criticism, and has contributed to a largely increased
interest in Bible study. During the past few years a new move-
ment has been started in the shape of lecture schools, lasting for
longer or shorter periods, for the purpose of studying Biblical,
ecclesiastical and social subjects. In 1903 there was established
at Woodbrooke, an estate at Selly Oak on the outskirts of
Birmingham, a permanent settlement for men and women, for
the study of these questions on modern lines. The outward
beginning of this movement was the Manchester Conference of
1S95, a turning-point in Quaker history Speaking generally,
it may be noted that the Society includes various shades of
opinion, from that known as "evangelical," with a certain
hesitation in receiving modern thought, to the more " advanced "
position which finds greater freedom to consider and adopt new
suggestions of scientific, religious or other thinkers. The
differences, however, are seldom pressed, and rarely become acute.
Apart from points of doctrine which can be more or less definitely
stated (not always with unanimity) Quakerism is an atmosphere,
a manner of life, a method of approaching questions, a habit and
attitude of mind.
Quakerism in Scotland. — Quakerism was preached in Scotland
very soor after its rise in England; but in the north and south
of Scotland there existed, independently of and before this
preaching, groups of persons who were dissatisfied with the
national form of worship and who met together in silence for
devotion. They naturally fell into this Society. In Aberdeen
the Quakers took considerable hold, and were there joined by
FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF
227
some persons of influence and position, especially Alexander
Jaffray, sometime provost of Aberdeen, and Colonel David
Barclay of Ury and his son Robert, the author of the Apology.
Much light has been thrown on the history of the Quakers in
Aberdeenshire by the discovery in 1826 at Ury of a MS. Diary
of Jaffray, since published with elucidations (2nd ed., London,
1836).
Ireland— -The father of Quakerism in Ireland was William
Edinondson; his preaching began in 1653-1654. The History of
the Quakers in Ireland (from 1653 to 1752), by Wight and Rutty,
may be consulted. Dublin Yearly Meeting, constituted in 2670,
is independent of London Yearly Meeting (see below).
America.— In July 1656 two women Quakers, Mary Fisher and
Ann Austin, arrived at Boston. Under the general law against
heresy their books were burnt by the hangman, they were
searched for signs of witchcraft, they were imprisoned for five
weeks and then sent away. During the same year eight others
were sent back to England.
In 1656, 1657 and 1658 laws were passed to prevent the intro-
duction of Quakers into Massachusetts, and it was enacted
that on the first conviction one ear should be cut off, on the
second the remaining ear, and that on the third conviction the
tongue should be bored with a hot iron. Fines were laid upon
all who entertained these people or were present at their meetings.
Thereupon the Quakers, who were perhaps not without the
obstinacy of which Marcus Aurclius complained in the early
Christians, rushed to Massachusetts as if invited, and the result
was that the general court of the colony banished them on pain of
death, and four of them, three men and one worn an, were hanged
for refusing to depart from the jurisdiction or for obstinately
returning within it. That the Quakers were, at times, irritating
cannot be denied: some of them appear to have publicly
mocked the institutions and the rulers of the colony and to have
interrupted public worship; and a few of their men and women
acted with the fanaticism and disorder which frequently charac-
terized the religious controversies of the time. The particulars
of the proceedings of Governor Endecott and the magistrates of
New England as given in Besse's Sufferings of the Quakers (see
below) are startling to read. On the Restoration of Charles II.
a memorial was presented to him by the Quakers in England
stating the persecutions which their fellow-members had under-
gone in New England. Even the careless Charles was moved
to issue an order to the colony which effectually stopped the
hanging of the Quakers for their religion, though it by no means
put an end to the persecution of the body in New England.
It is not wonderful that the Quakers, persecuted and oppressed
at home and in New England, should turn their eyes to the
unoccupied parts of America, and cherish the hope of founding,
amidst their woods, some refuge from oppression, and some
likeness of a city of God upon earth. As early as 1660 George
Fox was considering the question of buying land from the
Indians. In 1671-1673 hehad visited the American plantations
from Carolina to Rhode Island and had preached alike to Indians
and to settlers; in 1674 a portion of New Jersey (q.v.) was sold
by Lord Berkeley to John Fcnwicke in trust for Edward Byllynge.
Both these men were Quakers, and in 1675 Fenwicke with a large
company of his co-religionists crossed the Atlantic, sailed up
Delaware Bay, and landed at a fertile spot which he called
Salem. Byllynge, having become embarrassed in his circum-
stances, placed his interest in the land in the hands of Penn and
others as trustees for his creditors; they invited buyers, and
companies of Quakers in Yorkshire and London were amongst
the largest purchasers. In 1677-1678 five vessels with eight
hundred emigrants, chiefly Quakers, arrived In the colony (then
separated from the rest of New Jersey, under the name of West
New Jersey), and the town of Burlington was established. In
1677 the fundamental laws of West New Jersey were published,
and recognized in a most absolute form the principles of demo-
cratic equality and perfect freedom of conscience. Notwith-
standing certain troubles from claims of the governor of New
York and of the duke of York, the colony prospered, and in 1681
the lint legislative assembly of the colony, consisting mainly of
Quakers, was held. They agreed to raise an animal sum of £tco
for the expenses of their commonwealth; they assigned their gov-
ernor a salary of £20; they prohibited the sale of ardent spirits
to the Indians and imprisonment for debt. (See New Jzkszy.)
But beyond question the most interesting event in connexion
with Quakerism in America is the foundation by William Penn
(f.t.) of the colony of Pennsylvania, where he hoped
to carry into effect the principles of his sect— to found
and govern a colony without armies or military
power, to reduce the Indians by justice and kindness to civiliza-
tion and Christianity, to administer justice without oaths, and
to extend an equal toleration to all persons who professed a
belief in God. The history of this is part of the history of America
and of Pennsylvania (7.0.) in particular. The chief point of
interest in the history of Friends in America during the 18th
century is their effort to clear themselves of complicity in
slavery and the slave trade. As early as 1671 George Fox when
in Barbados counselled kind treatment of slaves and ultimate
liberation of them. William Penn provided for the freedom
of slaves after fourteen years' service. In 1688 the German
Friends of Germantown, Philadelphia, raised the first official
protest uttered by any religious body against slavery. In 1711
a law was passed in Pennsylvania prohibiting the importation
of slaves, but it was rejected by the Council in England. The
prominent anti-slavery workers were Ralph Sandiford, Benjamin
Lay, Anthony Bcnezet and John Woolman. 1 By the end of
the 18th century slavery was practically extinct among Friends,
and the Society as a whole laboured for its abolition, which came
about in 1865, the poet Whittier being one of the chief writer*
and workers in the cause. From early times up to the present
day Friends have laboured for the welfare of the North American
Indians. The history of the 19th century is largely one of
division. Elias Hicks (q.v.), of Long Island, N.Y., propounded
doctrines inconsistent with the orthodox views concerning
Christ and the Scriptures, and a separation resulted in 1827-
1828 (see above). His followers are known as " Hicksites,"
a name not officially used by themselves, and only assented to
for purposes of description under some protest. They have
their own organization, being divided into seven yearly meetings
numbering about 20,000 members, but these meetings form no
part of the official organization which links London Yearly
Meeting with other bodies of Friends on the American continent.
This separation led to strong insistence on "evangelical " views
(in the usual sense of the term) concerning Christ, the Atonement,
imputed righteousness, the Scriptures, &c. This showed itself
in the Beaconite controversy in England (see above), and in a
further division in America. John Wilbur, a minister of New
England, headed a party of protest against the new evangelical-
ism, laying extreme stress on the " Inward Light "; the result
was a further separation of " Wilburites'' or "the smaller
body," who, like the " Hicksiles," have a separate independent
organization of their own. In 1007 they were divided into seven
yearly meetings (together with some smaller independent
bodies, the result of extreme emphasis laid on individualism),
with a membership of about 5000. Broadly speaking, the
" smaller body " is characterized by a rigid adherence to old
forms of dress and speech, to a disapproval of music and art,
and to an insistence on the •" Inward Light " which, at times,
leaves but little room for the Scriptures or the historic Christ,
although with no definite or intended repudiation of them.
In 1908 the number of " orthodox " yearly meetings in America,
including one in Canada, was fifteen, with a total membership
of about 100,000. They have, for the most part, adopted, to a
greater or less degree, the " pastoral system," i.e. the appoint-
ment of one man or woman in each congregation to " conduct "
the meeting for worship and to carry on pastoral work. In most
cases the pastor receives a salary. A few of them demand from
their ministers definite subscription to a specific body of doctrine,
mostly of the ordinary " evangelical " type. In the matters of
, Woolman t s Journal and Works are remarkable. He had a
vision of a political economy based not on s elfi sh nes s but on low,
not on desire but on self-denial.
228
FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF
organization, disuse of the outward ordinances (this point is
subject to some slight exception, principally in Ohio) , and women's
ministry, they do not differ from English Friends. The yearly
meetings of Baltimore and Philadelphia have not adopted the
pastoral system; the latter contains a very strong conservative
element, and, contrary to the practice of London and the other
" orthodox " yearly meetings, it officially regards the meetings
of*" the smaller body " (see above) as meetings of the Society
of Friends. In 1002 the " orthodox " yearly meetings in the
United States established a " Five Years' Meeting," a representa-
tive body meeting once every five years to consider matters
affecting the welfare of all, and to further such philanthropic
and religious work as may be undertaken in common, e.g.
matters concerning foreign missions, temperance and peace, and
the welfare of negroes and Indians. Two yearly meetings remain
outside the organization, that of Ohio on ultra-evangelical
grounds, while that of Philadelphia has not taken the matter into
consideration. Canada joined at the first, and having withdrawn,
again joined in 1007.
see James Bowden, History cf the SociOy of Friends in America
omas, The History of
Allan C. and Richard
Friends in America (4th edition, 1905); Isaac Sharpless, History of
Quaker Government in Pennsylvania (1898, 1899); R. P. Hallowelf,
The Quaker Invasion of Massachusetts (1887), and The Pioneer
Quakers (1887).
Organisation and Discipline.— -The duty of watching over one
another for good was insisted on by the early Friends, and has
been embodied in & system of discipline. Its objects embrace
(a) admonition to those who fail in the payment of their just
debts, or otherwise walk contrary to the standard of Quaker
ethics, and the exclusion of obstinate or gross offenders from
the body, and, as incident to this, the hearing of appeals from
individuals or meetings considering themselves aggrieved;
(6) the care and maintenance of the poor and provision for the
Christian education of their children, for which purpose the
Society has established boarding schools in different parts of the
country; (c) the amicable settlement of " all differences about
outward things," either by the parties in controversy or by the
submission of the dispute to arbitration, and the restraint of all
proceedings at law between members except by leave; (rf) the
" recording " of ministers (see above); (r) the cognizance of all
steps preceding marriage according to Quaker forms; (/) the
registration of births, deaths and marriages and the admission
of members; (g) the issuing of certificates or letters of approval
granted to ministers travelling away from their homes, or to
members removing from one meeting to another; and (A) the
management of the property belonging to the Society. The
meetings for business further concern themselves with arrange-
ments for spreading the Quaker doctrine, and for carrying out
various religious, philanthropic and social activities not neces-
sarily confined to the Society of Friends.
The present organization of the Quaker church is essentially
democratic; every person bora of Quaker parents is a member, and,
.^ ._ ^._ together with those who have been admitted on their own
and women to state their opinions, and to serve
ad other appointments. The mode of conducting
noteworthy. A secretary or " clerk,* ' as he a
rman or president; there are no formal resolu-
1 no voting or applause. The clerk ascertains
be the judgment of the assembly, and records
le permanent standing committee of the Society
Meeting for Sufferings " (established in 1675).
n the days when the persecution of many Friends
istian care and material help of those who were
s composed of representatives (men and women)
rly meetings, and of all recorded Ministers and
is not confined to the interests of Friends; it is
1 of oppression and distress (ej. a famine) in all
, it frequently raises large sums of money to
and intervenes, often successfully, and mostly
with those in authority who have the power to
bring about an amelioration.
The offices known to the Quaker body are: (1) that of minister
(the term " office " is not strictly applicable, see above as to " record-
ing [') ; (2) of elder, whose duty it is " to encourage and help young
ministers, and advise others as they, in the wisdom of God, we
occasion "; (3) of overseer, to whom is especially entrusted that
duty of Christian care for and interest in one another which Quakers
recognize as obligatory in all the members of a church. In most
Monthly Meetings the care of the poor is committed to the overseers.
These officers hold, from time to time, meetings separate from the
general assemblies of the members, but the special organization for
many years known as the Meeting of Ministers and Elders, recon-
stituted in 1876 as the Meeting on Ministry and Oversight, came to
an end in 1906-1907.
This present form both of organization and of discipline has been
reached only by a process of development. As early as 1652-1654
there is evidence of some slight organization for dealing with
marriages, poor relief, " disorderly walkers," matters of arbitration,
&c. The Quarterly or " General ' meetings of the different counties
seem to have been the first unions of separate congregations. In
1666 Fox established Monthly Meetings; in 1737 elders were first
appointed; in 1753 overseers were added; and in 1737 the right
of children of Quakers to be considered as members was foDy
recognized. Concerning the 18th century in general, see above.
Of late years the stringency of the Quaker discipline has bcea
relaxed: the peculiarities of dress and language have been
abandoned; marriage with a non- member or between two noa-
for the education of the poor; and the cause of unsectarian rrimoos
education found in the Quakers steady support. They also took aa
active part in Sir Samuel Romilly's efforts to ameliorate the pens!
code, in prison reform, with which the name of Elizabeth Fry (a
Friend) b especially connected, and in the efforts to ameliorate Ike
condition of lunatics in England (the Friends' Retreat at York,
Formerly the system was double, the men and women meeting
separately for their own appointed business. Of late years the
meetings have been, for the most part, held jointly, with equal
founded in 1792, was the earliest example in England of 1
treatment of the insane). It is noteworthy that Quaker efforts for
the education of the poor and philanthropy in general, though they
have always been Christian in character, have not been undertaken
primarily for the purpose of bringing proselytes within the body,
and have not done so to any great extent.
By means of the Adult Schools. Friends have been able to exercise
a religious influence beyond the borders of their own Society. The
movement began in Birmingham in 1845, in an attempt «a^
to help the loungers at street corners; reading and ^^^
writing were the chief inducements offered. The schools
are unsectarian in character and mainly democratic in gov
the aim is to draw out what is best in men and to induce them to act
for the help of their fellows. Whilst the work is essentially rehgiosfl
in character, a well-equipped school also caters for the sods)*
intellectual and physical parts of a man's nature. Bible teac hin g a
the central part of the school session : the lessons are mainly cot*
cerned with life's practical problems. The spirit of brotherflne*
which prevails is largely the secret of the success of the movement
At the end of 1009 there were in connexion with the M Nations!
Council of Adult-School Associations "1818 " schools " for men whs
FRIES, E. M.— FRIES, J. F. 229
^fiends* Witness, The Friendly Messenger, The Friends* Fellowship
9 apers } The Friends' Quarterly Examiner, Journal of the Friends'
listorical Society. Officially issued: The Booh of Meetings and The
9 riends' Year Booh. Sec also works mentioned at the close of
ections on Adult Schools and on Quakerism in America, Scotland
ind Ireland, and elsewhere In this artide; also Fox, Ceomgs.
(A. N. B.)
FRIES, ELIAS MAGNUS (1 794-1878), Swedish botanist,
was born at Femsjo, Smaland, on the 15th of August 1704.
From his father, the pastor of the church at Femsj6, he early
Lcquired an extensive knowledge of flowering plants. In 181 1
le entered the university of Lund, where in 1814 he was elected
ioccnt of botany and in 1824 professor. In 1834 he became
>rofessor of practical economy at Upsala, and in 1844 and 1848
le represented the university of that dty in the Rigsdag. On
he death of GOran Wahlenberg (1780-1851) he was appointed
8th of
nredish
Royal
le He
ationes
myco-
iplctcd
iropaea
ymeno-
Jcones
»pher,
was born at Barby, Saxony, on the 23rd of August 1773. Having
itudied theology in the academy of the Moravian brethren at
Nicsky, and philosophy at Leipzig and Jena, he travelled for
some time, and in 1806 became professor of philosophy and
elementary mathematics at Heidelberg. Though the progress
}f his psychological thought compelled him to abandon the
positive theology of the Moravians, he always retained an
ipprcciation of its spiritual or symbolic significance. His philo-
sophical position with regard to his contemporaries he had
ilrcady made dear in the critical work Reinhold y Fichte und
SchcUing (1803; reprinted in 1824 as Polemische Sckriften),
md in the more systematic treatises System der Philosophie als
mdente Wisscnschaft (1804), Wisscn, Claube und Aknung (1805,
new cd. 1905). His most important treatise, the Ntue odcr
antltropologisclte Kritih der Vernunft (2nd cd., 1828-1831), was
an attempt to give a new foundation of psychological analysis
to the critical theory of Kant. In 181 1 appeared his System
der Logih (cd. 18x9 and 1837), a very instructive work, and in
1814 Julius und Evagoras, a philosophical romance. In 1816
he was invited to Jena to fill the chair of theoretical philosophy
(including mathematics and physics, and philosophy proper),
and entered upon a crusade against the prevailing Romanticism.
In politics he was a strong Liberal and Unionist, and did much
to inspire the organization of the Burschenschaft. In 18 16 he
had published his views in a brochure, Vom deutschen Bund
und deutscker Staaisverfassung, dedicated to " the youth of
Germany," and his influence gave a powerful impetus to the
agitation which led in 1 819 to the issue of the Carlsbad Decrees
by the represcntat ives of the German governments. Karl Sand ,
the murderer of Kotzebue, was one of his pupils; and a letter
of his, found on another student, warning the lad against par-
ticipation in secret societies, was twisted by the suspicious
authorities into evidence of his guilt. He was condemned by the
Mainz Commission; the grand-duke of Weimar was compelled
to deprive him of his professorship; and he was forbidden to
lecture on philosophy. The grand-duke, however, continued
to pay him his stipend, and in 1824 he was recalled to Jena
as professor of mathematics and physics, receiving permission
also to lecture on philosophy in his own rooms to a select number
of students. Finally, in 1838, the unrestricted right of lecturing
was restored to him. He died on the 10th of August 1843-
The most important of the many works written during his Jena
professorate arc the Handbuch der frahtischen Philosofhto (1817-
183a), the Handbuch der psychischen Anlhropohpe (ifffHiSai,
and ed. 1837-1839), Die matkematischo NaturphOosophie (182a),
2$0
FRIES, J.— FRIGATE
and Jacobi's philosophy of belief. With Kant be regarded Krtiik,
or the critical investigation of the faculty of knowledge, as the
essential preliminary to philosophy. But he differed from Kant
both as regards the foundation for this criticism and as regards the
metaphysical results yielded by it. Kant's analysis of knowledge
had disclosed the a priori element as the necessary complement of
the isolated a posteriori facts of experience. But it did not seem to
Fries that Kant had with sufficient accuracy examined the mode in
which we arrive at knowledge of this a priori dement. According
to him we only know these a priori principles through inner or
psychical experience; they are not then to be regarded as tran-
scendental factors of all experience, but as the necessary, constant
elements discovered by us in our inner experience. Accordingly
Fries, like the Scotch school, places psychology or analysis of con*
setousness at the foundation of philosophy, and called his criticism
of knowledge an anthropological critique. A second point in which
Fries differed from Kant is the view taken as to the relation between
immediate and mediate cognitions. According to Fries, the under-
standing is purely the faculty of proof; it is in itself void; immediate
certitude is the only source of knowledge. Reason contains principles
which we cannot demonstrate, but which can be deduced, and arc
the proper objects of belief. In this view of reason Fries approxi-
mates to Jacobi rather than to Kant. His most original idea is the
graduation of knowledge into knowing, belief and presentiment.
We know phenomena, how the existence of things appears to us in
nature; we believe in the true nature, the eternal essence of things
(the good, the true, the beautiful); by means of presentiment
(Ahnung) the intermediary between knowledge and belief, we
recognize the supra-sensible in the sensible, the being in the pheno-
menon.
Sec E. L. Henke, /. F. Fries (1867); C. Grapengicsser, /. F. Fries,
ein CedenkUaU and Kant's " Kritih der Vernunft " und deren Fort-
bildnng dutch J. F. Fries (1882); H. Strasosky, J. P. Fries als
Kritiker der Kantischen Erkenntnistkeorie (1891); articles in Ersch
and Gruber's AUtemeine Eneyklopddie and AUgemtine deutsche
Biographic; J. E. Erdmann, Hist, of Philos. (Eng. trans., London,
1890), vol. if. f 305.
FRIES, JOHN (c. 1 764-1825), American insurgent leader, was
born in Pennsylvania of "Dutch" (German) descent about
1764. As an itinerant auctioneer he became well acquainted
with the Germans in the S.E. part of Pennsylvania. In July
1798, during the troubles between the United States and France,
Congress levied a direct tax (on dwelling-houses, lands and
slaves) of $2,000,000, of which Pennsylvania was called upon to
contribute 1237,00a There were very few slaves in the state,
and the tax was accordingly assessed upon dwelling-houses and
land, the value of the houses being determined by the number
and size of the windows. The inquisitorial nature of the pro-
ceedings aroused strong opposition among the Germans, and
many of them refused to pay. Fries, assuming leadership,
organized an armed band of about sixty men, who marched
about the country intimidating the assessors and encouraging
the people to resist. At last the governor called out the
militia (March 1709) and the leaders were arrested. Fries and
two others were twice tried for treason (the second time before
Samuel Chase) and were sentenced to be hanged, but they were
pardoned by President Adams in April 1800, and a general
amnesty was issued on 2 1 st May. The affair is variously known
as the Fries Rebellion," the Hot- Water Rebellion"— because
hot water was used to drive assessors from houses—, and the
" Home Tax Rebellion." Fries died in I hiladelphia in 182$.
See T. Carpenter, Two Trials of John Fries . . . Taken iu Short-
hand (Philadelphia, 1800) : the second volume of McMaster's History
of the United States (New York, 1883); and W. W. H. Davis, The
Fries Rebellion (Doylestown, Pa., 1899).
FRIESLAKD, or Vkxesland, a province of Holland, bounded
S.W., W. and N. by the Zuider Zee and the North Sea, E. by
Groningen and Drente, and S.E. by OveryseL It also includes
the islands of Ameland and Schiermonnikoog (see Frisian
Islands). Area, 1281 sq. m.; pop. (1900) 340,262. The soil
of Friesland falls naturally into three divisions consisting of
sea-clay in the north and north-west, of low-fen between the
south-west and north-east, and of a comparatively small area
of high-fen in the south-east. The clay and low-fen furnish a
luxuriant meadow-land for the principal industries of the province
— cattle-rearing and cheese- and butter-making. Horse-breeding
has also been practised for centuries, and the breed of black
Frisian horse is well known. On the clay lands agriculture is
also extensively practised. In the high-fen district peat-digging
is the chief occupation. The effect of this industry, however,
is to lay bare a subsoil of diluvial sand which offers little induce-
ment for subsequent cultivation. Despite the general productive-
ness of the soil, however, the social condition of Friesland has
remained in a backward state and poverty is rife in many districts.
The ownership of property being largely in the hands of absentee
landlords, the peasantry have little interest in the land, the
profits from which go to enrich other provinces. Moreover,
the nature of the fertility of the meadow-lands is such as to
require little manual labour, and other industrial means of
subsistence have hardly yet come into existence. This stale of
affairs has given rise to a social-democratic outcry on account
of which Friesland is sometimes regarded as the " Ireland of
Holland." The water system of the province comprises a few
small rivers (now largely canalized) in the high lands in the east,
and the vast network of canals, waterways and lakes of the whole
north and west. The principal lakes are Tjeuke Meer, Sloter
Mecr, De Fluessen and Sneeker Meer. The tides being lowest
on the north coast of the province, the scheme of the Waterstaat,
the government department (dating from 1879), provides for
the largest removal of superfluous surface water Into the Lau-
wcrszec. But owing to the long distance which the water must
travel from certain parts of the province, and the continual
recession of the Lauwerszee, the drainage problem is a pecuhariy
difficult one, and Hoods are sometimes inevitable.
The population of the province is evenly distributed in small
villages. The principal market centres arc Lceuwarden, the
chief towns, Sncek, Bolsward, Francker (qq.v.), Dokkum C*P5j)
and Hecrenvecn (501 1). With the exception of Franeker and
Heerenveen all these towns originally arose on the inlet of the
Middle Sea. The seaport towns arc more or less decayed;
they include Stavoren (820), Hindeloopen (1030), Workum
(3428), Harlingen (q.v.) and Makkum (2456).
For history see Frisians.
FRIEZE. 1. (Through the Fr. frise, and Ital. fregio, from
the Lat. Phrygium, sc. opus, Phrygian or embroidered work),
a term given in architecture to the central division of the en-
tablature of an order (sec Order), but also applied to any oblong
horizontal feature, introduced for decorative purposes and
enriched with carving. The Doric frieze had a structural origin
as the triglyphs suggest vertical support. The Ionic frieze was
purely decorative and probably did not exist in the earliest
examples, if we may judge by the copies found in the Lyrian
tombs carved in the rock. There is no frieze in the Caryatide
portico of the Ercchtheum, but in the Ionic temples its introduc-
tion may have been necessitated in consequence of mote height
being required in the entablature to carry the beams supporting
the lacunaria over the peristyle. In the frieze of the Erechtheun
the figures (about 2 ft. high) were carved in white marble and
affixed by clamps to a background of black Eleusinian marble.
The frieze of the Choragic monument of Lysicrates (to in. high)
was carved with figures representing the story of Dionysus and
the pirates. The most remarkable frieze ever sculptured was
that on the outside of the wall of the cella of the Parthenon
representing the. procession of the celebrants of the Panathenak
Festival. It was 40 in. in height and 525 ft. long, being carried
round the whole building under the peristyle. Nearly the whole
of the western frieze exists in situ; of the remainder, about half
is in the British Museum, and as much as remains is either ia
Athens or in other muserms. In some of the Roman temples,
as in the temple of Antoninus and Faustina and the temple
of the Sun, the frrte is elaborately carved and in later von k
made convex, to which the terra " pulvinated " is given.
2. (Probably connected with " frizz," to curl; there h m
historical reason to connect the word with Friesland), a thick,
rough woollen cloth, of very lasting quality, and with a hesry
nap, forming small tufts or curls. It is largely manufactured is
Ireland.
FRIGATE (Fr. frtgaU, Span, and I'orr . fra< ita; the etymology
of the word is obscure; it has been derived from the Late 1st
FRIGATE-BIRD— FRIIS
231
fabruata, and the use of the Fr. bdlimtnt, for a vessel as well as a
building is compared; another suggestion derives the word from
the Gr. A^poxrof, unfenced or unguarded), originally a small
swift, undecked vessel, propelled by oars or sails, in use on the
Mediterranean. The word is thus used of the large open boats,
without guns, used for war purposes by the Portuguese in the
East Indies during the 16th and 17th centuries. The French
first applied the term to a particular type of ships of war during
the second quarter of the 18th century. The Seven Years'
War (175^-1763) marked the definite adoption of the " frigate "
as a standard class of vessel, coming next to ships of the line,
and used for cruising and scouting purposes. They were three-
masted, fully rigged, fast vessels, with the main armament
carried on a single deck, and additional guns on the poop and
forecastle. The number of guns varied from 24 to 50, but
between 30 and 40 guns was the usual amount carried. "Frigate"
continued to be used as the name for this type of ship, even
after the introduction of steam and of ironclad vessels, but the
class is now represented by that known as " cruiser."
FRIGATE- BIRD, the name commonly given by English
sailors, on account of the swiftness of its flight, its habit of
cruising about near other species and of daringly pursuing them,
to a large sea-bird 1 — the Frcgata aquila of most ornithologists —
the Fregatte of French and the Rabikorcado of Spanish mariners.
It was placed by Linnaeus in the genus Pelccanus, and its
assignment to the family Pelccanidae had hardly ever been
doubted till Professor St George Mivart declared (Tram. Zool.
Soc. x. p. 364) that, as regards the postcranial part of its axial
skeleton, he- could not detect sufficiently good characters to
unite it with that family in the group named by Professor J. F.
Brandt Steganopodes. There seems to be no ground for disputing
this decision so far as separating the genus Pregata from the
PtUaxnidae goes, but systematise will probably pause before
they proceed to abolish the SUgano pedes, and the result will
most likely be that the frigate-birds will be considered to form
a distinct family (Fregatidae) in that group. In one very remark-
able way the osteology of Pregata differs from that of all other
birds known. The furcula coalesces firmly at its symphysis
with the carina of the sternum, and also with the coracoids at
the upper extremity of each of its rami, the anterior end of each
coracoid coalescing also with the proximal end of the scapula.
Thus the only articulations in the whole sternal apparatus are
where the coracoids meet the sternum, and the consequence is
a bony framework which would be perfectly rigid did not the
flexibility of the rami of the furcula permit a limited amount of
motion. That this mechanism is closely related to the faculty
which the bird possesses of soaring for a considerable time in the
air with scarcely a perceptible movement of the wings can
hardly be doubted.
Two species of Pregata are considered to exist, though they
differ in little but size and geographical distribution. . The larger,
P. aquila, has a wide range all round the world within the tropics
and at times passes their limits. The smaller, F. minor, appears
to be confined to the eastern seas, from Madagascar to the
Moluccas, and southward to Australia, being particularly abun-
dant in Torres Strait, — the other species, however, being found
there as welt Having a spread of wing equal to a swan's and
a very small body, the buoyancy of these birds is very great.
It is a beautiful sight to watch one or more of them floating
overhead against the deep blue sky, the long forked tail alternately
opening and shutting like a pair of scissors, and the head, which
is of course kept to windward, inclined from side to side, while
the wings are to all appearance fixedly extended, though the
breeze may be constantly varying in strength and direction.
Equally fine is the contrast afforded by these birds when engaged
is fishing, or, as seems more often to happen, in robbing other
birds, especially boobies, as they are fishing. Then the speed
of their flight is indeed seen to advantage, as well as the marvel-
■ " Man-of-war-bird " is also sometimes applied to it, and is
perhaps the older name; but it is lest distinctive, some of the larger
Albatrosses brine; so called, and, in books at least, has generally
passed out of we.
lous suddenness with which they can change their rapid course
as their victim tries to escape from their attack. Before gales
frigate-birds are said often to fly low, and their appearance
near or over land, except at their breeding-time, is supposed to
portend a hurricane.* Generally seen singly or in pairs, except
when the prospect of prey induces them to congregate, they
breed in large companies, and O. Salvia has graphically described
{Ibis, 1864, p. 375) one of their settlements off the coast of
British Honduras, which he visited in May 1862. Here they
chose the highest mangrove-trees' on which to build their frail
nests, and seemed to prefer the leeward side. The single egg
laid in each nest has a white and chalky shell very like that of a
cormorant's. The nestlings are clothed in pure white down,
and so thickly as to resemble puff-balls. When fledged, the
beak, head, neck and belly are white, the legs and feet bluish-
white, but the body is dark above. The adult females retain the
white beneath, but the adult males lose it, and in both sexes at
maturity the upper plumage is of a very dark chocolate brown,
nearly black, with a bright metallic gloss, while the feet in the
females are pink, and black in the males—the last also acquiring
a bright scarlet pouch, capable of inflation, and being perceptible
when on the wing. The habits of F. minor seem wholly to
resemble those of F. aquila. According to J. M. Bechstein, an
example of this last species was obtained at the mouth of the
Weser in January 1792. (A. N.)
FRIGG, the wife of the god Odin (Woden) in northern mytho-
logy. She was known also to other Teutonic peoples both on
the continent (O. H. Gcr. Friia, Langobardic Prea) and in Eng-
land, where her name still survives in Friday (O.E. Frigedag).
She is often wrongly identified with Frcyia. (See Teutonic
Peoples, ad fin.)
FRIGIDARITJlf , the Latin term (from frigid us, cold) applied
to the open area of the Roman thermae, in which there was
generally a cold swimming bath, and sometimes to the bath
(see Baths). From the description given by Aclius Spartianus
(a.d. 297) it would seem that portions of the frigidarium were
covered over by a ceiling formed of interlaced bars of gilt bronxe,
and this statement has been to a certain extent substantiated
by the discovery of many tons of T-shaped iron found in the
excavations under the paving of the frigidarium of the thermae
of Caracalla. Dr J. H. Middleton in The Remains of Ancient
Rome (1892) points out that in the part of the enclosure walls
are deep sinkings to receive the ends of the great girders. He
suggests that the panels of the lattice- work ceiling were filled in
with concrete made of light pumice stone.
FRIIS, JOHAN (1494-1570), Danish statesman, was born in
Z494, and was educated at Odcnse and at Copenhagen, completing
his studies abroad. Few among the ancient Danish nobility
occupy so prominent a place in Danish history as Johan Friis,
who exercised a decisive influence in the government of the
realm during the reign of three kings. He was one of the first
of the magnates to adhere to the Reformation and its promoter
King Frederick I. (1523-1533), his apostasy being so richly
rewarded out of the spoils of the plundered Church that his heirs
had to restore property of the value of 1, 000,000 kroner. Friis
succeeded Claus Gjoodsen as imperial chancellor in 1532, and
held that dignity till his death. During the ensuing interregnum
he powerfully contributed, at the head of the nobles of Funcn
and Jutland, to the election of Christian III. (1 533-1 559), but
in the course of the " Count's War " he was taken prisoner by
Count Christopher, the Catholic candidate for the throne, and
forced to do him homage. Subsequently by judicious bribery
he contrived to escape to Germany, and from thence rejoined
Christian HI. He was one of the plenipotentiaries who concluded
peace with Lilbeck at the congress of Hamburg, and subsequently
took an active part in the great work of national reconstruction
necessitated by the Reformation, acting as mediator between
the Danish and the German parties who were contesting for
* Hence another of the names—" hurricane-bird "—by which this
tint it > it occasionally known.
* Captain Taylor, however, found their nests as well on low bushes
of the same tree in the Bay of Fooseca {Ms, 1859, pp. 150-15*).
*3*
FRIMLEY— FRISI
supremacy during the earlier years of Christian III. This he was
able to do, as a moderate Lutheran, whose calmness and common
sense contrasted advantageously with the unbridled violence
of his contemporaries. As the first chancellor of the recon-
structed university of Copenhagen, Friis took the keenest
interest in spiritual and scientific matters, and was the first donor
of a legacy to the institution. He also enjoyed the society of
learned men, especially of "those who could talk with him
concerning andent monuments and their history." He encour-
aged Hans Svaning to complete Saxo's history of Denmark,
and Anders Vedel to translate Saxo into Danish. His generosity
to poor students was well known; but he could afford to be
liberal, as his share of spoliated Church property had made him
one of the wealthiest men in Denmark. Under King Frederick 1 1.
(1550-1588), who understood but little of state affairs, Friis
was well-nigh omnipotent. He was largely responsible for the
Scandinavian Seven Years' War (1563-70), which did so much
to exacerbate the relations between Denmark and Sweden.
Friis died on the 5th of December 1570, a few days before the
peace of Stettin, which put an end to the exhausting and un-
necessary struggle.
FRIMLEY, an urban district in the Chertsey parliamentary
division of Surrey, England, 33 m. W.S.W. from London by
the London & South-Western railway, and 1 m. N. of Farn-
borough in Hampshire. Pop. (1001) 8409. Its healthy climate,
its position in the sandy heath-district of the west of Surrey,
and its proximity to Aldcrshot Camp have contributed to its
growth as a residential township. To the east the moorland
rises in the picturesque elevation of Chobham Ridges; and
3 m. N.E. is Bagshot, another village growing into a residential
town, on the heath of the same name extending into Berkshire.
Bisley Camp, to which in 1800 the meetings of the National
Rifle Association were removed from Wimbledon, is 4 m. E.
Coniferous trees and rhododendrons are characteristic products
of the soil, and large nurseries are devoted to their cultivation.
FRIMONT. JOHANN MARIA PH1UPP, Count or Palota,
Prince of Antbodocco (1750-1831), Austrian general, entered
the Austrian cavalry as a trooper in 1776, won his commission
in the War of the Bavarian Succession, and took part in the
Turkish wars and in the early campaigns against the French
Revolutionary armies, in which he frequently earned distinction.
At Frankenthal in 1706 he won the cross of Maria Theresa. In
the campaign of 1800 he distinguished himself greatly as a
cavalry leader at Marengo (14th of June), and in the next year
became major-general. In the war of 1805 he was again employed
in Italy and won further renown by his gallantry at the battle
of Caldiero. In 1809 be again saw active service in Italy in the
rank of lieutenant field marshal, and in 181 a led the cavalry of
Schwarxenberg's corps in the Russian campaign. He served in
the campaigns of 18x3-14 in high command, and rendered
conspicuous service at Bricnne-La Rothiere and at Arcis-sur-
Aube. In 181 5 he was commander-in-chief of the Austrian* in
Italy, and his army penetrated France as far as Lyons, which
was entered on the nth of July. With the army of occupation
he remained in France for some years, and in 18x9 he commanded
at Venice. In 182 1 he led the Austrian army which was employed
against the Neapolitan rebels, and by the 24th of March he had
victoriously entered Naples. His reward from King Ferdinand
of Naples was the title of prince of Antrodocco and a handsome
sum of money, and from his own master the rank of general of
cavalry. After this he commanded in North Italy, and was
called upon to deal with many outbreaks of the Italian patriots.
He became president of the Aulic council in 1831, but died a few
months later.
FRISCHES HAFF, a lagoon on the Baltic coast of Germany,
within the provinces East and West Prussia, between Danzig
and KSmgsberg. It is 52 m. in length, from 4 to 12 m. broad,
332 sq. re. in area, and is separated from the Baltic by a narrow
spit or bank of land. This barrier was torn open by a storm in
T510, and the channel thus formed, now dredged out to a depth
of 22 ft., affords a navigable passage for vessels. Into the Haff
flow the Nogat, the Elbing, the Passargc, the Prcgcl and the
Frisching, from the last of which the name Frisches Haff probably
arose.
FRISCHUN, PH1UPP NIKODEMUS (1547-1590), German
philologist and poet, was born on the 22nd of September 1547
at Balingen in Wurttemberg, where his father was parish
minister. He was educated at the university of Tubingen,
where in 1568 he was promoted to the chair of. poetry and
history. In 1575 for his comedy of Rebecca, which he read at
Regensburg before the emperor Maximilian II., he was rewarded
with the laureatcship, and in 1577 be was made a count palatine
{comes palatinus) or Pfalzgraf. In 1582 his unguarded language
and reckless life made it necessary that he should leave Tubingen,
and he accepted a mastership at Lai bach in Carniola, which he
held for about two years. Shortly after his return to the univer-
sity in x 5S4, he was threatened with a criminal prosecution on a
charge of immoral conduct, and the threat led to his withdrawal
to Frankfort-on-Main in 1587. For eighteen months he taught
in the Brunswick gymnasium, and he appears also to have resided
occasionally at Strassburg, Marburg and Mains. From the
last-named city he wrote certain libellous letters, which led to his
being arrested in March 1 590. He was imprisoned in the fortress
of Hohcnurach, near Reutlingen, where, on the night of the 29th
of November 1500, he was killed by a fall in attempting to let
himself down from the window of his celL
Frischlin's prolific and versatile genius produced a great variety
of works, which entitle him to some rank both among poet* and
among scholars, In his Latin verse he often successfully imitated
the classical models; his comedies arc not without freshness and
vivacity; and some of his versions and commentaries, particularly
those on the Georgia and Bucolics of Virgil, though now well-nick
forgotten, were important contributions to the scholarship of £»
time. There is no collected edition of his works, but his Open
pocttca were published twelve times between 1535 and 1636. Among
those most widely known may be mentioned the JJebraeis (1590}, a
Latin epic based on the Scripture history of the Jews: the JEfegtecs
(1601), his collected lyric poetry, in twenty-two books; the Optr*
scenka (1604) consisting of six comedies and two tragedies (among
the former, Julius Caesar redivivus, completed 1584); the Cram-
matica Lalina (1585); the versions of Callimachus and Aristo-
phanes; and the commentaries on Persius and Virgil. Sea the
monograph of D. F. Strauss (Leben und Sdtrifk* des Dichters tad
Pkildogen FriscMin, 1856).
FRISI, PAOLO (1728-1784), Italian mathematician and
astronomer, was born at Milan on the 13th of April 1728. He
was educated at the Barnabite monastery and afterwards at
Padua. When twenty-one years of age he composed a treatise
on the figure of the earth, and the reputation which be soon
acquired led to his appointment by the king of Sardinia to the
professorship of philosophy in the college of Casale. His friend-
ship with Radicati, a man of liberal opinions, occasioned FrisTs
removal by his clerical superiors to Novara, where he was com-
pelled to do duty as a preacher. In 1 7 53 he was elected a corre-
sponding member of the Paris Academy of Sciences, and shortly
afterwards he became professor of philosophy in the Barnabils
College of St Alexander at Milan. An acrimonious attack by a
young Jesuit, about this time, upon his dissertation on the
figure of the earth laid the foundation of his animosity agaiast
the Jesuits, with whose enemies, including J. d'Aktnbst,
J. A. N. Condorcet and other Encyclopedists, he later closely
associated himself. In 1756 he was appointed by Leopold,
grand-duke of Tuscany, to the professorship of mathematics
in the university of Pisa, a post which he held for eight years.
In 1757 he became an associate of the Imperial Academy of
St Petersburg, and a foreign member of the Royal Society of
London, and in 1758 a member of the Academy of Berlin, in
1766 of that of Stockholm, and in 1770 of the Academies of
Copenhagen and of Bern. From several European crowned
heads he received, at various times, marks of special distinction,
and the empress Maria Theresa granted him a yearly pens**
of 100 sequins (£50). In 1764 he was created profes so r of
mathematics in the palatine schools at Milan, and obtained
from Pope Pius VI. release from ecclesiastical Jurisdiction, sad
authority to become a secular priest. In 1766 be visited Fraaee
and England, and in 1768 Vienna. In 1777 he became direct*
of a school of architecture at Milan. His knowledge of hydraaioJ
FRISIAN ISLANDS
»33
ft
caused him to be frequently consulted with respect to the manage-
ment of canals and other watercourses in various parts of Europe.
It was through his means that lightning-conductors were first
introduced into Italy for the protection of buildings. He died
oa the sand of November 1784.
His publications include: — DisquisiHe matkematica in causam
physicnm figurae et magniludinis terrae (Milan, 1751); Saggio delta
morale /Uosofia (Lugano, 1753); Nova electricitatu ikeoria (Milan,
1755); Dissertatio de motu dtumo terrae (Pisa, 1758); Dissertationes
vanae (2 vols. 4to, Lucca, 1750, 1761); Del modo d% regelate ifiumi
e 1 torrenti (Lucca, 1762); Cosmograpkia pkysica et matkematica
(Milan, 1774, 1773, 2 vols. 4to, his chief work); DeW arckileiiura,
stotica e idraulica (Milan, 1777) j and other treatises.
See Vcrri, Memorie . . . del signer dom Paolo Frist (Milan, 1787),
o; Fabbroni. " Elogj d' Hlustri Italian!," Atii di liilano, vol. li. ;
C Poggeudorff, Biograpk. litterar. Haudwortertmck, vol i.
FRISIAN ISLANDS, a chain of islands, lying from 3 to 26 m.
from the mainland, and stretching from the Zuider Zee E. and
N. as far as Jutland, along the coasts of Holland and Germany.
They are divided into three group*:— (1) The West Frisian, (2)
the East Frisian, and (3) the North Frisian.
The chain of the Frisian Islands marks the outer fringe of the
former continental coast-line, and is separated from the mainland
by shallows, known as Waddcn or Watten, answering to the maria
tattoo of the Romans. Notwithstanding the protection afforded
by sand-dunes' and earthen embankments backed by stones
and timber, the Frisian Islands are slowly but surely crumbling
away under the persistent attacks of storm and flood, and the
old Frisian proverb " de nick will diken mid vriken " (" who will
not build dikes must go away ") still holds good. Many of the
Frisian legends and folk-songs deal with the submerged villages
and hamlets, which lie buried beneath the treacherous waters
of the Wadden. Heinrich Heine made use of these legends in his
Nordseebilder, composed during a visit to Norderney in 1825.
The Prussian and Dutch governments annually expend large
sums for the protection of the islands, and in some cases the erosion
on the seaward side is counterbalanced by the accretion of land
on the inner side, fine sandy beaches being formed well suited
for sea-bathing, which attracts many visitors in summer. The
inhabitants of these islands support themselves by seafaring,
pilotage, grazing of cattle and sheep, fishing and a little agri-
culture, chiefly potato-growing.
The islands, though well lighted, are dangerous to navigation,
and a glance at a wreck chart will show the entire chain to be
densely dotted. One of the most remarkable disasters was the
loss of H.M.S. M La Lutine," 32 guns, which was wrecked off
Vheland in October 1709, only one hand being saved, who
died before reaching England. " La Lutine," which had been
captured from the French by Admiral Duncan, was carrying
a large quantity of bullion and specie, which was underwritten
at Lloyd's. The Dutch government claimed the wreck and
granted one-third of the salvage to bullion-fishers. Occasional
recoveries were made of small quantities which led to repeated
disputes and discussions, until eventually the king of the Nether-
lands ceded to Great Britain, for Lloyd's, half the remainder
of the wreck. A Dutch salvage company, which began operations
in August 1857, recovered £99,893 in the course of two years,
but it was estimated that some £1,175,000 are still unaccounted
for. The ship's rudder, which was recovered in 1859, has been
fashioned into a chair and a table, now in the possession of
Lloyd's.
The West Frisian Islands belong to the kingdom of the Nether-
lands, and embrace Texcl or Tessel (71 sq. m.), Vlieland (19 sq.
in.), Terschelling (41 sq. m.), Ameland (23 sq. m.),
Schiermonnikoog ( 19 sq. m. ) , as well as the much smaller
Islands of Boschplaat and Rottum, which are practi-
cally uninhabited. The northern end of Texel is called Eierland,.
or " island of eggs," in reference to the large number of sea-birds'
eggs which are found there. It was joined to Texel by a sand-dike
in 1620-1630, and is now undistinguisbable from the main island.
Texel was already separated from the mainland in the 8th century,
but remained a Frisian province and countship, which once
extended as far as Alkmaar in North Holland, until it came into
fee possession of the counts of Holland. The island was occupied
by British troops from August to December 1700. The village
of Oude Schild has a harbour. The island of Terschelling once
formed a separate lordship, but was sold to the states of Holland.
The principal village of West -Terschelling has a harbour. As
early as the beginning of the 9th century Ameland was a lordship
of the influential family of Cammingha who held immediately*
of the emperor, and in recognition of their independence the
Amelanders were in 1369 declared to be neutral in the fighting
between Holland and Friesland, while Cromwell made the same
declaration in 1654 with respect to the war between England and
the United Netherlands. The castle of the Camminghas in the
village of Ballum remained standing till 18x0, and finally dis-
appeared in 1829 after four centuries. This island is joined to
tho mainland of Friesland by a stone dike constructed in 1873
for the purpose of promoting the deposit of mud. The island of
Schiermonnikoog has a village and a lighthouse. Rottum was
once the property of the ancient abbey at Rottum, 8 m. N.
of Groningen, of which there are slight remains.
With the exception of Wangeroog, which belongs to the grand
duchy of Oldenburg, the East Frisian Islands belong to Prussia.
They comprise Borkum (12J sq. m.), with two light- mmmS
houses and connected by steamer with Emden and FrnUa.
Leer; Memmert; Juist (*J sq. m.), with two lifeboat
stations, and connected by steamer with Norddeich and Greet-
siel; Norderney (5} sq. m.); Baltrum, with a lifeboat station;
Langeoog (8 sq. m.), connected by steamer with the adjacent
islands, and with Bensersiel on the mainland; Spiekeroog
(4 sq. m.), with a tramway for conveyance to the bathing beach,
and connected by steamer with Carolinenziel; and Wangeroog
(2 sq. m.), with a lighthouse and lifeboat station. All these
islands are visited for sea-bathing. In the beginning of the
1 8th century Wangeroog comprised eight times its present area.
Borkum and Juist are two surviving fragments of the original
island of Borkum (computed at 380 sq. m.), known to Drusus as
Fabaria, and to Pliny as Burckana, which was rent asunder by
the sea in 1 170. Neuwerk and ScharhSrn, situated off the mouth
of the Elbe, are islands belonging to the state of Hamburg.
Neuwerk, containing some marshland protected by dikes, has two
lighthouses and a lifeboat station. At low water it can be reached
from Duhnen by carriage.
About the year 1250 the area of the North Frisian Islands was
estimated at 1065 sq. m.; by 1850 this had diminished to only
105 sq. m. This group embraces the islands of Nord-
strand (17} sq. m.), which up to 1634 formed one
larger island with the adjoining Pohnshallig and
Nordstrandisch-Moor; Pellworm (i6j sq. m.), protected by a
circle of dikes and connected by steamer with Husum on the
mainland; Amrum (io§ sq. m.); Fdhr (32 sq. m.); Sylt (38
sq. m.); Rom (16 sq. m.), with several villages, the principal of
which is Kirkeby; Fan6 (21 sq. m.); and Heligoland (J sq. m.).
With the exception of Fan6, which is Danish, all these islands
belong to Prussia. In the North Frisian group there are also
several smaller islands called Halligen. These rise generally only
a few feet above the level of the sea, and are crowned by a single
house standing on an artificial mound and protected by a
surrounding dike or embankment.
Bibliography.— Staring, De Bodem van Nederland (1856);
Blink, Nederland en tijne Bewoners (1802): P. H. Witkamp,
Aardrijkskundig Woordenbeek van Nederland (1805); P. W. J.
Teding van Bcrkhout, De Landaanwinning op de Frtescke Wadden
(1869); J. de Vries and T. Focken, Ostfriesland (1881); Dr D. F.
Buitenrust Hettema, Fryske Bybleteek (Utrecht. 1895); Dr Eugcn
Traeger, Die Halligen der Nordsee (Stuttgart. 1892); also Globus,
vol. Txxviii. (1000). No. 15: P. Axelsen. in DeuL Rundukau fur
Geog. «. StatisHk (1898); Christian Jensen, Vom Dunenstrand der
Nordsee nnd vom WaUenmeer (Schleswig, 1901), which contains a
bibliography; OsUrloh, Wangeroog und sein Seebad (Emden, 1884);
Zwickert. Fiihrer durch das Nordstebad Wangeroog (Oldenburg,
1894); Nellner, Die Nordseeinsel Spiekeroog (Emdea. 1884);
Tongers. Die Nordseeinsel Langeoog (2nd ed., Norden, 1892); Meier.
Die Nordseeinsel Borkum (10th ed., Emden, 1894); Herquet, Pw
Insel Borkum. &c (Emden, 1886); Scherr, Die No rdseetnsel Juist
(2nd ed., Norden. 1893); von Bertouch, Vor 40 Jakren: Nahtrund
KuUur auf der Insel Nordstrand (Weimar, 1891); W. G. Black,
Heligoland and the Islands of the Norm Sea (Glasgow, 1888).
234
FRISIANS
FRISIANS (Lit. Prisii; in Med. Lat. Frisotus, Frisimes,
Fresones; in their own tongue Frisa, Frtsen), a people of
Teutonic (Low-German) stock, who in the first century of our
era were found by the Romans in occupation of the coast lands
stretching from the mouth of the Scheldt to that of the Ems.
They were nearly related both by speech and blood to the Saxons
and Angles, and other Low German tribes, who lived to the east
of the Ems and in Holstein and Schleswig. The first historical
notices of the Frisians are found in the A nnals of Tacitus. They
were rendered (or a portion of them) tributary by Drusus, and
became socii of the Roman people. In aj>. 28 the exactions of
a Roman official drove them to revolt, and their subjection was
henceforth nominal. They submitted again to Cn. Domitius
Corbulo in the year 47. but shortly afterwards the emperor
Claudius ordered the withdrawal of all Roman troops to the left
bank of the Rhine. In 58 they attempted unsuccessfully to
appropriate certain districts between the Rhine and the Yssel,
and in 70 they took part in the campaign of Claudius Civilis.
From this lime onwards their name practically disappears. As
regards their geographical position Ptolemy states that they
inhabited the coast above the Bructeri as far as the Ems, while
Tacitus speaks of them as adjacent to the Rhine. But there is
some reason for believing that the part of Holland which lies to
the west of the Zuider Zee was at first inhabited by a different
people, the Canninefates, a sister tribe to the Batavi. A trace
of this people is perhaps preserved in the name Kennemcrland
or Kinnehem, formerly applied to the same district. Possibly,
therefore, Tacitus's statement holds good only for the period
subsequent to the revolt of Civilis, when we hear of the Cannine-
fates for the last time.
In connexion with the movements of the migration period the
Frisians are hardly ever mentioned, though some of them are
said to have surrendered to the Roman prince Constanlius about
the year 293. On the other hand we hear very frequently of
Saxons in the coast regions of the Netherlands. Since the Saxons
(Old Saxons) of later times were an inland people, one can
hardly help suspecting either that the two nations have been
confused or, what is more probable, that a considerable mixture
of population, whether by conquest or otherwise, had taken
place. Procopius {Goth. iv. 20) speaks of the Frisians as one of
the nations which inhabited Britain in his day, but we have no
evidence from other sources to bear out his statement. In
Anglo-Saxon poetry mention is frequently made of a Frisian
king named Finn, the son of Folcwalda, who came into conflict
with a certain Hnaef, a vassal of the Danish king Healfdene,
about the middle of the 5th century. Hnaef was killed, but his
followers subsequently slew Finn in revenge. The incident is
obscure in many respects, but it is perhaps worth noting that
Hnaef's chief follower, Hcngcst, may quite possibly be identical
with the founder of the Kentish dynasty. About the year 520
the Frisians are said to have joined the Frankish prince Thcod-
berht in destroying a piratical expedition which had sailed up
the Rhine under Cbocilaicus (Hygelac), king of the Gotar.
Towards the close of the century they begin to figure much more
prominently in Frankish writings. There is no doubt that by
this time their territories had been greatly extended in both
directions. Probably some Frisians took part with the Angles
and Saxons in their sea-roving expeditions, and assisted their
neighbours in their invasions and subsequent conquest of England
and the Scottish lowlands.
The rise of the power of the Franks and the advance of their
dominion northwards brought on a collision with the Frisians, who
fn the 7th century were still in possession of the whole of the sea-
coast, and apparently ruled over the greater part of modern
Flanders. Under the protection of the Frankish king Dagobert
(622-638), the Christian missionaries Amandus (St Amand)
and Eligius (St Eloi) attempted the conversion of these Flemish
Frisians, and their efforts were attended with a certain measure
of success; but farther north the building of a church by Dago-
bert at Trajectum (Utrecht) at once aroused the fierce hostility
of the heathen tribesmen of the Zuider Zee. The " free " Frisians
could not endure this Frankish outpost on their borders. Utrecht
was attacked and captured, and the church destroyed. The
first missionary to meet with any success among the Frisians was
the Englishman Wilfrid of York, who, being driven by a storm
upon the coast, was hospitably received by the king, Adgild or
Adgisl, and was allowed to preach Christianity in the land.
Adgild appears to have admitted the overlordship of the Frankish
king, Dagobert IL (675). Under his successor, however, Radbod
(Frisian Redbad), an attempt was made to extirpate Chris-
tianity and to free the Frisians from the Frankish subjection.
He was, however, beaten by Pippin of Heristal in the battle of
Dorstadt (689), and was compelled to cede West Frisia (FrisU
citerior) from the Scheldt to tbcZuidcr Zee to the conqueror. On
Pippin's death Radbod again attacked the Franks and advanced
as far as Cologne, where he defeated Charles Martel, Pippin's
natural son. Eventually, however, Charles prevailed and com-
pelled the Frisians to submit. Radbod died in 7 19, but for some
years his successors struggled against the Frankish power. A
final defeafwas, however, inflicted upon them by Charles Martel
in 734, which secured the supremacy of the Franks in the north,
though it was not until the days of Charles the Great (785) that
the subjection of the Frisians was completed. Meanwhile
Christianity had been making its conquests in the land, mainly
through the lifelong labours and preaching of the Englishman
Willibrord, who came to Frisia in 692 and made Utrecht his
headquarters. He was consecrated (695) at Rome archbishop of
the Frisians, and on his return founded a number of bishoprics
in the northern Netherlands, and continued his labours un-
remittingly until his death in 739. It is an interesting fact that
both Wilfrid and Willibrord appear to have found no difficulty
from the first in preaching to the Frisians in their native dialect,
which was so nearly allied to their own Anglo-Saxon tongue.
The see of Utrecht founded by Willibrord has remained the chief
see of the Northern Netherlands from his day to our own. Fries-
land was likewise the scene of a portion of the missionary labours
of a greater than Willibrord, the famous Boniface, the Apostle
of the Germans, also an Englishman. It was at Dokkum in
Friesland that he met a martyr's death (754).
Charles the Great granted the Frisians important pri v ikfu
under a code known as the Lex Frisionum, based upon the
ancient laws of the country. They received the title of freemen
and were allowed to choose their own podesUd or imperial
governor. In the Lex Frisionum three districts arc dearly
distinguished: West Frisia from the Zwin to the Flie; Middle
Frisia from the Flie to the Lauwers; East Frisia from the
Lauwers to the Weser. At the partition treaty of Verdun (843)
Frisia became part of Lotharingia or Lorraine; at the treaty of
Mersen (870) it was divided between the kingdoms of the East
Franks (Austrasia) and the West Franks (Westrasia); in Mo
the whole country was united to Austrasia; in 01 z it fell under
the dominion of Charles the Simple, king of the West Franks,
but the districts of East Frisia asserted their independence and
for a long time governed themselves after a very simple demo-
cratic fashion. The history of West Frisia gradually loses itsdf
in that of the countship of Holland and the see of Utrecht (ste
Holland and Utrecht).
The influence of the Frisians during the interval between the
invasion of Britain and the loss of their independence most have
been greater than is generally recognized. They were a sea-
faring people and engaged largely in trade, especially perhaps
the slave trade, their chief emporium being Wyk te Duorstedt
During the period in question there is considerable archaeo-
logical evidence for intercourse between the west coast of Nomjr
and the regions south of the North Sea, and it is worth nouftf
that this seems to have come to an end early in the 9th century.
Probably it is no mere accident that the first appearance, or
rather reappearance, of Scandinavian pirates in the west teak
place shortly after the overthrow of the Frisians. Since Radbod'*
dominions extended from Duerstede to Heligoland has power
must have been by no means inconsiderable.
Besides the Frisians discussed above there is a people ofled
North Frisians, who inhabit the west coast of Schleswig. At
present a Frisian dialect is spoken only between Tondcra ass
Husam, but formerly it extended farther both to the north and
south. In historical tiroes these North Frisians were subject*
of the Danish kingdom and not connected in any way with the
Frisians of the empire. They are first mentioned by Sazc
Grammaticus in connexion with the exile of Knud V. Saxc
recognized that they were of Frisian origin, but did not know
when they had first settled in this region. Various opinions arc
still held with regard to the question; but it seems not unlikely
that the original settlers were Frisians who had been expelled
by the Franks in the 8th century. Whether the North Frisian
language is entirely of Frisian origin is somewhat doubtful owinf
to the close relationship which Frisian bears to English. The in-
habitants of the neighbouring islands, Sylt, Amrum and Ffihr,
who speak a kindred dialect, have apparently never regarded
themselves as Frisians, and it is the view of many scholars that
they are the direct descendants of the ancient Saxons.
In x 248 William of Holland, having become emperor, restored
to the Frisians in his countship their ancient liberties in reward
for the assistance they had rendered him in the siege of Aachen;
but in 1254 they revolted, and William lost his life in the contest
which ensued. After many struggles West Friesland became
completely subdued, and was henceforth virtually absorbed in
the county of Holland. But the Frieslanders east of the Zuider
Zee obstinately resisted repeated attempts to bring them into
subjection. In the course of the 14th century the country was
in a state of anarchy; petty lordships sprang into existence, the
interests of the common weal were forgotten or disregarded, and
the people began to be split up into factions, and these were
continually carrying on petty warfare with one another. Thus
the Fetkoopers (Fat mongers) of Oostergoo bad endless feuds
with the-Schieringcrs (Eelfishers) of Westergoo.
This state of affairs favoured the attempts of the counts of
Holland to push their conquests eastward, but the main body of
the Frisians was still independent when the countship of Holland
passed into the hands of Philip the Good of Burgundy. Philip
laid claim to the whole country, but the people appealed to the
protection of the empire, and Frederick III., in August 1457,
recognized their direct dependence on the empire and called on
Philip to bring forward formal proof of his rights. Philip's
successor, Charles the Bold, summoned an assembly of notables
at Enkhuizen in 1469, in order to secure their homage; but the
conference was without result, and the duke's attention was soon
absorbed by other and more important affairs. The marriage
of Maximilian of Austria with the heiress of Burgundy was to be
productive of a change in the fortunes of that part of Frisia
which lies between the Vlie and the Lauvers. In 1408 Maxi-
milian reversed the policy of bis father Frederick III., and
detached this territory, known afterwards as the province of
Friesland, from the empire. He gave it as a fief to Albert of
Saxony, who thoroughly crushed out all resistance. In 1523 it
fell with all the rest of the provinces of the Netherlands under
the strong rule of the emperor Charles, the grandson of Maxi-
milian and Mary of Burgundy.
That part of Frisia which lies to the cast of the Lauwers had
a divided history. The portion which lies between the Lauwers
and the Ems after some struggles for independence had, like the
rest of the country, to submit itself to Charles. It became
ultimately the province of the town and district of Groningen
(Stadt en Landen) (see Groningen). The easternmost part
between the Ems and the Wcser, which had since 1454 been a
county, was ruled by the descendants of Edzard Cirksena, and
was attached to the empire. The last of the Cirkscnas, Count
Charles Edward, died in 1744 and in default of heirs male the
king of Prussia took possession of the county.
The province of Friesland was one of the seven provinces
which by the treaty known as the Union of Utrecht bound
themselves together to resist the tyranny of Spain. From 1579
to 1705 Friesland remained one of the constituent parts of the
republic of the United Provinces, but it always jealously insisted
00 its sovereign rights, especially against the encroachments of
the predominant province of Holland. It maintained throughout
the whole of the republican period a certain distinctiveness of
FRITH, J 23S
nationality, which was marked by the preservation of a different
dialect and of a separate stadtholder. Count William Lewis
of Nassau-Siegen, nephew and son-in-law of William the Silent,
was chosen stadtholder, and through all the vicissitudes of the
17th and 18th centuries the stadtholdership was held by one of
his descendants. Frederick Henry of Orange was stadtholder
of six provinces, but not of Friesland, and even during the stadt-
holderless periods which followed the deaths of William II. and
William III. of Orange the Frisians remained stanch to the
family of Nassau-Siegen. Finally, by the revolution of 1748,
William of Nassau-Siegen, stadtholder of Friesland (who, by
default of heirs male of the elder line, had become William IV.,
prince of Orange), was made hereditary stadtholder of all the
provinces. His grandson in 18x5 took the title of William I.,
king of the Netherlands. The male line of the " Frisian M
Nassaus came to an end with the death of King William III. in
1890.
Bibliography— See Tacitus, Ann. iv. 72 f., xu 19 f.. xiii. 94;
Hist. iv. 15 f.; Germ. 34; Ptolemy, Geogr. u. 11, | II; Dio Camus
liv. 32; Eumeniu*, Paneg. iv. 9; the Anglo-Saxon poems, Finn,
Beowulf and Widsith; Fredegarti Ckronici continuatio and various
German Annals; Gesta return Francorum; Eddius, Vita Wiljridi,
cap. 25 f.; Bcde, Hist. Eccles. iv. 22, v. 9 f.; Alcuin, Vita Will*-
brordi; I. Undsct, Aarbger for nordish Oldkyndighed (1880), p. 89 ff.
(cf. E. Mogk in Paul's Crundriss d. germ. Philologie ii. p. 623 ft.);
Ubbo Emmius, Rerum Frisicarum kutoria (Leiden, 1616); Pirius
Winsemius, Chroniquevan Vriesland (Franoker, 1822); C. Scotanus,
Beschryvingi end Ckronyck van des Heerlickhtydt van Friestandi
(1655) ; Croot Placaat en Charter-bock van Friesland (ed. Baron C. F.
zu Schwarzenberg) (■> vols., Lee u warden, 1768-1793); T. D. Wiarda,
Oit-friesckische Ge*cn. (vols. X.-ix., Aurich, 1791) (vol. x., Bremen,
1817); J. Dirks, Geschicdkundig ondertoeh van den Koophandel der
Frieun (Utrecht, 1846); O. Klopp, Gesch. Ostfrieslands (3 vols.,
Hanover, 1854-1858); Hooft van Iddckingc, Friesland en da
Fritven in de Atiddeleewen (Leiden, 1881); A. Telling, Htt Ou4-
friescke Stadrecht (The Hague, 1882); P.J. Blok, Friesland im
MiUelalUr (Leer, 1891).
FRITH (or Fryth), JOHN (c. 1503-1533), English Reformer
and Protestant martyr, was born at Westcrham, Kent. He was
educated at Eton and King's College, Cambridge, where Gardiner,
afterwards bishop of Winchester, was his tutor. At the invita-
tion of Cardinal Wolsey, after taking his degree he migrated
(December 1525) to the newly founded college of St Frideswide
or Cardinal College (now Christ Church), Oxford. The sympa-
thetic interest which he showed in the Reformation movement
in Germany caused him to be suspected as a heretic, and led to his
imprisonment for some months. Subsequently he appears to
have resided chiefly at the newly founded Protestant university
of Marburg, where he became acquainted with several scholars
and reformers of note, especially Patrick Hamilton (q.v.).
Frith's first publication was a translation of Hamilton's Places,
made shortly after the martyrdom of its author; and soon
afterwards the Revelation of Antichrist, a translation from the
German, appeared, along with A Pistle to the Christen Reader,
by " Richard Bright well " (supposed to be Frith), and An
Antithesis wherein are compared togeder Christes Actes and our
Holye Father the Popes, dated " at Malborow in the lande of
Hesse," 12th July 1529. His Disputacyon of Purgatorye, a
treatise in three books, against Rastcll, Sir T. More and Fisher
(bishop of Rochester) respectively, was published at the same
place in 1531. While at Marburg, Frith also assisted Tyndale,
whose acquaintance he had made at Oxford (or perhaps in
London) in his literary labours. In 1532 he ventured back to
England, apparently on some business in connexion with the
prior of Reading. Warrants for his arrest were almost imme-
diately issued at the instance of SirT. More, then lord chancellor.
Frith ultimately fell into the hands of the authorities at Milton
Shore in Essex, as he was on the point of making his escape to
Flanders. The rigour of his imprisonment in the Tower was
somewhat abated when Sir T. Audley succeeded to the chan*
:ellorship,and it was understood that both Cromwell and Cranmer
were disposed to show great leniency. But the treacherous
:irculation of a manuscript " lytic treatise " on the sacraments,
which Frith had written for the information of a friend, and
without any view to pubfication, served further to exdte the
23&
FRITH, W. P.— FRITZLAR
hostility of his enemies. In consequence of a sermon preached
before him against the " sacramentaries," the king ordered that
Frith should be examined; he was afterwards tried and found
guilty of having denied, with regard to the doctrines of purgatory
and of transubstantiation, that they were necessary articles of
faith. On the 23rd of June 1533 he was handed over to the
secular arm, and at Smithfield on the 4th of July following he
was burnt at the stake. During his captivity he wrote, besides
several letters of interest, a reply to More's letter against
Frith's " lytic treatise "; also two tracts entitled A Mirror or
Glass to know thyself, and A Mirror or Looking-glass wherein you
may behold the Sacrament of Baptism.
Frith b an interesting and so far important figure in English
ecclesiastical history as having been the first to maintain and
defend that doctrine regarding the sacrament of Christ's body
and blood, which ultimately came to be incorporated in the
English communion office. Twenty-three years after Frith's
death as a martyr to the doctrine of that office, that " Christ's
natural body and blood are in Heaven, not here," Cranmer, who
had been one of his judges, went to the stake for the same belief.
Within three years more, it had become the publicly professed
faith of the entire English nation.
See A. a Wood. Athenae Oxonienses (ed. P. Bliss, 18 13), L p. 74;
John Foxe. Acts and Monuments (ed. G. Townshcnd, 1843-1849),
v. pp. 1-16 (also Index); G. Burnet, Hist, of the Reformation of the
Church of England (ed. N. Pocock, 1865), i. p. 273; L. Richmond,
The Fathers of the English Church, i. (I807); Life and Martyrdom of
John Frith (London, 1824), published by the Church of England
Tract Society ; Deborah Aicock, Six Heroic Men (1906).
FRITH, WILLIAM POWELL (1810-1009), English painter,
was born at Aldfield, in Yorkshire, on the 9th of January 181 9.
His parents moved in 1826 to Harrogate, where his father became
landlord of the Dragon Inn, and it was then that the boy began
his general education at a school at Knaresborough. Later he
went for about two years to a school at St Margaret's, near
Dover, where he was placed specially under the direction of the
drawing-master, as a step towards his preparation for the pro-
fession which his father had decided on as the one that he wished
him to adopt. In 1835 he was entered as a student in the well-
known art school kept by Henry Sass in Bloomsbury, from which
he passed after two years to the Royal Academy schools. His
first independent experience was gained in 1839, when he went
about for some months in Lincolnshire executing several com-
missions for portraits; but he soon began to attempt composi-
tions, and in 1840 his first picture, " Malvolio, cross-gartered
before the Countess Olivia," appeared at the Royal Academy.
During the next few years he produced several notable paintings,
among them " Squire ThornhiU relating his town adventures to
the Vicar's family," and " The Village Pastor," which established
his reputation as one of the most promising of the younger men
of that time. This last work was exhibited in 1845, and in the
autumn of that year he was elected an Associate of the Royal
Academy. His promotion to the rank of Academician followed
in 1853, when he was chosen to fill the vacancy caused by
Turner's death. The chief pictures painted by him during his
tenure of Associateship were: " An English Merry-making
in the Olden Time," " Old Woman accused of Witchcraft,"
"The Coming of Age," " Sancho and Don Quixote," " Hogarth
before the Governor of Calais," and the "Scene from Goldsmith's
1 Good-natured Man,' " which was commissioned in 1850 by
Mr Sheepshanks, and bequeathed by him to the South Kensington
Museum. Then came a succession of large compositions which
gained for the artist an extraordinary popularity. "Life at
the Seaside," better known as " Ramsgate Sands." was exhibited
in 1854. and was bought by Queen Victoria; " The Derby Day,"
in 1858; " Claude Duval," in i860; " The Railway Station,"
in 1862; " The Marriage of the Prince of Wales," painted for
Queen Victoria, in 1865; " The Last Sunday of Charles II,"
in 1867; "The Salon d'Or," in 1871; "The Road to Ruin,"
a series, in 1878; a similar series, " The Race for Wealth,"
shown at a gallery in King Street, St James's, in 1880; " The
Private View," in 1883; and "John «nox at Holyrood," in
1886. Frith also painted a considerable number of portraits
of well-known people. In 1889 he became an honorary retired
academician. His " Derby Day " is in the National Gallery of
British Art. In his youth, in common with the men by whom
he was surrounded, he had leanings towards romance, and be
scored many successes as a painter of imaginative subjects.
In these he proved himself to be possessed of exceptional qualities
as a colourist and manipulator, qualities that promised to earn
for him a secure place among the best executants of the British
School. But in his middle period he chose a fresh direction.
Fascinated by the welcome which the public gave to his first
attempts to illustrate the life of his own times, he undertook a
considerable scries of large canvases, in which he commented
on the manners and morals of society as he found it. He became
a pictorial preacher, a painter who moralized about the everyday
incidents of modern existence; and he sacrificed some of bis
technical variety. There remained, however, & remarkable
sense of characterization, and an acute appreciation of dramatic
effect. Frith died on the 2nd of November 1909.
Frith published his Autobiography and Reminiscences in 1887. and
Further Reminiscences in 1889.
FRITILLARY (Fritillaria: from Lat. fritUlus, a chess-board,
so called from the chequered markings on the petals), a genus
of hardy bulbous plants of the natural order Liliaceae, containing
about 50 species widely distributed in the northern hemisphere.
The genus is represented in Britain by the fritill&ry or snake's
head, which occurs in moist meadows in the southern half of
England, especially in Oxfordshire. A much larger plant is
the crown imperial (F. imperialis), a native of western Asia
and well known in gardens. This grows to a height of about
3 ft., the lower part of the stoutish stem being furnished with
leaves, while near the top is developed a crown of large pendant
flowers surmounted by a tuft of bright green leaves like those
of the lower part of the stem, only smaller. The flowers are
bell-shaped, yellow or red, and in some of the forms double. The
plant grows freely in good garden soil, preferring a deep well-
drained loam, and is all the better for a top-dressing of manure
as it approaches the flowering stage. Strong clumps of five or
six roots of one kind have a very fine effect. It is a very suitable
subject for the back row in mixed flower borders, or for recesses
in the front part of shrubbery borders. It flowers in April or
early in May. There are a few named varieties, but the most
generally grown are the single and double yellow, and the single
and double red, the single red having also two variegated varieties,
with the leaves striped respectively with white and yellow.
" Fritillary " is also the name of a kind of butterfly.
FRITZLAR, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of
Hesse-Cassel, on the left bank of the Eder, 16 m. S.W. from Cassel,
on the railway Wabern-Wildungen. Pop. (1905) 3448. It is a
prettily situated old-fashioned place, with an Evangelical and two
Roman Catholic churches, one of the latter, that of St Peter, a
striking medieval edifice. As early as 739 Boniface, the apostle of
Germany, established the church of St Peter and a small
Benedictine monastery at Frideslar, " the quiet home " or
" abode of peace." Before long the school connected with the
monastery became famous, and among its earlier scholars it
numbered Sturm, abbot of Fulda, and Megingod, second bishop
of Wurzburg. When Boniface found himself unable to continue
the supervision of the society himself, he entrusted the office to
Wigbert of Glastonbury, who thus became the first abbot of
Fritzlar. In 774 the little settlement was taken and burnt by
the Saxons; but it evidently soon recovered from the blow.
For a short time after 786 it was the seat of the bishopric of
, Buraburg, which had been founded by Boniface in 741. At the
diet of Fritzlar in 919 Henry I. was elected German king. la
the beginning of the 13th century the village received inunkiptl
rights; in 1232 it was captured and burned by the landgrave
Conrad of Thuringia and his allies; in 1631 it was taken by
William of Hesse; in 1760 it was successfully defended by
General Luckner against the French; and in 1761 it was occupied
by the French and unsuccessfully bombarded by the Allies.
As a principality Fritzlar continued subject to the 1
FRIULI— FROBISHER
237
«f Mains till 1804, when it was incorporated wfth Hesse. From
1807 to 18x4 it belonged to the kingdom of Westphalia; and
in 1866 passed with Hesse Cassel to Prussia.
FRIUU (in the local dialect, Furlanei), a district at the head
of the Adriatic Sea, at present divided between Italy and Austria,
the Italian portion being included in the province of Udine and
the district of Portogruaro, and the Austrian comprising the
province of Gorz and Gradiska, and the so-called Idrian district.
In the north and east Friuli includes portions of the Julian and
Carnic Alps, while the south is an alluvial plain richly watered
by the Isonzo, the Tagliamento, and many lesser streams which,
although of small volume during the dry season, come down in
enormous floods after rain or thaw. The inhabitants, known
as Furlanians, are mainly Italians, but they speak a dialect of
their own which contains Celtic elements. The area of the
country is about 3300 sq. m.; it contains about 700,000 in-
habitants.
Friuli derives its name from the Roman town of Forum
Julii, or Forojulium, the modern Cividale, which is said by
Paulus Diaconus to have been founded by Julius Caesar. In the
and century B.C. the district was subjugated by the Romans,
and became part of Gallia Transpadana. During the Roman
period, besides Forum Julii, its principal towns were Concordia,
Aquileia and Vedinium. On the conquest of the country by
the Lombards during the 6th century it was made one of their
thirty-six duchies, the capital being Forum Julii or, as they
called it, Civitas Austriae. It is needless to repeat the list of
dukes of the Lombard line, from Gisulf (d. 611) to Hrothgaud,
who fell a victim to his opposition to Charlemagne about 776;
their names and exploits may be read in the Historia Lango-
bardarum of Paulus Diaconus, and they were mainly occupied
in struggles with the Avars and other barbarian peoples, and in
resisting the pretensions of the Lombard kings. The discovery,
however, of Gisulf 's grave at Cividale, in 1874, is an interest-
ing proof of the historian's authenticity. Charlemagne filled
Hrothgaud 's place with one of his own followers, and the frontier
position of Friuli gave the new line of counts, dukes or margraves
(for they are variously designated) the opportunity of acquiring
importance by exploits against the Bulgarians, Slovenians and
other hostile peoples to the east. After the death of Charle-
magne Friuli shared in general in the fortunes of northern Italy.
In the nth century the ducal rights over the greater part of
Friuli were bestowed by the emperor Henry IV. on the patriarch
of Aquileia; but towards the close of the 14th century the nobles
called in the assistance of Venice, which, after defeating the
archbishop, afforded a new illustration of Aesop's well-known
fable, by securing possession of the country for itself. ' The
eastern part of Friuli was held by the counts of Gore till 1500,
when on the failure of their line it was appropriated by the
German king, Maximilian I., and remained in the possession of
the house of Austria until the Napoleonic wars. By the peace
of Campo Fonnio in 1797 the Venetian district also came to
Austria, and on the formation of the Napoleonic kingdom of
Italy in 1805 the department of Passariano was made to include
the whole of Venetian and part of Austrian Friuli, and in 1800
the rest was added to the lUyrian provinces. The title of duke
of Friuli was borne by Marshal Duroc. In 1815 the whole
country was recovered by the emperor of Austria, who himself
assnmftd the ducal title and coat of arms; and it was not till
i860 that the Venetian portion was again ceded to Italy by the
peace of Prague. The capital of the country is Udine, and its
arms are a crowned eagle on a field azure.
See Manzano, Annalx del Friuli (Udine, 1 858-1870); and Com-
pendia di storia friulana (Udine, 1876): Antonini, // Friuli orientate
(Milan, i860; von Zahn, Friauluche Sludien (Vienna. 1878);
Pirona, Vocabolario fn'ulino (Venice. 1869) ; and L. Fracaseetti, La
Statistic* elnografica'del Friuli (Udine. 1903). (T. As.)
FROBBN IFrobentus], JOANNES (c. 1460-1527), German
printer and scholar, was bora at Hammelburg in Bavaria
about the year 1460. After completing his university career
at Basel, where he made the acquaintance of the famous printer
Johannes Auerbach ( 1443-15*3). he established a printing house
in that city about 1491, and Una soon attained a European
reputation for accuracy and for taste. In 1500 he married the
daughter of the bookseller Wolfgang Lachner, who entered into
partnership with him. He was on teems of friendship with
Erasmus (q.v.), who not only had his own works printed by him,
but superintended Frobenius's editions of St Jerome, St Cyprian,
Tertullian, Hilary of Poitiers and St Ambrose. His Neius
Testament in Greek (1516) was used by Luther for his translation.
Frobenius employed Hans Holbein to illuminate his texts.
It was part of his plan to print editions of the Greek Fathers.
He did not, however, live to carry out this project, but it was
very creditably executed by his son Jerome and his son-in-law
Nikolaus Episcopius. Frobenius died in October 1527. His
work in Basel made that city in the x6th century the leading
centre of the German book trade. An extant letter of Erasmus,
written in the year of Frobenius's death, gives an epitome
of his life and an estimate of his character; and in it Erasmus
mentions that his grief for the death of his friend was far more
poignant than that which he had felt for the loss of his own
brother, adding that " all the apostles of science ought to wear
mourning." The epistle concludes with an epitaph in Greek
and Latin.
FROBISHER, SIR MARTIN (c. 1535*1504). English navigator
and explorer, fourth child of Bernard Frobisher of Altofts in
the parish of Normanton, Yorkshire, was born some time between
1530 and 1540. The family came originally from North Wales.
At an early age he was sent to a school in London and placed
under the care of a kinsman, Sir John York, who in 1544 placed
him on board a ship belonging to a small fleet of merchantmen
sailing to Guinea. By 1565 he is referred to as Captain Martin
Frobisher, and in 1571-1572 as being in the public service at
sea off the coast of Ireland. He married in 1550. As early as
1560 or 1 561 Frobisher had formed a resolution to undertake a
voyage in search of a North-West Passage to Cathay and India.
The discovery of such a route was the motive of most of the
Arctic voyages undertaken at that period and for long after,
but Frobisher's special merit was in being the first to give to
this enterprise a national character. For fifteen years he solicited
in vain the necessary means to carry his project into execution,
but in x 576, mainly by help of the earl of Warwick, he was put
in command of an expedition consisting of two tiny barks, the
" Gabriel " and " Michael," of about 20 to 25 tons each, and a
pinnace of xo tons, with an aggregate crew of 35.
He weighed anchor at Blackwall, and, after having received
a good word from Queen Elizabeth at Greenwich, set sail on the
7th of June, by way of the Shetland Islands. Stormy weather
was encountered in which the pinnace was lost, and some time
afterwards the " Michael " deserted; but stoutly continuing
the voyage alone, on the 28th of July the " Gabriel " sighted
the coast of Labrador in lat. 62° 2' N. Some days later the
mouth of Frobisher Bay was reached, and a farther advance
northwards being prevented by ice and contrary winds, Frobisher
determined to sail westward up this passage (which he conceived
to be a strait) to see " whether he mighte carrie himself through
the same into some open sea on the backe syde." Butcher's
Island was reached on the 18th of August, and some natives
being met with here, intercourse was carried on with them for
some days, the result being that five of Frobisher's men were
decoyed and captured, and never more seen. After vainly
trying to get back his men, Frobisher turned homewards, and
reached London on the 9th of October.
Among the things which had been hastily brought away
by the men was some " black earth," and just as it seemed
as if nothing more was to come of this expedition, it was
noised abroad that the apparently valueless "black earth"
was really a lump of gold ore. It is difficult to say how
this rumour arose, and whether there was any truth in it,
or whether Frobisher was a party to a deception, in order
to obtain means to carry out the great idea, of his hfe.
The story, at any rate, was so far successful; the greatest
enthusiasm was manifested by the court and the commercial
and speculating world of the time; and next year a much mots
important expedition than the former was fitted out, the queen
23«
FROCK— FROEBEL
lending the " Aid " from the royal navy and subscribing £1000
towards the expenses of the expedition. A Company of Cathay
was established, with a charter from the crown, giving the
company the sole right of sailing in every direction but the east ;
Frobisher was appointed high admiral of all lands and waters
that might be discovered by him. On the 26th of May 1577 the
expedition, consisting, besides the "Aid," of the ships " Gabriel "
and " Michael," with boats, pinnaces and an aggregate com-
plement of 120 men, including miners, refiners, &c, left Black-
wall, and sailing by the north of Scotland reached Hall's bland
at the mouth of Frobisher Bay on the 17th of July. A few days
later the country and the south side of the bay was solemnly
taken possession of in the queen's name. Several weeks were now
spent in collecting ore, but very little was done in the way of
discovery, Frobisher being specially directed by his commission
to " defer the further discovery of the passage until another
time." There was much parleying and some skirmishing with
the natives, and earnest but futile attempts made to recover the
men captured the previous year. The return was begun on the
23rd of August, and the " Aid " reached Milford Haven on the
23rd of September; the " Gabriel " and " Michael," having
separated, arrived later at Bristol and Yarmouth.
Frobisher was received and thanked by the queen at Windsor.
(Great preparations were made and considerable expense incurred
for the assaying of the great quantity of " ore " (about 200 tons)
brought home. This took up much time, and led to considerable
dispute among the various parties interested. Meantime the
faith of the queen and others remained strong in the productive-
ness of the newly discovered territory, which she herself named
Mda Incognita, and it was resolved to send out a larger expedi-
tion than ever, with all necessaries for the establishment of a
colony of 100 men. Frobisher was again received by the queen
at Greenwich, and her Majesty threw a fine chain of gold around
his neck. On the 31st of May 1578 the expedition, consisting in
all of fifteen vessels, left Harwich, and sailing by the English
Channel on the 20th of June reached the south of Greenland,
where Frobisher and some of his men managed to land. On the
2nd of July the foreland of Frobisher Bay was sighted, but
stormy weather and dangerous ice prevented the rendezvous
from being gained, and, besides causing the wreck of the barque
" Dennis " of 100 tons, drove the fleet unwittingly up a new
(Hudson) strait. After proceeding about 60 m.up this" mistaken
strait," Frobisher with apparent reluctance turned back, and
after many buffeting* and separations the fleet at last came to
anchor in Frobisher Bay. Some attempt was made at founding
a settlement, and a large quantity of ore was shipped; but, as
might be expected, there was much dissension and not a little
discontent among so heterogeneous a company, and on the last
day of August the fleet set out on its return to England, which
was reached in the beginning of October. Thus ended what was
little better than a fiasco, though Frobisher himself cannot be
held to blame for the result; the scheme was altogether chim-
erical, and the " ore " seems to have been not worth smelting.
In 1580 Frobisher was employed as captain of one of the
queen's ships in preventing the designs of Spain to assist the
Irish insurgents, and in the same year obtained a grant of the
reversionary title of clerk of the royal navy. In 1585 he com-
manded the " Primrose," as vice-admiral to Sir F. Drake in his
expedition to the West Indies, and when soon afterwards the
country was threatened with invasion by the Spanish Armada,
Frobisher's name was one of four mentioned by the lord high
admiral in a letter to the queen of " men of the greatest ex-
perience that this realm hath," and for his signal services in the
" Triumph," in the dispersion of the Armada, he was knighted.
He continued to cruise about in the Channel until 1590, when he
was sent in command of a small fleet to the coast of Spain. In
1 59 1 he visited his native Altofts, and there married his second
wife, a daughter of Lord Wentwortb, becoming at the same time
a landed proprietor In Yorkshire and Notts. He found, bow-
ever, little leisure for a country life, and the following year took
charge of the fleet fitted out by Sir Walter Raleigh to the Spanish
coast, returning with a rich prise. In November 1594 he wis
engaged with a squadron in the siege and relief of Brest, when
he received a wound at Fort Crozon from which he died at
Plymouth on the 22nd of November. His body was taken to
London and buried at St Giles', Cripplegate. Though be appears
to have been somewhat rough in his bearing, and too strict a
disciplinarian to be much loved, Frobisher was undoubtedly one
of the most able seamen of his time and justly takes rank among
England's great naval heroes.
See Hakluyt't Voyage t; the Hakluyt Society's Three Voyages of
Frobisher; Rev. F. Jones's Life of Frobisher (1878); Julian Corbett,
Drake and the Tudor Navy (1898).
FROCK, originally a long, loose gown with broad sleeves, more
especially that worn by members of the religious orders. The
word is derived from the O. Fr. Jroc, of somewhat obscure origin;
in medieval L&t.froccus appears also asfloccus, which, if it is the
original, as Du Cange suggests (literula muiota), would connect
the word with " flock " (q.v.), properly a tuft of wooL Another
suggestion refers the word to the German Rock, a coat (cf.
" rochet "), which in some rare instances is found as hrotk. The
formal stripping off of the frock became part of the ceremony of
degradation or deprivation in the case of a condemned monk;
hence the expression " to unfrock " (med. Lat. def rotate, Fr.
dlfroqucr) used of the degradation of monks and of priests from
holy orders. In the middle ages " frock " was also used of a long
loose coat worn by men and of a coat of mail, the " frock of maiL"
In something of this sense the word survived into the 19th
century for a coat with long skirts, now called the " frock coat"
The word in now chiefly used in English for a child's or young
girl's dress, of body and skirt, but is frequently used of a woman's 1
dress. Du Cange (Clossarium, s.v. fiocus) quotes an early use
of the word for a woman's garment (MirocuJa S. Udalriri, ap.
Mabillon, Acta Sanctorum Benedict, saec v. p. 466). Here a
woman, possessed of a devil, is cured, and sends her garments
to the tomb of the saint, and a dalmatic is ordered to be made
out of the floats or frocus. " Frock " also appears in the " smock
frock," once the typical outer garment of the English peasant.
It consists of a loose shirt of linen or other material, worn over
the other clothes and hanging to about the knee; its character-
istic feature is the " smocking," a puckered honeycomb stitching
round the neck and shoulders.
FROEBEL, FRIEDRICH WILHELM AUGUST (1782-1832),
German philosopher, philanthropist and educational reformer,
was born at Oberweissbach, a village of the Thuringian forest,
on the 2 1 st of April 1782. Like Comenius, with whom he had
much in common, he was neglected in his youth, and the re-
membrance of his own early sufferings made him in alter life
the more eager in promoting the happiness of children. His
mother he lost in his infancy, and his father, the pastor oi
Oberweissbach and the surrounding district, attended to his
parish but not to his family. Friedrich soon had a stepmother,
and neglect was succeeded by stepmotherly attention; bat a
maternal uncle took pity on him, and gave him a home for some
years at Sladt-Ilm. Here he went to the village school, bat ike*
many thoughtful boys he passed for a dunce. Throughout life
he was always seeking for hidden connexions and an underlying
unity in all things. Nothing of the kind was to be pe rce i ve d
in the piecemeal studies of the school, and Froebel's mind, busy
as it was for itself, would not work for the masters. His half-
brother was therefore thought more worthy of a university
education, and Friedrich was apprenticed for two yean to a
forester (1 797-1 799).
Left to himself in the Thuringian forest, Froebd began to
study nature, and without scientific instruction he obtained a
profound insight into the uniformity and essential unity of
nature's laws. Years afterwards the celebrated Jahn (the
" Father Jahn " of the German gymnasts) told a Berlin student
of a queer fellow he had met, who made out all sorts of wonderful
things from stones and cobwebs. This queer fellow was Froebd;
and the habit of making out general truths from the observxtioo
of nat ure, especially from plants and trees, dated from the sobtirr
rambles in the forest. No training could have been better suited
to strengthen his inborn tendency to mysticism; and when to
FROEBEL
239
left the forest at the early age of seventeen, he seems to have
been possessed by the main ideas which influenced him all his
life. The conception which in him dominated all others was the
unity of nature; and he longed to study natural sciences that
he might find in them various applications of nature's universal
laws. With great difficulty he got leave to join his elder brother
at the university of Jena, and there for a year he went from
lecture-room to lecture-room hoping to grasp that connexion
of the sciences which had for him far more attraction than any
particular science in itself. But Frocbel's allowance of money
was very small, and his skill in the management of money was
never great, so his university career ended in an imprisonment
of nine weeks for a debt of thirty shillings. He then returned
home with very poor prospects, but much more intent on what
he calls the course of " self-completion " ( VcrvoUkommnung
meines sdbst) than on " getting on " in a worldly point of view.
He was sent to learn farming, but was recalled in consequence
of the failing health of his father. In 1802 the father died, and
Froebcl, now twenty years old, had to shift for himself. It was
some time before he found his true vocation, and for the next
three and a half years we find him at work now in one part of
Germany now in another — sometimes land-surveying, sometimes
acting as accountant, sometimes as private secretary; but in all
this his " outer life was far removed from his inner life," and in
spite of his outward circumstances he became more and more
conscious that a great task lay before him for the good of
humanity. The nature of the task, however, was not clear to
him, and it seemed determined by accident. While studying
architecture in Frankfort-on-Main, he became acquainted with
the director of a model school, who had caught some of the
enthusiasm of Pestalozzi. This friend saw that Frocbel's true
field was education, and he persuaded him to give up architecture
and take a post in the model school. In this school Froebel
worked for two years with remarkable success, but he then
retired and undertook the education of three lads of one family.
In this he could not satisfy himself, and he obtained the parents'
consent to his taking the boys to Yvcrdon, near Neuchatel, and
there forming with them a part of the celebrated institution of
Pestalozzi. Thus from 1807 till 1809 Froebel was drinking in
Pestalozzianism at the fountainhead, and qualifying himself to
carry on the work which Pestalozzi had begun. For the science
of education had to deduce from Pestalozzi's experience principles
which Pestalozzi himself could not deduce. And " Froebel, the
pupil of Pestalozzi, and a genius like his master, completed the
reformer's system; taking the results at which Pestalozzi had
arrived through the necessities of his position, Froebel developed
the ideas involved in them, not by further experience but by
deduction from the nature of man, and thus he attained to the
conception of true human development and to the requirements
of true education " (Schmidt's GeschichU dcr Pttdagogik).
Holding that man and nature, inasmuch as they proceed from
the same source, must be governed by the same laws, Froebel
longed for more knowledge of natural science. Even Pestalozzi
seemed to him not to " honour science in her divinity." He
therefore determined to continue the university course which
had been so rudely interrupted eleven years before, and in 181 1
he began studying at Gottingen, whence he proceeded to Berlin.
But again his studies were interrupted, this time by the king
of Prussia's celebrated call " to my people." Though not a
Prussian, Froebel was heart and soul a German. He therefore
responded to the call, enlisted in Liitzow's corps, and went through
the campaign of 1813. But his military ardour did not take
his mind of! education. " Everywhere," he writes, " as far as
the fatigues I underwent allowed, I carried in my thoughts my
future calling as educator; yes, even in the few engagements
in which I had to take part. Even in these I could gather
experience for the task I proposed to myself." Froebel's
soldiering showed him the value of discipline and united action,
how the individual belongs not to himself but to the whole
body, and how the whole body supports the individual.
Froebel was rewarded for his patriotism by the friendship
of two men whose names will always be associated with bis,
Langethal and Middendorff. These young men, ten years
younger than Froebel, became attached to him in the field, and
were ever afterwards his devoted followers, sacrificing all their
prospects in life for the sake of carrying out his ideas.
At the peace of Fontainebleau (signed in May 1814) Froebel
returned to Berlin, and became curator of the museum of
mineralogy under Professor Weiss. In accepting this appoint-
ment from the government he seemed to turn aside from his
work as educator; but if not teaching he was learning. More
and more the thought possessed him that the one thing needful
for man was unity of development, perfect evolution in accordance
with the laws of his being, such evolution as science discovers
in the other organisms of nature. He at first intended to become
a teacher of natural science, but before long wider views dawned
upon him. Langethal and Middendorff were in Berlin, engaged
in tuition. Froebel gave them regular instruction in his theory,
and at length, counting on their support, he resolved to set
about realizing his own idea of " the new education." This was
in 1816. Three years before one of his brothers, a clergyman,
had died of fever caught from the French prisoners. His widow
was still living in the parsonage at Griesheim, a village on the
Ilm. Froebel gave up his post, and set out for Griesheim on foot,
spending his very last groschen on the way for bread. Here
he undertook the education of his orphan niece and nephews,
and also of two more nephews sent him by another brother.
With these he opened a school and wrote to Middendorff and
Langethal to come and help in the experiment. Middendorff
came at once, Langethal a year or two later, when the school
had been moved to Keilhau, another of the Thuringian villages,
which became the Mecca of the new faith. In Keilhau Froebel,
Langethal, Middendorff and Barop, a relation of Middendorff'*,
all married and formed an educational community. Such zeal
could not be fruitless, and the school gradually increased, though
for many years its teachers, with Froebel at their head, were in
the greatest straits for money and at times even for food. After
fourteen years' experience he determined to start other institu-
tions to work in connexion with the parent institution at Keilhau,
and being offered by a private friend the use of a castle on the
Wartcnsee, in the canton of Lucerne, he left Keilhau under the
direction of Barop, and with Langethal he opened the Swiss
institution. The ground, however, was very ill chosen. The
Catholic clergy resisted what they considered as a Protestant
invasion, and the experiment on the Wartensee and at Willisaa
in the same canton, to which the institution was moved in 1853,
never had a fair chance. It was in vain that Middendorff at
Froebel's call left his wife and family at Keilhau, and laboured
for four years in Switzerland without once seeing them. The
Swiss institution never flourished. But the Swiss government
wished to turn to account the presence of the great educator;
so young teachers were sent to Froebel for instruction, and
finally Froebel moved to Burgdorf (a Bernese town of some
importance, and famous from Pestalozzi's labours there thirty
yearsearlier) to undertake the establishment of a public orphanage
and also to superintend a course of teaching for schoolmasters.
The elementary teachers of the canton were to spend three
months every alternate year at Burgdorf, and there compare
experiences, and learn of distinguished men such as Froebel and
Bitzius. In his conferences with these teachers Froebel found
that the schools suffered from the state of the raw material
brought into them. Till the school age was reached the children
were entirely neglected. Froebel's conception of harmonious
development naturally led him to attach much importance to
the earliest years, and his great work on The Education of Man,
published as early as 1826, deals chiefly with the child up to the
age of seven. At Burgdorf his thoughts were much occupied
with the proper treatment of young children, and in scheming
for them a graduated course of exercises, modelled on the games
in which he observed them to be most interested. In his eagerness
to carry out his new plans he grew impatient of official restraints;
so he returned to Keilhau, and soon afterwards opened the first
Kindergarten or " Garden of Children," in the neighbouring villa**
of Blankenburg (1837). Firmly convinced of the importance of
24°
FROG
the Kindergarten for the whole human race, Froebel described
his system in a weekly paper (his SonntagsblaU) which appeared
from the middle of 1837 till 1840. He also lectured in great
towns; and he gave a regular course of instruction to young
teachers at Blankenburg. But although the principles of the
Kindergarten were gradually making their way, the first Kinder-
garten was failing for want of funds. It had to be given up, and
Froebel, now a widower (he had lost his wife in 1839), carried
on his course for teachers first at Keilhau, and from 1848, for
the last four years of his life, at or near Liebenstein, in the
Thuringian forest, and in the duchy of Mciningen. It is in these
last years that the man Froebel will be best known to posterity,
for in 1849 he attracted within the circle of his influence a woman
of great intellectual power, the baroness von Marenholtz-Bulow,
who has given us in her Recollections of Friedrich Froebel the only
lifelike portrait we possess.
These seemed likely to be Froebel's most peaceful days. He
married again in 1851, and having now devoted himself to the
training of women as educators, he spent his time in instructing
his class of young female teachers. But trouble came upon him
from a quarter whence he least expected it. In the great year
of revolutions (1848) Froebel had hoped to turn to account the
general eagerness for improvement, and Middendorff had pre-
sented an address on Kindergartens to the German parliament.
Besides this, a nephew of Froebel's, Professor Karl Froebel of
Zurich, published books which were supposed to teach socialism.
True, the uncle and nephew differed so widely that the " new
Frocbelians " were the enemies of " the old," but the distinction
was overlooked, and Friedrich and Karl Froebel were regarded
as the united advocates of some new thing. In the reaction
which soon set in, Froebel found himself suspected of socialism
and irreligion, and in 1851 the " cultus-minister " Von Raumcr
Issued an edict forbidding the establishment of schools " after
Friedrich and Karl Froebel's principles " in Prussia. This was
a heavy blow to the old man, who looked to the government of
the " Cultus-stool" Prussia for support, and was met with denun-
ciation. Whether from the worry of this new controversy, or from
whatever cause, Froebel did not long survive the decree. His
seventieth birthday was celebrated with great rejoicings in May
S852, but he died on the 21st of June, and was buried at Schweina,
a village near his last abode, Marienthal, near Bad-Liebenstein.
"All education not founded on religion is unproductive."
This conviction followed naturally from Froebel's conception of
the unity of all things, a unity due to the original Unity from
whom all proceed and in whom all " live, move and have their
being." As man and nature have one origin they must be subject
to the same laws. Hence Froebel, like Comenius two centuries
before him, looked to the course of nature for the principles
of human education. This he declares to be his fundamental
belief: " In the creation, in nature and the order of the material
world, and in the progress of mankind, God has given us the true
type (Urbild) of education.*' As the cultivator creates nothing
in the trees and plants, so the educator creates nothing in the
children, — he merely superintends the development of inborn
faculties. So far Froebel agrees with Pestalozzi; but in one
respect he went beyond him. Pestalozzi said that the faculties
were developed by exercise. Froebel added that the function
of education was to develop the faculties by arousing voluntary
acimty. Action proceeding from inner impulse {StlbsWUigkeit)
was the one thing needful.
The prominence which Froebel gave to action, his doctrine
that man is primarily a doer and even a creator, and that he
learns only through "self-activity," has its importance all
through education. But it was to the first stage of life that
Froebel paid the greatest attention. He held with Rousseau
that each age has a completeness of its own, and that the per-
fection of the later stage can be attained only through the
perfection of the earlier. If the infant is what he should be as
an infant, and the child as a child, he will become what he should
be asa boy, just as naturally as new shoots spring from the healthy
plant. Every stage, then, must be cared for and tended in such
a way that it may attain its own perfection. Impressed with the
immense importance of the first stage, Froebel like Pestalozzi
devoted himself to the instruction of mothers. But he would not,
like Pestalozzi, leave the children entirely in the mother's hands.
Pestalozzi held that the child belonged to the family; Fichte,
on the other hand, claimed it for society and the state.
Froebel, whose mind delighted in harmonizing apparent con-
tradictions, and who taught that " all progress lay through
opposites to their reconciliation," maintained that the child
belonged both to the family and to society, and he would there-
fore have children spend some hours of the day in a common
life and in well-organized common employments. These
assemblies of children he would not call schools; for the children
in them ought not to be old enough for schooling. So he in-
vented the name Kindergarten, garden of children, and calied
the superintendents "children's gardeners." He laid great
stress on every child cultivating its own plot of ground, but this
was not his reason for the choice of the name. It was rather
that he thought of these institutions as enclosures in which
young human plants are nurtured. In the Kindergarten the
children's employment should be play. But any occupation
in which children delight is play to them; and Froebel invented
a series of employments, which, while they are in this sense
play to the children, have nevertheless, as seen from the adult
point of view, a distinct educational object. This object, as
Froebel himself describes it, is " to give the children employment
in agreement with their whole nature, to strengthen their bodies,
to exercise their senses, to engage their awakening mind, and
through their senses to bring them acquainted with nature and
their fellow creatures; it is especially to guide aright the heart
and the affections, and to lead them to the original ground of all
life, to unity with themselves."
Froebel's own works are: Menscheneniehung (" Education of
Man ")♦ (1826), which has been translated into French and Englisk:
Padagogik d. Kindergartens; Kleiners Sckrijten and Mutter- una
Kosefieder: collected editions have been edited by Wichard Lange
(1862) and Friedrich Seidcl (1883).
A. B. Hauschmann's Friedrich Frdbel is a lengthy and unsatts*
factory biography. An unpretentious but useful little book is
(Steiger). A very good account of Froebel's life and thoughts is
given in Karl Schmidt's Geschichte d. Padagogik, voL iv.: also ia
Adalbert Weber's Geschichte d. Volksschulphd. u. d. Kleinkindcr*
erziehung (Weber carefully gives authorities). For a less favour*
able account sec K. Strack's Geschichte d. deulsch. Volkssckuhocsau.
Frau von Marenholtz-Bulow published her Erinnerungen an F.Frobd
(translated by Mrs. Horace Mann. 1877). This lady, the chief in-
terpreter of Froebel, has expounded his principles in Das Kind «.
sein Wesen and Die Arbeit u. die neue Ersiehunr,. H. Courthopt
Bowen has written a memoir (1897) in the " Great Educators"
series. In England Miss Emily A. E. Shirrcff has published Principles
of Froebel's System, and a short sketch of Froebel's life. See also
Dr Henry Barnard's Papers on FroebeVs Kindergarten (1881); R. H.
Quick, Educational Reformers (1890). (R. H. Q.)
FROG, 1 a name in zoology, of somewhat wide application,
strictly for an animal belonging to the family Ranidas, but also
used of some other families of the order Ecaudata of the sub-class
Batrachia (q.v.).
Frogs proper are typified by the common British specks,
Rana tern por aria, and its allies, such as the edible frog, Jt
esculenta, and the American bull-frog R. catesbiana. The genus
Rana may be defined as firmisternal Ecaudata with cylindrical
transverse processes to the sacral vertebra, teeth in the upper
jaw and on the vomer, a protmsible tongue which is free and
forked behind, a horizontal pupil and more or less webbed toes.
It includes about 200 species, distributed over the whole 1
1 The word " frog " is in O.E. frocga or frox, cf. Dutch «
Ger. Frosch; Skcat suggests a possible original source in the root
meaning " to jump," " to spring," cf. Ger. froh, glad, joyful and
" frolic. ' The term is also applied to the following objects: tfae
horny part in the center of a horse's hoof; an attachment to a belt
for suspending a sword, bayonet, &c; a fastening for the from
of a coat, stillused in military uniforms, consisting of two buttons
on opposite sides joined by ornamental looped braids: and, ia fail-
way construction, the point where two rails cross. These may be
various transferred applications of the name of the animal, but the
" frog " of a horse was also called " frush," probably a corruption of
the French name fourchette, lit. little fork. The ornamental braidinf
is also more probably due to " frock," Lat. JUccus,
FROG-BIT— FROHSCHAMMER
8+1
with the exception of the greater pan of South America and
Australia Some of the species arc thoroughly aquatic and have
fully webbed toes, others arc terrestrial, except during the breed-
ing season. 01 hers arc adapted for burrowing, by means of the
much-enlarged and sharp-edged tubercle at the base of the inner
toe, whilst not a few have the tips of the digits dilated into disks
by which they are able to climb on trees. In most of the older
classifications great importance was attached to these physio-
logical characters, and a number of genera were established
which, owing to the numerous annectent forms which have since
been discovered, must be abandoned. The arboreal species
were thus associated with the true tree-frogs, regardless of their
internal structure. We now know that such adaptations are
of comparatively small importance, and cannot be utilized
for establishing groups higher than genera in a natural or
pbylogenetic classification. The tree-frogs, Hylidae, with which
the arboreal Ranidae were formerly grouped, show in their
anatomical structure a close resemblance to the toads, Bufonidae,
and are therefore placed far away from the true frogs, however
great the superficial resemblance between them.
Some frogs grow to a large size. The bull-frog of the eastern
United States and Canada, reaching a length of nearly 8 in. from
snout to vent, long regarded as the giant of the genus, has been
surpassed by the discovery of Rana guppyi (8$ in.) in the
Solomon Islands, and of Rana goliath (10 in.) in South Cameroon.
The family Ranidae embraces a large number of genera, some
of which are very remarkable. Among these may be mentioned
the hairy frog of West Africa, Trichobatrachus robust**, some
specimens of. which have the sides of the body and of. the hind
limbs covered with long villosities, the function of which is
unknown, and its ally Gampsostcony* batesi, in which the last
phalanx of the fingers and toes is sharp, claw-like and perforates
the skin. To this family also belong the Rkacophorus of eastern
Asia, arboreal frogs, some of which are remarkable for the
extremely developed webs between the fingers and toes, which
are believed to act as a parachute when the frog leaps from the
branches of trees (flying-frog of A. R. Wallace), whilst others
have been observed to make aerial nests between leaves overhang-
ing water, a habit which is shared by their near allies the Chiro-
mantis of tropical Africa. Dintorphognathus, from West Africa,
is the unique example of a sexual dimorphism in the dentition,
the males being provided with a series of large sharp teeth in the
lower jaw, which in the female, as in most other members of the
family, is edentulous. The curious horned frog of the Solomon
Islands, Ceralobalrachus guenlheri, which can hardly be separated
from the Ranidae, has teeth in the lower jaw in both sexes,
whilst a few forms, such as Dendrobates and Cardioglossa, which
on this account have been placed in a distinct family, have no
teeth at all, as in toads. These facts militate strongly against
the importance which was once attached to the dentition in the
clarification of the tailless batrachians.
FROG-BIT, in botany, the English name for a small floating
herb known botanically as Hydrocharis Morsus-Ranae, a member
of the order Hydrocharideac, a family of Monocotyledons. The
plant hat rosettes of roundish floating leaves, and -multiplies
like the strawberry plant by means of runners, at the end
of which new leaf-rosettes develop. Staminatc and pistillate
flowers are borne on different plants; they have three small
green sepab and three broadly ovate white membranous petals.
The fruit, which is fleshy, is not found in Britain. The plant
occurs in ponds and ditches in England and is rare in Ireland.
FROGMORE, a mansion within the royal demesne of Windsor,
England, in the Home Park, x m. S.E. of Windsor Castle. It
was occupied by George III. 'a queen, Charlotte, and later by
the duchess of Kent, mother of Queen Victoria, who died here
in 1 861. The mansion, a plain, building facing a small lake, has
in its grounds the mausoleum of the duchess of Kent and the
royal mausoleum. The first is a circular building surrounded
with Ionic columns and rising in a dome, a lower chamber within
containing the tomb, while in the upper chamber is a statue of the
duchess. There is also a bust of Princess Hohenlohe-Langen-
berg, half-sister of Queen Victoria; and before the entrance is a
memorial erected by the queen to Lady Augusta Stanley (d.
1876), wife of Dean Stanley. The royal mausoleum, a cruciform
building with a central octagonal lantern, richly adorned within
with marbles and mosaics, was erected (1862-1870) by Queea
Victoria over the tomb of Albert, prince consort, by whose side
the queen herself was buried in x 001. There arc also memorials
to Princess Alice and Prince Leopold in the mausoleum. To
the south of the mansion are the royal gardens and dairy.
FROHLICH, ABRAHAM EMANUEL (1706-1865), Swiss poet,
was born on the 1st of February 1796 at Bragg in the canton of
Aargau, where his father was a teacher. After studying theology
at Zurich he became a pastor in 181 7 and returned as teacher
to his native town, where he lived for ten years. He was then
appointed professor of the German language and literature in
the cantonal school at Aarau, which post he lost, however, in
the political quarrels of 1830. He afterwards obtained the post
of teacher and rector of the cantonal college, and was also
appointed assistant minister at the parish church. He died at
Baden in Aargau on the 1st of December 1865. His works are—
170 Fabdn (1825); Scliwcizcrlicdcr (1827); Das Evangelium
St Jokannis, in Liedern (1830); Elegien an Wieg* ttnd Sarg
(1835); Die Epopdcn; Ulrich Zvingli (1840); Ulrick ami
Hutten (1845); Auserlescne Psalmen und geislliche Lieder fOt
die Eoangelisch-reformirte Kirche des Cantons Aargau (1844);
Vber den Kirchengesang dcr Protestanten (1846); Trmtlieder
(1852); Dcr Junge Deutsch-Michd (1846); Reimspriiche am
Stoat, Schule, und Kirche (1820). An edition of his collected
works, in 5 vols., was published at Frauenfeld in 1853. Frohtidt
is best known for his two heroic poems, Ulrich Zwingti and
Ulrich von Hutten, and especially for his fables, which have beat
ranked with those of Hagedorn, Lessing and Gellert.
See the Life by R. Fasi (Zurich, 1907).
FROHSCHAMMER, JAKOB (1831-1893), German theologian
and philosopher, was born at Illkofen, near Regensburg, on the
6th of January 1821. Destined by his parents for the Roman
Catholic priesthood, he studied theology at Munich, but felt
an ever-growing attraction to philosophy. Nevertheless, after
much hesitation, he took what he himself calls the most mistaken
step of his life, and in 1847 entered the priesthood. His keenly
logical intellect, and his impatience of authority where it clashed
with his own convictions, quite unfitted him for that unquestion-
ing obedience which the Church demanded. It was only after
open defiance of the bishop of Regensburg that he obtained
permission to continue his st udics at Munich. He at first devoted
himself more especially to the study of the history of dogma,
and in 1850 published his Bcitrdge sur Kirchengeschichte, which
was placed on the Index Expurgatorius. But he felt that his
real vocation was philosophy, and after holding for a short time
an extraordinary professorship of theology, he became professor
of philosophy in 1855. This appointment he owed chiefly to his
work, Vber den Ur sprung der menschlichen Seelen (1854), in
which he maintained that the human soul was not implanted
by a special creative act in each case, but was the result of a
secondary creative act on the part of the parents: that soul as
well as body, therefore, was subject to the laws of heredity.
This was supplemented in 1855 by the controversial Mcnschtnseele
und Physiologic. Undeterred by the offence which these works
gave to his ecclesiastical superiors, he published in 1858 the
Einleitung in die Philosophic und Grundriss der Metaphysik*
in which he assailed the doctrine of Thomas Aquinas, that
philosophy was the handmaid of theology. In 186 1 appeared
Vber die Aufgabe der Nalur philosophic und ihr VerhUllnis §ur
Naluneissensehaft, which was, he declared, directed against the
purely mechanical conception of the universe, and affirmed the
necessity of a creative Power. In- the same year he published
Vber die Freihcit der Wissenschaft, in which he maintained the
independence of science, whose goal was truth, against authority,
and reproached the excessive respect for the latter in the Roman
Church with the insignificantpart played by the German Catholics
in literature and philosophy. He was denounced by the pope
himself in an apostolic brief of the nth of December i86t,
and students of theology were forbidden to attend his lecture*
242
FROISSART
Public opinion was now keenly exoited; he received an ovation
from the Munich students, and the king, to whom he owed his
appointment, supported him warmly. A conference of Catholic
savants, held in 1863 under the presidency of Dol linger, decided
that authority must be supreme in the Church. When, however,
Dollinger and his school in their turn started the Old Catholic
movement, Frohschammer refused to associate himself with
their cause, holding that they did not go far enough, and that
their declaration of 1863 had cut the ground from under their
feet. Meanwhile he had, in 1862, founded the Athenaum as the
organ of Liberal Catholicism. For this he wrote the first adequate
account in German of the Darwinian theory of natural selection,
which drew a warm letter of appreciation from Darwin himself.
Excommunicated in 1871, he replied with three articles, which
were reproduced in thousands as pamphlets in the chief European
languages: Der Fets Petri in Rom (1873), Der Primal Petri
und des Papstcs (1875), *nd Das Chrislenthum Christi und das
Christenthum des Papstes (1876). In Das neat Wissen und dor
neue Gtaube (1873) he showed himself as vigorous an opponent
of the materialism of Strauss as of the doctrine of papal infalli-
bility. His later years were occupied with a series of philosophical
works, of which the most important were: Die Phantasie als
Grundprincip des WeUprocesses (1877), Vber die Genesis dcr
Menschheti und deren geistige EntuHchlung in Religion, Sittiickkeit
und Sprache (1883), and Vber die Organisation und Cullur dcr
menschlichen Gescllsckaft (1885). His system is based on the
unifying principle of imagination {Phantasie), which be extends
to the objective creative force of Nature, as well as to the subjec-
tive mental phenomena to which the term is usually confined.
He died at Bad Kreuth in the Bavarian Highlands on the 14th
of June 1893.
FROISSART, JEAN (1338-1410?), French chronicler and
raconteur, historian of his own times. The personal history
of Froissart, the circumstances of his birth and education, the
incidents of his life, must all be sought in his own verses and
chronicles. He possessed in his own lifetime no such fame as
that which attended the steps of Petrarch; when he died it did
not occur to his successors that a chapter might well be added
to his Chronicle setting forth what manner of man he was who
. wrote it. The village of Lestxnes, where he was-cure, has long
forgotten that a great writer ever lived there. They cannot
point to any bouse in Valenciennes as the lodging in which he
put together his notes and made history out of personal remi-
niscences. It is not certain when or where he died, or where lie
was buried. One church, it is true, doubtfully claims the honour
of holding his bones. It is that of St Monegunda of Chimay.
'•GaUprura sublimis bono* ct fama tuorum,
Hie Froi&sarde, jacea, si mode Jorte jaces"
It is fortunate, therefore, that the scattered statements in his
writings may be so pieced together as to afford a tolerably
connected history of his life year after year. The personality
of the man, independently of his adventures, may be arrived at
by the same process. It will be found that Froissart, without
meaning it, has portrayed himself in dear and well-defined
outline. His forefathers were juris (aldermen) of the little
/*»? ofBetumont, lying near the river Sambre, to the west of the
*•* erArdeuneg: E&rly jo the 14th century the castle and \
'seigneurie of Beaumont fell into the hands of Jean, younger sob
of the count of Hainaut. With this Jean, sire de Beaumont,
lived a certain canon of Liege called Jean ie Bel, who fortunately
was not content simply to enjoy life. Instigated by his seigneur
he set himself to write contemporary history, to tell " la pure
veriteit de tout li fait entierement al manire de chroniques."
With this view, he compiled two books of chronicles. And the
chronicles of Jean le Bel were not the only literary monuments
belonging to the castle of Beaumont. A hundred years before
him Baldwin d'Avernes, the then seigneur, had caused to be
written a book of chronicles or rather genealogies. It must
therefore be remembered that when Froissart undertook his own
chronicles he was not conceiving a new idea, but only following
along familiar lines.
Some 20 m. from Beaumont stood the prosperous city ot
Valenciennes, possessed in the 14th century of important
privileges and a flourishing trade, second only to places like
Bruges or Ghent in influence, population and wealth. Beaumont,
once her rival, now regarded Valenciennes as a place where the
ambitious might seek for wealth or advancement, and among
those who migrated thither was the father of Foissart. He
appears from a single passage in his son's verses to have been a
painter of armorial bearings. There was, it may be noted,
already what may be called a school of painters at Valenciennes.
Among them were Jean and Colin de Valenciennes and Andre
Beau-Neveu, of whom Froissart says that he had not his equal
in any country.
The date generally adopted for his birth is 1338. In after
years Froissart pleased himself by recalling in verse the scenes
and pursuits of his childhood. These are presented in vague
generalities. There is nothing to show that he was unlike any
other boys, and, unfortunately, it did not occur to him that a
photograph of a schoolboy's life amid bourgeois surroundings
would be to posterity quite as interesting as that faithful por-
traiture of courts and knights which he has drawn up in his
Chronicle, As it is, we learn that he loved games of dexterity
and skill rather than the sedentary amusements of chess and
draughts, that he was beaten when he did not know his lessons,
that with his companions fie played at tournaments, and that
he was always conscious— a statement which must be accepted
with suspicion — that he was born
" Loer Dieu et servur le monde."
In any case he was born in a place, as well as at a time, 1
larly adapted to fill the brain of an imaginative boy. Va
was then a city extremely rich in romantic associations. Not
far from its walls was the western fringe of the great forest of
Ardennes, sacred to the memory of Pepin, Charlemagne, Roland
and Ogier. Along the banks of the Scheldt stood, one after the
other, not then in ruins, but bright with banners, the gleam of
armour, and the liveries of t^he men at arms, castles wheat
seigneurs, now forgotten, were famous in their day for many a
gallant feat of arms. The castle of Valenciennes itself was
illustrious in the romance of Perceforest. There was born that
most glorious and most luckless hero, Baldwin, first emperor
of Constantinople. All the splendour of medieval life was to
be seen in Froissart's native city: on the walls of the Salk k
Comte glittered— perhaps painted by his father— the arms and
scutcheons beneath the banners and helmets of Luxembourg,
Hainaut and Avesnes; the streets were crowded with knights
and soldiers, priests, artisans and merchants; the churches wen
rich with stained glass, delicate tracery and precious carving;
there were libraries full of richly illuminated manuscripts oa
which the boy could gaze with delight ; every year there was the
ftU of the puyd* Amour de Valenciennes, at which he would hear
the verses of the competing poets; there were festivals, masques,
mummeries and moralities. And, whatever there might be
elsewhere, in this happy dty there was only the pomp, and not
the misery, of war; the fields without were tilled, and tbe
harvests reaped, in security; the workman within plied is
craft unmolested for good wage. But the eyes of the boy wen
turned upon the castle and not upon the town; it was tht
tpkndAux cA tht knigjhu which daxaled him, insomuch chat k
FROISSART
*43
regarded and continued ever afterwards to regard a prince
gallant in the field, glittering of apparel, lavish of largesse, as
almost a god.
The moon, he says, rules the first four years of life; Mercury
the next ten; Venus follows. He was fourteen when the last
goddess appeared to him in person, as he tells us, after the
manner of his time, and informed him that he was to love a lady,
u belle, jone, ct gente." Awaiting this happy event, he began to
consider how best to earn his livelihood. ' They first placed him in
some commercial position — impossible now to say of what kind
— which he simply calls " la marchandise." This undoubtedly
means some kind of buying and selling, not a handicraft
at all. He very soon abandoned merchandise— " car vaut
mieux science qu'argens "—and resolved on becoming a learned
clerk. He then naturally began to make verses, like every other
learned clerk. Quite as naturally, and still in the character of a
learned clerk, he fulfilled the prophecy of Venus and fell in love.
He found one day a demoiselle reading a book of romances. He
did not know who she was, but stealing gently towards her, he
asked her what book she was reading. It was the romance of
Cleomades. He remarks the singular beauty of her blue eyes
and fair hair, while she reads a page or two, and then— one would
almost suspect a reminiscence of Dante —
" Adont laissames nous le lire."
He was thus provided with that essential for soldier, knight
or poet, a mistress— one for whom he could write verses. She
was- rich and he was poor; she was nobly born and he obscure;
ft was long before she would accept the devotion, even of the
conventional kind which Froissart offered her, and which would
in no way interfere with the practical business of her life. And
in this hopeless way, the passion of the young poet remaining
the same, and the coldness of the lady being unaltered, the course
of this passion ran on for some time. Nor was it until the day
of Froissart's departure from his native town that she gave him
an interview and spoke kindly to him, even promising, with tears
in her eyes, that *' Doulce Pensee " would assure him that she
would have no joyous day until she should see him again
He was eighteen years of age; he had learned all that he
wanted to learn; he possessed the mechanical art of verse;
he had read the slender stock of classical literature accessible;
be longed to see the world. He must already have acquired
some distinction, because, on setting out for the court of England,
he was able to take with him letters of recommendation from
the king of Bohemia and the count of Hainaut to Queen Philippa,
niece of the latter. He. was well received by the queen, always
ready to welcome her own countrymen; he wrote ballades and
virelays for her and her ladies. But after a year he began to
pine for another sight of " la tres douce, simple, et quoie," whom
he loved loyally. Good Queen Philippa, perceiving his altered
looks and guessing the cause, made him confess that he was in
love and longed' to see his mistress. She gave him his congl on
the condition that he was to return. It is clear that the young
clerk had already learned to ingratiate himself with princes.
The conclusion of his single love adventure is simply and
unaffectedly told in his Trcttie de Vespinette amoureus*. It
was a passion conducted on the well-known lines of conventional
love; the pair exchanged violets and roses, the lady accepted
ballads ' K Froissart became either openly or in secret her recog-
nized lover, a mere title of honour, which conferred distinction
on her who bestowed it, as well as upon him who received it.
But the progress of the amour was rudely interrupted by the arts
of " Malebouche," or Calumny. The story, whatever it was,
that Malebouche whispered in the ear of the lady led to a
complete rupture. The damoisdle not only scornfully refused
to speak to her lover or acknowledge him, but even seized him
by the hair and pulled out a handful Nor would she ever
be reconciled to him again. Years afterwards, when Froissart
writes the story of his one love passage, he shows that he still
takes delight in the remembrance of her, loves to draw her
portrait, and lingers with fondness over the thought of what
She once was to him.
Perhaps to get healed of his sorrow, Froissart began those
wanderings in which the best part of his life was to be consumed.
He first visited Avignon, perhaps to ask for a benefice, perhaps
as the bearer of a message from the bishop Of Cambray to pope
or cardinal. It was in the year 1360, and in the pontificate of
Innocent VI. From the papal city he seems to have gone to
Paris, perhaps charged with a diplomatic mission. In 1361 he
returned to England after an absence of five years. He certainly
interpreted his leaveof absence in a liberal spirit, and it may have
been with a view of averting the displeasure of his kind-hearted
protector that he brought with him as a present a book of
rhymed chronicles written by himself. He says that notwith-
standing his youth, he took upon himself the task "a rimer et
a dieter "—which can only mean to ** turn into verse "—an
account of the wars of his own time, which he carried over to
England in a book " tout compile 1 ," — complete to date, — and
presented to his noble mistress Philippa of Hainaut, who joy-
fully and gently received it of him. Such a rhymed chronicle
was no new thing. One Colin had already turned the battle of
Crecy into verse. The queen made young Froissart one of her
secretaries, and he began to serve her with " beaux ditties et
traitcs amoureux."
Froissart would probably have been content to go on living
at ease in this congenial atmosphere of flattery, praise and
caresses, pouring out his virelays and chansons according to
demand with facile monotony, but for the instigation of Queen
Philippa, who seems to have suggested to him the propriety of
travelling in order to get information for more rhymed chronicles.
It was at her charges that Froissart made his first serious journey.
He seems to have travelled a great part of the way alone, or
accompanied only by his servants, for he was fain to beguile
the journey by composing an imaginary conversation in verse
between his horse and his hound. This may be found among his
published poems, but it does not repay perusal. In Scotland
he met with a favourable reception, not only from King David
but from William of Douglas, and from the earls of Fife,
Mar, March and others. The souvenirs of this journey are
found scattered about in the chronicles. He was evidently much
impressed with the Scots; he speaks of the valour of the Douglas,
(he Campbell, the Ramsay and the Graham; he describes the
hospitality and rude life of the Highlanders; he admires the
great castles of Stirling and Roxburgh and the fampus abbey of
Melrose. His travels in Scotland lasted for six months. Return-
ing southwards he rode along the whole course of the Roman
wall, a thing alone sufficient to show that he possessed the true
spirit of an archaeologist; he thought that Carlisle was Carlyon*
and congratulated himself on having found King Arthur's
capital; he calls Westmorland, where the common people still
spoke the ancient British tongue, North Wales; he rode down
the banks of the Severn, and returned to London by way of
Oxford— 'Tescole d'Asque-Suffort."
In London Froissart entered into the service of King John
of France as secretary, and grew daily more courtly, more in
favour with princes and great ladies. He probably acquired at
this period that art, in which he has probably never been sur-
passed, of making people tell him all they knew. No newspaper
correspondent, no American interviewer, has ever equalled this
medieval collector of intelligence. From Queen Philippa, who
confided to him the tender story of her youthful and lasting love
for her great husband, down to the simplest knight— Froissart
conversed with none beneath the rank of gentlemen — all united
in telling this man what he wanted to know. He wanted to
know everything: he liked the story of a battle from both sides
and from many points of view; he wanted the details of every
little cavalry skirmish, every capture of a castle, every gallant
action and brave deed. And what was more remarkable, he
forgot nothing. " I had," he says, " thanks to God, sense,
memory, good remembrance of everything, and an intellect
clear and keen to seize upon the acts which I could learn." But
as yet he had not begun to write in prose.
At the age of twenty-nine, in 1366, Froissart once more left
England. This time he repaired first to Brussels, whither were
gathered together % g^sA. cjraarctA <A TtossAx&k Vra& ^ ^aa*
*44
FROISSART
from the courts of the kings of Denmark, Navarre and Aragon,
from those of the dukes of Lancaster, Bavaria and Brunswick.
Hither came all who could " rimer et dieter." What distinction
Froissart gained is not stated; but he received a gift of money,
as appears from the accounts: " uni Fritsardo, dictori, qui est
cum regina Angltae, dictb die, vi. mottones."
After this congress of versifiers, he made his Way to Brittany,
where he heard from eye-witnesses and knights who had actually
fought there details of the battles of Cocherel and Auray, the
Great Day of the Thirty and the heroism of Jeanne de Montfort.
Windsor Herald told him something about Auray, and a French
knight, one Antoine de Beaujeu, gave him the details of Cocherel.
From Brittany he went southwards to Nantes, La Rochelle and
Bordeaux, where he arrived a few days/before the visit of Rkhard,
afterwards second of that name. He accompanied the Black
Prince to Dax, and hoped to go on with him into Spain, but
was despatched to England on a mission. He next formed part
of the* expedition which escorted Lionel duke of Clarence to
Milan, to marry the daughter of Gakazzo Visconti. Chaucer
was also one of the prince's suite. At the wedding banquet
Petrarch was a guest sitting among the princes.
From Milan Froissart, accepting gratefully a code hardie with
20 florins of gold, set out upon his travels in Italy. At Bologna,
then in decadence, he met Peter king of Cyprus, from whose
follower and minister, Eustache de Conflans, he learned many
interesting particulars of the king's exploits. He accompanied
Peter as far as Venice, where he left him after receiving a gift
of 40 ducats. With them and his cotie hardie, still lined we may
hope with the 20 florins, Froissart betook himself to Rome.
The city was then at its lowest point: the churches were roofless;
there was no pope; there were no pilgrims; there was no
splendour; and yet, says Froissart sadly s
"Ce furent jadis en Rome
Li plus preu et li plus sage homme,
Car par sens tons les arts passerent."
It was at Rome that he learned of the death of his friend King
Peter of Cyprus, and, worse still, an irreparable loss to him,
that of the good Queen Philippa, of whom he writes, in grateful
remembrance—
" Propices li soit Diex a I'd me!
Ten suis bien tenus de pryer
,, Et sea larghesces escuyer,
Car elle me fist et crea."
Philippa dead, Froissart looked around for a new patron.
Then he hastened back to his own country and presented himself,
with a new book in French, to the duchess of Brabant, from
whom he received the sum of 16 francs, given in the accounts
as paid uni Frissardo dietatori. The use of the word uni does
not imply any meanness of position, but is simply an equivalent
to the modern French sicur. Froissart may also have found a
patron in Yolandc de Bar, grandmother of King Rene" of Anjou.
In any case he received a substantial gift from some one in the
shape of the benefice of Lestines, a village some three or four
miles from the town of Binche. Also, in addition to his cure, he
got placed upon the duke of Brabant's pension hst, and was
entitled to a yearly grant of grain and wine, with some small
sum in money.*
It is clear, from Froissart's own account of himself, that he
was by no means a man who would at the age of four or five and'
thirty be contented to sit down at ease to discharge the duties
of parish priest, to say mass, to bury the dead, to marry the
villagers and to baptize the young. In those days, and in that
country, it does not seem that other duties were expected.
Preaching was not required, godliness of life, piety, good works,
and the graces of a modern ecclesiastic were not looked for.
Therefore, when Froissart complains to himself that the taverns
of Lestines got 500 francs of his money, we need not at once set
him down as either a bad priest or exceptionally given to drink.
The people of the place were greatly addicted to wine; the
tavcrniers de Lestines proverbially sold good wine; the Flemings
were proverbially of a joyous disposition—
" Ceux de Hainaut chantent a pleines gorges."
Froissart, the parish priest of courtly manners, no doubt
drank with the rest, and listened if they sang his own, not the
coarse country songs, Mostly he preferred the society of Gerard
d'Obies, provost of Binche, and the little circle of knights within
that town. Or — for it was not incumbent on him to be always
in residence — he repaired to the court of Coudenberg, and became
" moult frere et accoutre " with the duke of Brabant. And then
came Gui de Blois, one of King John's hostages in London in the
old days. He had been fighting in Prussia with the Teutonic
knights, and now, a little tired of war, proposed to settle down
for a time in his castle of Beaumont. This prince was a member
of the great house -of Chatillon. He was count of Blois, of
Soissons and of Chimay. He had now, about the year 1374, as
excellent reputation as a good captain. In him Froissart, who
hastened to resume acquaintance, found a new patron. More
than that, it was this sire de Beaumont, in emulation of his
grandfather, the patron of Jean le Bel, who advised Froissart
seriously to take in hand the history of his own time: Froissart
was then in his thirty-sixth year. For twenty years he had been
rhyming, for eighteen he had been making verses for queens and
ladies. Yet during all this time he had been accumulating in his
retentive brain the materials for his future work.
He began by editing, so to speak, that is, by rewriting with
additions, the work of Jean le Bel; Gui de Blois, among -others,
supplied him with additional information. His own notes, taken
from information obtained in his travels, gave him more details,
and when in 1374 Gui married Marie de Namur, Froissart found
in the bride's father, Robert de Namur, one who had himself
largely shared in the- events which he had to relate. He, for
instance, is the authority for the story of the siege of Calais
and the six burgesses. Provided with these materials, Froissart
remained at Lestines, or at Beaumont, arranging and writing
his chronicles. During this period, too, he composed his EspineUc
amcureusc, and the Joli Buisson de jonesce, and his romance of
Miliadcr. He also became chaplain to the count of Blots, and
obtained a canonry of Chimay. After this appointment we hear
nothing more of Lestines, which he probably resigned.
In these quiet pursuits he passed twelve years, years of which
we hear nothing, probably because -there was nothing to telL
In 1386 his travels began again, when he accompanied Gui to
his castle at Blois, in order to celebrate the marriage of his sen
Louis de Dunois with Marie de Berry. He wrote a pasUmeUt
in honour of the event. Then he attached himself for a few days
to the duke of Berry, from whom he learned certain particulars
of current events, and then, becoming aware of what promised to
be the most mighty feat of arms of his time, he hastened to Slays
in order to be on the spot. At this port the French were collecting
an enormous fleet, and making preparations of the greatest
magnitude in order to repeat the invasion of William the Con-
queror. They were tired of being invaded by the English and
wished to turn the tables. The talk was all of conquering the
country and dividing it among the knights, as had been done by
the Normans. It is not clear whether Froissart intended to go
over with the invaders; but as his sympathies are ever with the
side where he happens to be, he exhausts himself in admiration
of this grand gathering of ships and men. " Any one," he says,
" who had a fever would have been cured of his malady merely
by going to look at the fleet.". But the delays of the duke of
Berry, and the arrival of bad weather, spoiled everything. There
was no invasion of England. In Flanders Froissart met many
knights who had fought at Rosebcque, and could tell him of the
troubles which in a few years desolated that country, once so
prosperous. He set himself to ascertain the history with ss
much accuracy as the comparison of various accounts by eye*
witnesses and actors would allow. He stayed at Ghent, among
those ruined merchants and mechanics, for whom, as one of tat
same class, he felt a sympathy never extended to English or
French, perhaps quite as unfortunate, and he devotes no fewer
than 300 chapters to the Flemish troubles, an amount out of
all proportion to the comparative importance ol the events
This portion of the chronicle was written at Valenciennes
During this residence in his birthplace his verses were crowned
at the " puys d'amour " of Valenciennes and Tournay
FROISSART
245
This part of his work finished, he considered what to do next.
There was small chance of anything important happening in
Picardy or Hainault, and he determined on making a journey
to the south of France in order to learn something new. He was
then fifty-one years of age, and being still, as be tells us, in his
prime, " of an age, strength, and limbs able to bear fatigue,"
he set out as eager to see new places as when, 33 years before,
be rode through Scotland and marvelled at the bravery of the
Douglas. What he nad, in addition to strength, good memory
and good spirits, was a manner singularly pleasing and great
personal force of character. This he does not tell us, but it
comes out abundantly in his writings; and, which he does tell
us, he took a singular delight in his book. " The more I work
at it," he says, " the better am I pleased with iL"
On this occasion he rode first to Blois; on the way he fell in
with two knights who told him of the disasters of the English
army in Spain; one of them also informed him of the splendid
hospitalities and generosity of Gaston Phoebus, count of Foix,
on hearing of which Froissart resolved to seek him out. He
avoided the English provinces of Poitou and Guiennc, and rode
southwards through Berry, Auvergne and Languedoc. Arrived
at Foix he discovered that the count was at Orthez, whither he
proceeded in company with a knight named Espaing de Lyon,
who, Froissart found, had not only fought, but could describe.
The account of those few days' ride with Espaing dc Lyon is
the most charming, the most graphic, and the most vivid chapter
in the whole of Froissart. Every turn of the road brings with
it the sight of a ruined castle, about which this knight of many
memories has a tale or a reminiscence. The whole country
teems with fighting stories. Froissart never tires of listening
nor the good knight of telling " Sainte Marie 1 " cries Froissart
in mere, rapture. " How pleasant are your talcs, and how much
do they profit me while you relate them I And you shall not lose
your trouble, for they shall all be set down in memory and remem-
brance in the history which I am writing." Arrived at length
at Orthez, Froissart lost no time in presenting his credentials to
the count of Foix. Gaston Phoebus was at this time fifty-nine
years of age. His wife, from whom he was separated, was that
princess, sister of Charles of Navarre, with whom Guillaumc de
Machault carried on his innocent and poetical amour. The story
of the miserable death of his son is well known, and may be read
in Froissart. But that was already a tale of the past, and the
state which the count kept up was that of a monarch. To such a
prince such a visitor as Froissart would be in every way welcome..
Mindful no doubt of those paid clerks who were always writing
verses, Froissart introduced himself as a chronicler. He could,
of course, rhyme, and in proof he brought with him his romance
of Mtiiador; but he did not present himself as a wandering
poet. The count received him graciously, speedily discovered
the good qualities of his guest, and often invited him to read his
UHiador aloud in the evening, during which time, says Froissart,
" nobody dared to say a word, because he wished me to be heard,
such great delight did he take in listening." Very soon Froissart,
from reader of a romance, became raconteur of the things he had
seen and heard; the next step was that the count himself began
to talk of affairs, so that the notebook was again in requisition.
There was a good deal, too, to be learned of people about the
court. One knight recently returned from the East told about
the Genoese occupation of Famagosta; two more had been in the
fray of Otter bourne; others had been in the Spanish wars.
Leaving Gaston at length, Froissart assisted at the wedding
of the old duke of Berry with the youthful Jeanne de Bourbon,
and was present at the grand reception given to Isabeau of
Bavaria by the Parisians. He then returned to Valenciennes,
and sat down to write his fourth book. A journey undertaken
at this time is characteristic of the thorough and conscientious
spirit in which he composed his work; it illustrates also his
restless and curious spirit. While engaged in the events of the
year 1385 he became aware that his notes taken at Orthez and
elsewhere on the affairs of Castile and Portugal were wanting in
completeness. He left Valenciennes and hastened to Bruges,
where, he felt certain, he should find some one who would help
him. There was, in fact, at this great commercial centre, a
colony of Portuguese. From them he learned that a certain
Portuguese knight, Dom Juan Fernand Pachcco, was at the
moment in Middclburg on the point of starling for Prussia.
He instantly embarked at Sluys, reached Middelburg in time
to catch this knight, introduced himself, and conversed with him
uninterruptedly for the space of six days, getting his information
on the promise of due acknowledgment. During the next two
years we learn little of his movements. He seems, however,
to have had trouble with his seigneur Gui de Blois, and even to
have resigned his chaplaincy. Froissart is tender with Gui's
reputation, mindful of past favours and remembering how great
a lord he is. Yet the truth is clear that in his declining years
the once gallant Gui de Blois became a glutton and a drunkard,
and allowed his affairs to fall into the greatest disorder. So
much was he crippled with debt that be was obliged to sell his
castle and county of Blois to the king of France. Froissart lays
all the blame on evil counsellors. " He was my lord and master,' '
he says simply, " an honourable lord and of great reputation;
but he trusted too easily in those who looked for neither his
welfare nor his honour." Although canon of Chimay and perhaps
curl of Lestines as well, it would seem as if Froissart was not able
to live without a patron. He next calls Robert de Namur his
seigneur, and dedicates to him, in a general introduction, the
whole of his chronicles. We then find him at Abbeville, trying
to learn all about the negotiations pending between Charles VI.
and the English. He was unsuccessful, cither because he could
not get at those who knew what was going on, or because the
secret was too well kept. He next made his last visit to England,
where, after forty years' absence, he naturally found no one
who remembered him. Here he gave King Richard a copy of his
" traitcs amourcux," and got favour at court. He stayed in
England some months, seeking information on all points from
his friends Henry Chrystcad and Richard Stury, from the dukes
of York and Gloucester, and from Robert the Hermit.
On his return to France, he found preparations going on
for that unlucky crusade, the end of which he describes in his
Chronicle. It was headed by the count of Nevers. After him
floated many a banner of knights, descendants of the crusaders,
who bore the proud titles of duke of Athens, duke of Thebes,
sire de Sidon, sire de Jericho. They were going to invade the
sultan's empire by way of Hungary; they were going to march
south; they would reconquer the holy places. And presently
we read how it all came to nothing, and how the slaughtered
knights lay dead outside the city of Nikopoli. In almost the
concluding words of the Chronicle the murder of Richard II.
of England is described. His death ends the long and crowded
Chronicle, though the pen of the writer struggles through a few
more unfinished sentences.
The rest is vague tradition. He is said to have died at Chimay ;
it is further said that he died in poverty so great that his relations
could not even afford to carve his name upon the headstone of
his tomb; not one of his friends, not even Eustache Dcschamps,
writes a line of regret in remembrance; the greatest historian
of his age had a reputation so limited that his death was no
more regarded than that of any common monk or obscure
priest. We would willingly place the date of his death, where
his Chronicle stops, in the year 1400; but tradition assigns
the date of 1410. What date more fitting than the close of the
century for one who has made that century illustrious for ever ?
Among his friends were Guillaume dc Machault, Eustache
Dcschamps, the most vigorous poet of this age of decadence,
and Cu velier, a follower of Bert rand du Guesclin. These alliances.
are certain. It is probable that he knew Chaucer, with whom
Deschamps maintained a poetical correspondence; there is
nothing to show that he ever made the acquaintance of Christine
de Fisan. Froissart was more proud of his poetry than his prose.
Posterity has reversed this opinion, and though a selection of
his verse has been published, it would be difficult 'to find an
admirer, or even a reader, of his poems. The selection published
by Bucboo in 1829 consists of the Dit doujtorin, half of which
is a description of the power of money; the Vtbot dom cknd
24-6
FROME— FROMENTIN
d dou levricr, written daring his journey in Scotland; the
Ditlie de la flour de la Mar [her tie; a Dtitie a" amour called
L'Orhse amour em, in which he compares himself, the imaginary
lover, with a clock; the EspineUt amour eust, which contains a
sketch of his early life, freely and pleasantly drawn, accompanied
by rondeaux and virelays; the Buisson de jonesce, in which
he returns to the recollections of his own youth; and various
smaller pieces. The verses are monotonous; the thoughts are
not without poetical grace, but they are expressed at tedious
length. It would be, however, absurd to expect in Froissart
the vigour and verve possessed by none of his predecessors.
The time was gone when Marie de France, Rutebceuf and
Thibaut de Champagne made the 13th-century language a
medium for verse of which any literature might be proud.
Briefly, Froissart's poetry, unless the unpublished portion
be better than that before us, is monotonous and mechanical.
The chief merit it possesses is in simplicity of diction. This not
infrequently produces a pleasing effect.
As for the character of his Chronicle, little need be said.
There has never been any difference of opinion on the distinctive
merits of this great work. It presents a vivid and faithful
drawing of the things done in the 14th century. No more
graphic account exists of any age. No historian has drawn
so many and such faithful portraits. They are, it is true, portraits
of men as they seemed to the writer, not of men as they were.
Froissart was uncritical; he accepted princes by their appearance.
Who, for instance, would recognize in his portrait of Gaston
Phoebus de Foix the cruel voluptuary, stained with the blood
of his own son, which we know him to have been? Froissart,
again, had no sense of historical responsibility; he was no
judge to inquire into motives and condemn actions; he was
simply a chronicler. He has been accused by French authors
of lacking patriotism. Yet it must be remembered that he was
neither a Frenchman nor an Englishman, but a Fleming. He
has been accused of insensibility to suffering. Indignation
against oppression was not, however, common in the 14th
century; why demand of Froissart a quality which is rare
enough even in our own time? Yet there are moments when,
as in describing the massacre of Limoges, he speaks with tears
in his voice.
Let him be judged by his own aims. " Before I commence
this book," he says, " I pray the Saviour of all the world, who
created every thing out of nothing, that He will also create and
put in me sense and understanding of so much worth, that this
book, which I have begun, I may continue and persevere in,
so that all those who shall read, see, and hear it may find in it
delight and plcasanee." To give delight and pleasure, then,
was his sole design.
As regards his personal character, Froissart depicts it himself
for us. Such as be was in youth, he tells us, so he remained in
more advanced life; rejoicing mightily in dances and carols,
in bearing minstrels and poems; inclined to love all those who
love dogs and hawks; pricking up his ears at the uncorking of
bottles, — "Car au voire prens grand plaisir"; pleased with
good cheer, gorgeous apparel and joyous society, but no common-
place reveller or greedy voluptuary,— everything in Froissart
was ruled by the good manners which he set before all else;
and always eager to listen to tales of war and battle. As we have
said above, he shows, not only by his success at courts, but also
by the whole tone of his writings, that he possessed a singularly
winning manner and strong personal character. He lived
wholly in the present, and had no thought of the coming changes.
Born when chivalrous ideas were most widely spread, but the
spirit of chivalry itself, as inculcated by the best writers, in its
decadence, he is penetrated with the sense of knightly honour,
and ascribes to all his heroes alike those qualities which only the
ideal knight possessed.
The first edition of Froissart's Chronicles was published in Paris.
It bears no date: the next editions arc those of the years 1505, 1514.
IMS and 1520. The edition of Buchon. 1824, was a continuation
of one commenced by Dacicr. The best modern editions are those
of Kervyn de Let ten hove (Brussels, 1863-1877) and Simeon Luce
(Paris, 1869-1888); for bibliography see Potthast, Biblittheca hist.
ent was made in Latin by
English translation vat
iblibhed in London, 152s
of Berners (Nutt, 1901),
ie " Globe " edition, with
• translation by Thomas
»-i8o5. For Froissart 1
nhove's complete edition:
r the Societe de* Ancient
Darmcsteter (Dnclaux),
(W.fis.)
FROME, a 'market town in the Frome parliamentary division
of Somersetshire, England, 107 m. W. by S. of London by the
Great Western railway. Pop. of urban district (xoor) 1 1,057. It
is unevenly built on high ground above the river Frome, which
is here crossed by a stone bridge of five arches. It was formerly
called Frome or Froome Selwood, after the neighbouring forest
of Selwood; and the country round is still richly wooded and
picturesque. The parish church of St John the Baptist, with
its fine tower and spire, was built about the close of the 14th
century, and, though largely restored, has a beautiful chancel,
Lady chapel and baptistery. Fragments of Norman work are
left; the interior is elaborately adorned with sculptures and
stained glass. The market-hall, museum, school of art, and a
free grammar school, founded under Edward VI., may be noted
among buildings and institutions. The chief industries are
brewing and art metal-working, also printing, metal-founding,
and the manufacture of cloth, silk, tools and cards for wool-
dressing. Dairy farming is largely practised in the neighbour-
hood. Selwood forest was long a favourite haunt of brigands,
and even in the 18th century gave shelter to a gang of coiners and
highwaymen.
The Saxon occupation of Frome (From) is the earliest of
which there is evidence, the settlement being due to the founda-
tion of a monastery by Aldhelm in 705. A witenagemot was
held there in 934, so that Frome must already have been a place
of some sixe. At the time of the Domesday Survey the manor
was owned by King William. Local tradition asserts that
Frome was a medieval borough, and the reeve of Frome is
occasionally mentioned in documents after the reign of Edward
I., but there is no direct evidence that Frome was a borough and
no trace of any charter granted to it. It was not represented
in parliament until given one member by the Reform Act of
1832. Separate representation ceased in 1885. Frome wis
never incorporated. A charter of Henry VII. to Edmund
Levcrsedge, then lord of the manor, granted the right to have
fairs on the 22nd of July and the 21st of September. In the
18th century two other fairs on the 24th of February and the
25th of November were held. Cattle fairs are now held on the
last Wednesday in February and November, and a cheese fair
on the last Wednesday in September. The Wednesday market
is held under the charter of Henry VII. There is also a Saturday
cattle market. The manufacture of woollen cloth has been
established since the 15th century, Frome being the only Somer-
set town in which this staple industry has flourished continuously.
FROMENTUf, EUG&NB (1820-1876), French painter, was
born at La Rochelle in December 1820. After leaving school
he studied for some years under Louis Cabat, the landscape
painter. Fromentrn was one of the earliest pictorial interpreters
of Algeria, having been able, while quite young, to visit the
land and people that suggested the subjects of most of hit
works, and to store his memory as well as his portfolio with the
picturesque and characteristic details of North African Rfe. In
1849 he obtained a medal of the second class. In 185s he paid
a second visit to Algeria, accompanying an archaeological
mission, and then completed that minute study of the scenery
of the country and of the habits of its people which enabled him
to give to his after- work the realistic accuracy that comes from
intimate knowledge. In a certain sense his works are not more
artistic results than contributions to ethnological science. Ha
first great success was produced at the Salon of 1847, by the
" Gorges de la Chiffa." Among his more Important works are—
" La Place de la breche a Constantine " (1849); N Enterremeaf
FROMMEL— FRONDE
H7
Maine " (1855); " Batcleurs negres " and " Audience ches un
chalife" (1850); "Bergcr kabyle" and " Courriers arabet "
(1861); " Bivouac arabc," " Chasse au faucon," " Fauconnier
arabe" (now at Luxembourg) (1863); "Chasse au heron"
(1S65); " Voleurs de nuit" (1867); "Centaurs et arabc*
attaques par une lionne " (x86S); " Halte de muleticrs " (1869);
u Le Nil " and " Un Souvenir d'Esneh " (1875). Fromenlin was
much influenced in style by Eugene Delacroix. His works are
distinguished by striking composition, great dexterity of hand-
ling and brilliancy of colour. In them is given with great
truth and refinement the unconscious grandeur of barbarian
and animal attitudes and gestures. His later works, however,
show signs of an exhausted vein and of an exhausted spirit,
accompanied or caused by physical enfeeblemcnt. But it must
be observed that Fromcntin's paintings show only one side of
a genius that was perhaps even more felicitously expressed in
literature, though of course with less profusion. " Dominique,"
first published in the Revue des deux monies in 1862, and
dedicated to George Sand, is remarkable among the fiction
of the century for delicate and imaginative observation and for
emotional earnestness. Fromentin's other literary works arc —
Visites artistiques (1852); Simples Pelerinages (1856); Un £ti
dans U Sahara (1857); Une Annie dans le Sakel (1858); and
Lts iiatlres d'aulrcjois (1876). In 1870 he was an unsuccessful
candidate for the Academy. He died suddenly at La Rochcllc
on the 27th of August 1876.
FROMMEL, GASTON (1862*1906), Swiss theologian, pro-
fessor of theology in the university of Geneva from 1894 to 1906.
An Alsatian by birth, he belonged mainly to French Switzerland,
where he spent most of his life. He may best be described as
continuing the spirit of Vinet (q.v.) amid the mental conditions
«nariring the end of the 19th century. Like Vinet, he derived
his philosophy of religion from a peculiarly deep experience of
the Gospel of Christ as meeting the demands of the moral con-
sciousness; but he developed even further than Vinet the
psychological analysis of conscience and the method of verifying
every doctrine by direct reference to spiritual experience. Both
made much of moral individuality or personality as the crown
and criterion of reality, believing that its correlation with
Christianity, both historically and philosophically, was most
intimate. But while Vinet laid most stress on the liberty from
human authority essential to the moral consciousness, the
changed needs of the age caused Frommel to develop rather the
aspect of man's dependence as a moral being upon God's spiritual
initiative, " the conditional nature of his liberty." " Liberty
is not the primary, but the secondary characteristic " of con-
science; " before being free, it is the subject of obligation."
On this depends its objectivity as a real revelation of the Divine
WilL Thus be claimed that a deeper analysis carried one beyond
the human subjectivity of even Kant's categorical imperative,
since consciousness of obligation was " une experience imposee
sous le mode de l'absolu." By his use of imposee Frommel
emphasized the priority of man's sense of obligation to bis
consciousness either of self or of God. Here he appealed to the
current psychology of the subconscious for confirmation of his
analysis, by which he claimed to transcend mere imellcctualism.
In his language on this fundamental point he was perhaps too
jealous of admitting an ideal element as implicit in the feeling
of obligation. Still he did well in insisting on priority to self-
conscious thought as a mark of metaphysical objectivity in the
case of moral, no less than of physical experience. Further, he
found m the Christian revelation the same characteristics as
belonged to the universal revelation involved in conscience,
viz. God's sovereign initiative and his living action in history.
From this standpoint he argued against a purely psychological
type of religion {agnosticism* religieux, as he termed it)— a
tendency to which he saw even in A. Sabatier and the symbolo-
idiisme of the Paris School— as giving up a real and unifying
fkith. His influence on men, especially the student class, was
greatly enhanced by the religious force and charm of his per-
sonality. Finally, h'ke Vinet, he was a mm of letters and a
penetrating critic of men and systems.
Literature.— G. Godet, Gaston Frommel (Neuchatel, 1906), a
compact sketch, with full citation of sources; cf. H. Bois. in Saint*-
Croix lor 1906, for " L'Etudrant et le professeur." A complete
edition of hi* writings was begun in 1907. (J. V. B.)
FRONDE, THE, the name given to a civil war in France
which lasted from 2648 to 1652, and to its sequel, the war with
Spain in 1653-59. The word means a sling, and was applied to
this contest from the circumstance that the windows of Cardinal
Maaarin's adherents were pelted with stones by the Paris mob.
Its original object was the redress of grievances, but (he move-
ment soon degenerated into a factional contest among the nobles,
who sought to reverse the results of Richelieu's work and to
overthrow his successor Mazarin. In May 1648 a tax levied on
judicial officers of the parlement of Paris was met by that body,
not merely with a refusal to pay, but with a condemnation of
earlier financial edicts, and even with a demand for the accept-
ance of a scheme of constitutional reforms framed by a com-
mittee of the parlement. This charter was somewhat influenced
by contemporary events in England. But* there is no real
likeness between the two revolutions, the French parlement
being no more representative of the people than the Inns of
Court were in England. The political history of the time is
dealt with in the article Fiance: History, the present article
being concerned chiefly with the military operations of what
was perhaps the most costly and least necessary civil war in
history.
The military record of the first ox " parliamentary " Fronde
is almost blank. In August 1648, strengthened by the news
of Condi's victory at Lens, Maaarin suddenly arrested the
leaders of the parlement, whereupon Paris broke into insurrection
and barricaded the streets. The court, having no army at its
immediate disposal, had to release the prisoners and to promise
reforms, and fled from Paris on the night of the 12nd of October.
But the signing of the peace of Westphalia set free Condi's
army, and by January 1649 it was besieging Paris. The peace
of Rucil was signed in March, after little blood had been shed.
The Parisians, though still and always anti-cardinalist, refused
to ask for Spanish aid, as proposed by their princely and noble
adherents, and having no prospect of military success without
such aid, submitted and received concessions. Thenceforward
the Fronde becomes a story of sordid intrigues and half-hearted
warfare, losing all trace of its first constitutional phase. The
leaders were discontented princes and nobles — Monsieur (Gaston
of Orleans, the king's uncle), the great Conde* and his brother
Conti, the due de Bouillon and his brother Turenne. To these
must be added Gaston's daughter, Mademoiselle de Montpensier
(La grande Mademoiselle), Cond6's sister, Madame de Longue-
ville, Madame de Chcvrcuse, and the astute intriguer Paul de
Gondi, later Cardinal de Rctz. The military operations fell
into the hands of war-experienced mercenaries, led by two
great, and many second-rate, generals, and of nobles to whom
war was a polite pastime. The feelings of the people at large
were enlisted on neither side.
This peace of Rucil lasted until the end of 1649. The princes,
received at court once more, renewed their intrigues again**
Mazarin, who, having come to an understanding with Monsieur,
Gondi and Madame de Chcvrcuse, suddenly arrested Conde,
Conti and Longucville (January 14, 1650). The war which
followed this coup is called the " Princes' Fronde." This time
it was Turenne, before and afterwards the most loyal soldier
of his day, who headed the armed rebellion. Listening to the
promptings of his Egeria, Madame de Longucville, he resolved
to rescue her brother, his old comrade of Freiburg and Nord-
lingen. It was with Spanish assistance that he hoped to do so;
and a powerful army of that nation assembled in Artois under the
archduke Leopold, governor-general of the Spanish Netherlands.
But the peasants of the country-side rose against the invaders,
the royal army in Champagne was in the capable hands of Cesar
de Choiseut, corote du Plessis-Praslin, who counted fifty-two
years of age and thirty-six of war experience, and the little
fortress of Guise successfully resisted the archduke's attack.
Thereupon, however, Maaarin drew upon Plessls-PrasluVt anew
2+8
FRONDE
(or reinforcements to be sent to subdue the rebellion in the
•oath, and the royal general had to retire. Then, happily for
France, the archduke decided that he had spent sufficient of
the king of Spain's money and men in the French quarrel.
The magnificent regular army withdrew into winter quarters,
and left Turcnne to deliver the princes with a motley host of
Frondeurs and Lorrainers. Plcssis-Praslin by force and bribery
secured the surrender of Rethel on the 13th of December 1650,
and Turcnne, who had advanced to relieve the place, fell back
hurriedly. But he was a terrible opponent, and Ptessis-Praslin
and Mazarin himself, who accompanied the army, had many
misgivings as to the result of a lost battle. The marshal chose
nevertheless to force Turennc to a decision, and the battle of
Blanc-Champ (near Sommc-Py) or Rethel was the consequence.
Both sides were at a standstill in strong positions, Plcssis-Praslin
doubtful of the trustworthiness of his cavalry, Turcnne too weak
to attack, when a dispute for precedence arose between the
Gardes jranqaises and the Picardie regiment. The royal Infantry
had to be rearranged in order of regimental seniority, and
Turcnne, seeing and desiring to profit by the attendant disorder,
came out of his stronghold and attacked with the greatest vigour.
The battle (December 15, 1650) was severe and for a time doubt-
ful, but Turenne's Frondeurs gave way in the end, and his army,
as an army, ceased to exist. Turennc himself, undeceived as to
the part he was playing in the drama, asked and received the
young king's pardon, and meantime the court, with the maison
du rot and other loyal troops, had subdued the minor risings
without difficulty (March-April 1651). Condi, Conti and
Longueville were released, and by April 1651 the rebellion had
everywhere collapsed. Then followed a few months of hollow
peace and the court returned to Paris. Mazarin, an object of
hatred to all the princes, had already retired into exile. M Le
temps est un galant homme," he remarked, "latssons le faire!"
and so it proved. His absence left the field free for mutual
jealousies, and for the remainder of the year anarchy reigned
in France. In December 165 1 Mazarin returned with a small
army. The war began again, and this time Turcnne and Condi
were pitted against one another. After the first campaign, as
we shall see, the civil war ceased, but for several other campaigns
the two great soldiers were opposed to one another, Turennc as
the defender of France, Conde as a Spanish invader. Their
personalities alone give threads of continuity to these seven years
of wearisome manoeuvres, sieges and combats, though for a
right understanding of the causes which were to produce the
standing armies of the age of Louis XIV. and Frederick the Great
the military student should search deeply into the material and
moral factors that here decided the issue.
The debut of the new Frondeurs took place in Guycnne
(February-March 1652), while their Spanish ally, the archduke
Leopold William, captured various northern fortresses. On the
Loire, whither the centre of gravity was soon transferred, the
Frondeurs were commanded by intriguers and quarrelsome
lords, until Condi's arrival from Guycnne. His bold trenchant
Leadership made itself felt in the action of Bleneau (7th April
T652), in which a portion of the royal army was destroyed, but
fresh troops came up to oppose him, and from the skilful dis-
positions made by his opponents Conde felt the presence of
Turennc and broke off the action. The royal army did likewise.
Conde invited the commander of Turenne's rearguard to supper,
chaffed him unmercifully for allowing the prince's men to surprise
him in the morning, and by way of farewell remarked to his
guest, " Quel domraage que des braves gens comme nous se
coupent la gorge pour un faquin "—an incident and a remark
that thoroughly justify the iron-handed absolutism of LouisXIV.
There was no hope for France while tournaments on a large
scale and at the public's expense were fashionable amongst the
grands seigneurs. After Bleneau both armies marched to Paris
to negotiate with the parlement, de Rets and MUede Montpensier,
while the archduke took more fortresses in Flanders, and Charles
JV., duke of Lorraine, with an army of plundering mercenaries,
mMrcbcd through Chsmptgne to join Conde. As to the latter,
Turenoc nuaauvnd past Good* And planted himseU in front
of the mercenaries, and their leader, not wishing to expend his
men against the old French regiments, consented to depart with
a money payment and the promise of two tiny Lorraine fortresses.
A few more manoeuvres, and the royal army was able to hem hi
the Frondeurs in the Faubourg St Antoine (2nd July 1652) with
their backs to the closed gates of Paris. The royalists attacked
all along the line and won a signal victory in spite of the knightly
prowess of the prince and his great lords, but at the critical
moment Gaston's daughter persuaded the Parisians to open the
gates and to admit Condi's army. She herself turned the guns
of the Bastille on the pursuers. An insurrectional government
was organized in the capital and proclaimed Monsieur lieutenant-
general of the realm. Mazarin, feeling that public opinion was
solidly against him, left France again, and the bourgeois of Paris,
quarrelling with the princes, permitted the king to enter the city
on the 21st of October 2652. Mazarin returned unopposed in
February X653.
The Fronde as a civil war was now over. The whole country,
wearied of anarchy and disgusted with the princes, came to look
to the king's party as the party of order and settled government,
and thus the Fronde prepared the way for the absolutism of
Louis XIV. The general war continued in Flanders, Catalonia
and Italy wherever a Spanish and a French garrison were face
to face, and Conde" with the wreck of his army openly and
definitely entered the service of the king of Spain. The" Spanish
Fronde " was almost purely a military affair and, except for a
few outstanding incidents, a dull affair to boot. In 1653 France
was so exhausted that neither invaders nor defenders were able
to gather supplies to enable them to take the field till Jury. At
one moment, near Peronne, Conde had Turcnne at a serious
disadvantage, but he could not galvanize the Spanish general
Count Fuensaldana, who was more solicitous to preserve Iris
master's soldiers than to establish Condi as mayor of the palace
to the king of France, and the armies drew apart again without
fighting. In 1654 the principal incident was the siege and relief
of Arras. On the night of the 24th-25th August the lines of
circumvallation drawn round that place by the prince were
brilliantly stormed by Turenne's army, and Condi -won equal
credit for his safe withdrawal of the besieging corps under cover
of a scries of bold cavalry charges led by himself as usual, sword
in hand. In 1655 Turennc captured the fortresses of Landrctiet,
Conde and St Ghislain. In 1656 the prince of Conde r e v en ged
himself for the defeat of Arras by storming Turenne's drcun-
vallation around Valenciennes (16th July), but Tureane drew off
his forces in good order. The campaign of 1657 was uneventful,
and is only to be remembered because a body of 6000 British
infantry, sent by Cromwell in pursuance of his treaty of alhaace
with Mazarin, took part in it. The presence of the English
contingent and its very definite purpose of making Dunkirk a
new Calais, to be held by England for ever, gave the next cam-
paign a character of certainty and decision which is entirely
wanting in the rest of the war. Dunkirk was besieged promptly
and in great force, and when Don Juan of Austria and Condi
appeared with the relieving army from Fumes, Turcnne advanced
boldly to meet him. The battle of the Dunes, fought on the
14th of June 1658, was the first real trial of strength since the
battle of the Faubourg St Antoine. Successes on one wing were
compromised by failure on the other, but in the end Conde drew
off with heavy losses, the success of his own cavalry charges
having entirely failed to make good the defeat of the Spanish
right wing amongst the Dunes. Here the " red-coats " madt
their first appearance on a continental battlefield, under the
leadership of Sir W. Lockhart, Cromwell's ambassador at Puis,
and astonished both armies by the stubborn fierceness of their
assaults, for they were the products of a war where passions
ran higher and the determination to win rested on deeper founda-
tions than in the digringoladc of the feudal spirit in whkh they
now figured. Dunkirk fell, as a result of the victory, and tern
the St George's cross till Charles II. sold it to the king of France.
A last desultory campaign followed in 1650; — the twenty*auk
year of the Franco-Spanish War — and the peace of the Pyrcsecs
\ was usj&eA on \tat $Jb, ol November. Ob the 17th of Jamr/
FRONTENAC ET PALLUAU, COMTE DE
1660 the prince asked and obtained at Aix the forgiveness of
Louis XIV. The later careers of Turenne and Condi as the
great generals— and obedient subjects— of their sovereign are
described in the article Dutch Wars.
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FROftTENAC FT PALLUAU, LOUIS DB BUADB, Comte de
(1610-1608), French-Canadian statesman, governor and lieu-
tenant-general for the French king in La NouvdU France
(Canada), son of Henri de Buade, colonel in the regiment of
Navarre, was born in the year 1620. The details of his early
fife are meagre, as no trace of the Frontenac papers has been
discovered. The de Buades, however, were a family of distinc-
tion in the principality of Beam. Antoine de Buade, seigneur de
Frontenac, grandfather of the future governor of Canada, attained
eminence as a councillor of state under Henri IV.; and his
children were brought up with the dauphin, afterwards Louis
XIII. Louis de Buade entered the army at an early age. In
the year 1635 he served under the prince of Orange in Holland,
and fought with credit and received many wounds during
engagements in the Low Countries and in Italy. He was pro-
moted to the rank of colonel in the regiment of Normandy in
1643, and three years later, after distinguishing himself at the
siege of Orbitello, where he had an arm broken, he was made
martxkal de camp. His service seems to have been continuous
until the conclusion of the peace of Westphalia in 1648, when he
returned to his father's house in Paris and married, without the
consent of her parents, Anne de la Grange-Trianon, a girl of
great beauty, who later became the friend and confidante of
Madame de Montpcnsier. The marriage was not a happy one,
and after the birth of a son incompatibility of temper ted to a
separation, the count retiring to his estate on the Indrc, where
by an extravagant course of living he became hopelessly involved
in debt. Little is known of his career for the next fifteen years
beyond the fact that he held a high position at court; but in
the year 1669, when France sent a contingent to assist the
Venetians in the defence of Crete against the Turks, Frontenac
was placed in command of the troops on the recommendation of
Turenne. In this expedition he won military glory; but his
fortune was not improved thereby.
At this period the affairs of New France claimed the attention
of the French court. From the year 1665 the colony had been
successfully administered by three remarkable men — Daniel de
R£my de Courcelle, the governor, Jean Talon, the intendant,
and the marquis de Tracy, who had been appointed lieutenant-
general for the French king in America; but a difference of
opinion had arisen between the governor and the intendant, and
each had demanded the other's recall in the public interest.
At this crisis in the administration of New France, Frontenac
was appointed to succeed de Courcelle. The new governor
arrived in Quebec on the 12th of September 1672. From the
commencement it was evident that he was prepared to give
effect to a policy of colonial expansion, and to exercise an inde-
pendence of action that did not coincide with the views of the
monarch or of his minister Colbert. One of the first acts of the
governor, by which he sought to establish in Canada the three
estates — nobles, clergy and people — met with the disapproval
of the French court, and measures were adopted to curb his
ambition by increasing the power of the sovereign council and
by reviving the office of Intendant. Frontenac, however, was
• man of dominant spirit, jealous of authority, prepared to exact
obedience from all and to yield to none. In the course of events
he soon became involved in quarrels with th+intendant touching
questions of precedence, and with the ecclesiastics, one or two
249
of whom ventured to criticize his proceedings. The church in
Canada had been administered for many years by the religious
orders; for the see of Quebec, so long contemplated, had not yet
been erected. But three years after the arrival of Frontenac a
former vicar apostolic, Francois Xavier de Laval de Montr
morenci, returned to Quebec as bishop, with a jurisdiction over
the whole of Canada. In this redoubtable churchman the
governor found a vigorous opponent who was determined to
render the state subordinate to the church. Frontenac, following
in this respect in the footsteps of his predecessors, had issued
trading licences which permitted the sale of intoxicants. The
bishop, supported by the intendant, endeavoured to suppress
this trade and sent an ambassador to France to obtain remedial
action. The views of the bishop were upheld and henceforth
authority was divided. Troubles ensued between the governor
and the sovereign council, most of the members of which sided
with the one permanent power in the colony— the bishop;
while the suspicions and intrigues of the intendant, Duchesneau,
were a constant source of vexation and strife. As the king and
his minister had to listen to and adjudicate upon the appeals
from the contending parties their patience was at last worn out,
and both governor and intendant were recalled to France in
the year 1682. During Frontenac's first administration many
improvements had been made in the country. The defences
had been strengthened, a fort was built at Cataraqui {now
Kingston), Ontario, bearing the governor's name, and conditions
of peace had been fairly maintained between the Iroquois on
the one hand and the French and their allies, the Ottawas and
the Hurons, on the other. The progress of events during the
next few years proved that the recall of the governor had been
ill-timed. The Iroquois were assuming a threatening attitude
towards the inhabitants, and Frontenac's successor, La Barre,
was quite incapable of leading an army against such cunning
foes. At the end of a year La Barre was replaced by the marquis
de Dcnonville, a man of ability and courage, who, though he
showed some vigour in marching against the western Iroquois
tribes, angered rather than intimidated them, and the massacre
of Lachinc (5th of August 1689) must be regarded as one of the
unhappy results of his administration.
The affairs of the colony were now in a critical condition; a
man of experience and decision was needed to cope with the
difficulties, and Louis XIV., who was not wanting in sagacity,
wisely made choice of the choleric count to represent and uphold
the power of France. When, therefore, on the 15th of October
1689, Frontenac arrived in Quebec as governor for the second
time, he received an enthusiastic welcome, and confidence was
at once restored in the public mind. Quebec was not long to
enjoy the blessing of peace. On the 16th of October 1690
several New England ships under the command of Sir W&liara
Phipps appeared off the Island of Orleans, and an officer was
sent ashore to demand the surrender of the fort. Frontenac,
bold and fearless, sent a defiant answer to the hostile admiral,
and handled so vigorously the forces he had collected as com-
pletely to repulse the enemy, who in their hasty retreat left
behind a few pieces of artillery on the Beauport shore. The
prestige of the governor was greatly increased by this event, and
he was prepared to follow up his advantage by an attack on
Boston from the sea, but his resources were inadequate for the
undertaking. New France now rejoiced in a brief respite from
her enemies, and during the interval Frontenac encouraged the
revival of the drama at the Chateau St-Louis and paid some
attention to the social life of the colony. The Indians, however,
were not yet subdued, and for two years a petty warfare was
maintained. In 1696 Frontenac decided to take the field against
the Iroquois, although at this time he was seventy-six years of
age. On the 6th of July he left Lachine at the head of a con-
siderable force for the village of the Onondagas, where he arrived
a month later. In the meantime the Iroquois had abandoned
their villages, and as pursuit was impracticable the army com-
menced its return march on the iothof August. The old warrior
endured the fatigue of the march as well as the youngest soldier,
and foe his courage inn, ?rarc» Y* wk«bw&. ^» «wa <**^*>
25o
FRONTINUS— FROST, W. E.
Louts. Front enac died on the 28th of November 1698 at the
Chateau St- Louis after a brief illness, deeply mourned by the
Canadian people. The faults of the governor were those of
temperament, which had been fostered by early environment.
His nature was turbulent, and from his youth he had been used
to command; but underlying a rough exterior there was evidence
of a kindly heart. He was fearless, resourceful and decisive,
and triumphed as few men could have done over the difficulties
and dangers of a most critical position.
See Count Frontenac, by W. D. Le Sueur (Toronto, 1906) ; Count
Frontenae and New France under Louis XIV, by Francis Park-
man (Boston, 1878); Le Comte de Frontenac, by Henri Lorin
(Paris, 1895); Frontenac et ses amis, by Ernest Mycand (Quebec,
1902). (A. G. D.)
FRONTINUS, SEXTUS JULIUS (c. a.d. 40-103), Roman
soldier and author. In 70 he was city praetor, and five years
later was sent into Britain to succeed Petilius Cerealis as governor
of that island. He subdued the Silures, and held the other
Dative tribes in check till he was superseded by Agricola (78).
In 97 he was appointed superintendant of the aqueducts (curator
aauarum) at Rome, an office only conferred upon persons of very
high standing. He was also a member of the college of augurs.
His chief work is De aquis urbis Ramae, in two books, containing
a history and description of the water-supply of Rome, including
the laws relating to its use and maintenance, and other matters
oi importance in the history of architecture. Frontinus also
wrote a theoretical treatise on military science (De re mililari)
which is lost. His Strategematicon libri Hi. is a collection of
examples of military stratagems from Greek and Roman history,
for the use of officers; a fourth book, the plan and style of which
is different from the rest (more stress is laid on the moral aspects
of war, e.g. discipline), is the work of another writer (best edition
by G. Gundermann, 1888). Extracts from a treatise on land-
surveying ascribed to Frontinus are preserved in Lachmann's
Cromatki ve toes (1848) .
A valuable ~^
published by "^
ous illustrate
and the city
reproduction
pJanatory c*
reference is
mensores (i8[
A. Dcderich (
by R. Scott (1816).
FRONTISPIECE (through the French, from Med. Lat. frontis-
ficium, a front yitw t frons t frontis, forehead or front, And spectra,
to look at; the English spelling is a mistaken adaptation to
M piece "), an architectural term for the principal front of a
building, but more generally applied to a richly decorated
entrance doorway, if projecting slightly only in front of the
main wall, otherwise portal or porch would be a more correct
term. The word, however, is more used for a decorative design
or the representation of some subject connected with the sub-
stance of a book and placed as the first illustrated page. A
design at the end of the chapter of a book is called a tail-piece.
PRONTO, MARCUS CORNELIUS (c. A.rx 100-170), Roman
grammarian, rhetorician and advocate, was born of an Italian
family at Cirta in Numidia. He came to Rome in the reign of
Hadrian, and soon gained such renown as an advocate and
orator as to be reckoned inferior only to Cicero. He amassed a
large fortune, erected magnificent buildings and purchased the
famous gardens of Maecenas. Antoninus Pius, hearing of his
tame, appointed him tutor to his adopted sons Marcus Aurelius
and Lucius Vents. In 143 he was consul for two months, but
declined the proconsulship of Asia on the ground of ill-health.
His latter years were embittered by the loss of all his children
except one daughter. His talents as an orator and rhetorician
were greatly admired by his contemporaries, a number of whom
formed themselves into a school called after him Frontoniani,
whose avowed object it was to restore the ancient purity and
simplicity of the Latin language in place of the exaggerations of
the Greek sophistical school. However praiseworthy the inten-
tion may have been, the list of authors specially recommended
does not speak well for Fronto's literary taste. The authors ot
the Augustan age are unduly depreciated, while Ennius, Plautus,
Laberius, Sallust are held up as models of imitation. Till 1815
the only extant works ascribed (erroneously) to Fronto were two
grammatical treatises, De nominum ntrborumque diffcrcnliis
and Exempla eloculionum (the last being really by Arusianus
Messius). In that year, however, Angelo Mai discovered in
the Ambrosia n library at Milan a palimpsest manuscript (and,
later, some additional sheets of it in the Vatican), on which had
been originally written some of Fronto's letters to his royal
pupils and their replies. These palimpsests had originally
belonged to the famous convent of St Columba at Bobbio, and
had been written over by the monks with the acts of the first
council of Chalcedon. The letters, together with the other
fragments in the palimpsest, were published at Rome in 1823.
Their contents falls far short of the writer's great reputation.
The letters consist of correspondence with Antoninus Pius,
Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Veros, in which the character of
Fronto's pupils appears in a very favourable light, especially
in the affection they both seem to have retained for their old
master; and letters to friends, chiefly letters of recommendation.
The collection also contains treatises on eloquence, some historical
fragments, and literary trifles on such subjects as the praise of
smoke and dust, of negligence, and a dissertation on Arum.
" His style is a laborious mixture of archaisms, a motley cento,
with the aid of which he conceals the poverty of his knowledge
and ideas." His chief merit consists in having preserved extracts
from ancient writers which would otherwise have been lost
The best edition of his works is by S. A. Naber (1867), with aa
account of the palimpsest ; see also G. Boissier. '* Marc-AureJe et
les lettres de F.. in Revue des deux mondes (April 1868): R. EDh,
in Journal of Philology (1868) and Correspondence of Fronto and M.
Aurelius (1904); and the full bibliography in the artidc by Bracks
in the new edition of Pauly's Realencydopddie dee dassischf* Atier*
tumswissenscMaft, iv. pt. i. (1000).
FROSINONB (anc Frusino), a town of Italy in the province
of Rome, from which it is 53 m. E.S.E. by rail. Pop. (190I)
town, 9530; commune, 11,029. The place ts picturesquely
situated on a hill of 955 ft. above sea-level, but contains as
buildings of interest. Of the ancient city walls a small fragment
alone is preserved, and no other traces of antiquity are visible,
not even of the amphitheatre which it once possessed, for which
a ticket (tessera) has been found (Th. Mommsen in Bet. 4, Sick-
siscken CeseUschaft d, Wissensckaftcn, 1849, 286). It was a
Voiscian, not a Hernican, town; a part of its territory was taken
from it about 306-303 B.C. by the Romans and sold. The towa
then became a praefectmra, probably with the civUas simsugrefie,
and later a colony, but we hear nothing important of it. It was
situated just above the Via Latina. (T. Aa)
FROSSARD, CHARLES AUGUSTS* (1807-1S75), French
general, was born on the 26th of April 1807, and entered the
army from the £cole Polytechnique in 1827, being posted to the
engineers. He took part in the siege of Rome in 1840 and m
that of Sebastopol in 1855, after which he was promoted general
of brigade. Four years later as general of division, and chief
of engineers in the Italian campaign, he attracted the particular
notice of the emperor Napoleon IIL, who made him in 1867 chief
of bis military household and governor to the prince imprriil
He was one of the superior military authorities who la tha
period 1866-1870 foresaw and endeavoured to prepare far the
inevitable war with Germany, and at the outbreak of war he
was given by Napoleon the choice between a corps com mind
and the post of chief engineer at headquarters. He chose the
command of the II. corps On the 6th of August 1870 he add
the position of Spkheren against the Germans until the arrival
of reinforcements for the latter, and the non-appearance of the
other French corps compelled him to retire. After th|s he took
part in the battles around Mela, and was involved with his carpi
in the surrender of Basaine's army. General Frossard published
in 1872 a Rapport sur les operations du 2* corps. He eSed at
Chateau- Villain (Haute- Marne) on the 25th of August 1875.
FROST. WILLIAM EDWARD (1810-1877), English painter, ess
born at Wandsworth, near London, in September itio. Abort
FROST— FROTHINGHAM
251
1825, through William Etty, R.A., he was sent to a drawing
school in Bloomsbury, and after several years' study there, and
in the sculpture rooms at the British Museum, Frost was in
1829 admitted as a student in the schools of the Royal Academy.
He won medals in ail the schools, except the antique, in which
he was beaten by Macli&e. During those years he maintained
himself by portrait-painting, lie is said to have painted about
this time over 300 portraits. In 1839 he obtained the gold
medal of the Royal Academy for his picture of " Prometheus
bound by Force and Strength." At the cartoon exhibition at
Westminster Hall in 1843 he was awarded a third-class prize
of £100 for his cartoon of " Una alarmed by Fauns and
Satyrs." He exhibited at the Academy " Christ crowned with
Thorns "(1843)," Nymphs dancing "(1844)," Sabrina "(1845),
" Diana and Actaeon " (1846). In 1846 he was elected Associate
of the Royal Academy. His " Nymph disarming Cupid " was ex-
hibited in 1847; " Una and the Wood-Nymphs" of the same year
was bought by the queen. This was the time of Frost's highest
popularity, which considerably declined after 1850. His later
pictures are simply repetitions of earlier motives. Among them
may be named " Euphrosyne (1848), "Wood-Nymphs"
(1851)," Chastity "(1854)," II Penseroso "(1855), "The Graces"
(1856), " Narcissus " (1857), " Zephyr with Aurora playing "
(1858), "The Graces and Loves" (1863), "Hylas and the
Nymphs " (1867). Frost was elected to full membership of the
Royal Academy in December 1871. This dignity, however, he
soon resigned. Frost had no high power of design, though some
of his smaller and apparently less important works are not with-
out grace and charm. Technically, his paintings are, in a sense,
very highly finished, but they are entirely without mastery.
He died on the 4th of June 1877.
FR06T (a common Teutonic word, cf. Dutch, vorst, Ger. Frost,
from the common Teutonic verb meaning " to freeze," Dutch,
wiatn, Ger. Jrieren; the Indo-European root is seen in Lat.
pruina, hoar-frost, cf. prurire, to itch, burn, pruna, burning coal,
Sanak. flush, to burn), in meteorology, the act, or agent of the
process, of freezing; hence the terms " hoar-frost " and " white-
frost " applied to visible frozen vapour formed on exposed surfaces.
A frost can only occur when the surface temperature falls below
32° F., the freezing-point of water; if the temperature be
between 28 and 32° it is a " light frost," if below 28° it is a
" heavy," " killing " or " black frost "; the term " black frost "
is also used when no hoar-frost is present The number of
degrees below freezing-point is termed M degrees of frost." As
soon as a mass of air is cooled to its dew-point, water begins to
be precipitated in the form of rain, dew, snow or hail. Hoar-
frost is only formed at the immediate surface of the land if the
latter be at a temperature below 32°, and this may occur even
when the temperature of the air a few feet above the ground is
X2°-i6° above the freezing-point. The heaviest hoar-frosts are
formed under weather conditions similar to those under which
the heaviest summer dews occur, namely, clear and calm nights,
when there is no cloud to impede the radiation of heat from the
surface of the land, which thereby becomes rapidly and com-
pletely cooled. The danger of frost is minimized when the soil
is very moist, as for example after 10-12 mm. of rain; and it
is a practice in America to flood fields on the receipt of a frost
warning, radiation being checked by the light fog sheets which
develop over moist soils, just as a doud-bycr in the upper
atmosphere impedes radiation on a grand scale. A layer of
smoke will also impede radiation locally, and to this end smoky
fires are sometimes lit in such positions that the smoke may
drift over planted ground which it is desirable to preserve from
frosL Similarly, frost may occur in open country when a town,
protected by its smoke-cloud above, is free of it. In a valley
with fairly high and steep flanks frost sometimes occurs locally
at the bottom, because the layer of air cooled by contact with
the cold surface of the higher ground is heavier than that not so
cooled, and therefore tends to flow or settle downwards along the
•lope of the land. When meteorological considerations point
to a frost, an estimate of the night temperature may be obtained
by multiplving the difference between the reading* of the wet
and dry bulb thermometer by 9*5 and subtracting the result
from the dry bulb temperature. This rule applies when the
evening air is at about 50° and 301-in. pressure, the sky being
dear. An instrument has been devised in France for the pre-
diction of frost. It consists of a wet bulb and a dry bulb ther-
mometer, mounted on a board on which is also a scale of lines
corresponding to degrees of the dry bulb, and a pointer traversing
a scale graduated according to degrees of the wet bulb. Observa-
tions for the night are taken about half an hour before sunset.
By means of the pointer and scale, the point may be found at
which the line of the dry-bulb reading meets the pointer set to
the reading of the wet bulb. The scale is further divided by
colours so that the observed point may fall within one of three
zones, indicating certain frost, probable frost or no probability
of frost.
FROSTBITE, a form of mortification (q.v.), due to the action
of extreme cold in cutting off the blood-supply from the fingers,
toes, nose, cars, &c. In comparatively trifling forms it occurs
as " chaps " and " chilblains," but the term frostbite is usually
applied only to more severe cases, where the part affected
becomes in danger of gangrene. An immediate application of
snow, or ice-water, will restore the circulation; the application
of heat would cause inflammation. But if the mortification has
gone too far for the circulation to be restored, the part will be
lost, and surgical treatment may be necessary.
nOSTBURG, a town of Allegany county, Maryland, U.S.A.,
n m. W. of Cumberland. Pop. (1800) 3804; (1000) 5974
($78 foreign-born and 236 negroes); (1910) 6028. It is served
by the Cumberland & Pennsylvania railway and the Cumberland
8c Wcsternport electric railway. The town is about 2000 ft.
above sea-level on a plateau between the Great Savage and Dana
mountains, and its delightful scenery and air have made it
attractive as a summer resort. It is the seat of the second state
normal school, opened in 1004. Frostburg is in the midst of the
coal region of the state, and is itself almost completely under-
mined; it has planing mills and manufactures large quantities
of fire-brick. The municipality owns and operates its water-
works. Natural gas is piped to Frostburg from the West Virginia
fields, 120 m. away. Frostburg was first settled in 181 2; was
called Mount Pleasant until about 1830, when the present name
was substituted in honour of Meshech Frost, one of the town's
founders; and was incorporated in 187a
FROTHINGHAM. OCTAVIUS BROOKS (1822-1895), American
clergyman and author, was born in Boston on the 26th of
November 1822, son of Nathaniel Laogdon Frothingham (1793-
1870), a prominent Unitarian preacher of Boston, and through
his mother's family related to Phillips Brooks. He graduated
from Harvard College in 1843 and from the Divinity School in
1846. He was pastor of the North Unitarian church of Salem,
Massachusetts, in 184 7-1855. From 1855 lo l8o ° he was pastor
of a new Unitarian society in Jersey City, where he gave up the
Lord's Supper, thinking that it ministered to self-satisfaction;
and it was as a radical Unitarian that he became pastor of another
young church in New York City in i860. Indeed in 1864 he was
recognized as leader of the radicals after his reply to Dr Hedge's
address to the graduating students of the Divinity School on
Anti-Supernatural ism in the Pulpit. In 1865, when he had
practically given up " transcendentalism," his church building
was sold and his congregation began to worship in Lyric HaU
under the name of the Independent Liberal Church; in 2875
they removed to the Masonic Temple, but four years later ill-
health compelled Frothingham's resignation, and the church
dissolved. Paralysis threatened him and he never fully recovered
his health; in 1881 he returned to Boston, where he died on the
27th of November 1895. To this later period of his life belongs
his best literary work. While he was in New York he was for a
time art critic of the Tribune. Always himself on the unpopular
side and an able but thoroughly fair critic of the majority, he
habitually under-estimated his own worth; he was not only an
anti-slavery leader when abolition was not .popular even in New
England, and a radical and rationalist when it was impossible
for him to stay conveniently in the Unitarian Church, but he
252
FROUDE
was the first president of the National Free Religious Association
(1867) and an early and ardent disciple of Darwin and Spencer.
To his radical views he was always faithful. It is a mistake to
say that he grew more conservative in later years; but his
judgment grew more generous and catholic. He was a greater
orator than man of letters, and his sermons in New York were
delivered to large audiences, averaging one thousand at the
Masonic Temple, and were printed each week; in eloquence and
in the charm of his spoken word he was probably surpassed in
his day by none save George William Curtis. Personally he
seemed cold and distant, partly because of bis impressive appear-
ance, and partly because of his own modesty, which made him
backward in seeking friendships.
works are: Stories from the Lift of ike
Book of Religion (1866). and other works
children; several volumes of sermons;
>), The Cradle of the Christ: a Study in
77), The Spirit of New Faith { 1877),
Faith (1878), and other expositions of
tched; Life of Theodore Parker (1874),
England (1876), which is largely bio-
Biography (1878), George Ripley (1882),
if Letters " series, Memoir of William
ioston Unitarianism, 1820-1850 (1890),
ithcr; and Recollections and Impressions,
FROUDE, JAMBS ANTHONY (1818-1804), English historjan,
son of R. H. Froude, archdeacon of Totnes, was bossFat
Partington, Devon, on the 23rd of April 1818. He was educated
at Westminster and Oriel College, Oxford, then the centre of the
ecclesiastical revival. He obtained a second class and the
chancellor's English essay prize, and was elected a fellow of
Exeter College (184a). His elder brother, Richard Hurrell
Froude (1803-1836), had been one of the leaders of the High
Church movement at Oxford. Froude joined that party and
helped J. H. Newman, afterwards cardinal, in his Lives of the
English Saints. He was ordained deacon in 1845. By that time
his religious opinions had begun to change, he grew dissatisfied
with the views of the High Church party, and came under the
influence of Carlyle's teaching. Signs of this change first appeared
publicly in his Shadows of the Clouds, a volume containing two
stories of a religious sort, which he published in 1847 under the
pseudonym of " Zeta," and his complete desertion of his party
was declared a year later in his Nemesis of Faith, an heretical
and unpleasant book, of which the earlier part seems to be
Autobiographical.
On the demand of the college he resigned his fellowship at
Oxford, and mainly at least supported himself by writing,
contributing largely to Froser's Magazine and the Westminster
Review, The excellence of his style was soon generally re-
cognized. The first two volumes of his History of England
from the Fall of Wolsey to the Defeat of the Spanish Armada
appeared in 1856, and the work was completed in 1870. As an
historian he is chiefly remarkable for literary excellence, for the
art with which he represents his conception of the past. He
condemns a scientific treatment of history and disregards its
philosophy. He held that its office was simply to record human
actions and that it should be written as a drama. Accordingly
he gives prominence to the personal element in history. His
presentations of character and motives, whether truthful or not,
are undeniably fine; but his doctrine that there should be " no
theorising " about history tended to narrow his survey, and
consequently he sometimes, as in his remarks on the foreign
policy of Elizabeth, seems to misapprehend the tendencies of a
period on which be is writing.
Froude's work is often marred by prejudice and incorrect
statements. He wrote with a purpose. The keynote of his
History is contained in his assertion that the Reformation was
" the root and source of the expansive force which has spread
the Anglo-Saxon race over the globe." Hence be overpraises
Henry VIII. and others who forwarded the movement, and
speaks too harshly of some of its opponents. So too, in his
English in Inland (1872*1874), which was written to show the
futility of attempts to conciliate the Irish, he aggravates all
that can be said against the Irish, touches too lightly on Engush
atrocities,and writes unjustly of the influence of Roman Catholi-
cism A strong anti-clerical prejudice is manifest in his historical
work generally, and is doubtless the result of the change in his
views on Church matters and his abandonment of the clerical
profession. Carlyle's influence on him may be traced both in
his admiration for strong rulers and strong government, which
led him to write as though tyranny and brutality were excusable,
and in his independent treatment of character. His rehabilita-
tion of Henry VIII. was a useful protest against the idea that
the king was a mere sanguinary profligate, but his representation
of him as the self-denying minister of his people's will is erroneous,
and is founded on the false theory that the preambles of the acts
of Henry's parliaments represented the opinions of the educated
laymen of England. As an advocate he occasionally forgets
that sobriety of judgment and expression become an historian.
He was not a judge of evidence, and seems to have been unwilling
to admit the force of any argument or the authority of any
statement which militated against his case. In his Divorce of
Catherine of Aragon (1801) he made an unfortunate attempt to
show that certain fresh evidence on the subject, brought forward
by Dr Gairdner, Dr Friedmann and others, was not inconsistent
with the views which he had expressed in his History nearly
forty years before. He worked diligently at original manuscript
authorities at Simancas, the Record Office and Hatfield House;
but he used his materials carelessly, and evidently brought to his
investigation of them a mind already made up as to their signifi-
cance. His Life of Caesar (1879), a glorification of imperialism,
betrays an imperfect acquaintance with Roman politics and the
life of Cicero; and of his two pleasant books of travel, The
English in the West Indies (1888) shows that he made little effort
to master his subject, and Oceana (1886), the record of a tour in
Australia and New Zealand, among a multitude of other blunders,
notes the prosperity of the working-classes in Adelaide at the
date of bis visit, when, in fact, owing to a failure in the wheat-
crop, hundreds were then livingon charity. He was constitution-
ally inaccurate, and seems to have been unable to represent the
exact sense of a document which lay before him, or even to
copy from it correctly. Historical scholars ridiculed his mistakes,
and Freeman, the most violent of his critics, never let slip a
chance of hitting at him in the Saturday Review. Froude's
temperament was sensitive, and he suffered from these attacks,
which were often unjust and always too savage in tone. The
literary quarrel between him and Freeman excited general
interest when it blazed out in a scries of articles which Freeman
wrote in the Contemporary Review (1 878-1 879) on Froude's
Short Study of Thomas Becket.
Notwithstanding its defects, Froude's History Ss a great
achievement; it presents an important and powerful account
of the Reformation period in England, and lays before us a
picture of the past magnificently conceived, and painted hi
colours which will never lose their freshness and beauty. As
with Froude's work generally, its literary merit is remarkable;
it is a well-balanced and orderly narrative, coherent in design
and symmetrical in execution. Though it is perhaps needle sir/
long, the thread of the story is never lost amid a crowd of details;
every incident is made subordinate to the general idem, appears
in its appropriate place, and contributes its share to the perfection
of the whole. The excellence of its form is matched by the beauty
of its style, for Froude was a master of English prose. The most
notable characteristic of his style is its graceful simplicity; it it
never affected or laboured; his sentences are short and easy,
and follow one another naturally. He b always lucid. He wis
never in doubt as to his own meaning, and never at a loss for the
most appropriate words in which to express it. Simple as ha
language is, it is dignified and worthy of its subject. Nowhere
perhaps does his style appear to more advantage than in his four
seriesof essaysentitled Short Studies on Great Sujtjecls(i867-i&2),
for it is seen there unfettered by the obligations of narrative.
Yet his narrative is admirably told. For the most part flowing
easily along, it rises on fit occasions to splendour, picturesque
beauty or pathos* Few more brilliant pieces of historical
FRUCTOSE— FRUGONI
253
%fiting exist than his description of the coronation procession
of Anne Boleyn through the streets of London, few more full of
picturesque power than that in which he relates how the spire
of St Paul's was struck by lightning; and to have once read is
to remember for ever the touching and stately words in which
he compares the monks of the London Charterhouse preparing
for death with the Spartans at Thermopylae. Proofs of his
power in the sustained narration of stirring events are abundant;
his treatment of the Pilgrimage of Grace, of the sea fight at
St Helens and the repulse of the French invasion, and of the
murder of Rizzio, are among the most conspicuous examples of
it. Nor is he less successful when recording pathetic events,
for his stories of certain martyrdoms, and of the execution of
Mary queen of Scots, are told with exquisite feeling and in
language of well-restrained emotion. And his characters arc
alive. We may not always agree with his portraiture, but the
men and women whom he saw exist for us instinct with the life
with whid he endows them and animated by the motives which
he attributes to them. His successes must be set against his
failures. At the least he wrote a great history, one which can
never be disregarded by future writers on his period, be their
opinions what they may; which attracts and delights a multitude
of readers, and is a splendid example of literary form and grace
in historical composition.
The merits of his work met with full recognition. Each
instalment of his History, in common with almost everything
which he wrote, was widely read, and in spite of some adverse
criticisms was received with eager applause. In 1868 he was
elected rector of St Andrews University, defeating Disraeli
by a majority of fourteen. He was warmly welcomed in the
United States, which he visited in 1872, but the lectures on
Ireland which he delivered there caused much dissatisfaction.
On the death of his adversary Freeman in 1892, he was appointed,
on the recommendation of Lord Salisbury, to succeed him as
regius professor of modern history at Oxford. Except to a
few Oxford men, who considered that historical scholarship
should have been held to be a necessary qualification for the
office, his appointment gave general satisfaction. His lectures
on Erasmus and other 16th-century subjects were largely
attended. With some allowance for the purpose for which
they were originally written, they present much the same
characteristics as his earlier historical books. His health gave
way in the summer of 1894, and he died on the 20th of
October.
His long life was full of literary work. Besides his labours as
an author, he was for fourteen years editor of Fraser's Magazine.
He was one of Carlyle's literary executors, and brought some
sharp criticism upon himself by publishing Carlyle's /?*-
miniscences and the Memorials of Jane Welsh Carlyle, for they
exhibited the domestic life and character of his old friend in an
unpleasant light. Carlyle had given the manuscripts to him,
telling him that he might publish them if he thought it well
to do so, and at the close of his life agreed to their publication.
Froude therefore declared that in giving them to the world he
was carrying out his friend's wish by enabling him to make a
posthumous confession of his faults. Besides publishing these
manuscripts he wrote a Life of Carlyle. His earlier study of
Irish history afforded him suggestions for a historical novel
entitled The Two Chiefs of Dunboy (1889). In spite of one or
two stirring scenes it is a tedious book, and its personages are
little more than machines for the enunciation of the author's
opinions and sentiments. Though Froude had some intimate
friends he was generally reserved. When he cared to please,
his manners and conversation were charming. Those who
knew him well formed a high estimate of his ability in practical
affairs. In 1874 Lord Carnarvon, then colonial secretary, sent
Froude to South Africa to report on the best means of promoting
a confederation of its colonies and states, and in 1875 he was
again sent to the Cape as a member of a proposed conference to
further confederation. Froude's speeches in South Africa were
rather injudicious, and his mission was a failure (tee South
AracA: History). He ^ras twice married. Hit first wife, a
daughter of Pascoe Grenfell and sister of Mrs Charles Kingsley;
died in i860; his second, a daughter of John Warre, M.P. for
Taunton, died in 1874.
Froude's Life, by Herbert Paul, was published in 1905.
tW. Hu.)
FRUCTOSE, Laevulose, or Fruit-Sugar, a carbohydrate
of the formula C«HuO». It is closely related to ordinary d-
glucosc, with which it occurs in many fruits, starches and also
in honey. It is a hydrolytic product of inulin, from which it
may be prepared; but it is more usual to obtain it from " invert
sugar/' the .mixture obtained by hydrolysing cane sugar with
sulphuric acid. Cane sugar then yields a syrupy mixture of
glucose and fructose, which, having been freed from the add
and concentrated, is mixed with water, cooled in ice and calcium
hydroxide added. The fructose is precipitated as a saccharate,
which is filtered, suspended in water and decomposed by carbon
dioxide. The liquid is filtered, the filtrate concentrated, and
the syrup so obtained washed with cold alcohol. On cooling the
fructose separates. It may be obtained as a syrup, as fine,
silky needles, a white crystalline powder, or as a granular
crystalline, somewhat hygroscopic mass. When anhydrous it
melts at about 05° C. It is readily soluble in water and in dilute
alcohol, but insoluble in absolute alcohol. It is sweeter than
cane sugar and is more easily assimilated. It has been employed
under the name diabctin as a sweetening agent for diabetics,
since it does not increase the sugar-content of the urine; other
medicinal applications are in phthisis (mixed with quassia or
other bitter), and for children suffering from tuberculosis or
scrofula in place of cane sugar or milk-sugar.
Chemically, fructose is an oxykctone or ketose, its structural
formula being CH«OH(CHOH),COCH,OH; this result fol-
lowed from its conversion by H. Kiliani into metbylbutylacetic
add. The form described above is Azeso-rotatory, but it is
termed rf-fructosc, since it is related to rf-glucose. Solutions
exhibit mutarotation, fresh solutions having a spedfic rota-
tion of -104-0°, which gradually diminishes to -92°. It was
synthesized by Emil Fischer, who found the synthetic sugar
which he named o-acrose to be (<f+/)-fructose, and by splitting
this mixture he obtained both the d and / forms. Fructose
resembles (/-glucose in being fermentable by yeast (it is the one
ketose which exhibits this property), and also in its power of
reducing alkaline copper and silver solutions; this latter
property is assigned to the readiness with which hydroxyl and
ketone groups in dose proximity suffer oxidation. For the
structural (stereochemical) relations of fructose see Sugar.
FRUGONI, CARLO INN0CENZ10 MARIA (1692-1708),
Italian poet, was born at Genoa on the 21st of November 1692.
He was originally destined for the church and at the age of
fifteen, in opposition to his strong wishes, was shut up in a
convent; but although in the following year he was induced to
pronounce monastic vows, he had no liking for this life. He
acquired considerable reputation as an elegant writer both of
Latin and Italian prose and verse; and from 1716 to 1724 he
filled the chairs of rhetoric at Brescia, Rome, Genoa, Bologna
and Modena successivdy, attracting by his brilliant fluency a
large number of students at each university. Through Cardinal
Bcnlivoglio he was recommended to Antonio Farnese, duke of
Parma, who appointed him his poet laureate; and he remained
at the court of Parma until the death of Antonio, after which
he returned to Genoa. Shortly afterwards, through the inter-
cession of Bentivoglio, he obtained from the pope the remission
of his monastic vows, and ultimately succeeded in recovering
a portion of his paternal inheritance. After the peace of Aix-la-
Chapclle he returned to the court of Parma, and there devoted
the later years of his life chiefly to poetical composition. He
died on the 20th of December 1768. As a poet Frugoni was
one of the best of the school of the Arcadian Academy, and
his lyrics and pastorals had great facility and elegance.
His collected works were published at Parma in 10 vols, in 1799,
and a more complete edition appeared at Lucca in the same year in
IS vote. A selection from hU works was published at Breads to
178a, to 4 vote.
*54
FRUIT
FRUIT (through the 'French from the Lat. f nut us; frui, to
enjoy), in its widest sense, any product of the soil that can be
enjoyed by man or animals; the word is so used constantly
in the Bible, and extended, as a Hebraism, to offspring or
progeny of man and of animals, in such expressions as " the
fruit of the body," " of the womb," " fruit of thy cattle " (Deut.
xxviii. 4), &c, and generally to the product of any action or
effort. Between this wide and frequently figurative use of the
word and its application in the strict botanical sense treated
below, there is a popular meaning, regarding the objects denoted
by the word entirely from the standpoint of edibility, and
differentiating them roughly from those other products of the
soil, which, regarded similarly, are known as vegetables. In
this sense " fruit " is applied to such seed-envelopes of plants
as are edible, either raw or cooked, and are usually sweet, juicy
or of a refreshing flavour. But applications of the word in this
sense are apt to be loose and shifting according to the fashion
of the time.
Fruit, in the botanical sense, is developed from the flower
as the result of fertilization of the ovule. After fertilization
various changes take place in the parts of the flower. Those
more immediately concerned in the process, the anther and
itigma, rapidly wither and decay, while the filaments and style
often remain for some time; the floral envelopes become dry,
the petals fall, and the sepals are either deciduous, or remain
persistent in an altered form; the ovary becomes enlarged,
forming the pericarp; and the ovules are developed as the
seeds, containing the embryo-plant. The term fruit is strictly
applied to the mature pistil or ovary, with the seeds in its interior;
but it often includes other parts of the flower, such as the bracts
and floral envelopes. Thus the fruit of the hazel and oak consists
of the ovary enveloped by the bracts; that of the apple and pear,
of the ovary and floral receptacle; and that of the pineapple,
of the whole inflorescence. Such fruits are sometimes distin-
guished as pscudocarps. In popular language, the fruit includes
all those parts which exhibit a striking change as the result of
fertilization. In general, the fruit is not ripened unless fertiliza-
tion has been effected; but cases occur as the result of cultivation
in which the fruit swells and becomes to all appearance perfect,
while no seeds are produced. Thus, there are seedless oranges,
grapes and pineapples. When the ovules are unfertilized, it is
common to find that the ovary withers and does not come to
maturity; but in the case of bananas, plantains and breadfruit,
the non development of seeds seems to lead to a larger growth
and a greater succulence of fruit
The fruit, like the ovary, may be formed of a single carpel or of
several. It may have one cell or cavity, being unilocular; or many,
muUilocular, &c The number and nature of the divisions depend
on the number of carpels and the extent to which their edges are
folded inwards. The appearances presented by the ovary do not
always remain permanent in the fruit. Great changes are observed
to take place, not merely as regards the increased size of the ovary,
its softening or hardening, but also in its internal structure, owing
to the suppression, additional formation or enlargement of parts.
Thus, in the ash (fig. l) an ovary with two cells, each containing an
ovule attached to a central placenta, is changed into a unilocular
fruit with one seed; one ovule becomes abortive, while the other, f,
gradually enlarging until the septum is pushed to one side, unites
with the walls of the cell, and the placenta appears to be parietal.
In the oak and hazel, an ovary with three and two cells respectively,
and two ovules in each, produces a one-celled fruit with one seed.
In the coco-nut, a trilocular and triovufcur ovary produces a one-
celled, one-seeded fruit. This abortion may depend on the pressure
caused by the development of certain ovules, or it may proceed from
non-fertifization of all the ovules and consequent non-enlargement
of the carpels. Again, by the growth of the placenta, or the folding
inwards of parts of the carpels, divisions occur in the fruit which
did not exist in the ovary. In Catkartocarpus Fistula a one-celled
ovary is changed into a fruit having each of its seeds in a separate
cell, in consequence of spurious dissepiments being produced hori-
zontal from the inner wall of the ovary. In flax (Linum) by the
folding inwards of the back of the carpels a five-celled ovary becomes
a ten-celled fruit. In Astragalus the folding inwards of the dorsal
suture converts a one-celled ovary into a two-celled fruit; and in
Oxytropis the folding of the ventral suture gives rise to a similar
its formation. In the gooseberry (fig. 20J, grape, guava, tomato
and pomegranate, the seeds nestle in pulp lormed by the placentas.
In the orange the pulpy matter surrounding the seeds is formed
by succulent cells, which are produced from the inner partitioned
lining of the pericarp. In the strawberry the receptacle becomes
succulent, and bears the mature carpels on its convex surface (fig. 2);
in the rose there is a fleshy hollow receptacle which bears the carpels
on its concave surface (fig. 3). In the juniper the scaly bracts grow
up round the seeds and become succulent, and in the fig (fig. 4) the
receptacle becomes succulent and encloses an inflorescence.
The pericarp consists usually of three layers, the external, or
epicarp (fig. 5, ep); the middle, or mtsocarp, m; and the internal.
Fie. t.
Fig. 3.
Fig. 4.
Fio. l.— Samara or winged fruit of Ash (Fraxinus). 1, Entire, .
with its wing a; 2, lower portion cut transversely, to show that it
consists of two cells; one of which, /, is abortive, and is reduced to
a very small cavity, while the other is much enlarged and filled
with a seed g.
Fig. 2. — Fruit of the Strawberry (Fragaria tesca). consisting of
an enlarged succulent receptacle, bearing on its surface the smal
dry seed-like fruits (achenes). (After Duchartre.)
PromStmbuTwrti«*^«^rfwB«to^.bypcnnis»k«olCBsUvIT^bw.
Fig. 3. — Fruit of the Rose cut vertically, s'. Fleshy hollowed
receptacle; s. persistent sepals; fr, ripe carpels; *, stamens,
withered.
Fig. 4. — Peduncle of Fig (Fiats Carica), ending in a hollow
receptacle enclosing numerous male and female flowers.
Fig. 5. — Fruit of Cherry (Prunta Cerasus) in longitudinal section.
ep, Epicarp; m, mesocarp; en, endocarp.
FroraSlriibuiser'st^ii^^Bi^Mii.lvPeniibslooofCuiUyrbcber. •
or endocarp, en. These layers are well seen in such a fruit as the
peach, plum or cherry, where they are separable one from the
other; in them the epicarp forms what is commonly called the
skin; the mesocarp, much developed, forms the flesh or pulp,
and hence has sometimes been called sarcocarp; while the endocarp,
hardened by the production of woody cells, forms the stone or
putamen immediately covering the kernel or seed. The pulpy
matter found in the interior of fruits, such as the gooseberry, grape
and others, is formed from the placentas, and must not be con-
founded with the sarcocarp. In some fruits, as in the nut. the
three layers become blended together and are indistinguishable.
In bladder senna (Coiutea arborescens) the pericarp retains its leaf*
like appearance, but in most cases it becomes altered both in con-
sistence and in colour. Thus in the date the epicarp js the outer
brownish skin, the pulpy matter is the mesocarp or sarcocarp, ana
the thin papery-like lining is the endocarp covering the hard seed.
In the medlar the endocarp becomes of a stony hardness. In the
melon the epicarp and endocarp are very thin, while the mesocarp
forms the bulk of the fruit, differing in texture and taste in its ex-
ternal and internal parts. The rind of the orange consists of epicarp
and mesocarp. while the endocarp forms partitions in the Interior,
filled with pulpy cells. The part of the pericarp attached to the
peduncle is the base, and the point where the style or stigma existed
w the apex. This latter is not always the apparent apex, as is the
case of the ovary; it may be lateral or even basilar. The style
sometimes remains in a hardened form, rendering the fruit apicutak;
at other times it falls off, leaving only traces of its existence. The
presence of the style or stigma serves to distinguish certain single*
seeded pericarps from seeds.
FRUIT
*55
When the fruit is mature and the seeds are ripe, the carpels
usually give way either at the ventral or dorsal suture or at both.
D»hhe*ac» and *° a " ow tnc ***** to «cap*« The fruit in this case
oltruluT^ " * ehis€eHt - Dut »me fruits arc indekisctnl, falling to
the ground entire, and the seeds eventually reaching the
soil by their decay. By dehiscence the pericarp becomes divided
into different pieces, or valves, the fruit being uni valvular, bivalvular
or multivalvular, &c., according as there are one, two or many
valves. The splitting extends the whole length of the fruit, or is
partial, the valves forming teeth
at the apex, as in the order Caryo-
phyllaceae (fig. 6). Sometimes
the valves are detached only at
certain points, and thus dehiscence
takes place by pores at the apex,
as in poppy (ng. 7), or at the base,
as in Campanula. lndchiscrnt
fruits are either dry, as the nut,
or fleshy, as the cherry and apple.
They arc formed of one or several
carpels. In the former case they
r usually contain only a single seed,
Fig. 6.— Seed-vessel or capsule which may become so incorporated
01 Campion, opening by ten with the pericarp as to appear to
teeth at the apex. The calyx c be naked, as in the grain of wheat
is seen surrounding the seed- and generally in grasses. In such
vessel, cases the presence of the remains
Fig. 7.— Capsule of Poppy, f style or stigma determines
opening by pores p, under the their true nature,
radiating peltate stigma s. Dehiscent fruits, when com-
posed of single carpels, may open
by the ventral suture only, as in the pacony, hellebore, Aquilegta (fig.
38) and Calika; by the dorsal suture only, as in magnolias and some
Proteaceae, or by both together, as in the pea (fig. 8) and bean;
in these cases the dehiscence is sutural. When composed of several
Fie 6.
Fig. 7.
Fig. 9.
Fig. to.
Fig. 8.
Fig. 13.
Fig. 8.— Dry dehiscent fruit. The pod
(legume) of the Pea; r, the dorsal suture;
b, the ventral; c, calyx; 1, seeds.
From Vines' SlmdenW TexiBook of Bctamy. by per-
nkiioo of Swan Sonnrmcheia ft Co.
Fig. 9.— (1) Fruit or capsule of Meadow
Saffron (Colchicum autumnale), dehiscing along
the septa (septicidally) ; (2) same cut across,
showing the three chambers with the seeds
attached along the middle line (axile placcn-
tation).
Fig. 11. Fig. 10. — Diagram to illustrate the septi-
cidal dehiscence in a pcntalocular capsule.
The loculaments / correspond to the number of the carpels, which
separate by splitting through the septa, s.
Fig. II. — The seed vessel (capsule) of the Flower-de-Luce (7r«),
opening in a loculicidal manner. The three valves bear the septa
in the centre, and the opening takes place through the back of the
loculaments. Each valve is formed by the halves of contiguous
carpels.
FIG. 12. — Diagram to illustrate loculicidal dehiscence. The locula-
ments /, split at the back, and the valves separate, bearing the
septa t on their centres.
Fig. 13. — Diagram to illustrate septifragal dehiscence, in which
the dehiscence takes place through the back of the loculaments A
and the valves separate from the septa «, which are left attached to
the placentas in the centre.
united carpels, two types of dehiscence occur—* longitudinal and •
transverse. In the longitudinal the separation may take place by
the dissepiments throughout their length, so that the fruit is resolved
into its original carpels, and each valve represents a carpel, as in
rhododendron, Colckkvm, &c; this dehiscence, in consequence of
place through the septum, is called septicidal (figs. 9, 10).
'paratc from their commissure, or central line of union,
placentas with them, or they leave the latter in the
to form with the axis a column of a cylindrical, conical
shape. Dehiscence is loculicidal when the union
edges of the carpels is persistent, and they dehisce by
ture, or through the back of the loculaments, as in the
(figs. 11, 12). In these cases each valve consists off a
i two contiguous carpets. The placentas either remain
• axis, or they separate from it, being attached to the
septa on the valves. When the outer walls of the carpels break off
from the septa, leaving them attached to the centraf column, the
dehiscence is said to be septifragal (fig. 13), and where, as in Ltnum
the splitting is at first loculicidal, the dehiscence is loculicidaUy
septifragal. In all those forms the separation of the valves takes
puce either from above downwards or from below upwards. In
Fig. 14.
Flo. 15.
Fig. 17.
Fig. 18.
Fig. 14.— Siliqua or seed-vessel of Wallflower (Cheirantkus Cheiri),
opening by two valves, which separate from the base upwards,
leaving the seeds attached to the dissepiment which is supported by
the replum.
FromSuuiMrga^UkrtmckdtrBtdamU. by perafaloa of GnsUv Fttcbtr.
Fig. 15.— Capsule of an Orchid (Xyfobium). v, valve.
Fig. 16. — Seed-vessel of AnagaUisarvcusis, opening by circum-
scissile dehiscence.
From Scnuburfer'ii Lthbmtk dtr Brtomk, by pennfasioa of GiuUf Fhcbsr.
Fig. 17. — Lomcntum of Hedysarum which, when ripe, separates
transversely into single-seeded portions or mericarps.
Fig. 18. — Fruit of Geranium protons*, after splitting.
Saxifraga a splitting for a short distance of the ventral sutures of
the carpels takes place, so that a large apical pore is formed. In
the fruit of Cruciierae, as wallflower (fig. 14), the valves separate
from the base of the fruit, leaving a central replum, or frame, which
supports the false septum formed oy a prolongation from the parietal
placentas on opposite sides of the fruit, extending between the
ventral sutures of the carpels. In Orchidaceae (fig. 15) the pericarp,
when ripe, separates into three valves in a loculicidal manner,
but the midribs of the carpels, to which the placentas are attached,
often remain adherent to the axis both at the apex and base after
the valves bearing the seeds have fallen. The other type of de-
hiscence is transverse, or circumscissile, when the upper part of the
united carpels falls off in the form of a lid or operculum, as in A nagaJlit
and in henbane {Jlyoscyamus) (fig. 16).
Sometimes the axis is prolonged beyond the base of the carpels,
as in the mallow and castor-oil plant, the carpels being united to it
throughout their length by their faces, and separating from it without
opening. In the l/mbelliferae the two carpels separate from the
lower part of the axis, and remain attached by their apices to a
prolongation of it, called a carpophore or podocarp, which splits
into two (fig. 25) and suspends them; hence the fruit is termed a
cremocarp, which divides into two mericarps. The general term
schiaocarp is applied to all dry fruits, which break up into two or
more one-seeded indehiscent mericarps, as in Hedysarum (fig. 17).
In the order Geraniaceae the styles remain attached to a central
column, and the mericarps separate from below upwards, before
dehiscing by their ventral suture (fig. 18). Carpels which separata
one from another in this manner are called coed. They an wtl
* 5 6
FRUIT
Men in the order Euphorbiaceae, where there are usually three such
carpels, and the fruit is termed tricoccus. In many of them, as
Hum crepitans, the cocci separate with great force and elasticity.
In many leguminous plants, such as Ornithopus, Uedysarum (fig. 17),
Enlada, Coroniiia and the gum-arabic plant (Acacia arabica), the
fruit becomes a schlzocarp by the formation of transverse partitions
from the folding in of the sides of the pericarp, and distinct separa-
tions talcing place at these partitions.
Fruits are formed by one flower, or are the product of several
flowers combined. In the former case they are either apocarpous,
of one mature carpel or of several separate free carpels; or syn-
carpous, of several carpels, more or less completely united. When
the fruit is composed of the ovaries of several flowers united, it is
usual to find the bracts and floral envelopes also joined with them,
so as to form one mass; hence such fruits are known as multiple,
confluent or anthocarpous. The term simple is applied to fruits
which are formed by the ovary of a single flower, whether they are
composed of one or several carpels, and whether these carpels are
separate or combined.
The object of the fruit in the economy of the plant is the protection
and nursing of the developing seed and the dispersion of the ripe
p . , seeds. Hence, generally, one-seeded fruits are indehiscent,
•/Auftor wn 'te fruits containing more than one seed open* to allow
1^4 of the dispersal of the seeds over as wide an area as
possible. The form, colour, structure and method of
dehiscence of fruits and the form of the contained seeds are intimately
associated with the means of dispersal, which fall into several
categories. (1) By a mechanism residing in the fruit. Thus many
fruits open suddenly when they are dry, and the seeds are ejected
by the twisting or curving of the valves, or in some other way;
e.g. in gorse, by the spiral curving of the valves; in Impaliens, by
the twisting ot the cocci; in squirting cucumber, by the pressure
exerted on the pulpy content? by the walls of the jpericarp. (2)
By aid of various external agencies such as water. Fruits or seeds
are sometimes sufficiently buoyant to float for a long time on sea-
or fresh-water; e.g. coco-nut. by means of its thick, fibrous coat
(mesocarp), is carried hundreds of miles in the sea. the tough,
leathery outer coat (cpicarp) preventing it from becoming water-
soaked. Fruits and seeds of West Indian plants are thrown up on
the coasts of north-west Europe, having been carried by the Gulf
Stream, and will often germinate; many are rendered buoyant by
air-containing cavities, and the embryo is protected from the sea-
water by the tough coat of fruit or seed. Water-lily seeds are
surrounded with a spongy tissue when set free from the fruit, and
float for some distance before dropping to the bottom. (3) The
most general agent in the dispersal of seeds is the wind or currents
of air — the fruit or seed being rendered buoyant by wing-develop-
ments as in fruits of ash (fig. 1) or maple (fig. 21). seeds of pines
and firs, or many members of the order Bignoniaccac; or nair-
devclopments as in fruits of clematis, where the style forms a feathory
Fie. 20.
From VIsct* Student* Ttxt-Boek •/ fetoay, by
permfcitioQ of Swan Soooeoschtin It Co.
Fic. 19. — Dry one-seeded fruit of dock (Rumex) cut vertically.
ov, Pericarp formed from ovary wall; 1. seed; e, endosperm; pi,
embryo with radicle pointing upwards and cotyledons downwards —
enlarged.
Fin. 30. — Achene of Ranunculus anensis in longitudinal section ;
t, endosperm; pi, embryo. (After Baillon, enlarged.)
From Sossburferi Uhrbmck der Btonik, by pcrmaaioa of Gutuv Fischer.
Fic. 21. — Fruit of Common Sycamore (Acer Pseudo platan us),
dividing into two mericarps m; s, pedicel; ft, wings (nat. size).
appendage, fruits of many Compositae (dandelion, thistle, Sec.),
which are crowned by a plumose pappus, or seeds of willow and
poplar, or Asdepias (fig. 36), which bear tufts of silky hairs; to
this category belong bladder-like fruits, such as bladder-senna.
.which are easily rolled by the wind, or cases like the so-called rose
cruciferous plant (Auaslatica hierocuntua), where
kfter developing its fruits and becomes detached
the brandies curl inwards, and the whole plant is
r ground by the wind. The wind also aids the
ds in the case of fruits which open by small teeth
iccae [fig. 6]) or pores (poppy (fig. 7]. Campanula.
in these cases small and numerous, and are jerked
when the capsules, which are generally borne on
talks, are shaken by the wind. (4) In other cases
limal world aid in seed-dispersal. Fruits often
mall hooks, which cling to the coat of an animal
t>ird ; such are fruits of cleavers (Galium Aparine),
ow plant, Ranunculus anensis (fig. 20), carrot;
fruit or seed has an often bright-coloured, fleshy
Fic. 24. Fig. 25.
al section of a grain of wheat, showing embryo
of the endosperm ei s, scutcllum separating
.perm; /J. foliage leaf; pi, sheath of plumule;
s.p.r, sheath of primary ro °t.
>f Coraf rcy (Symphytum) surrounded by persistent
e $ appears to arise from the base of the carpels,
of Foeniculum officinale with pendulous ovules, in
1. (After Berg and Schmidt, magnified.)
rbnth Ha BoUuik, by (mmimioa of Guaiav Fischer.
)f Carum Carui. A , Ovary of the flower; B, ripe
pels have separated so as to form two mericarps
upturn constitutes the carpophore (a). P, Top of
k on top of ovary; n, stigma.
TexiBcok «/ Botany, by pcrmu&ioa of S«an So aatMcb t i s
ought by birds as food, as in stone-fruits such as
5), &c, where the seed is protected from injury
omach of the animal by the hard endocarp; or
* (fig. 3), where the succulent scarlet ** fruit "
aclc) envelops a number of small dry true fruits
ng by means of stiff hairs to the beak of the bird,
'c cither a dry or succulent pericarp. The achene
, indehiscent fruit, the pericarp of which is closely
, but separable from it. It is solitary, -. .
tit, as in the dock (fig. 19) and in the JT«™
supported on a fleshy peduncle; or
munculus (fig. 20). where several achenes are
on elevated receptacle. In the strawberry the
e aggregated on a convex succulent receptacle.
s supported on a concave receptacle (fig. 3), and
ilcnt receptacle completely encloses the achenes
<tia the achenes are situated on a fiat or slightly
Hence what in common language are called the
berry, rose and fig. arc in reality ripe carpels,
ally remain attached to the achenes in the form
lages, as in Clematis. In Compositae. the fruit
t (cybscla), to which the pappus (modified calyx)
Such is also the nature of the fruit hi
scabious). When the pericarp in thin, and
Ider surrounding the seed, the achene is termrd
larantaccae. When the pericarp is extended ia
ged appendage, a samara or sanuxroid achene U
c ash (fig. 1) and common sycamore (fig. 21).
e are usually two achenes united, one of which,
xinus (fig. 1), may be abortive. The wing «*•
ngitudinatly in the elm. When the pericarp be-
ted with the seed as to be inseparable from k.
t (fig. 22). maize, oats and other grasses, then the
given. The one-seeded portions (mericarps) of
ike the form of achenes, e.g. the rterfcarps of the
FRUIT
257
mallows or of umbeltifers (figs. 24. 25). In Labiatae and Boragin-
aceae (e.g cocnfrey, fig. 23), where the bicarpclbry ovary becomes
our one-seeded portions in the fruit, the partial fruits are of the
nature of achenes or nutlets according to the texture (leathery or
hard) of the pericarp.
The nut or gtans is a dry one-celled indehiscent fruit with a
hardened pericarp, often surrounded by bracts at the base. and.
when mature, containing only
one seed. In the young state
the ovary often contains two
or more ovules, but only one
comes to maturity. It is illus-
trated by the fruits of the hazel
and chestnut, which are covered
by leafy bracts, in the form of
a kttik, and by the acorn, in
which the bracts and receptacle
form a cupula or cup (fig. 26).
The parts of the pericarp of the
Ttnm Ctruburrtr*s Lthtbuch 4<r B*Hnik.
by pcrmittioo of CutUv Fbcher.
Fic. 26. — Cupule of Quercus
Aegttops. cp, cupule; gl, fruit.
(After Duchartrc.)
ing the stone (putamen) of the fri
or seed. The mesocarp is generally p
truly a sarcocarp. as in the peach. I
texture, as in the almond, and at othi
as in the coco-nut. In the altnon<
formed, only one of which comes to
and bramble several small drupes or
constitute an etaerio.
The follicle is a dry unilocular many-seeded fruit, formed from
one carpel and dehiscing by the ventral suture. It is rare to meet
with a solitary follicle forming the fruit. There are usually several
aggregated together, cither in a whorl on a shortened receptacle,
as in hellebore, aconite, larkspur, columbine (figs. 27, 28) or the order
Crassulaceae, or in a spiral manner on an elongated receptacle, as
fai Magnolia and Banksia. Occasionally, follicles dehisce by the
dorsal suture, as in Magnolia grandi/tora and Banksia.
The legume or pod is a dry monocarpcllary unilocular many-seeded
fruit, formed from one carpel, dehiscing both by the ventral and the
Fig. a;. Fic. 28. Fic. 30.
FlC 27. — Fruit of Columbine (Aquilegia), formed of five follicles;
Fic. 28. — Single follicle, showing dehiscence by the ventral suture.
Fig. 29. — Transverse section of berry of Gooseberry, showing the
seeds attached to the parietal placentas and immersed in pulp,
which is formed partly from the endocarp, partly from the seed-coal.
Fig. 30. — Section of the fruit of the Apple (Pyrus Mains), or pome,
consisting; of a fleshy covering formed by the floral receptacle and
the true fruit or core with five cavities with seeds.
dorsal suture. It characterises leguminous plants, as the bean and
pea (fig. 8). In the bladder-senna it forms an inflated legume. In
some Leguminosae, as Arachis, CalharUxarpus Fistula and the
tamarind, the fruit must be considered a legume, although it does
not dehisce. The first of these plants produces its fruit under-
ground, and is called earth-nut; the second has a partitioned
legume and is schuocarpic; and both the second and third have
pulpy matter surrounding the seeds. Some legumes are schiaocarpic
by the formation of constrictions externally. Such a form is the
U me ntu m or lomentaceoMS legume of Hedysamm (fig. 17). CsrswsMo,
Omithopus, BnlUa and of tome Acacias. la Mtduap the legume
is twisted like a snail, and in Catsalpinia coriaria, or Divi-divi, it it
vermiform or curved like a worm. Sometimes the number of seeds
is reduced, as in Erytkrtna monosperma and Geoff roya superb*,
which are one-seeded, and in Pterocarpus and Dalbergia, which are
two-seeded.
The berry (bacca) is a term applied generally to all fruits with
seeds immersed in pulp, and incfudes fruits of very various origin.
In Aetata (baneberry) or Berberis
(barberry) it is derived from a
single free carpel; generally, how-
ever, it is the product of a syn-
carpous ovary, which is superior,
as in grape or potato, or inferior,
as in gooseberry (fig. 29) or currant.
In the pomegranate there is a
peculiar baccate many-celled
inferior fruit, having a touyh rind,
enclosing two rows of carpels <
placed one, above the other. The
seeds arc immersed in pulp, and
are attached irregularly to the
wall, base and centre of the locuti.
In the baobab there is a multi- fic. 31.— Transverse section
locular syncarpous fruit, in which of , ne f ruit f the Mc]om
the seeds are immcrjcd in pulp. {Cucumis Melo). showing the
The pepo, another indehiscent placentas with the seeds attached
syncarpous fruit, is illustrated by to t h C m. The three carpels
the fruit of the gourd, melon (fig. formin B the pepo are separated
31) and other Cucurbitaceae. It by partitions. From the centre
is formed of three carpels, sur- processes pass outwards, ending
mounted by the calyx; the rind Jn the curved placenta,
is thick and fleshy , and there are
three or more seed-bearing parietal placentas, either surrounding a
central cavity or prolonged inwards into it. The fruit of the papaw
resembles the pepo. but the calyx is not superior.
The kesperidium is the name given to such indehiscent fleshy
syncarpous fruits as the orange, lemon and shaddock, in which the
cpicarp and mesocarp form a separable rind, and the endocarp
sends prolongations inwards, forming triangular divisions, to the
inner angle of which the seeds are attached, pulpy cells being devel-
oped around them from the wall. Both pepo and hesperidium may
be considered as modifications of the berry.
The pome (fie. 30), seen in the apple, pear, cjuince, medlar and
hawthorn, is a fleshy indehiscent syncarpous fruit, in the formation
of which the receptacle takes part. The outer succulent part is the
swollen receptacle, the horny core being the true fruit developed
from the usually five carpels and enclosing the seeds. In the medlar
the core (or true pericarp) is of a stony hardness, while the outer
succulent covering is open at the summit. The pome somewhat
resembles the fruit of the rose (fig. 3), where the succulent receptacle
surrounds a number of separate achenes.
The name capsule is applied generally to all dry syncarpous fruits,
which dehisce by valves. It may thus be unilocular or multilocular,
le true valvular capsule is observed in
iris (fig. 1 1 ). The porose capsule is seen
'rhinum and Campanula. In Campanula
t of the capsule, which becomes inverted
sule opens by a lid, or by circumscissfle
pyxidium, as in pimpernel (AnagtUis
and monkey-pot (Lecytkis). The capsule
in Helicteres, and a star-like form in star-
In certain instances the cells of the
other, and open with elasticity to scatter
apsule is met with in the sandbox tree
r Euphorbiaceae, where the cocci, con-
burst asunder with force; and in Gerani-
:h containing, when mature, usually one
pophore, become curved upwards by their
>y the ventral suture (fig. 18).
rpous bilocular many-seeded fruit, formed
false septum, dehiscing by two valves
ralvcs separating from the placentas and
septum (fig. 32). The seeds are attached
m, either in one row or in two. When
>w it is a siliqua (fig. 14); when broad
It occurs in cruciferous plants, as waD-
In Claucium and EschschoUtia (Papa-
veraceae) the dissepiment is of a spongy nature. It may become
transversely constricted (lomentaceous), as in radish (Raphamu)
and sea-kale, and it may be reduced, as in woad (Isaiis), to a one-
secded condition.
It sometimes happens that the ovaries of two flowers unite so as
to form a double fruit (syncarp). This may be seen in many species
of honeysuckle. But the fruits which are now to be considered
consist usually of the floral envelopes, as well as the ovaries of
several flowers united into one, and are called multiple or confluent.
The term anikocarpous has also been applied as indicating that the
floral envelopes as well as the carpels are concerned in the formation
of the fruit.
The asraifr b a succulent multiple fruk formed by the c
2 5 8
FRUIT
of a spike of flowers. as in the fruit of the pine-apple (fig. 54), the
bread-fruit and jack-fruit. Similarly the fruit of the mulberry
represents a catkin-like inflorescence.
The syconus is an anthocarpous fruit, in which the receptacle
completely encloses numerous flowers and becomes succulent. The
fig. (fig* 4) •* °f this nature, and what are called its seeds are the
achenes of the numerous flowers scattered over the succulent hollowed
receptacle. In Dorstenia the axis is less deeply hollowed, and of a
harder texture, the fruit exhibiting; often very anomalous forms.
The strobilus, or cone, is a seed-bearing spike, more or less elon-
gated, covered with scales, each of which may be regarded as repre-
senting a separate flower, and has often two seeds at its base; the
seeds are naked, no ovary being present. This fruit is seen in the
cones of firs, spruces, larches ana cedars, which have received the
Fic. 33.
Fig. 32.
Fic. 34.
in the plants called angiospermous; while in gymnospermcus plants.
such as Coniferae and Cycadaccae, it is naked, or, in other words,
has no true pericarp. It sometimes happens in Angtosperms, that
the seed-vessel is ruptured at an early period of growth, so that
the seeds become more or less exposed during their development;
this occurs in mignonette, where the capsule opens at the apex.
and in Cufkea, where the placenta burns through the ovary and
floral envelopes, and appears as an erect process bearing the young
seeds. After fertilization the ovule is greatly changed, in connexion
with the formation of the embryo, la the embryo-sac of most
Angiospcrms (q.v.) there is a development of cellular tissue, the
endosperm, more or leas filling the embryo-sac. In Gymnospcrms
(q.v.) the endosperm is formed preparatory to fertilization. The
fertilized egg enlarges and becomes multicellular, forming the
embryo. The embryo-sac enlarges greatly, displacing gradually
the surrounding nucellus, which eventually forms merely a Una layer
around the sac, or completely disappears. The remainder of (he
nucellus and the integuments of the ovules form the seed-coats.
In some cases (fig. 35) a delicate inner coat or legmen can be div
tinguished from a tougher outer coat or testa ; often, however, the
layers are not thus separable. The consistency of the seed-coat,
its thickness, the character of its surface. &c, vary widely, the
closely associated with the environment or
l-dispcrsal. An account of the development
ulc will be found in the article Anciosperus.
ehisccnt the seed-covering is of a strong and
but when the pericarp is indchisccnt and
long period, the outer seed-coat is thin and
esta are often coloured, and have projections
-ious kinds. Thus in Abrus precatonus and
t is of a bright red colour; in French beans
d; in the almond it is veined; in the tulip
9. K "*
Fic. 32. — Honesty (Lunaria biennis), showing the septum after
the carpels have fallen away.
Flora Strasb«rcer'» LthrbmJi dtr B*t**ik, by permbskM of GusUv Fucker.
Fic. 33- — Si lieu la or pouch of shepherd s purse {Cap sella), opening
by two folded valves, which separate from above downwards. The
partition is narrow, hence the silicula is angustiseptal.
From Stnsbuizcr'i Uhrbuch dcr BoUmik, by pcnninMon of GusUv Facte.
Fic. 34. — Fruit of the pine-apple (Ananassa saliva), developed
from a spike of numerous flowers with bracts, united so as to
form a collective or anthocarpous fruit. The crown of the pine-apple,
c, consists of a scries of empty bracts prolonged beyond the fruit,
name of Coniferae, or cone-bearers, on this account. Cone-like
fruit is also seen in most Cycadaccae. The scales of the strobilus
are sometimes thick and closely united, so as to form a more or less
angular and rounded mass, as in the cypress; while in the juniper
they become fleshy, and are so incorporated as" to form a globular
fruit like a berry. The dry fruit of the cypress and the succulent
fruit of the juniper have received the name of galbulus. In the hop
the fruit is called also a strobilus, but in it the scales are thin and
membranous, and the seeds are not naked but arc contained in
pericarps.
The same causes which produce alterations in the other parts of
the flower give rise to anomalous appearances in the fruit. The
carpels, in place of bearing seeds, are sometimes changed into leaves,
with lobes at their margins. Leaves arc sometimes produced from
the upper part of the fruit. In the genus Citrus, to which the orange
and lemon belong, it is very common to meet with a separation of
the carpels, so as to produce what are called horned oranges and
fingered citrons. In this case a syncarpous fruit has a tendency to
become apocarpous. In the Orange we occasionally find a super-
numerary row of carpels produced, giving rise to the appearance of
small and imperfect oranges enclosed within the original one; the
navel orange is of this nature. It sometimes happens that, by the
union of flowers, double fruits arc produced. Occasionally a double
fruit is produced, not by the incorporation of two flowers, but by
the abnormal development of a second carpel in the flower.
Arrangement of Fruits,
A. True fruits — developed from the ovary alone.
1. Pericarp not fleshy or fibrous.
i. Indchisccnt — not opening to allow the escape of the
seeds — generally onc-sccded. Achcnc; caryopsis;
cypscla; nut; schizocarp.
ii. Dehiscent— the pericarp splits to allow the escape
of the seeds— generally many-seeded. Follicle;
legume; siliqua; capsule.
2. Pericarp jgcncrally differentiated into distinct layers, one
of which is succulent or fibrous. Drupe; berry.
B. Pseudocarps— the development extends beyond the ovary.
Pome; syconus; sorosis.
The Seed. — The seed is formed from the ovule as the result of
fertilization. It is contained in a seed-vessel formed from the ovary
cfc
Fic. 35. Fic. 36.
Fic. 55.— Seed of Pea (Pisum) with one cotyledon removed. C,
Remaining cotyledon; ch, chalaza-point at which the nourishing
vessels enter; e, tcgraen or inner coat; /, funiclc or stalk; f,
plumule of embryo; m, micropyle; pi, placenta; r, radicle of
embryo ; I, tigellum or stalk between root and plumule ; U, testa.
Fic. 36.— Seed of Asclepias, with a cluster of hairs arising from
the edges of the micropyle.
and primrose it is rough; in the snapdragon it is marked with
depressions; in cotton and Asclepias (fig. 36) it has hairs attached to
it; and in maho ■-" * **- ' c — -** * J J
in the form c
dium, Cobaea i .
which, when moistened with water, the fibres uncoil in a beautiful
manner; and in flax (Linum) and others the cells are converted into
mucilage. These structural peculiarities of the testa in different
plants have relation to the scattering of the seed and its germinatioo
upon a suitable nidus. But in some plants the pericarps assume
structures which subserve the same purpose; this especially occurs
in small pericarps enclosing single seeds, as achenes, caryopsides, Ac
Thus in Compositae and valerian, the pappose limb of the calyx
forms a parachute to the pericarp; in Labiatae and some Compositae
spiral cells are formed in the cpicarp; and the epicarp is prolonged
as a wing in Fraxinus (fig. 1) and Acer (fig. 21).
Sometimes there is an additional covering to the seed, formed
after fertilization, to which the name arillus has been given (fig. 3)1).
This is seen in the passion-flower, where the covering arises from the
placenta or extremity of the funiclc at the base of the ovule and
passes upwards towards the apex, leaving the micropyle uncovered.
In the nutmeg and spindle tree this additional coat is formed from
above downwards, constituting in the former case a lacisuated
scarlet covering called mace. In such instances it has been catted
an ariltode (fig. 39). This arillode, after growing downwards, may
be reflected upwards so as to cover the micropyle. The fleshy
scarlet covering formed around the naked seed in the yew is by
some considered of the nature of an aril. On the testa, at various
points, there arc produced at times other cellular bodies, to which
the name of slrophioUs, or caruncles, has been given, the seeds being
strophiolate or carunculate. These tumours may occur near the
base of the seed, as in Poly gal a, or at the apex, as in Castor-oil
Slant (Ricinus) ; or they may occur in the course of the raphe, as in
lood-root iSanguinaria) and A sarabacca. The f uniclca of the ovules
frequently attain a great length in the seed, and in some magnolias,
when the fruit dehisces, they appear as long scarlet cords sucxr~- , ~'~~
the seeds outside. The hilum or umbilicus of the seed it 1
FRUIT
259
bean and in
long a Urge
bits marked
of Pkaseolus,
ognizable by
or it may be
1 of the seed,
>t of the em*
irved a small
t sprouts, is
chalaza (fig.
seed. In the
ly recognized
at one en3 of the seed when the integuments arc carefully removed.
In anatropal seeds the raphe forms a distinct ridge along one side
of the seed (fig. 41).
The position of the seed as regards the pericarp resembles that of
the ovule in the ovary, and the same terms are applied-— erect,
ascending, pendulous, suspended, curved. &c. These terms have
no reference to the mode in which the fruit is attached to the axis.
Thus the seed may be erect while the fruit itself is pendent, in the
ordinary meaning of that term. The part of the seed next the axis
or the ventral suture is its face, the opposite side being the back.
Seeds exhibit great varieties of form. They may be flattened
laterally (compresied), or from above downwards (depressed). They
may be round, oval, triangular, polygonal, rolled up like a snail, as in
Pkysostemon, or coiled up like a snake, as in Ophiocaryon paradoxum.
Fig. 37. Fio. 38. Fig. 39. Fig. 4a Fig. 41.
Fig. 37. — Seed of Pine (Pinus), with a membranous appendage
w to the testa, called a wing.
Fig. 38. — Young anatropal seed of the white Water-lily (Nymphaea
alba), cut vertically. It is attached to the placenta by the funicle/,
cellular prolongations from which form an aril a a. The vessels of
the cord are prolonged to the base of the nucellus n by means of
the raphe r. The base of the nucellus is indicated by the chalaza ck,
while the apex is at the micropyle m. The covering of the seed is
marked 1. n is the nucellus or perisprrm, enclosing the embryo-sac «,
it which the endosperm is formed. The embryo t. with its suspensor,
is contained in the sac, the radicle pointing to the micropyle m.
Fig. 30. — Arillode a, or false aril, of the Spindle-tree (Euonymus),
arising from the micropyle /.
Fig. 40. — Anatropal seed of the Orange (Citrus Aurantium)
opened to show the chalaza c, which forms a brown spot at one end.
Fig. 41. — Entire anatropal seed of the Orange (Citrus Aurantium),
with its rugose or wrinkled testa, and the raphe r ramifying in the
thickness of the testa on one side.
The endosperm formed in the embryo-sac of angiospcrms after
fertilization, and found previous to it in gymnospcrms, consists of
cells containing nitrogenous and starchy or fatty matter, destined
for the nutriment of the embryo. It occupied the whole cavity of
the embryo-sac. or is formed only at certain portions of it, at the
apex, as in Rhinanthus, at the base, as in Vaccinium, or in the middle,
as in Veronica. As the endosperm increases in size along with the
embryo-sac and the embryo, the substance of the original nucellus
of the ovule is gradually absorbed. Sometimes, however, as in
Musaccae, Cannaccae, Zincibcraccac, no endosperm is formed;
the cells of the original nucellus. becoming filled with food-materials
for the embryo, arc not absorbed, but remain surrounding the
embryo-sac with the embryo, and constitute the peris perm. Again,
in other plants, as Nymphacacrae (fig. %&) and Pipcraceae, both
endosperm and pcrispcrm are present. It was from observations
on cases such as these that old authors, imagining a resemblance
betwixt the plant-ovule and the animal ovum, applied the name
albumen to the outer nutrient mass or perispcrm, and designated
the endosperm as titellus. The term albumen is very generally
used as including alt the nutrient matter stored up in the seed, but
it would be advisable to discard the name as implying a definite
chemical substance. There is a large class of plants in which
although at first after fertilization a mass of endosperm is formed,
yet, as the embryo increases in size, the nutrient matter from the
endospermic cells passes out from them, and is absorbed by the
cells of the embryo plant In the mature seed, in such cases, there
u no separate mass of tissue containing nutrient food-material
apart from the embryo itself. Such a seed is said to be exalbuminous,
as in Compositae, Cruciferae and most Leguminosae (e.g. pea, fig. 33).
Fig. 42.— The dicotyledonous
When either endosperm or perisperm or both are present the seed
is said to be album tnous.
The albumen varies much in its nature and consistence, and
furnishes important characters. It may be farinaceous or mealy,
consisting chiefly of cells filled with starch, as in cereal grains,
where it is abundant ; fleshy or cartilaginous, consisting of thicket
cells which are still soft, as in the coco-nut, and which sometimes
contain oil, as in the oily albumen of Croton, Ricinus and poppy:
horny, when the cell-walls are slightly thickened and capable of
distension, as in date and coffee; the cell-walls sometimes become
greatly thickened, filling up the testa as a hard mass, as in vegetable
ivory (Phytelepkas). The albumen may be uniform throughout, off
it may present a mottled appear-
ance, as in the nutmeg, the seeds of
Anonaceae and some Palms, where
it is called ruminated. This
mottled appearance is due to a
protrusion of a dark lamella of
the integument between folded
protuberances of albumen. A
cavity is sometimes left in the
centre which is usually filled with
fluid, as in the coco-nut. The -.- - - , . _ — .--.-;
relative size of the embryo and of embryo of the Pea laid open,
the endosperm varies much. In '• e » The two fleshy cotyledons,
Monocotyledons the embryo is orseed-lobes, which remain under
usually small, and the endosperm 8 round * hen , * he P** 1 *. "Prouts;
large, and the same is true in the '. f h « radicular extremity of the
case of coffee and many other ax >» whence the root arises; I,
plants amongst Dicotyledons, the axis (hvpocotyl) bcanng the
The opposite is the case in other >?""« ■V 11 * , and leaves g (plum-
plants, as in the Labiatae. Plum- «[«)» wh » c 5 ,,c » n a depression of
baginaceae. &c. d»e cotyledons /.
The embryo consists of an axis bearing the cotyledons (fig. 42, c),
or the first leaves of the plant. To that part of this axis immediately
beneath the cotyledons the terms hvpocotyl, caulicU or tigtllum (/)
have been applied, and continuous backwards with it is the young
root or radicle (r), the descending axis, their point of union being
the collar or neck. The terminal growing bud of the axis is called
the plumule or gemmule (g), and represents the ascending axis. The
radicular extremity points towards the micropyle, while the cotv-
ledonary extremity is pointed towards the base of the ovule or the
chalaza. Hence, By ascertaining the position of the micropyle and
chalaza, the two extremities of the embryo can in general be dis-
covered. It is in many cases difficult to recognize the parts in an
embryo; thus in Cuscuta, the embryo appears as an elongated
axir -•-»---* J " * ' J • ~ -* ' - L L — --
ma<
whi
moi
cell
no
wit
rip<
figs
int<
wh<
oft
oft
the
isfi
44) „ . .
curvature of the embryo, as in Caryophyllaceac.
It has been already stated that the radicle of the embryo It
directed to the micropyle, and the cotyledons to the chalaza. In
some cases, by the growth of the integuments, the former is turned
round so as not to correspond with the apex of the nucellus, and then
the embryo has the radicle directed to one side, and is called cxccntric,
as is seen in Primulaceac, Plantaginaceac and many palms, especially
the date. The position of the embryo in different kinds of seeds
varies. In an orthotropal seed the embryo is inverted or antitropat,
the radicle pointing to the apex of the seed, or to the part opposite
the hilum. Again, in an anatropal seed the embryo is erect or
howolrotol (fig. 43), the radicle being directed to the base of the
seed. In curved or campy lot ropal seeds the embryo is folded so
that its radicular and cotyledonary extremities are approximated,
and it becomes amphilropal (fig. 44). In this instance the seed
may be exalbuminous, and the embryo may be folded on itself;
or albuminous, the embryo surrounding more or less completely the
endosperm and being pcriphcrical. According to the mode in
which the seed is attached to the pericarp, the radicle may be
directed upwards or downwards, or laterally, as regards the ovary
In an orthotropal seed attached to the base of the pericarp it is
superior, as also in a suspended anatropal seed. In other anatrnpal
seeds the radicle is inferior. When the sred is horizontal as regards
the pericarp, the radicle is cither centrifugal, when it points to the
outer wall of the ovary; or centripetal, when it points to the axis
or inner wall of the ovary. These characters are of value for purposes
of classification, as they are often constant in large groups of genera.
a6o
FRUIT AND FLOWER FARMING
Plants in which there are two cotyledons produced in the embryo
are dicotyledonous. The two cotyledons thus formed are opposite
to each other (figs. 42 and 45). but are not always of the same size.
Thus, in Abronia ami other members of the order Nyctaginaceae, one
of them is smaller than the other (often very small), and in Caraba
ptianensis there appears to be only one, in consequence of tne
intimate union which takes place between the two. The union
between the cotyledonary leaves may continue after the young plant
begins to germinate. Such embryos have been called pseudomono-
totyUdonous. The texture of the cotyledons varies. They may be
thick, as in the pea (fig. 42), exhibiting no traces of venation, with
their flat internal surfaces in contact, and their backs more or less
convex; or they may be in the form of thin and delicate laminae,
flattened on both sides, and having distinct venation, as in Ricinus,
Jatropka. Euonymus, &c. The cotyledons usually form the greater
part of the mature embryo, and this is remarkably well seen in such
exalbuminous seeds as the bean and pea.
Cotyledons are usually entire and sessile. But they occasionally
become lobed, as in the walnut and the lime; or petiolate, as in
Geranium molle; or auriculate, as in the ash. Like leaves in the
Fie. 46.
Fig. 44.
Fig. 45.
Fig. 47-
©•
Fig. 48.
Fig. 43.— Seed of Pansy (Viola tricolor) cut vertically. The em-
bryo pi is axial, in the midst of fleshy endosperm al. The seed is
anatropal, and the embryo is homotropal; the cotyledons co point
which are accumbent.
Fig. 47. — Transverse section of the seed of the Wallflower (Ckeir-
antkus), showing the radicle r folded on the edges of the accumbent
cotyledons c.
Fig. 48.— Transverse section of the seed of the Dame's Violet
(flesperu). The radicle r is folded on the back of the cotyledons c.
which are said to be incumbent.
bud, cotyledons may be either applied directly to each other, or
may be folded in various ways. In geranium the cotyledons arc
twisted and doubled; in convolvulus they are corrugated; and in
the potato and in Bunics, they arc spiral, — the same terms being
applied as to the foliage leaves. The radicle and cotyledons are
either straight or variously curved. Thus, in some cruciferous
plants, as the wallflower, the cotyledons are applied by their faces,
and the radicle (figs. 46, 47) is folded on their edges, so as to be
lateral; the cotyledons are here accumbent. In others, as Hester is,
the cotyledons (fig. 48) are applied to each other by their faces,
and the radicle, r, is folded on their back, so as to be dorsal, and
the cotyledons are incumbent. Again, the cotyledons are con-
duplicate when the radicle is dorsal, and enclosed between their folds.
In other divisions the radicle is folded in a spiral manner, and the
cotyledons follow the same course.
In many gymnosperms more than two cotyledons are present,
and they are arranged in a whorl. This occurs in Coniferae, especi-
ally in the pine, fir (fig. 49). spruce and larch, in which six, nine,
twelve and even fifteen have been observed. They are linear, and
resemble in their form and mode of development the clustered or
fasciculated leaves of the larch. Plants having numerous coty-
ledons are termed polycotyledonous. In species of Streptocar pus the
cotyledons are permanent, and act the part of leaves. One of them
is frequently largely developed, while the other is small or abortive.
In those plants in which there is only a single cotyledon in the
embryo, hence called monocotyUdonous, the embryo usually has a
cylindrical form more or less rounded at the extremities, or elongated
and fusiform, often oblique. The axis is usually very short com-
pared with the cotyledon, which in general encloses the plumule
by its lower portion, and exhibits on one side a small slit which indi-
cates the union of the edges of the vaginal or sheathing portion of
the leaf (fig. 50). In grasses, by the enlargement of the embryo in a
particular direction, the endosperm is pushed on one side, and thus
the embryo conies to lie outside at the base of the endosperm (figs. 22,
51). The lamina of the cotyledon b not developed, upon the side
of the embryo next the endosperm and enveloping it is a large
shield-shaped body, termed the sculeUmm. This is an outgrowth
from the base of the cotyledon, enveloping more or less the cotyledon
Fig. 49. Fig. 50.
Fig. 51.
Fig. 52.
Fig. 49.— Polycotyledonous embryo of the Pine (Pinus) beginning
to sprout. I, Hypocotyl ; r. radicle. The cotyledons c are numerous.
Within the cotyledons the primordial leaves are seen, constituting
the plumule or first bud of the plant.
Fig. 50. — Embryo of a species of Arrow-grass (Tritfockin), showing
a uniform conical mass, with a slit s near the lower part. The
cotyledon c envelops the young bud, which protrudes at the sKt
during germination. The radicle is developed from the lower part
of the axis r.
Fig. 51.— Grain of Wheat (Triticum) germinating, showing (*)
the cotyledon and (c) the rootlets surrounded by their sheaths
(coUorrhixoc).
Fig. 52. — Embryo of Caryocar. t. Thick hypocotyl, forming nearly
the whole mass, becoming narrowed and curved at ha extremity,
and applied to the groove s. In the figure this narrowed portion is
slightly separated from the groove; c, two rudimentary cotyledons.
and plumule, in some cases, as in maize, completely investing it;
in other cases, as in rice, merely sending small prolongations over its
anterior face at the apex. By others this scutellum is considered
as the true cotyledon, and the sheathing structure covering the
Flu mule is regarded as a ligule or axillary stipule (see Grasses).
n many aquatic monocotyledons (e.g. Potamogeton, Ruppia and
others) there is a much-developed hypocotyl, which forms the
greater part of the embryo and acts as a store of nutriment is
germination ; these are known as macropodous embryos. A similar
case is that of Caryocar among Dicotyledons, where the swollen
hypocotyl occupies most of the embryo (fig. 52). In some grasses,
as oats and rice, a projection of cellular tissue is seen upon the side
of the embryo opposite to the scutellum, that is, on the anterior
side. This has been termed the epiblast. It is very large in rice.
This by some was considered the rudimentary second cotyledon,
but is now generally regarded as an outgrowth of the sheath of the
true cotyledon. (A. B. R.)
FRUIT AND FLOWER FARMING. The different sorts of
fruits and flowers are dealt with in articles under their own
headings, to which reference may be made, and these give
the substantial facts as to their cultivation. See also the article
Horticulture.
Great Britain
The extent of the fruit industry may be gathered from the
figures for the acreage of land under cultivation in orchards
and small fruit plantations. The Board of Agriculture rctuna
concerning the orchard areas of Great Britain showed a continuous
expansion year by year from 199,178 acres in 1888 to 934.660
acres in 1001, as will be learnt from Table I. There was. it is
true, an exception in 1802, but the decline in that year fa ex-
plained by the circumstance that since 1801 the agricultural
returns have been collected only from holdings of more than
one acre, whereas they were previously obtained from all holdings
of a quarter of an acre or more. As there are many hokMngi
of less than an acre in extent upon which fruit is grown, and as
fruit is largely raised also in suburban and other gardens 1
wm
FRUIT AND FLOWER FARMING
261
do not come into the returns, it may be taken for granted that
the actual extent of land devoted to fruit culture exceeds that
which is indicated by the official figures. In the Board of
Agriculture returns up to June 1908, 308,000 acres are stated
to be devoted to fruit cultivation of all kinds in Great Britain.
TablB I.— Extent of Orchards in Great Britain in each Year,
1887 to 1001.
Year.
Acres.
Year.
Acres.
Year.
Acres.
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
202,234
199.178
199.897
202,305
209,996
1892
1893
1894
1895
1896
208,950
211.664
214,187
218,428
221.254
1897
1898
1899
1900
1901
224.116
226.059
228.603
232,129
234.660
Table II. shows that the expansion of the orchard area of Great
Britain is mainly confined to England, for it has slightly de-
creased in Wales and Scotland. The acreage officially returned
as under orchards is that of arable or grass land which is also
Table II.— Areas under Orchards in England, Woks and Scotland-
Acres.
Year.
England.
Wales.
Scotland.
Great Britain.
1896
215.642
218.261
3677
1935
221,254
224.116
1897
3707
2148
1898
220,220
3690
2149
226,059
1899
222JI2
3666
2225
228,603
1900
226.I64
3695
2270
232.129
1901
228,580
3767
2313
234.660
1908
244.43O
3577
2290
250.297
used for fruit trees of any kind. Conditions of soil and climate
determine the irregular distribution of orchards in Great Britain.
The dozen counties which possess the largest extent of orchard
land all lie in the south or west of the island. According to the
returns for 1908 (excluding small fruit, areas) they were the
following: —
County.
Acres.
County.
Acres.
County. •
Acres.
Kent .
Devon
Hereford .
Somerset .
32.751
27.200
28.316
25.279
Worcester .
Gloucester .
Cornwall :
Middlesex .
23.653
20,424
5.415
5.300
Salop . .
Dorset .
Monmouth
Wilts . .
4685
4464
3914
3630
Leaving out of consideration the county of Kent, which grows
a greater variety of fruit than any of the others, the counties
of Devon, Hereford, Somerset, Worcester and Gloucester have
an aggregate orchard area of 1 24,872 acres. These five counties
of the west and south-west of England — constituting in one
continuous area what is essentially the cider country of Great
Britain — embrace therefore rather less than half of the entire
orchard area of the bland, while Salop, Monmouth and Wilts
have about 300 less than they had a few years ago. Five English
counties have less than 1000 acres each of orchards, namely,
the county of London, and the northern counties of Cumberland,
Westmorland, Northumberland and Durham. Rutland has
just over 100 acres. The largest orchard areas In Wales are in
the two counties adjoining Hereford— Brecon with 1136 acres
and Radnor with 727 acres; at the other extreme is Anglesey,
with a decreasing orchard area of only 22 acres. Of the Scottish
counties, Lanark takes the lead with 1285 acres, Perth, Stirling
and Haddington following with 684 and 1 29 acres respectively.
Ayr and Midlothian are the only other counties possessing 100
acres or more of orchards, whilst Kincardine, Orkney and
Shetland return no orchard area, and Banff, Bute, Kinross,
Nairn, Peebles, Sutherland and Wigtown return less than 10
acres each. It may be added that in 1008 Jersey returned 1000
acres of orchards, Guernsey, &c, 144 acres, and the Isle of Man,
121 acres; the two last-named places showing a decline as
compared with eight years previously.
Outside the cider counties proper of England, the counties in
which orchards for commercial fruit-growing have increased
considerably in recent years include Berks, Buckingham,
Cambridge, Essex, Lincoln, Middlesex, Monmouth, Norfolk,
Oxford, Salop, Sussex, Warwick and WUts. Apples are the
principal fruit grown in the western and south-western counties,
pears also being fairly common. In parts of Gloucestershire,
however, and in the Evesham and Pershore districtsof Worcester-
shire, plum orchards exist. Plums are almost as largely grown
as apples in Cambridgeshire. Large quantities of apples, pi urns,
damsons, cherries, and a fair quantity of pears are grown for the
market in Kent, whilst apples,, plums and pears predominate in
Middlesex. In many counties damsons arc cultivated around
fruit plantations to shelter the latter from the wind.
Of small fruit (currants,gooseberries,strawberries, raspberries,
&c.) no return was made of the acreage previous to 1888, in
which year it was given as 36,724 acres for Great Britain. In
1889 it rose to 41,933 acres.
Later figures are shown in Table III. It will be observed that,
owing to corrections made in the enumeration in 1897^ a consider-
Table HI.— Areas of Small Fruit in Great Britain.
Year.
Acres.
Year.
Acres.
Year. '
Acres.
1890
1891
1892
1893
46,234
62,148
65.487
1894
1895
1896
1897
68.415
74,547
76.245
69.792
1898
1899
1900
1901
69.753
71.526
73.78o
74.999
able reduction in the area is recorded for. that year, and pre-
sumably the error then discovered existed in all the preceding
returns. The returns for 1007 gave the acreage of small fruit
as 82,175 seres, and in 1908 at 84,880 acres— an area more than
double that of 1889.
There has undoubtedly been a considerable expansion, rather
than a contraction, of small fruit plantations since 1896. The
acreage of small fruit in Great Britain is about one-third that of
the orchards. As may be seen in Table IV., it is mainly confined
to England, though Scotland has over 4000 more acres of small
Table IV.— Areas under Small Fruit in England, Wales and Scotland
— Acres.
Year.
England.
Wales.
Scotland.
Great Britain.
1K98
1899
1900
1901
1908
63.438
64.867
66.749
67,828
75.750
IE*
1 109
1092
1200
5271
5553
5922
6079
7930
69.753
71.526
73J8o
74.999
84.880
fruit than of orchards. About one-third of the area of small
fruit in England belongs to Kent alone, that county having
returned 24,137 acres in 1908. Cambridge now ranks next with
6S78 acres, followed by Norfolk with 5876 acres, Worcestershire
with 4852 acres, Middlesex with 4163 acres, Hants with 3320
acres and Essex with 2150 acres. It should be remarked that
between 1900 and 1908 Cambridgeshire had almost doubled
its area of small fruits, from 3740 to 6878 acres; whilst both
Norfolk and Worcestershire in 1908 had larger areas devoted
to small fruits than Middlesex — in which county there had
been a decrease of about 400 acres during the same period.
The largest county area of small fruit in Wales is 806 acres
in Denbighshire, and in Scotland 2791 acres in Perthshire,
2259 acres in Lanarkshire, followed by 4ia.acres in Forfarshire.
The only counties in Great Britain which make no return under
the head of small fruit are Orkney and Shetland; and Sutherland
only gives 2! acres. It is hardly necessary to say that consider-
able areas of small fruit, in kitchen gardens and elsewhere, find
no place in the official returns, which, however, include small
fruit grown between and under orchard trees.
Gooseberries are largely grown in most small fruit districts.
Currants are less widely cultivated, but the red currant is more
extensively grown than the black, the latter having suffered
seriously from the .ravages of the black currant mite. Kent is
the great centre for raspberries and for strawberries, though,
in addition, the latter fruit is largely grown in Cambridgeshire
(2411 acres), Hampshire (2327 seres), Norfolk (2067 seres)
and Worcestershire (1273 seres). Esses, Lincolnshire, Cheshire,
262 FRUIT AND FLOWER FARMING
FRUIT AND FLOWER FARMING
263
of fruit land upon farms in many parts of Kent has always been
an important feature in its agriculture. An excellent description
of this noteworthy characteristic of Kentish fanning is contained
in a comprehensive paper on the agriculture of Kent by Mr
Charles Whitehead, 1 whose remarks, with various additions and
modifications, are here reproduced.
Where the conditions are favourable, especially in East and Mid
Kent, there is a considerable acreage of fruit land attached to each
farm, planted with cherry, apple, pear, plum and damson trees,
and with bush fruits, or soft fruits as they are sometimes called,
including gooseberries, currants, raspberries, either with or without
standard trees, and strawberries, and filberts and cob-nuts in Mid
Kent. This acreage has largely increased, and will no doubt con*
tinue to increase, as, on the whole, fruit-growing has been profitable
and has materially benefited those fortunate enough to have fruit
land on their farms. There arc. also cultivators who grow nothing
but fruit. These are principally in the district of East Kent, between
Rochester and Canterbury, and in the district of Mid Kent near
London, and they manage their fruit land, as a rule, better than
farmers, as they give their undivided attention to it and have more
technical knowledge. But there has been great improvement of
late in the management of fruit land, especially of cherry and apple
orchards, the grass of which is fed off by animals having corn or
cake, or the land is well manured. Apple trees arc grease-banded
and sprayed systematically by advanced fruit-growers, to prevent
or check the attacks o( destructive insects. Far more attention is
being paid to the selection of varieties of apples and pears having
colour, size, flavour, keeping qualities, and other attributes to meet
the tastes of the public, and to compete with the beautiful fruit that
comes from the United States and Canada.
Of the various kinds of apples at present grown in- Kent mention
should be made of Mr Gladstone, Beauty of Bath, Devonshire
Vuarrcndcn, Lady Sudely. Yellow Ingest re and Worcester I'earmain.
hese arc dessert apples ready to pick in August and Septcmlnrr,
and are not stored. For storing, King of the Pippins. Cox's Orange
Pippin (the best dessert apple in existence), Cox s Pomona, Duchess,
county, and usually yields large crops which make good prices.
As a case in point, purchasers were offering to contract (or quantities
of this damson at £20 per ton in May of 1899, as the prospects of the
yield were unsatisfactory. On the other hand, in one year recently
when the crop was abnormally abundant, some of the fruit barely
paid the expenses of sending to market. The varieties of cherries
mo*t frequently grown are Governor Wood. Knight's Early Black,
FrogmorcBlackheart, Black Eagle.Watcrloo, Amlxrrhcart, Btgarreau,
Napoleon Bigarreau and Turk. A variety of cherry known as the
Kentish cherry, of a light red colour and fine subacid flavour, is
mu-.h grown in Kent for drying and cooking purposes. Another
cherry, similar in colour and quality, which tomes rather late, known
as the Flemish, is also extensively cultivated, as well as the very
dark red large Morellu, used for making cherry brandy. These three
varieties arc grown extensively as pyramids, and the last-named
a)-o on walls and bides of buildings. Sometimes the cherry crop is
sold by auction to dealers, who pick, pack and consign the fruit to
market. Large prices are often made, as much as £80 per acre being
not uncommon. The crop on a large cherry orchard in Mid Kent
has been sold for more than £100 per acre.
Where old standard trees have been lone neglected and have
become overgrown by mosses and lichens, the attempts made to
improve them ncldom succeed. The introduction of bush fruit trees
dwarfed by grafting on the Paradise stock has been of much advantage
to fruit cultivators, as they come into bearing in two or three years,
and arc more easily cultivated, pruned, sprayed and picked than
standards. Many plantations of these bush trees have been formed in
Kent of apples, pears and plums. Half standards and pyramids have
also been planted of these fruits, as well as of cherries. Bushes of
Euschcrric* and currants, and clum|>s or stools of raspberry canes,
vc ticen planted to a great extent in many parts of the East and
Mid di visions of Kent, but not much in the We ald, where apples are
1 /rar. Roy.-Apic. Soc, 1899.
principally grown. Sometimes fruit bushes arc put in alternate rows
with bush or standard trees of apple, pear, plum or damson, or they
are planted by themselves. The distances apart for planting are gener-
ally for cherry and apple trecson grass 30 ft. by 30 ft.; for standard
apples and pear trees from 20 ft. to 24 ft. upon arable land, with bush
fruit, as gooseberries and currants, under them. These are set 6 ft. by
6 ft. apart, and 5 ft. by 2 ft. for raspberries, and strawberries 2 ft. 6 in.
to 3 ft. by 1 ft. 6 in. to I ft. 3 in. apart. On some fruit farms bush
or dwarf trees — apples, pears, plums — are planted alone, at distances
varying from 8 ft. to 10 ft. apart, giving from 485 to 680 bush trees
per acre, nothing being grown between them except perhaps straw-
berries or vegetables during the first two or three years. It is believed
that this is the best way of ensuring fruit of high quality and colour.
Another arrangement consists in putting standard apple or pear
trees 30 ft. apart (48 trees per acre), and setting bush trees of apples
or pears 15 ft. apart between them; these latter come quickly into
bearing, and are removed when the standards are fully grown.
Occasionally gooseberry or currant bushes, or raspberry canes or
strawberry plants, arc set between the bush trees, and taken away
directly they interfere with the growth of these. Half standard
apple or plum trees are set triangularly 15 ft. apart, and strawberry
plants at a distance of I \ ft. from plant to plant and 2) ft. from row
to row. Or currant or gooseberry bushes are set between the half
standards, and strawberry plants between these.
v Thcse systems involve high farming. The manures used arc
London manure, where hops are not grown, and bone meal, super-
phosphate, rags, shoddy, wool-waste, fish refuse, nitrate of soda,
kaimt and sulphate < 1-ondon
manure is wanted f< dug by
hand with the Kent s in the
United States and rith the
" Canterbury " hoc, ce from
weeds with the ord »t fruit
farmers spray fruit 1 continue
until the blossoms c< paraffin
emulbions, and a vc ere is no
under fruit, in ordci tacks of
the various caterpill *tly and
laborious process, but it pays well, as a rule. The fallacy that fruit
trees on grass land require no manure, and that the grass may be
allowed to grow up to their trunks without any harm, is exploding,
and many fruit farmers are well manuring their grass orchards and
removing the grass for some distance round the stems, particularly
where the trees are young.
Strawberries arc produced in enormous quantities in the northern
part of the Mid Kent district round the Grays, and from thence to
Orpington; also near Sandwich, and to some extent near Maidstone.
Raspberry canes have been extensively put in during the last few
years, and in some seasons yield good profits. There is a very great
and growing demand for afi soft fruits for jam-making, ana prices
are fairly good, taking an average of years, notwithstanding the
heavy importations from France, Belgium, Holland. Spain and Italy.
The extraordinary increase in the national demand for jam and other
fruit preserves has been of great benefit to Kent fruit producers.
The cheapness of duty-free sugar, as compared with sugar paying
duty in the United States and other large fruit-producing countries,
afforded one of the very few advantages possessed by British
cultivators, but the reimport ion of the sugar duty in the United
Kingdom in 1901 has modified the position in this respect. Jam
factories were established in several parts of Kent about 1889 or
1890, but most of them coll.ipscd either from want of capital or from
bad management. There are still a few remaining, principally in
connexion with large fruit farms. One of these is at Swanley, whose
energetic owners farm nearly 2000 acres of fruit land in Kent. The
fruit grown by them that will not make satisfactory prices in a fresh
raw state is made into jam, or if time presses it is first made into
fulp, and kept until the opportunity comes for making it into jam.
n this factory there are fifteen steam- jacketed vats in one row, and
6ix others for candied peel. A season's output on a recent occasion
comprised about 3500 tons of jam, 850 tons of candied peel and
7SO gross (108,000 l>ot ties) of bottled fruit. A great deal of the fruit
preserved is purchased, whilst much of that grown on the farms is
sold. A strigging machine is employed, which does as much work
as fifty women in taking currants off their s trigs or stalks. Black
currant pulp is stored in casks till winter, when there is time to
convert it into jam. Strawberries cannot be pulped to advantage,
but it is otherwise with raspberries, the pulp of which is largely made.
Apricots for Jam are obtained chiefly from France and Spain. There
is another nourishing factory near Sittinghourne worked on the
same lines. It is very advantageous to fruit farmers to have jam
factories in connexion with their farms or to have them near, as
they can thoroughly grade their fruit, and send only the best to market,
thus ensuring a high reputation for its quality. Carriage is saved,
which is a serious charge, though railway rates from Kent to the great
manufacturing towns and to Scotland are very much less proportion-
ally than those to London, and consequently Kent growers send
increasing quantities to these distant markets, where prices are
better, not being so directly interfered with by imported fruit,
which generally finds its way to London.
Kentish fruit-growers are becoming more particular in picking.
264
FRUIT AND FLOWER FARMING
grading, packing and storing fruit, as well as in marketing it. A
larger quantity of fruit is now carefully stored, and sent to selected
markets as it ripens, or when there is an ascertained demand, as it
is found that if it is consigned to market direct from the trees there
must frequently be forced sales and competition with foreign fruit
that is fully matured and in good order. It was customary formerly
for Kenttsn growers to consign all their fruit to the London markets;
now a good deal of it is sent to Manchester, Birmingham, Liverpool,
Sheffield, Newcastle and other large cities. Some is sent even to
Edinburgh and Glasgow. Many large growers send no fruit to
closely pruned. All the year's growth is cut away except the very
finest young wood, which the trained eye of the tree-cutter sees at
a glance is blossom-bearing. The trees are kept from si to 7 ft.
high upon stems from 1 1 to 2 ft. high, and are trained so as to form
a cup of from 7 to 8 ft. in diameter.
There seems no reason to expect any decrease in the acreage of
fruit land in Kent, and if the improvement in the selection of varieties
and in the general management continues it will yet pay. A hundred
years ago every one was grubbing fruit land in order that hops might
be planted, and for this many acres of splendid cherry orchards were
sacrificed. Now the disposition is to grub hop plants and substitute
apples, plums, or small fruit or cherry trees.
Ft utt-tjowinr in other Districts. — The large fruit plantations in
the vicinity of London are to be found mostly in the valley of the
Thames, around such centres as Brentford, Isfeworth, Twickenham.
Heston, Hounslow, Cranford and Southall. All varieties of orchard
trees, but mostly apples, pears, and plums and small fruit, are grown
in these districts, the .nearness of which to the metropolitan fruit
market at Covent Garden is of course an advantage. Some of the
orchards are old, and are not managed on modern principles. They
contain, moreover, varieties of fruit many of which are out of date
and would not be employed in establishing new plantations. In
the better-managed grounds the antiquated varieties have been
removed, and their places taken by newer and more approved types.
In addition to apples, pears, plums, damsons, cherries and quinces
as top fruit, currants, gooseberries and raspberries are grown as
bottom fruit. Strawberries are extensively grown in some of the
localities, and in favourable seasons outdoor tomatoes are ripened and
marketed.
Fruit is extensively grown in Cambridgeshire and adjacent counties
in the cast of England. A leading centre is (Tottenham, where the
Lower Greensand crops out and furnishes one of the best of soils for
fruit-culture. In Cottcnham about a thousand acres are devoted
to fruit, and nearly the same acreage to asparagus, which is, however,
giving place to fruit. Currants, gooseberries and strawberries are the
most largely grown, apples, plums and raspberries following. Of
varieties of plums the Victoria is first in favour, and then. Rivera's
Early Prolific, Tsar and Gisborne. London is the chief market,
as it receives about half the fruit sent away, whilst a considerable
Jiuantity goes to Manchester, and some is sent to a neighbouring jam
actory at Histon, where also a moderate acreage of fruit is grown.
Another fruit-growing centre in Cambridgeshire is at Willing-
ham, where — besides plums, gooseberries and raspberries — outdoor
tomatoes are a feature. Greengages are largely grown near Cain-
bridge. Wisbech is the centre of an extensive fruit district,
situated partly in Cambridgeshire and partly in Norfolk. Goose-
berries, strawberries and raspberries are largely grown, and as many
as 80 tons of the first-named fruit have been sent away from Wisbech
station in a single day. In the fruit-growing localities of Huntingdon-
shire apples, plums and gooseberries are the most extensively grown,
but pears, greengages, cherries, currants, strawberries and raspberries
are also cultivated. As illustrating variations in price, it may be
mentioned that about the year 1880 the lowest price for gooseberries
was £10 per ton, whereas it has since been down to £4. Huntingdon-
shire fruit is sent chiefly to Yorkshire, Scotland and South Wales,
but railway freights are high.
Essex affords a good example of successful fruit-farming at Tiptrre
Heath, near Kelvedon, where under one management about 260
acres out of a total of 360 are under fruit. The soil, a stiff loam,
grows strawberries to perfection, and 165 acres are allotted to this
fruit. The other principal crops arc 43 acres of raspberries and 30
acres of black currants, besides which there are small areas of red
currants, gooseberries, plums, damsons, greengages, cherries, apples,
quinces and blackberries. The variety of strawberry kno*n as the
Small Scarlet is a speciality here, ana it occupies 35 acres, as it
makes the best of jam. The Paxton, Royal Sovereign and Noble
varieties are also grown. Strawberries stand for six or seven years
on this farm, and begin to yield well when two vears old. A jam
factory is worked in conjunction with the fruit farm. Pulp is not
made except when there is a glut of fruit. Perishable fruit intended
for whole-fruit preserves is never held over after it is gathered.
The picking of strawberries begins at 4 a.m., and the first lot is made
into jam by 6 a.m.
Hampshire, like Cambridgeshire and Norfolk, are the only counties
in which the area of small fniit exceeds that of orchards. The returns
for 1908 show that Hampshire had 3320 acres of small fruit to 2236
acres of orchards; Cambridge had 6878 acres of small fruit to 5221
of orchards; and Norfolk had 5876 acres of small fruit against
5188 acres of orchards. Compared with twenty years previously,
the acreage of small fruit had trebled. This is largely due in Hamp-
shire to the extension of strawberry culture in the Southampton
district, where the industry is in the hands of many small growers;
few of whom cultivate more than 20 acres each. Salisbury and
Botlcy arc the leading parishes in which the business is carried on.
Most of the strawberry holdings arc from half an acre to 5 acres in
extent, a few are from 5 to 10 acres, fewer still from 10 to 20 acres
and only half-a-dozen over that limit. Runners from one-year plants
are used for planting, being found more fruitful than those from
older plants. Peat-moss manure from London stables is much
used, out artificial manures are also employed with good result*.
Shortly after flowering the plants arc bedded down with straw at
the rate of about 25 cwt. per acre. Picking begins some ten davs
earlier than in Kent, at a date between 1st Tune and 15th June.
The first week's gathering is sent mostly to London, but subsequently
the greater part of the fruit goes to the Midlands and to Scotland and
Ireland.
In recent years fruit-growing has much increased in South
Worcestershire, in the vicinity of Evesham and Pershore. Hand-
lights are freely used in the market gardens of this district for the
protection of cucumbers and vegetable marrows, besides which
tomatoes are extensively grown qut of doors. At one time the egg
plum and the Worcester damson were the chief fruit crops, apples and
cherries ranking next, pears being grown to only a moderate extern.
According to the 1968 returns, however, apples come first, plums
second, pears third and cherries fourth. In a prolific season a single
tree of the Damascene or Worcester damson will yield from 400 to
500 lb of fruit. There is a tendency to grow plum trees in the bush
shape, as they are less liable than standards to injury from wind.
The manures used include soot, fish guano, blood manure and
phosphates— basic slag amongst the last-named. In the Pershore
district, where there is a jam factory, plums are the chief tree fruit,
whilst most of the orchard apples and pears arc grown for cider and
perry. Gooseberries are a feature, as are also strawberries, red and
black currants and a few white, but raspberries are little grown.
The soil, a strong or medium loam of fair depth, resting on day, is so
well adapted to plums that trees live for fifty years. 1 n order to check
the ravages of the winter moth, plum and apple trees are greaie-
banded at the beginning of October and again at the end of March.
The trees are also sprayed when necessary with insccttcidal sohitkms.
Pruning is done in the autumn. An approved distance apart at
which to grow plum trees is 1 2 ft. by 1 2 ft. In the Earl of Coventry's
fruit plantation, 40 acres in extent, at Croome Court, plums and
apples are planted alternately, the bottom fruit being black currants
which are less liable to injury from birds than are red currants or
gooseberries. Details concerning the methods of cultivation of
fruit and flowers in various parts of England, the varieties commonly
frown, the expenditure involved, and allied matters, will be found in
Ir W. E. Bear's papers in the Journal of the Royal Agrintiunl
Society in 1898 and 1899.
Apart altogether from market gardening and commercial fruit-
growing, it must be borne in mind that an enormous business is
done in the raising of young fruit-trees every year. Hundreds of
thousands of apples, pears, plums, cherries, peaches, nectarines and
apricots are budded or grafted each year on suitable stocks. They
are trained in various ways, and arc usually fit for sale the third
year. These irivate and commercial
gardens, and ilanutions in dufeftftt
parts of the
The Wob* The establishment is
1804 of the gmont. near Wobvrn.
Beds, has e x>n the progress and
development ["he farm was founded
and carried prise of the Duke ol
Bedford and tter acting a* director.
The main oh vas " to ascertain fscti
relative to tr our knowledge of. and
to improve c The farm is 20 acres is
extent, and < 1894 had bees used at
FRUIT AND FLOWER FARMING 265
arable land for the ordinary rotation of farm crops. The soil is a crops of fruit were about twice as heavy as in 1897 and 1899, but
sandy loam 9 or 10 in. deep, resting on a bed of Oxford Clay. Although it has not been found possible to correlate these variations with the
it contains a large proportion of sand, the land would generally be meteorological recordsof the several seasons. Taking the average of all
termed very heavy, and the water often used to stand on it in places the varieties, the relative weights of crop per plant, when these art
for weeks together in a wet season. The tillage to which the ground compared with the two-year-old plants in the same season, are, for
was subjected for the purposes of the fruit farm much improved its the five ages of one to five years, 31, loo, 122, lai and 134, apparently
character, and in dry weather it presents as good a tilth as could be showing that the bearing power increases rapidly up to two years,
desired. Chemical analyses of the soil from different parts of the field less rapidly up to three years, after which age it remains practically
show such wide differences that it is admitted to be by no means an constant. The relative average size of the berries shows a deteriora-
idcal one for experimental purposes. Without entering upon further tion with the age of the plant. The comparative sizes from plants of
details, it may be useful to give a summary of the chief results one to five years old were 115, loo, 96, 91 and 8a respectively. If
obtained. the money value of the crop is taken to be directly dependent on its
Apples have been grown and treated in a variety of ways, but of total weight, and also on the size of the fruits, the relative values
the different methods of treatment careless planting, coupled with of the crop for the different ages would be 34, too, 117, ill and no,
subsequent neglect, has given the most advene results, the crop so that, on the Ridgmont ground, strawberry plants could be profit*
of fruit being not 5 % of that from trees grown normally. Of the ably retained up to five years and probably longer. As regards
separate deleterious items constituting total neglect, by far the most what may be termed the order of merit of different varieties of
effective was the growth of weeds on the surface; careless planting, strawberries, it appears that even small differences in position and
absence of manure, and the omission of trenching all had com- treatment cause large variations, not only in the features of the
paratively little influence on the results. A set of trees that had been crop generally, but also in the relative behaviour of the different
carelessly planted and neglected, but subsequently tended in the vaneties. The relative cropping power of the varieties under
early part of 1896, were in the autumn of that year only 10% apparently similar conditions may often be expressed by a number
behind their normally-treated neighbours, thus demonstrating that five or tenfold as great in one case as in the other. A comparison
the response to proper attention is prompt. The growth of grass of the relative behaviour of the same varieties in different seasons
around young apple trees produced a very striking effect, the injury is attended by similar variations. The varying sensitiveness of
being much greater than that due to weeds. It is possible, however, different varieties of strawberry plants to small and undefinable
that in wet years the ill-effects of both grass and weeds would be differences in circumstances is indeed one of the most important
less than in dry seasons. Nevertheless, the grass-grown trees, after facts brought to light in the experiments.
five years, were scarcely bigger than when planted, and the actual Fruit Culture in Ireland. — The following figures have been kindly
increase in weight which they showed during that time was about supplied by the Irish Board of Agriculture, and deal with the acreage
eighteen times smaller than in the case of similar trees in tilled uiricr fruit culture in Ireland up to the end of the year 1907.
ground. It is believed that one of the main causes of the ill-effects 1. Orchard Fruit— Statute Acres.
is the large increase in the evaporation of water from the soil which Apples 5839
is known to be produced by grass, the trees being thereby made to Pears 224
suffer from drought, with constant deprivation of other nourishment Plums 223
as well. That grass growing round young apple trees is deleterious Damsons 138
was a circumstance known to many horticulturists, but the extent to Other kinds ... ... 129
which it interferes with the development of the trees had never before — —
beenrealized. ThousandsofpoundsareannuallythrownawayinEng> Total . . 6543
land through want of knowledge of this fact. Vet trees will flourish . 2. Smell Fruii —
in grass under certain conditions. Whether the dominant factor is Currants, black ,..-.. 234
the age (or size) of the tree has been investigated by grassing over Currants, red and white 159
trees which have hitherto been in the open ground, and the results Gooseberries 675
appear to indicate that the grass is as deleterious to the older trees as Raspberries 374
it was to the younger ones. Again, it appears to have been demon- Strawberries 994
st rated that young apple trees, at all events in certain soils, require Mixed fruit 2470
but little or no manure in the early stages of their existence, so
that in this case also large eums must be annually wasted upon Total « . ..4906
manurial dressings which produce no effects. The experiments appears that while Ireland grows only about one-
have dealt with dwarf trees of quantityofapplesthatEnglanddoes.it is nevertheless
of each variety constituting one x* a hcad of Scotland and about 2000 acres ahead of
ments were repeated with Stirln ^ 4 , times fewer pears than England, but still is
trees of Bramley, Cox and Lane an d a „d a long way ahead of Wales in this fruit,
in 1894-1895. the dwarfs being Ui mcs fewer plums grown in Ireland than in England,
four. In each experiment the amc i„ Scotland, while Wales does very little indeed,
some one particular, this norm rcland is a long way behind Scotland in the culture
the trees carefully in trenched and raspberries, although with currants and goose*
the surface clean; cutting back y close. Considering the climate, and the fact that
in autumn, and shortening the j ^ding to the latest available returns, over 62,000
in summer; giving in autumn a I acre but not exceeding 5 acres (having a total of
and in February one of nitrate c [ t b possible fruit culture may become more prevalent
equivalent to one of 12 tons of . tnan lt has been in the past.
on branch treatment, the bad effects of omitting to cut the trees back r , r/rt , fl _ mmMtm ; mm r~Au*i*<u Tinrlni* *\*» N.f ♦«»> *.. *\,—*
on planting, or to prune them subsequently, is evident chiefly in J <*f Fbwcr-growint Industry.— During the last two or three
the straggling and bad shape of the resulting trees, but such trees also decades of the 19th century a very marked increase in flower
arc not so vigorous as they should be. The quantity of fruit borne, production occurred in England. Notably was this the case in
however, is in excess ofthc average. The check on the vigour and thc neighbourhood of London, where, within a radius of 15 or
growth of a tree by cutting or injuring its roots is in marked contrast ?T , . „u,vi, u- j i arM i.,«*ir. n »h.*i..~. *t M ~i M
with theeffectsof a simifar interference with the branches. Trees 2om. f the frmtcrorjs, which had largely taken theplace of garden
which had been root-pruned each year were in 1898 little more than vegetablcs,were themselves ousted in turn to satisfy the increasing
half as big as the normal trees, whilst those root-pruned every second demand for land for flower cultivation. No flower has entered
year were about two-thirds as big as the normal. The crops borne morc largely into thc development of the industry than the
by these trees were nevertheless heavy in proportion-to the size of „_.. . „ _°_ _ j„<r„,i;i n t ^.vj,,!,.,. -„. „*_, anvrxm gjL „,-:.♦:-.
the trees. Such frequent root-pruning is not, of course, a practice narcissus or daffodil, of which there arc now some 600 variet es.
which should be adopted. It was found that trees which had been Comparatively few of these, however, are grown for market
carefully lifted every other year and replanted at once experienced purposes, although all are charming from the amateur point of
no Ul-effects Jrorathe : c-Derationjl but in a case w J*^ n *J^.™ tcr view. On some flower farms a dozen or more acres are devoted
being lifted had been left in a shed for three days before replanting — «««.-..• «i««. »u« nM# i. l# .*: An «« k..iK« r~» .«i» .. ~-n •• ~r
which would reproduce to a certain extent the conditions experienced to narcissi alone, the production of bulbs for sale as well as of
when trees are sent out from a nursery— material injury was suffered, flowers for market being the object of the growers.
these trees after four years being 28% smaller than similar ones In*he London district the country in the Thames valley west
which had not been replanted. Sets of trees plantcdrepcctivcly f th mctropolis h M largcly occupied by flower iarms as It is
in November, January and March have, on the whole, shown . . . . -~ . - • J ut f. ^fa~—— •- ~~~~~~i..
nothing in favour of any of these different times for planting by fruit farms-in fact the cultivation of flowers is commonly
purposes. Some doubt is thrown on the accepted view that there associated with that of fruit. In the vicinity of Richmond
is a tendency, at any rate with young apple and pear trees, to fruit narcissi are extensively grown, as they also are more to the west
,B fi!Slw!?!rf l i«ri.tv fiv» <r.ftw*» virfetfa!. hav* h~n «««- fa the L 00 * Ditton *■*«*«*• ««- likewise ttonnd Twickenham,
as^w^eaA^ Isfcworth.Hounslow.Fdtham.ndH^ton. Roses come more
(be different ages, from one to five years. In 1896 and 1898 the into evidence in the neighbourhood of Hounslow, Cranford,
266
FRUIT AND FLOWER FARMING
Hillingdon and Uxbridge, and in some gardens daffodils and
roses occupy alternate rows. In this district also such flowers
as herbaceous paeonies, Spanish irises, German irises, Christmas
roses, lilies of the valley, chrysanthemums, foxgloves, holly-
hocks, wallflowers, carnations, &c, are extensively grown in
many market gardens. South of London is the Mitcham country,
long noted for its production of lavender. The incessant growth
of the lavender plant upon the same land, however, has led to
the decline of this industry, which has been largely transferred
to districts in the counties of Bedford Essex and Hertford. At
Mitcham, nevertheless, mixed flowers are very largely grown
for the supply of the metropolis, and one farm alone has nearly
too acres under flowers and glass-houses. Chrysanthemums,
asters, Iceland poppies, gaillardias, pansics, bedding calceolarias,
zonal pelargoniums and other plants are cultivated in immense
quantities. At Swanky and Eynsford, in Kent, flowers are
extensively cultivated in association with fruit and vegetables.
Narcissi, chrysanthemums, violets, carnations, campanulas,
roses, pansies, irises, sweet peas, and many other flowers are here
raised, and disposed of in the form both of cut flowers and of
plants.
The Scilly Isles are important as providing the main source
of supply of narcissi to the English markets in the early months
of the year. This trade arose almost by accident, for it was
about the year 1865 that a box of narcissi sent to Covenl Garden
Market, London, realized £1; and the knowledge of this fact
getting abroad, the farmers of the isles began collecting wild
bulbs from the fields in order to cultivate them and increase their
stocks. Some ten years, however, elapsed before the industry
promised to become remunerative. In 1885 a Bulb and Flower
Association was established to promote the industrial growth
of flowers. The exports of flowers in that year reached 65 tons,
and they steadily increased until 1893, when they amounted
to 450 tons, A slight decline followed, but in 1896 the quantity
exported was no less than 514 tons. This would represent
upwards of 3} million bunches of flowers, chiefly narcissi and
anemones. Rather more than 500 acres are devoted to flower-
growing in the isles, by far the greater part of this area being
assigned to narcissi, whilst anemones, gladioli, marguerites,
arum lilies, Spanish irises, pinks and wallflowers are cultivated
on a much smaller scale. The great advantage enjoyed by the
Scilly flower-growers, is earliness of production, due to climatic
causes; the soil, moreover, is well suited to flower culture and
there is an abundance of sunshine. The long journey to London
Is somewhat of a drawback, in regard to both time and freight,
but the earliness of the flowers more than compensates for this.
Open-air narcissi are usually ready at the beginning of January,
and the supply is maintained in different varieties up to the
middle or end of May. The narcissus bulbs are usually planted
in October, 4 in. by 3 in. apart for the smaller sorts and 6 in.
by 4 to 6 in. for the larger. A compost of farmyard manure,
seaweed, earth and road scrapings is the usual dressing, but
nitrate of soda, guano and bones arc also occasionally employed.
A better plan, perhaps, is to manure heavily the previous crop,
frequently potatoes, no direct manuring then being needed for
the bulbs, these not being left in the ground more than two or
three years. The expenses of cultivation are heavy, the cost
of bulbs alone— of which it requires nearly a quarter of a million
of the smaller varieties, or half as many of the largest, to plant
an acre — being considerable. The polyanthus varieties of
narcissus are likely to continue the most remunerative to the
flower-growers of Scilly, as they flourish better in these isles
than on the mainland.
In the district around the Wash, in the vicinity of such towns
as Wisbech, Spalding and Boston, the industrial culture ofbulbs
and flowers underwent great expansion in the period between
1880 and 1909. At Wisbech one concern alone has a farm of
some 900 acres, devoted chiefly to flowers and fruit, the soil
being a deep fine alluvium. Roses are grown here, one field
containing upwards of 100,000 trees. Nearly 30 acres are
devoted to narcissi, which are grown for the bulbs and also,
together with tulips, for cut flowers. Carnations are cultivated
both in the field and in pots. Cut flowers are sent out in large
quantities, neatly and effectively packed, the parcel post being
mainly employed as a means of distribution. In the neighbour-
hood of Spalding crocuses and snowdrops are lesa extensively
grown than used to be the case. On one farm, however, upwards
of 30 acres are devoted to narcissi alone, whilst gladioli, lilies
and irises are grown on a smaller scale. Around Boston narcissi
are also extensively grown for the market, both bulbs and cut
blooms being sold. The bulbs are planted 3 in. apart in rows, the
latter being 9 in. apart, and are allowed to stand from two to
four years.
The imports of fresh flowers into the United Kingdom were not
separately shown prior to 1900. In that year, however, their value
amounted to £300,585, in 1901 to £335,011, in 1906 to £333,884, ta
1907 to £333,641, and in 1908 to £339.803, so that the trade showed
fairly steady condition.
Table VI. it would appear that the trade sinl
From the monthly totals quoted in
ties to its minimum
Table VI.— Values of Fresh Flowers imported into the Untied
Kingdom.
Month.
1906.
1907.
1908.
January ....
February •. .
March ....
April
May
June
July
August
September. . . .
October ....
November. . . .
December ....
Total . .
£31.035
34.647
50,333
30,809
33,980
17.641
A
*S
17.506
18,669
£18.545
25.541
43,611
50418
S3
4.509
3,180
15.763
30.674
£39.180
30.541
a5.|$S
43,681
»3.M9
16*04-
M67
1,081
953
4404
27,000
£333.884
£333.641
£33*803
dimensions in the four months July to October inclusive, and that
after September the business continually expands up to April
subsequent to which contraction again sets in. About one-batf at
the trade belongs practically to the three months of February,
March and April.
Hothouse Culture of Fruit and Flowers. — The cultivation
of fruit and flowers under glass has increased enormously
since about the year 1880, especially in the neighbourhood
of London, where large sums of money have been sunk in the
erection and equipment of hothouses. In the parish of rhfihunt.
Herts, alone there are upwards of 130 acres covered with glass,
and between that place on the north and London on the south
extensive areas of land are similarly utilized. In Middlesex,
in the north, in the districts of Edmonton, Enfield, Ponders Ead
and Finchley, and in the west from Isleworth to Waff**™,
Feltham, Hillingdon, Sipson and Uxbridge, many crops are now
cultivated under glass. At Erith, Swanky, and other places is
Kent, as also at Worthing, in Sussex, glass-house culture bss
much extended. A careful estimate puts the area of industrial
hothouses in England at about 1200 acres, but it is probably
much more than this. Most of the greenhouses are fixtures,
but in some parts of the kingdom structures that move on rails
and wheels are used, to enable the ground to be prepared in the
open for one crop while another is maturing under glass. The
leading products are grapes, tomatoes and cucumbers, the last-
named two being true fruits from the botanist's point of view,
though commercially included with vegetables. To these amy
be added on the same ground dwarf or French beans, and runner
or climbing beans. Peaches, nectarines and strawberries are
largely grown under glass, and, in private hothouses from
which the produce is used mainly for household consumption
and which are not taken into consideration here— -pineapples,
figs and other fruit. Conservative estimates indicate the avenge
annual yield of hothouse grapes to be about 1 a tons per acre and
of tomatoes 20 tons. The greater part of the space in the hot-
houses is assigned to fruit, but whilst some bouses are devoted
exclusively to flowers, in others, where fruit is the main
object, flowers are forced in considerable quantities in winter
and early spring. The flowers grown under glass include raofe
hyacinths, primulas, cyclamens, spiraeas, mignonettes, racssfH,
FRUIT AND FLOWER FARMING
267
calc eol arias, rotes, chrysanthemums, daffodils, arum lilies or
callas, liliums, azaleas, eucharises, camellias, stephanotis,
tuberose), bouvaxdias, gardenias, heaths or ericas, poinsettias,
lilies of the valley .zonal pelargoniums,tuberous and fibrous rooted
begonias, and many others. There is an increasing demand for
foliage hothouse plants, such as ferns, palms, crotons, aspidistras,
araucarias, dracaenas, India-rubber plants, aralias, greviUeas,
&c. Berried plants like solanums and aucubas also find a ready
sale, while the ornamental kinds of asparagus such as sprengeri
and plumosus nanus, are ever in demand for trailing decorations,
as well as myrsiphyllum. Special mention must be made of the
winter or perpetual flowering carnations which are now grown
by hundreds of thousands in all parts of the kingdom for
decorative work during the winter season. The converse of
forcing plants into early blossom is adopted with such an im-
portant crop as lily of the valley. During the summer season the
crowns are placed in refrigerators with about 2 degrees of frost,
and quantities are taken out as required every week and trans-
ferred to the greenhouse to develop. Tomatoes are grown
largely in houses exclusively occupied by them, in which case two
and sometimes three crops can be gathered in the year. In the
Channel Islands, where potatoes grown under glass are lifted
in April and May, in order to secure the high prices of the early
markets, tomato seedlings are planted out from boxes into the
ground as quickly as the potatoes are removed, the tomato
planter working only a few rows behind the potato digger.
The trade in imported tomatoes is so considerable that home
growers are well justified in their endeavours to meet the demand
more fully with native produce, whether raised under glass or
in the open. Tomatoes were not separately enumerated in the
imports previous to 1900. It has already been stated that in
1000 the raw tomatoes imported amounted to 833,032 cwt. f
valued at £792,339, and in xooi to 793.991 cwt., valued at
£734,051- From the monthly quantities given in Table VII.,
Table VII.— Quantities of Tomato** imported into ike United
Kingdom.
Month.
1906.
1907.
1908.
January ....
February ....
March
April
May
June
July
August
September. . . .
October ....
November
December ....
Total . . .
Value . . .
61,940
58.187
106,458
103.273
67.933
62,906
238,362
180,046
114,860
52,678
4I.5I3
36,316
56,022
58.280
98,02!
109.657
114.041
144.379
150.907
102,600
101.198
67.860
66,522
66,591
73.409
69.350
86.928
8?90i
127.793
I71.978
"4.757
119.224
75.722
74.292
73.oi2
1,124,472
1. 135494
1.160.283
£953.475
£i.i35.499
£1,160,283
it would appear that the imports are largest in June, July and
August, about one-half of the year's total arriving during those
three months. It is too early in June and July for home-grown
outdoor tomatoes to enter into competition with the imported
product, but home-grown hothouse tomatoes should be qualified
to challenge this trade.
An important feature of modern flower growing is the pro-
duction and cultivation of what are known as ' hardy herbaceous
perennials." Some 2000 or 3000 different species and varieties
of these are now raised in special nurseries, and during the
spring, summer and autumn seasons magnificent displays arc
to be seen not only in the markets but at the exhibitions in
London and at the great provincial shows held throughout the
kingdom. The production of many of these perennials is so
easy that amateurs in several instances have taken it up as a
business hobby; and in some cases, chiefly through advertising
in the horticultural press, very lucrative concerns have been
established.
Ornamental flowering trees and shrubs constitute another
feature of modern gardening. These are grown and imported
by thousands chiefly for their sprays of blossom or foliage, and
for planting in large or small gardens, public parks, &c, for.
landscape effect. Indeed there is scarcely an easily grown plant
from the northern or southern temperate zones that does not now
find a place in the nursery or garden, provided it is sufficiently
attractive to sell for its flowers, foliage or appearance.
Conditions of the Fruit and Flower growing Industries. — As
regards open-air fruit-growing, the outlook for new ventures is
perhaps brighter than in the hothouse industry, not — as Mr
Bear has pointed out — because the area of fruit land in England-
is too small, but because the level of efficiency, from the selection
of varieties to the packing and marketing of the produce, is very
much lower in the former than in the latter branch of enterprise,
In other words, whereas the practice of the majority of hothouse
nurserymen is so skilled, so up-to-date, and so entirely under high
pressure that a new competitor, however well trained, will find
it difficult to rise above mediocrity, the converse is true of open-
air fruit-growers. Many, and an increasing proportion, of the
latter are thoroughly efficient in all branches of their business,
and are in possession of plantations of the best market varieties
of fruit, well cultivated, pruned and otherwise managed. But
the extent of fruit plantations completely up to the mark in
relation to varieties and treatment of trees and bushes, and in
connexion with which the packing and marketing of the produce
are equally satisfactory, is small in proportion to the total fruit
area of the country. Information concerning the best treatment
of fruit trees has spread widely in recent years, and old planta-
tions, as a rule, suffer from the neglect or errors of the past,
however skilful their present holders may be. Although the
majority of professional market fruit-growers may be well up
to the standard in skill, there are numerous contributors to!
the fruit supply who are either ignorant of the best methods
of cultivation and marketing or careless in their application.'
The bad condition of the great majority of farm orchards iS|
notorious, and many landowners, farmers and amateur gardeners,
who have planted fruit on a more or less extensive scale have'
mismanaged their undertakings. For these reasons new growers
of open-air fruit for market have opportunities of succeeding by
means of superiority to the majority of those with whom they
will compete, provided that they possess the requisite knowledge,
energy and capital. It has been asserted on sound authority
that there is no chance of success for fruit-growers except ia
districts favourable as regards soil, climate and nearness to a
railway or a good market; and, even under these conditions,
only for men who have had experience in the industry and are
prepared t'o devote their unremitting attention to it. Most
important is it to a beginner that he should ascertain the varieties
of fruit that flourish best in his particular district. Certain kinds
seem to do well or fairly well in all parts of the country; others,
whilst heavy croppers in some localities, are often unsatisfactory
in others.
As has been intimated, there is probably in England less room
for expansion of fruit culture under glass than in the open.
The large increase of glass-houses in modern times appears to
have brought the supply of hothouse produce, even at greatly,
reduced prices, at least up to the level of the demand; and as
most nurserymen continue to extend their expanse of glass,
the prospect for new competitors is not a bright one. Moreover,
the vast scale upon which some of the growers conduct the
hothouse industry puts small producers at a great disadvantage,
not only because the extensive producers can grow grapes and
other fruit more economically than small growers— with the
possible exception of those who do all or nearly all their own
work— but also, and still more, because the former have greater
advantagesin transportingand marketing their fruit. There has,
in recent years, been a much greater fall in the prices of hothouse
than of open-air fruit, especially under the existing system of
distribution, which involves the payment by consumers of 507
to 100% more in prices than growers receive. The best opening*
for new nurseries are probably not where they are now to to
found in large groups, and especially not in the neighbourhood
268
FRUIT AND FLOWER FARMING
of London, but in suitable spots near the great centres of popula-
tion in the Midlands and the North, or big towns elsewhere not
already well supplied with nurseries. By such a selection of a
locality the beginner may build up a retail trade in hothouse
fruit, or at least a trade with local fruiterers and grocers, thus
avoiding railway charges and salesmen's commissions to a great
extent, though it may often be advantageous to send certain
kinds of produce to a distant market. Above all, a man who has
no knowledge of the hothouse industry should avoid embarking
his capital in it, trusting himself in the hands of a foreman, as
experience shows that such a venture usually leads to disaster.
Some years of training in different nurseries are desirable for
any young man who is desirous of becoming a grower of hothouse
fruits or flowers.
There can be no doubt that flower-growing is greatly extending
in England, and that competition among home growers is be-
coming more severe. Foreign supplies of flowers have increased,
but not nearly as greatly in proportion as home supplies, and it
seems clear that home growers have gained ground in relation
to their foreign rivals, except with respect to flowers for the
growthofwhichforeignershaveextraordinary natural ad vantages.
There seems some danger of the home culture of the narcissus
being over-done, and the florists' chrysanthemum appears to
be produced in excess of the demand. Again, in the production
of violets the warm and sunny South of France has an advantage
not possessed by England, whilst Holland, likewise for climatic
reasons, maintains her hold upon the hyacinth and tulip trade.
Whether the production of flowers as a whole is gaining ground
upon the demand or not is a difficult question to answer. It is
true that the prices of flowers have fallen generally; but produc-
tion, at any rate under glass, has been cheapened, and if a fair
profit can be obtained, the fall in prices, without which the
existing consumption of flowers would be impossible, does not
necessarily imply over-production. There is some difference of
opinion among growers upon this point; but nearly all agree
that profits are now so small that production on a large scale is
necessary to provide a fair income. Industrial flower-growing
affords such a wide scope for the exercise of superior skill,
industry and alertness, that it is not surprising to find some
who are engaged in it doing remarkably well to all appearance,
while others are struggling on and hardly paying their way.
That a man with only a little capital, starting in a small way,
has many disadvantages is certain; also, that his chance of
saving money and extending his business quickly is much
smaller than it was. To the casual looker-on, who knows
nothing of the drudgery of the industry, flower-growing seems a
delightful method of getting a living. That it is an entrancing
pursuit there is no doubt; but it is equally true that it is a very
arduous one, requiring careful forethought, ceaseless attention
and abundant energy. Fortunately for those who might be
tempted, without any knowledge of the industry, to embark
capital in it, flower-growing, if at all comprehensive in scope, so
obviously requires a varied and extensive technical knowledge,
combined with good commercial ability, that any one can see
that a thorough training is necessary to a man who intends to
adopt it as a business, especially if hothouse flowers are to be
produced.
The market for fruit, and more especially for flowers, !s a fickle
one, and there is nearly always some uncertainty as to the course
of prices. The perishable nature of soft fruit and cut flowers renders
the markets very sensitive to anything in the nature of a glut, the
occurrence of which is usually attended with disastrous results to
producers. Foreign competition, moreover, has constantly to be
faced, and it is ukely to increase rather than diminish. French
growers have a great advantage over the open-air cultivators of
England, for the climate enables them to get their produce into the
markets early in the season, when the highest prices arc obtainable.
The geographical advantage which France enjoys in being so near
to England is, however, considerably discounted by the increasing
facilities for cold storage in transit, both by rail and sea. The develop-
ment of such facilities permits of the retail sale in England of luscious
fruit as fresh and attractive as when it was gathered beneath the
sunny skies of California. In the case of flowers, fashion is an
element not to be ignored. Flowers much in request in one season
may meet with very little demand in another, and it is difficult
for the producer to anticipate the changes which caprice may dictate,
Even for the same kind of flower the requirements are very uncertain,
and the white blossom which is all the rage in one season may be
discarded in favour of one of another colour in the next. • The sale
of fresh flowers for church decoration at Christmas and Easter has
reached enormous dimensions. The irregularity in the date of the
festival, however, causes some inconvenience to growers. If it falls
very early the great bulk of suitable flowers may not be sufficiently
forward for sale, whilst a late Easter may find the season too far
advanced. The trade in cut flowers, therefore, U generally attended
by uncertainty, and often by anxiety. ( W. Fa. ; J. Ws.)
United States
In the United States horticulture and market gardening have
now assumed immense proportions. In a country of over
3,000,000 sq. m., stretching from the Atlantic to the Pacific
on the one hand, and from the Gulf of Mexico to the great
northern lakes and the Dominion of Canada on the other, a
great variation of climatic conditions is not unnatural. From a
horticultural point of view there are practically two well-defined
regions: (1) that to the east of the Rocky Mountains across
to the Atlantic, where the climate is more like that of eastern
Asia than of western Europe so far as rainfall, temperature and
seasonable conditions are concerned; (2) that to the west of the
Rockies, known as the Pacific coast region, where the climate
is somewhat similar to that of western Europe. It may be added
that in the northern states— in Washington, Montana, North
Dakota, Minnesota, Wisconsin, &c— the winters are often very
severe, while the southern states practically enjoy a temperature
somewhat similar to that of the Riviera. Indeed the range of
temperature between the extreme northern states and the
extreme southern may vary as much as 1 20 F. The great aim
of American gardeners, therefore, has been to find out or to
produce the kinds of fruits, flowers and vegetables that are
likely to flourish indifferent parts of this immense country.
Fruit Culture. — There is probably no country in the world
where so many different kinds of fruit can be grown with ad-
vantage to the nation as in the United States. In the temperate
regions apples, pears and plums are h gely grown, and orchards
of these are chiefly to be found in the states of New York,
Massachusetts, Pennsylvania, Michigan, Missouri, Colorado,
and also in northern Texas, Arkansas and N. California, To
these may be added cranberries and quinces, which are chiefly
grown in the New England states. The quinces are not a crop
of first-rate importance, but as much as 800,000 bushels of
cranberries are grown each year. The peach orchards are
assuming great proportions, and are chiefly to be found in
Georgia and Texas, while grapes are grown throughout the
Republic from east to west in all favourable localities. Oranges,
lemons and citrons are more or less extensively grown in Florida
and California, and in these regions what are known as Japanese
or " Kelsey " plums (forms of Prunus Irifiora) are also grown
as marketable crops. Pomegranates are not yet largely grown,
but it is possible their culture will develop in southern Texas
and Louisiana, where the climate is tempered by the waters of
the Gulf of Mexico. Tomatoes are grown in most parts of the
country so easily that there is frequently a glut; while the
strawberry region extends from Florida to Virginia, Pennsylvania
and other states— thus securing a natural succession from south
to north for the various great market centres.
Of the fruits mentioned apples are undoubtedly the most
important. Not only are the American people themselves
supplied with fresh fruit, but immense quantities are exported
to Europe — Great Britain alone absorbing as much as 1,430,000
cwt. in 1908. The varieties originally grown were of coons
those taken or introduced from Europe by the early settlers,
Since the middle of the 19th century great changes have been
brought about, and the varieties mostly cultivated now are
distinctly American. They have been raised by crossing and
intercrossing the most suitable European forms with others
since imported from Russia. In the extreme northern states
indeed, where it is essential to have apple trees that will stud
the severest winters, the Russian varieties crossed with tat
berry crab of eastern Europe (Pyrus baccata) have
FRUIT AND FLOWER FARMING
269
a nee eminently suited to that particular region. The individual
fruits are not very large, but the trees are remarkably hardy.
Farther south larger fruited varieties are grown, and among
these may be noted Baldwins, Newton pippins, Spitzenbergs
and Rhode Island greening. Apple orchards are numerous
in the State of New York, where it is estimated that over 100,000
acres are devoted to them. In the hilly regions of Missouri,
Arkansas and Colorado there are also great plantations 6f apples.
The trees, however, are grown on different principles from those
in New York State. In the latter state apple trees with ordinary
care live to more than 100 years of age and produce great crops;
fa the other states, however, an apple tree is said to be middle-
aged at 20, decrepit at 30 and practically useless at 40 years of
age. They possess the advantage, however, of bearing early and
heavily.
Until the introduction of the cold-storage system, about the
year 1880, America could hardly be regarded as a commercial
fruit-growing country. Since then, however, owing to the
great improvements made in railway refrigerating vans and
storage houses, immense quantities of fruit can be despatched
in good condition to any part of the world; or they can be kept
at home in safety until such time as the markets of Chicago,
New York, Boston, Baltimore, Philadelphia, &c, are con-
sidered favourable for their reception.
Apple trees are planted at distances varying from 95 ft. to
30 ft. apart in the middle western states, to 40 ft. to 50 ft. apart
in New York State. Here and there, however, in some of the
very best orchards the trees are planted 60 ft. apart every way.
Each tree thus has a chance to develop to its utmost limits, and
as air and light reach it better, a far larger fruit-bearing surface
is secured Actual experience has shown that trees planted at
60 ft. apart — about 28 to* the acre — produce more fruit by 43
bushds than trees at 30 ft. apart — i.e. about 48 to the acre.
Until recent years pruning as known to English and French
gardeners was practically unknown. There was indeed no great
necessity for it, as the trees, not being cramped for space, threw
their branches outwards and upwards, and thus rarely become
overcrowded. When practised, however, the operation could
scarcely be called pruning; lopping or trimming would be more
accurate descriptions.
Apple orchards are not immune from insect pests and fungoid
diseases, and an enormous business is now done in spraying
machines and various insecticides. It pays to spray the trees,
and figures have been given to show that orchards that have
been sprayed four times have produced an average income of
£211 per acre against £103 per acre from unsprayed orchards.
The spring frosts are also troublesome, and in the Colorado
and other orchards the process known as " smudging " is now
adopted to save the crops. This consists in placing so or 30,
or even more, iron or tin pots to an acre, each pot containing
wooden chips soaked in tar (or pitch) mixed with kerosene.
Whenever the thermometer shows 3 or 4 degrees of frost the
smudge-pots are lighted. A dense white smoke then arises and
is diffused throughout the orchards, enveloping the blossoming
heads of the trees in a dense cloud. This prevents the frost
from killing the tender pistils in the blossoms, and when several
smudge-pots are alight at the same time the temperature of the
orchard is raised two or three degrees. This work has generally
to be done between 3 and 5 a.m., and the growers naturally
have an anxious time until all danger is over. The failure to
attend to smudging, even on one occasion, may result in the
loss of the entire crop of plums, apples or pears.
Next to apples perhaps peaches are the most important fruit
crop. The industry is chiefly carried on in Georgia, Texas
and S. Carolina, and on a smaller scale in some of the adjoining
states. Peaches thus flourish in regions that are quite un-
suitable for apples or pears. In many orchards in Georgia,
where over 3,000,000 acres have been planted, there are as
many as 100,000 peach trees; while some of the large fruit
companies grow as many as 365,000. In one place in West
Virginia there is, however, a peach orchard containing 175,000
tiecs, and in Missouri another company has 3 sq. m. devoted
to peach culture. As a rule the crops do well Sometimes,
however, a disease known as the " yellows " makes sad havoc
amongst them, and scarcely a fruit is picked in an orchard which
early in the season gave promise of a magnificent crop.
Plums are an important crop in many states. Besides the
European varieties and those that have been raised by crossing
with American forms, there is now a growing trade done in
Japanese plums. The largest of these is popularly known as
4 Kelseys," named after John Kelsey, who raised the first frurt
in 1876 from trees brought to California in 1870. Sometimes the
fruits are 3 in. in diameter, and like most of the Japanese
varieties are more heart-shaped and pointed than plums of
European origin. One apparent drawback to the Kelsey plum
is its irregularity in ripening. It has been known in some years
to be quite ripe in June, while in others the fruits are still green
in October.
Pears are much grown in such states as Massachusetts, New
York, Pennsylvania, Missouri and California; while bush fruits
like currants, gooseberries and raspberries find large spaces
devoted in most of the middle and northern states. Naturally a
good deal of crossing and intercrossing has taken place amongst
the European and American forms of these fruits, but so far at
gooseberries are concerned no great advance seems to have been
made in securing varieties capable of resisting the devastating
gooseberry mildew.
Other fruits of more or less commercial value are oranges,
lemons and citrons, chiefly in Florida. Lemons are pract ically a
necessity to the American people, owing to the heat of the
summers, when, cool and refreshing drinks with an agreeable
acidulous taste are in great demand. The pomelo (grape-fruit)
is a kind of lemon with a thicker rind and a more acid flavour.
At one time its culture was confined to Florida, but of recent
years it has found its way into Californian orchards. Notwith-
standing the prevailing mildness of the climate in both California
and Florida, the crops of oranges, lemons, citrons, ftc., are
sometimes severely injured by frosts when in blossom.
Other fruits likely to be heard of in the future are the kakl
or persimmon, the loquat, which is already grown in Louisiana,
as well as the pomegranate.
Great aid and encouragement are given by the government to
the progress of American fruit-growing, and by the experiments
that are being constantly carried out and tabulated at Cornell
University and by the U.S.A. department of agriculture.
Flower Culture. — So far as flowers are concerned there appears
to be little difference between the kinds of plants grown in the
United States and in England, France, Belgium, Germany,
Holland, &c. Indeed there is a great interchange of new varieties
of plants between Europe arid America, and modifications In
systems of culture are being gradually introduced from one side
of the Atlantic to the other. The building of greenhouses for
commercial purposes is perhaps on a somewhat different scale
from that in England, but there are probably no extensive
areas of glass such as are to be seen north of London from
Enfield Highway to Broxburne. Hot water apparatus differs
merely in detail, although most of the boilers used resemble
those on the continent of Europe rather than inEngland. Great
business is done in bulbs— mostly imported from Holland— stove
and greenhouse plants, hardy perennials, orchids, ferns of the
" fancy " and " dagger " types of Nephrolcpis, and incarnations
and rosea. Amongst the latter thousands of such varieties as
Beauty, Liberty, Killarney, Richmond and Bride are grown,
and realize good prices as a rule in the markets. Carnations
of the winter-flowering or M perpetual " type have long been
grown in America, and enormous prices have been given for
individual plants on certain occasions, rivalling the fancy prices
paid in England for certain orchids. The American system of
carnation-growing has quite captivated English cultivators,
and new varieties are being constantly raised in both countries.
Chrysanthemums are another great feature of American florists,
and sometimes daring the winter season a speculative grower
will send a living specimen to one of the London exhibitions in
thelK)peofb<xtoglargecTdenforcuttingsofUlaterosu Sweet
270
FRUMENTIUS— FRY, SIR E.
peas, dahlias, lilies of the valley, arum lilies ahd indeed every
flower that is popular in England is equally popular in America,
sod consequently is largely grown.
Vegetables. — So far as these are concerned, potatoes, cabbages,
cauliflowers, beans of all kinds, cucumbers, tomatoes (already
referred to under fruits), musk-melons, lettuces, radishes, endives,
carrots^ &c ; are naturally grown In great quantities, not only in the
open air, but also under glass. The French system of intensive
cultivation as practised on not beds of manure round Paris is practi-
cally unknown at present. In the southern states there would be
no necessity to practise it, but in the northern ones it is likely to
attract attention. (J. Ws.)
FRUMENTIUS (c. 300-c. 360), the founder of the Abyssinian
church, traditionally identified in Abyssinian literature with
Abba Salama or Father of Peace (but see Ethiopia), was a
native of Phoenicia. According to the 4th -century historian
Rufinus (x. 9), who gives Aedesius himself as his authority, a
certain Tyrian, Meropius, accompanied by his kinsmen Fru-
mentius and Aedesius, set out on an expedition to " India,"
but fell into the hands of Ethiopians on the shore of the Red Sea
and, with his ship's crew, was put to death. The two young men
were taken to the king at Axum, where they were well treated
and in time obtained great influence. With the help of Christian
merchants who visited the country Frumentiusgave Christianity
a firm footing, which was strengthened when in 326 he was
consecrated bishop by Athanasius of Alexandria, who in his
Epistola ad Constantinum mentions the consecration, and gives
some details of the history of Frumentius's mission. Later
witnesses speak of his fidelity to the homoousian during the
Arian controversies. Aedesius returned to Tyre, where he was
ordained presbyter.
FRUNDSBBRG, OBORO VON (1473-1528), German soldier,
was born at Mindelheim on the 94th of September 1473. He
fought for the German king Maximilian I. against the Swiss
in 1499, and in the same year was among the imperial troops
sent to assist Ludovico Sforza, duke of Milan, against the French.
Still serving Maximilian, he took part in 1504 in the war over
the succession to the duchy of Bavaria-Landshut, and after-
wards fought in the Netherlands. Convinced of the necessity
of a native body of trained infantry Frundsberg assisted Maxi-
milian to organize the LandskneckU (q.v.), and subsequently at
the head of bands of these formidable troops he was of great
service to the Empire and the Habsburgs. In 1 509 he shared in
the war against Venice, winning fame for himself and his men;
and after a short visit to Germany returned to Italy, where
in 1 5 13 and 15 14 he gained fresh laurels by his enterprises
against the Venetians and the French. Peace being made, he
returned to Germany, and at the head of the infantry of the
Swabian league assisted to drive* Ulrich of Wurttemberg from
bis duchy in 1 5 1 9. At the diet of Worms in x 5 a 1 he spoke words
of encouragement to Luther, and when the struggle between
France and the Empire was renewed he took part in the invasion
of Picardy, and then proceeding to Italy brought the greater
part of Lombardy under the influence of Charles V. through his
victory at Bicocca in April 1522. He was partly responsible for
the great victory over the French at Pavia in February 1525, and,
returning to Germany, he assisted to suppress the Peasant revolt,
using on this occasion, however, diplomacy as well as force.
When the war in Italy was renewed Frundsberg raised an army
at his own expense, and skilfully surmounting many difficulties,
joined the constable de Bourbon near Piacenza and marched
towards Rome. Before he reached the city, however, his unpaid
troops showed signs of mutiny, and their leader, stricken with
illness and unable to pacify them, gave up his command.
Returning to Germany, he died at Mindelheim on the 20th of
August 1528. He was a capable and chivalrous soldier, and a
devoted servant of the Habsburgs. His son Caspar ( 1 500-1 536)
and his grandson Georg (d. 1586) were both soldiers of some
distinction. With the latter's death the family became extinct.
See Adam Reissner. Histeria Herrn Gcorgs und Hem Kasfxxrs
90% Frundsberg (Frankfort, I $68). A German translation of this
work was pubusbed at Frankfort in 1572. F. W. Barthold, Georg
son Frmneftberg (Hamburg, 1833): J. Heumann, Kriegsgeukieklt
tern Bsxyem, Frwnk^ I^ab mmdScJmalmt {Muai^ 1868).
FRUSTUM (Latin for a " piece broken off "), a term in geo-
metry for the part of a solid figure, such as a cone or pyramid,
cut off by a plane parallel to the base, or lying between two
parallel planes; and hence in architecture a name given to the
drum of a column.
FRUYT1BRS, PHILIP (1627-1666), Flemish painter and
engraver, was a pupil of the Jesuits' college at Antwerp in 1627,
and entered the Antwerp gild of painters without a fee in 1631.
He is described in the register of that institution as " illuminator,
painter and engraver." The current account of his life is " that
he worked exclusively in water colours, yet was so remarkable
in this branch of his art for arrangement, drawing, and especially
for force and clearness of colour, as to excite the admiration of
Rubens, whom he portrayed with all his family." The truth
is that he was an artist of the most versatile talents, as may be
judged from the fact that in 1646 be executed an Assumption
with figures of life size, and four smaller pictures in oil, for the
church of St Jacques at Antwerp, for which he received the
considerable sum of 1150 florins. Unhappily no undoubted
production of his hand has been preserved. All that we can
point to with certainty is a series of etched plates, chiefly por-
traits, which are acknowledged to have been powerfully and
skilfully handled. If, however, we search the portfolios of art
collections on the European continent, we sometimes stumble
upon miniatures on vellum, drawn with great talent and
coloured with extraordinary brilliancy. In form they quite
recall the works of Rubens, and these, it may be, are the work
of Philip Fruytiers.
FRY, the name of a well-known English Quaker family,
originally living in Wiltshire. About the middle of the i8lh
century Joseph Fry (1728-1787), a doctor, settled in Bristol,
where he acquired a large practice, but eventually abandoned
medicine for commerce. He became interested in china-making,
soap-boiling and type-founding businesses in Bristol, and in a
chemical works at Battersea, all of which ventures proved very
profitable. The type-founding business was subsequently re-
moved to London and conducted by his son Edmund. Joseph
Fry, however, is best remembered as the founder of the great
Bristol firm of J. S. Fry & Sons, chocolate manufacturers.
He purchased the chocolate-making patent of William Church-
man and on it laid the foundations of the present large business.
After his death the Bristol chocolate factory was carried on with
increasing success by his widow and by his son, Joseph Szorrs
Fry (1767-1835).
In 179s a new and larger factory was built in Union Street,
Bristol, which still forms the centre of the firm's premises, and
in 1708 a Watt's steam-engine was purchased and the cocoa-
beans ground by steam. On the death of Joseph Storrs Fry his
three sons, Joseph (1795-1879), Francis, and Richard ( 1807-1878)
became partners in the firm, the control being mainly in the
hands of Francis Fry (1803-1886).. Francis Fry was in every
way a remarkable character. The development of the business
to its modern enormous proportion was chiefly his work, but
this' did not exhaust his activities. He took a principal part in
the introduction of railways to the west of England, and in 185s
drew up a scheme for a general English railway parcel service.
He was an ardent bibliographer, taking a special interest in
early English Bibles, of which he made in the course of a long
life a large and striking collection, and of the most celebrated
of which he published facsimiles with bibliographical notes.
Francis Fry died in 1886, and his son Fcands J. Fry and nephew
Joseph Storrs Fry carried on the business, which in 1896 was
for family reasons converted into a private limited company,
Joseph Storrs Fry being chairman and all the directors member!
of the Fry family.
FRY, SIR EDWARD (1827- ), English judge, second son
of Joseph Fry (1795-1879), was born at Bristol on the 4th of
November 1827, and educated at University College, London,
and London University. He was called to the bar in 1854 and
was madeaQ.C.in 1869, practising in the rolls court and becoming
recognized as a leading equity lawyer. In 1877 he was raised
to the bench and knighted. As chancery Judge he will he
FRY, ELIZABETH— FUCHOW
271
remembered for his careful interpretations and elucidations of
the Judicature Acts, then first coming into operation. In 1883
be was made a lord justice of appeal, but resigned in 1892; and
subsequently his knowledge of equity and talents for arbitration
were utilized by the British government from time to time in
various special directions, particularly as chairman of many
commissions. He was also one of the British representatives
at the Paris North Sea Inquiry Commission (1005), and was
appointed a member of the Hague Permanent Arbitration Court.
He wrote A Treatise on the Specific Performance of Public Contracts
(London, 1858, and many subsequent editions).
FRY, ELIZABETH (1780-1845), English philanthropist, and,
alter Howard, the chief promoter of prison reform in Europe,
was born in Norwich on the 21st of May 1780. Her father,
John Gurney, afterwards of Earlham Hall, a wealthy merchant
and banker, represented an old family which for some generations
had belonged to the Society of Friends. While still a girl she
gave many indications of the bencvolenceof disposition,clearness
and independence of judgment, and strength of purpose, for which
she was afterwards so distinguished; but it was not until after
she had entered her eighteenth year that her religion assumed
a decided character, and that she was induced, under the preach-
ing of the American Quaker, William Sa very , to become an earnest
and enthusiastic though never fanatical " Friend." In August
1S00 she became the wife of Joseph Fry, a London merchant.
Amid increasing family cares she was unwearied in her attention
to the poor and the neglected of her neighbourhood; and in
181 1 shewasacknowledged by her co-religionists asa " minister,"
an honour and responsibility for which she was undoubtedly
qualified, not only by vigour of intelligence and warmth of heart,
but also by an altogether unusual faculty of clear, fluent and
persuasive speech. Although she had made several visits to
Newgate prison as early as February 1813, it was not until
nearly four years afterwards that the great public work of her
life may be said to ha vc begun. The association for the Improve-
ment of the Female Prisoners in Newgate was formed in April
1817. Its aim was the much-needed establishment of some of
what are now regarded as the first principles of prison discipline,
such as entire separation of the sexes, classification of criminals,
female supervision for the women, and adequate provision for
their religious and secular instruction, as also for their useful
employment. The ameliorations effected by this association,
and largely by the personal exertions of Mrs Fry, soon became
obvious, and led to a rapid extension of similar methods to other
places. In 1818 she, along with her brother, visited the prisons
of Scotland and the north of England; and the publication
(1819) of the notes of this tour, as also the cordial recognition
of the value of her work by the House of Commons committee
on the prisons of the metropolis, led to a great increase of her
correspondence, which now extended to Italy, Denmark and
Russia, as well as to all parts of the United Kingdom. Through
a visit to Ireland, which she made in 1827, she was led to direct
her attention to other houses of detention besides prisons; and
her observations resulted in many important improvements
in the British hospital system, and in the treatment of the insane.
In 1838 she visited France, and besides conferring with many
of the leading prison officials, she personally visited most of the
houses of detention in Paris, as well as in Rouen, Caen and some
other places. In the following year she obtained an official
permission to visit all the prisons in that country; and her tour,
which extended from Boulogne and Abbeville to Toulouse and
Marseilles, resulted in a report which was presented to the
minister of the interior and the prefect of police. Before returning
to England she had included Geneva, Zurich, Stuttgart and
Frankfort -on-Main in her inspection. The summer of 1840
found her travelling through Belgium, Holland and Prussia
on the same mission; and in 1841 she also visited Copenhagen.
In 1842, through failing health, Mrs Fry was compelled to forgo
her plans for a still more widely extended activity, but had the
satisfaction of hearing from almost every quarter of Europe
that the authorities were giving increased practical effect to her
suggestions. In 1844 she was seized with a lingering illness, of
which she died on the 12th of October 1845. She was survived
by a numerous family, the youngest of whom was born in 1827.
Two interesting volumes of Memoirs, with Extracts from her
Journals and Letters, edited by two of her daughters, were published
in 1847. Sec also Elizabeth Fry, by G. King Lewis (19 10).
FRYXELL, ANOEBS (1705-1881), Swedish historian, was
born at Hesselskog, Dalsland, Sweden, on the 7th of February
1 795. He was educated at Up&ala, took holy orders in 1820,
was made a doctor of philosophy in 1821, and in 1823 began to
publish the great work of his life, the Stories from Swedish
History. He did not bring this labour to a close until, fifty-six
years later, he published the forty-sixth and crowning volume
of his vast enterprise. Fryxell, as a historian, appealed to every
doss by the picturesqueness of his style and the breadth of his
research; he had the gift of awakening to an extraordinary
degree the national sense in his readers. In 1824 he published
his Swedish Grammar, which was long without a rival. In 1833
he received the title of professor, and in 1835 he was appointed
to the incumbency of Sunne, in the diocese of Karlstad, where
he resided for the remainder of his life. In 1840 he was elected
to the Swedish Academy in succession to the poet Wallin (x 770-
1839)* In 1847 Fryxell received from his bishop permission to
withdraw from all the services of the Church, that he might devote
himself without interruption to historical investigation. Among
his numerous minor writings are prominent his Characteristics
of Sweden between 1592 and 1600 (1830), his Origins of the In-
accuracy with which the History of Sweden in Catholic Times has
been Treated (1847), and his Contributions to the Literary History
of Sweden. It is now beginning to be seen that the abundant
labours of Fryxell were rather of a popular than of a scientific
order, and although their influence during his lifetime was
unbounded, it is only fair to later and exacter historians to
admit that they threaten to become obsolete in more than one
direction. On the 21st of March z88x Anders Fryxell died at
Stockholm, and in 1884 his daughter Eva Fryxell (born 1829)
published from his MS. an interesting HiStory of My History,
which was really a literary autobiography and displays the
persistency and tirclessness of bis industry. (E. G.)
FUAD PASHA (1815-1869), Turkish statesman, was the son
of the distinguished poet Kecheji-zadt Izzet Molla. He was
educated at the medical school and was at first an army surgeon.
About 1836 he entered the civil service as an official of the
foreign ministry. He became secretary of the embassy in
London; was employed on special missions in the principalities
and at St Petersburg (1848), and was sent to Egypt as special
commissioner in 1 851. In that year he became minister for
foreign affairs, a post to which he was appointed also on four
subsequent occasions and which he held at the time of his death.
During the Crimean War he commanded the troops on the
Greek frontier and distinguished himself by his bravery. He
was Turkish delegate at the Paris conference of 1856; was
charged with a mission to Syria in i860; grand vizier in isoo
and 1861, and also minister of war. He accompanied the
sultan Abd-ul-Aziz on his journey to Egypt and Europe, when
the freedom of the city of London was conferred on him. He
died at Nice (whither he had been ordered for his health) in
1869. Fuad was renowned for his boldness and promptness
of decision, as well as for his ready wit and his many bons nuts.
Generally regarded as the partisan of a pro-English policy,
he rendered most valuable service to his country by his
able management of the foreign relations of Turkey, and not
least by his efficacious settlement of affairs in Syria after the
massacres of i860.
FUCHOW, Fu-chau, FoOchow, a city of China, capital of
the province of Fu-kien, and one of the principal ports open to
foreign commerce. In the local dialect it is called Hokchiu.
It is situated on the river Min, about 35 m. from the sea, in
26 5* N. and 119 * 20' E., 140 m. N. of Amoy and 280 S. of
Hang-chow. The city proper, lying nearly 3 m. from the north
bank of the river, is surrounded by a wall about 30 ft. high and
1 2 ft. thick, which makes a circuit of upwardsof $ m. and is pierced
by seven gateways surrounded by tall fantastic watch-to*
272
FUCHS, J. N.— FUCHSIA
The whole district between the city and the river, the island of
Nantai, and the southern banks of the Min are occupied by
extensive suburbs; and the river itself bears a large floating
population. Communication from bank to bank is afforded
by a long stone bridge supported by forty solid stone piers in its
northern section and by nine in its southern. The most remark-
able establishment of Fuchow is the arsenal situated about
j m. down the stream at Pagoda Island, where the sea-going
vessels usually anchor. It was founded in 1867, and is conducted
under the direction of French engineers according to European
methods. In 1870 it employed about 1000 workmen besides
fifty European superintendents, and between that date and
1880 it turned out about 20 or 30 small gunboats. In 1884 it
was partially destroyed by the French fleet, and for a number of
years the workshops and machinery were allowed to stand idle
and go to decay. On the 1st of August 1895 an attack was
made on the English mission near the city of Ku-chang, 120 m.
west of Fuchow, on which occasion nine missionaries, of whom
eight were ladies, were massacred. The port was opened to
European commerce in 1842; and in 1853 the firm Of Russell
and Co. shipped the first cargoes of tea from Fuchow to Europe
and America. The total trade in foreign vessels in 1876 was
imports to the value of £1,531,617, and exports to the value
of £3*330,489. In X904 the imports amounted to £1,440,351,
and the exports to £1,034,436. The number of vessels that
entered in 1876 was 275, and of these 211 were British, 27
German, xx Danish and 9 American. While in 1904 480
vessels entered the port, 2x6 of which were British. A large
trade is carried on by the native merchants in timber, paper,
woollen and cotton goods, oranges and olives; but the foreign
houses mainly confine themselves to opium and tea. Commercial
intercourse with Australia and New Zealand is on the increase.
The principal imports, besides opium, are shirtings, T-cloths,
lead and tin, medicines, rice, tobacco, and beans and peas.
Two steamboat lines afford regular communication with Hong-
Kong twice a month. The town is the seat of several important
missions, of which the first was founded in 1846. That supported
by the American board had in 1876 issued 1,3000,000 copies of
Chinese books and tracts.
7UCHS, JOHANN NEPOMUK VOH (1774-1856), German
chemist and mineralogist, was born at Mattenzell, near Brcnnberg
in the Bavarian Forest, on the 15th of May 1774. In 1807 he
became professor of chemistry and mineralogy at tha university
of Landshut, and in 1823 conservator of the mineralogical
collections at Munich, where he was appointed professor of
mineralogy three years later, on the removal thither of the
university of Landshut. He retired in 1852, was ennobled by
the king of Bavaria in 1854, and died at Munich on the 5th of
March 1856. His name is chiefly known for his mineralogical
observations and for his work on soluble glass.
His collected works, including Vber den Einfluss der Ckemie und
MHneroJogje (1824), Die Naturtesckichte des Mineralreicks (1842),
Vber die Theorien der Erde (1844), were published at Munich in 1856.
FUCHS, LEONHARD (1 501-1566), German physician and
botanist, was born at Wembdingen in Bavaria on the 17th
of January 1501. He attended school at Heilbronnand Erfurt,
and in 152 x graduated at the university of Ingolstadt. About
the same time he espoused the doctrines of the Reformation.
Having in 1524 received his diploma as doctor of medicine, he
practised for two years in Munich. He became in 1 526 professor
of medicine at Ingolstadt, and in 1528 physician to the margrave
of Anspach. In Anspach he was the means of saving the lives
of many during the epidemic locally known as the " English
sweating-sickness." By the duke of Wtirttemberg he was, in
1535. appointed to the professorship of medicine at the university
of Tubingen, a post held by him till his death on the xoth of May
1566. Fuchs was an advocate of the Galenic school of medicine,
and published several Latin translations of treatises by its
founder and by Hippocrates. But his most important publica-
tion was De kistoria stirpium commentarii insignes (Basel, 1542),
a work illustrated with more than five hundred excellent outline
illustrations, including figures of the common foxglove and of
another species of the genus Digitalis, which was so named by
him.
FUCHSIA, so named by Plumier in honour of the botanist
Leonhard Fuchs, a genus of plan tsof the natural order Onagraceae,
characterized by entire, usually opposite leaves, pendent flowers,
a funnel-shaped, brightly coloured, quadripartite, deciduous
calyx, 4 petals, alternating with the calycine segments, 8, rarely
10, exserted stamens, a long filiform style, an inferior ovary,
and fruit, a fleshy ovoid many-seeded berry. All the members
of the genus, with the exception of the New Zealand species,
F. excorticate, F. Colcnsoi and F. procumbens, are natives of
Central and South America— occurring in the interior of forests
or in damp and shady mountainous situations. The various
species differ not a little in size as well as in other characters;
some, as F, verrucosa, being dwarf shrubs; others, as F. arbo-
rescens and F. apctala, attaining a height of 1 2 to x6 f t~, and having
stems several inches in diameter. Plumier, in his Nova plan-
larum Americanarum genera (p. 14, tab. 14, Paris, 1703), gave
a description of a species of fuchsia, the first known, under the
name of Fuchsia triphylla, fLore coccineo, and a somewhat con-
ventional outline figure
of the same plant was
published at Amster-
dam in 1757 by Bur-
mann. In the Histoire
des planus uUdicinales
of the South American
traveller Feuillec. (p. 64,
pi xlvu.), written in
1709-17x1, and pub-
lished by him with his
Journal, Paris, 1725,
the name ThUco is
applied to a species of
fuchsia from Chile,
which is described,
though not evidently
so figured, as having
a pentamerous calyx.
The F. coccinca of Aiton
(fig.) (see J. D Hooker,
in Journal Linnean Soc.,
Botany, vol x. p.
1867), the first species
of fuchsia cultivated in
England, where it was „ . .
long confined to the Fuchsta cocctnea.
greenhouse, was brought Jj^Tf*?. TZ^JSS^ *
from South America by •epals; ^ fru.t. 3, floral dmgram.
Captain Firth in 1788 and placed in Kew Gardens. Of this
species Mr Lee, a nurseryman at Hammersmith, soon after-
wards obtained an example, and procured from it by means
of cuttings several hundred plants, which he sold at a guinea
each. In 1823 F. macroslcmma and F. gracilis, and during
the next two or three years several other species, were intro-
duced into England; but it was not until about 1837, or
soon after florists had acquired F. fulgens, that varieties of
interest began to make their appearance. The numerous
hybrid forms now existing are the result, chiefly of the
intercrossing of that or other long-flowered with globose-
flowered plants. P. Venus-victrix, raised by Mr Gulliver,
gardener to the Rev. S. Marriott of Horsemonden, Kent, and sold
in 1822 to Messrs Cripps, was the earliest white-sepallcd fuchsia.
The first fuchsia with a white corolla was produced about 1S53
by Mr Storey. In some varieties the blossoms are variegated,
and in others they are double. There appears to be very Utile
limit to the number of forms to be obtained by careful cultivatkn
and selection. To hybridize, the flower as soon as it opens a
emasculated, and it is then fertilized with pollen from tone
different flower.
Ripe seed is sown either in autumn or about February or March
in light, rich, well-drained mould, and is thinly covered "ah
t Alton
looker, A
mSoc., IV
P. 458, v
FUCHSINE— FUCINO 273
Sindy soil and watered. A temperature of 70 to 7 5°Fahr. has 1
been found suitable for raising. The seedlings arc pricked off
into shallow pots or pans, and when 3 in. in height are transferred l
to 3-in. pots, and are then treated the same as plants from 5
cuttings. Fuchsias may be grafted as readily as camellias,
preferably by the splice or whip method, the apex of a young
shoot being employed as a scion; but the easiest and most usual •
method of propagation is by cuttings. The most expeditious
way to procure these is to put plants in heat in January, and to !
take their shoots when 3 in. in length. For summer flowering
in England they are best made about the end of August, and
should be selected from the snortest-jointed young wood. They
root readily in a compost of loam and silver-sand if kept close
and sprinkled for a short time. In from two to three weeks they
may be put into 3-in. pots containing a compost of equal parts of
rich loam, silver-sand and leaf-mould. They are subsequently
moved from the frame or bed. first to a warm and shady, and
then to a more airy part of the greenhouse. In January a little
artificial heat may be given, to be gradually increased as the
days lengthen. The side-shoots arc generally pruned when they
have made three or four joints, and for bushy plants the leader is
stopped soon after the first potting. Care is taken to keep the
plants as near the glass as possible, and shaded from bright
sunshine, also to provide them plentifully with water, except
at the time of shifting, when the roots should be tolerably dry.
For the second potting a suitable soil is a mixture of well-rotted
cow-dung or old hotbed mould with leaf-mould and sandy peat,
and to promote drainage a little peat-moss may be placed
immediately over the crocks in the lower part of the pot. Weak
liquid manure greatly promotes the advance of the plants, and
should be regularly supplied twice or thrice a week during the
flowering season. After this, water is gradually withheld from
them, and they may be placed in the open air to ripen their wood.
Among the more hardy or half-hardy plants for inside borders
are varieties of the Chilean species, F. macrottemma (or F.
Magellan tea), a shrub 6 to 12 ft. high with a scarlet calyx, such
as F. jr. globosa, F. m. gracilis', one of the most graceful and
hardy of these, a hybrid P. riccartoni, was raised at Riccarton,
near Edinburgh, in 1830. For inside culture may be mentioned
F. boliviana (Bolivia), 3 to 4 ft. high, with rich crimson flowers
with a trumpet-shaped tube; F. corymbiflom (Peru), 4 to 6 ft.
high, with scarlet flowers nearly 2 in. long in long terminal
clusters; F. Jul gens (Mexico), 4 to 6 ft., with drooping apical
clusters of scarlet flowers; F. micropkylla (Central America),
with' small leaves and small scarlet funnel-shaped flowers, the
petals deep red ; F. procumbent (New Zealand), a pretty little
creeper, the small flowers of which arc succeeded by oval magenta-
crimson berries which remain on for months; and F. splendent
(Mexico), 6 ft. high, with very showy scarlet and green flowers.
But these cannot compare in beauty or freedom of blossom with
the numerous varieties raised by gardeners. The nectar of
fuchsia flowers has been shown to contain nearly 78% of cane
sugar, the remainder being fruit sugar. The berries of some
fuchsias are subacid or sweet and edible. From certain species
a dye is obtainable. The so-called " native fuchsias" of southern
and eastern Australia are plants of the genus Corrca, natural
order Rutaccae.
FUCHSINE, or Magenta, a red dyestuff consisting of a mixture
of the hydrochlorides or acetates of pararosaniline and rosaniline.
It was obtained in 1856 by J. Natanson (Ann., 1856, 98, p. 297)
by the action of ethylene chloride on aniline,' and by A. W.
Hofmann in 1858 from aniline and carbon tetrachloride. It
is prepared by oxidizing " aniline for red " (a mixture of aniline
and ortho-and para-toluidinc) with arsenic acid (II. Mcdlock,
Dingier' s Poly. Jour., 1860, 158, p. 146); by heating aniline
for red with nitrobenzene, concentrated hydrochloric acid and
iron (Coupler, Ber., 1873, 6, p. 423) ; or by condensing formalde-
hyde with aniline and ortho-toluidine and oxidizing the mixture.
It forms small crystals, showing a brilliant green reflex, and is
soluble In water and alcohol with formation of a deep red solution.
It dyes silk, wool and leather direct, and cotton after mordanting
with tannin and tartar emetic (see Dyeing). An aqueous solu-
XI 5*
*74
FUEL
POLIO
reclaimed area is iz\ m. long, 7 m. broad, and is cultivated by
families from the Torlonia estates. The outlet by which it was
drained is 4 m. long and 24 sq. yds. in section.
See A. Brisse and L. de Rotron, Lt Desslchement du lac Fucin,
exhuti par S. E. It Prince A . Torlonia (Rome, 1876). (T. As.)
FUBL (O. Yt.jeuaile, popular La.1. focaJia, (torn focus, hearth,
fire), a term applicable to all substances that can be usefully
employed for the production of heat by combustion. Any
element or combination of elements susceptible of oxidation may
•under appropriate conditions be made to burn; but only those
that ignite at a moderate initial temperature and burn with com-
parative rapidity, and, what is practically of more importance,
are obtainable in quantity at moderate prices, can fairly be
regarded as fuels. The elementary substances that can be so
classed are primarily hydrogen, carbon and sulphur, while others
finding more special applications are silicon, phosphorus, and the
more readily oxidizable metals, such as iron, manganese, alu-
minium and magnesium. More important, however, than the
elements are the carbohydrates or compounds of carbon, oxygen
and hydrogen, which form the bulk of the natural fuels, wood,
peat and coal, as well as of their liquid and gaseous derivatives—
coal-gas, coal-tar, pitch, oil, &c, which have high values as fuel.
Carbon in the elementary form has its nearest representative in
the carbonized fuels, charcoal from wood and coke from coaL
Solid Fuels.
Wood may be considered as having the following average
composition when in the air-dried state: Carbon, 396; hydro-
gen, 48; oxygen, 34-8; ash, 10; water, 20%.
When it is freshly felled, the water may be from 18 to
50% . Air-dried or even green wood ignites readily when a con-
siderable surface is exposed to the kindling flame, but in large
masses with regular or smooth surfaces it is often difficult to get
it to burn. When previously torrefied or scorched by heating to
a temperature of about 200°, at which incipient charring is set up,
it is exceedingly inflammable. The ends of imperfectly charred
boughs from the charcoal heaps in this condition are used in Paris
and other large towns in France for kindling purposes, under the
name of fumerons. The inflammability, however, varies with
the density,— the so-called hard woods, oak, beech and maple,
taking fire less readily than the softer, and, more especially,
the coniferous varieties rich in resin. The calorific power of
absolutely dry woods may as an average be taken at about 4000
units, and when air-dried, i.e. containing 25% of water, at 2800
to 3000 units. Their evaporative values, i.e. the quantities of
water evaporated by unit weight, are 3-68 and 4*44.
Wood being essentially a flaming fuel is admirably adapted for
use with heat-receiving surfaces of large extent, such as loco-
motive and marine boilers, and is also very clean in use. The
absence of all cohesion in the cinders or unburnt carbonized
residue causes a large amount of ignited particles to be projected
from the chimney, when a rapid draught is used, unless special
spark-catchers of wire gauze or some analogous contrivance are
used. When burnt in open fireplaces the volatile products given
off in the apartment on the first heating have an acrid penetrat-
ing odour, which is, however, very generally considered to be
agreeable. Owing to the large amount of water present , no very
high temperatures can be obtained by the direct combustion of
wood, and to produce these for metallurgical purposes it is
necessary to convert it previously either into charcoal or into
inflammable gas.
Peat includes a great number of substances of very unequal
fuel value, the most recently formed spongy light brown kind
^^ approximating in composition to wood, while the
dense pitchy brown compact substance, obtained from
the bottom of bogs of ancient formation, may be compared with
lignite or even in some instances with coal. Unlike wood, how-
ever, it contains incombustible matter in variable but large
quantity, from 5 to 15% or even more. Much of this, when the
amount is large, is often due to sand mechanically intermixed;
when air-dried the proportion of water is from 8 to 20 %. When
these constituents are deducted the average composition may
be stated to be— carbon, 52 to 66; hydrogen, 4*7 to 7-4; oxygen,
28 to 39; and nitrogen, 15 to 3%. % Average air-dried peat may
be taken as having a calorific value of 3000 to 3500 units, and when
dried at ioo° C, and with a minimum of ash (4 to 5%), at about
5200 units, or from a quarter to one-third more than that of an
equal weight of wood. The lighter and more spongy varieties of
peat when air-dried are exceedingly inflammable, firing at a
temperature of 200° C. ; the denser pulpy kinds ignite less readily
when in the natural state, and often require a still higher tempera-
ture when prepared by pulping and compression or partial
carbonization. Most kinds burn with a red smoky flame, develop-
ing a very strong odour, which, however, has its admirers in the
same way that wood smoke has. This arises from the destructive
.distillation of imperfectly carbonized organic matter. The ash,
like that of wood, is light and powdery, except .when much sand
is present, when it is of a denser character.
Peat is principally found in high latitudes, on exposed high
tablelands and treeless areas in more temperate climates, and
in the valleys of slow-flowing rivers, — as in Ireland, the west of
Scotland, the tableland of Bavaria, the North German plain,
and parts of the valleys of the Somroe, Oise and a few other
rivers in northern France. A principal objection to its use is its
extreme bulk, which for equal evaporative effect is from 8 to 18
times that of coaL Various methods have been proposed, and
adopted more or less successfully, for the purpose of increasing
the density of raw peat by compression, either wRh or without
pulping; the latter process gives the heaviest products, but the
improvement is scarcely sufficient to compensate for the cost.
Lignite or brown coal is of intermediate character between
peat and coal proper. The best kinds are undistinguishahk in
quality from free-burning coals, and the lowest earthy 1^**
kinds are not equal to average peat. When freshly "
raised, the proportion of water may be from 45 to 50% and
even more, which is reduced from 20 to 20% by exposure to
dry air. Most varieties, however, when fully dried, break up
into powder, which considerably diminishes their utility as fuel,
as they cannot be consolidated by coking. Lignite dust nay,
however, be compacted into serviceable blocks for burning, by
pressure in machines similar to those used for brick-making,
either in the wet state as raised from the mines or when kila-
dried at 200° C. This method was adopted to a very large extent
in Prussian Saxony. The calorific value varies between 3500
and 5000 units, and the evaporative factor from 2*16 when freshly
raised to 5-84 for the best kinds of lignite when perfectly dried.
Of the other natural fuels, apart from coal (9.9.), the most
important is so-called vegetable refuse, such as cotton stalks,
brushwood, straw, and the woody residue of sugar-cane
after the extraction of the saccharine juice known as
megasse or cane trash. These are extensively used in
countries where wood and coal are scarce, usually for
providing steam in the manufactures where they arise, t±
straw for thrashing, cotton stalks for ploughing, irrigating, or
working presses, and cane trash for boiling down sugar or driving
the cane mill. According to J. Head (Proc. Inst, of Cml En-
gineers, vol. xlviii. p. 75), the evaporative values of 1 lb of these
different articles when burnt in a tubular boiler are — coal, 8ft;
dry peat, 4 lb; dry wood, 3*58-3-52 lb; cotton stalks or
megasse, 3-2-2-7 lb; straw, 2-46-2-30 lb. Owing to the
siliceous nature of the ash of sraw, it is desirable to have a
means of clearing the grate bars from slags and clinkers at short
intervals, and to use a steam jet to clear the tubes from similar
deposits.
The common fuel of India and Egypt is derived from the
dung of camels and oxen, moulded into thin cakes, and dried
in the sun. It has a very low heating power, and in burning
gives off acrid ammoniacal smoke and vapour.
Somewhat similar are the tan cakes made from spent tanners'
bark, which are used to some extent in eastern France and is
Germany. They are made by moulding t he spent bark into cakes,
which are then slowly dried by exposure to the air. Their effect
is about equivalent to 80 and 30% of equal weights of wood sad
coal respectively.
mu
SOLID]
FUEL
275
Sulphur, phosphorus and silicon, the other principal com-
bustible elements, are only of limited application as fuels. The
first is used in the liquidation of sulphur-bearing rocks. The ore
is piled into large heaps, which are ignited at the bottom, a
certain proportion, from one-fourth to one-third, of the sulphur
content being sacrificed, in order to raise the mass to a sufficient
temperature to allow the remainder to melt and
run down to the collecting basin. Another applica-
tion is in the so-called " pyritic smelting," where
ores of copper (q.v.) containing iron pyrites, FeS s ,
are smelted with appropriate fluxes in a hot blast,
without preliminary roasting, the sulphur and iron
of the pyrites giving sufficient heat by oxidation to
liquefy both slag and metal. Phosphorus, which is
of value from its low igniting point, receives its only
application in the manufacture of lucifer matches.
The high temperature produced by burning phosphorus is in
part due to the product of combustion (phosphoric acid) being
solid, and therefore there is less heat absorbed than would be the
case with a gaseous product. The same effect is observed in a
■till more striking manner with silicon, which in the only special
case of its application to the production of heat, namely, in the
Bessemer process of steel-making, gives rise to an enormous
increase of temperature in the metal, sufficient indeed to keep
the iron melted. The absolute calorific value of silicon is lower
than that of carbon, but the product of combustion (silica)
being non-volatile at all furnace temperatures, the whole of
the heat developed is available for heating the molten iron,
instead of a considerable part being consumed in the work of
volatilization, as is the case with carbonic oxide, which burns
to waste in the air.
Assay and Valuation of Carbonaceous Fuels. — The utility or value
of a fuel depends upon two principal factors, namely, its calorific
power and its calorific intensity or pyrometric effect, that
is, the sensible temperature of the products of combustion.
The first of these is constant for any particular product of
combustion independently of the method by which the burning is
effected, whether by oxygen, air or a reducible metallic oxide. It
is most conveniently* determined in the laboratory by measuring
the heat evolved during the combustion of a given weight of the fuel.
The method of Lewis Thompson is one ofthe' most useful. The
calorimeter consists of a copper cylinder in which a weighed quantity
of coal intimately mixed with 10-12 parts of a mixture of 3 parts
of potassium chlorate and 1 of potassium nitrate is deflagrated
under a copper case like a diving-bell, placed at the bottom of a deep
glass jar filled with a known weight of water. The mixture is fired
by a fuse of lamp-cotton previously soaked in a nitre solution and
dried. The gases produced by the combustion rising through the
water are cooled, with a corresponding increase of temperature in
the latter, so that the difference between the temperature observed
before and after the experiment measures the heat evolved, The
instrument is so constructed that 30 grains (2 grammes) of coal are
burnt in 29,010 grains of water, or in the proportion of 1 to 937,
these numbers being selected that the observed rise of temperature
in Fahrenheit degrees corresponds to the required evaporative value
in pounds, subject only to a correction for the amount of heat
absorbed by the mass of the instrument, for which a special coefficient
is required and must be experimentally determined. The ordinary
bomb calorimeter is also used. An approximate method is based
upon the reduction of lead oxide by the carbon and hydrogen of the
coal, the amount of lead reduced affording a measure of 1
expended, whence the heating power may be calculated
pure carbon being capable of producing 34) times its wcij
The operation is performed by mixing the weighed sam
large excess of litharge in a crucible, and exposing it t
red beat for a short time. After cooling, the crucible is 1
the reduced button of lead is cleaned and weighed. 1
obtained by this method are less accurate with coals
much disposable hydrogen and iron pyrites than with tho
mating to anthracite, as the heat equivalent of the h;
excess of that required to form water with the oxygen 1
is calculated as carbon, while it is really about four times as great.
Sulphur in iron pyrites also acts as a reducing agent upon litharge,
aiwl inc r e a se s the apparent effect in a similar manner.
The evaporative power of a coal found by the above methods,
and also by calculating the separate calorific factors of the com-
ponents as determined by the chemical analysis, is always consider-
ably above that obtained by actual combustion under a steam boiler,
as m the latter case numerous sources of loss, such as imperfect
c nmbufl ion of gases, loss of unburnt coal in cinders, Ac., come into
pby, which cannot be allowed for in laboratory experiments. It is
■anal, therefore, to determine the value of a coal by the combustion
of a weighed quantity in the furnace of a boiler, and measuring Uw
amount of water evaporated by the heat developed.
In a research upon the heating power and other properties of coal
for naval use, carried out by the German admiralty, the results
tabulated below were obtained with coals form different localities.
The heats of combustion of elements and compounds will be
found in most of the larger works on physical and chemical constants;
Slag left
in Grate.
Ashes in
Ashpit.
Soot in
Flues.
Water eva-
porated by
1 lb of Coal
Westphalian gas coals .
Do. bituminous coals
Do. dry coals t
Silcsian coals . ,
Welsh steam coals ■ ,
Newcastle coals .
0-33-6.42
0-96-9.10
I-93-5-70
0-92-1-30
1 20-407
19a
283- 6-53
««97- 9*3
4-37-10-63
3-15- 3"50
407
a-57
0-32-0-46
0-24-0-88
0-24-0-48
0-24-0-30
032
0-33
6-60-7-45 lb
7-30-8-66
7-03-8-51
673-7.10
841
7-28
a convenient series is given in the Annuaire du Bureau d$s Longitudes.
appearing in alternate years. The following figures for the principal
fuel elements are taken from the issue for 1908; they are expressed
in gramme " calories " or heat units, signifying the weight of water
in grammes that can be raised i°C. in temperature by the combustion
of 1 gramme of the substance, when it is oxidized to the condition
shown in the second column:
Element.
Product of Combustion.
Calories.
Hydrogen > - .
Carbon-
Diamond . .
Graphite . . .
Amorphous . .
Silicon-
Amorphous * .
Crystallized . .
Phosphorus
Sulphur *. . .
\ Water, HiO, condensed to liquid
I ti as vapour .
Carbon dioxide, CO* .
M •• \ • a
Silicon dioxide, SiOi .
Phosphoric pentoxide, PtO»
Sulphur dioxide, SO», gaseous .
34.500
29,650
7,868
7.900
8.133
6414
6.570
5.958
3,165
The results may also be ex p ressed in terms of the atomic equivalent
of the combustible by multiplying the above values by the atomic
weight of the substance, 12 tor carbon, 28 for silicon, Ac.
In all fuels containing hydrogen the calorific value as found by
the calorimeter is higher than that obtainable under working con*
ditions by an amount equal to the latent heat of volatilization of
water which reappears as heat when the vapour is condensed,
though under ordinary conditions of use the vapour passes away un-
condensed. This gives rise to the distinction of higher and lower
calorific values for such substances, the latter being those generally
used in practice. The differences for the more important compound
gaseous fuels are as follows. —
Calorific Value.
Higher. Lower.
Acetylene, CjH« .... 11,920 11,500
Ethylene, C}H« . . . . 11,880 11,120
Methane, CH 4 . 13.240 11,910
Carbon monoxide, CO . . 2,440 2440
The calorific intensity of-pyrometric effect of any particular fuel
depends upon so many variable elements that it cannot be deter-
mined except by actual experiment. The older method
was to multiply the weight of. the products of combustion Sjr'v
by their specific ncats, but this gave untrustworthy -"-*•■•*>-
results as a rule, on account of two circumstances — the great Increase
in specific heat at high temperatures in compound gases such as
water and carbon dioxide, and their instability when heated to
1800* or 2000 9 . At such temperatures dissociation to a notable
extent takes place, especially with the latter substance, which is also
readily reduced to carbon monoxide when brought in contact with
carbon at a red heat — a change which is attended with a large
heat absorption. This effect is higher with soft kinds of carbon,
such as charcoal or soft coke, than with dense coke, gas retort
carbon or graphite. These latter substances, therefore, arc used
when an intense local heat is required, as for example, in the Deville
furnace, to which air is supplied under pressure. Such a method is,
however, only of very special application, the ordinary method being
to supply air to the fire in excess of that required to burn the fuel
to prevent the reduction of the carbon dioxide. The volume of
flame, however, is increased by inert gas, and there is a proportionate
diminution of the heating effect. Lndcr the most favourable con*
ditions, when the air employed has been previously raised to a high
temperature and pressure, the highest attainable flame temperature
from carbonaceous fuel seems to be about 2ioo°-2300° C; this is
_ alised in the bright spots or " eyes " of the tuyeres of blast furnaces.
Very much higher temperatures may be reached when the products
of combustion are not volatile, and the operation can be effected
by using the fuel and oxidizing agent in the proportions exactly
2j6
FUEL [LIQUID
scientific possibility, and some attempts had been made to adopt
it in practice upon a commercial scale, but the insufficiency,
and still more the irregularity, of the supplies prevented it from
coming into practical use to any important extent until about
1808, when discoveries of oil specially adapted by chemical
composition for fuel purposes changed the aspect of the situation.
These discoveries of special oil were made first in Borneo and
later in Texas, and experience in treating the oils from both
localities has shown that while not less adapted to produce
kerosene or illuminating oil, they are better adapted to produce
fuel oil than either the Russian or the Pennsylvanian products.
Texas oil did not hold its place in the market for long, because
the influx of water into the wells lowered their yield, but dis-
coveries of fuel oil in Mexico have come later and will help to
maintain the balance of the world's supply, although this is still
a mere fraction of the assured supply of coal.
With regard to the chemical properties of petroleum, it is not
necessary to say more in the present place than that the lighter
and more volatile constituents, known commercially as naphtha
and benzene, must be removed by distillation in order to leave
a residue composed principally of hydrocarbons which, while
containing the necessary carbon for combustion, shall be suffi-
ciently free from volatile qualities to avoid premature ignition
and consequent danger of explosion. Attempts have been made
to use crude oil for fuel purposes, and these have had tone
success in the neighbourhood of the oil wells and under boilers
of unusually good ventilation both as regards their chimneys
and the surroundings of their stokeholds; but for reasons both
of commerce and of safety it is not desirable to use crude oil
where some distillation is possible. The more complete the
process of distillation, and the consequent removal of the volatile
constituents, the higher the flash-point, and the more turgid
and viscous is the fuel resulting; and if the process is carried to
an extreme, the residue or fuel becomes difficult to ignite by the
ordinary process of spraying or atomizing mechanically at the
moment immediately preceding combustion. The proportions
which have been found to work efficiently in practice arc at
follows: —
Carbon < . • . ». 8800 %
Hydrogen . 1075 %.
Oxygen 1-25 %?j
Total . . 100
The standards of safety for liquid fuel as determined by
flash-point are not yet finally settled, and are changing from tine
to time. The British admiralty require a flash-point of 27b* F.,
and to this high standard, and the consequent viscosity of the
fuel used by vessels in the British fleet, may partly be attributed
the low rate of combustion that was at first found possible ia
them. The German admiralty have fixed a flash-point of 187* F.,
and have used oil of this standard with perfect safety, and at the
same time with much higher measure of evaporative duty than
has been attained in British war-vessels. In the British mer-
cantile marine Lloyd's Register has permitted fuel with a flash-
point as low as 150° F. as a minimum, and no harm has resulted.
The British Board of Trade, the department of the government
which controls the safety of passenger vessels, has fixed a higher
standard upon the basis of a minimum of 185°. In the case of
locomotives the flash-point as a standard of safety is of less
importance than in the case of stationary or marine boilers,
because the storage is more open, and the ventilation, both of the
storage tanks and the boilers during combustion, much more
perfect than in any other class of steam-boilers.
The process of refining by distillation is also n e ce ss ar y to
reduce two impurities which greatly retard storage and com-
bustion, i.e. water and sulphur. Water is found in all erode
petroleum as it issues from the wells, and sulphur exists in
important quantities in oil from the Texas wells. Its removal
was at first found very expensive, but there no longer exists
difficulty in this respect, and large quantities of petroleum fad
practically free from sulphur are now regularly exp orte d from
Texas to New York and to Europe.
LIQUID)
FUEL
277
Water mixed with fuel is in intimate mechanical relation, and
frequently so remains in considerable quantities even after the
process of distillation. It is in fact so thoroughly mixed as to
form an emulsion. The effect of feeding such a mixture into a
furnace is extremely injurious, because the water must be decom-
posed chemically into its constituents, hydrogen and oxygen,
thus absorbing a large quantity of heat which would otherwise
be utilized for evaporation. Water also directly delays com-
bustion by producing from the jet a long, dull, red flame instead
of a short bright, white flame, and the process of combustion,
which should take place by vaporization of the oil near the
furnace mouth, is postponed and transferred to the upper part of
the combustion-box, the tubes, and even the base of the chimney,
producing loss of heat and injury to the boiler structure. The
most effective means of ridding the fuel of this dangerous
imparity is by heat and settlement. The coefficients of expansion
of water and oil by heat are substantially different, and a
moderate rise of temperature therefore separates the particles
and precipitates the water, which is easily drawn off — leaving
the oil available for use. The heating and precipitation are
usually performed upon a patented system of settling tanks
and heating apparatus known as the Flannery-Boyd system,
which has proved itself indispensable for the successful use at
sea of petroleum fuel containing any large proportion of water.
The laboratory and mechanical use of petroleum for fuel has
already been referred to, but it was not until the year 1870 that
petroleum was applied upon a wider and commercial
scale. In the course of distillation of Russian crude
petroleum for the production of kerosene or lamp oil,
large quantities of refuse were produced— known by
the Russian name of astatki — and these were found an incum-
brance and useless for any commercial purpose. To a Russian
oil-refiner gifted with mechanical instinct and the genius for
invention occurred the idea of utilizing the waste product as
fuel by spraying or atomizing it with steam, so that, the thick
and sluggish fluid being broken up into particles, the air
necessary for combustion could have free access to it. The
earliest apparatus for this
purpose was a simple piece
of gas-tube, into which the
thick oil was fed; by
another connexion steam
at high pressure was ad-
mitted to an inner and
smaller tube, and, the end
of the tube nearest to the
furnace being open, the
pressure of the steam blew
the oil into the furnace,
and by its velocity broke
it up into spray. The ap-
paratus worked with
success from the first. Ex-
perience pointed out the
proper proportionate sizes
for the inlets of steam and
oO, the proper pressure for
the steam, and the propor-
tionate sizes for the orifices
of admission to the fur-
naces, as well as the sizes of
air-openings and best arrangements of fire-bricks in the furnaces
themselves, and what had been a waste product now became
a by-product of great value Practically all the steam power
in South Russia, both for factories and navigation of the inland
seas and rivers, is now raised from astalki fuel
In the Far East, including Burma and parts of China and
Japan, the use of liquid fuel spread rapidly during the years
1899, xooo and xoox, owing entirely to the development of the
Borneo oil-fields by the enterprise of Sir Marcus Samuel and the
large British corporation known as the Shell Transport and
Trading Company, of which he is the bead. This corporation
has since amalgamated with the Royal Dutch Petroleum Com-
pany controlling the extensive wells in Dutch Borneo, and
together they supply large quantities of liquid fuel for use in the
Far East. In the United States of America hquid fuel is not
only used for practically the whole of the manufacturing and
locomotive purposes of the state of Texas, but factories in New
York, and a still larger number in California, are now ditr**dfttg
the use of coal and adopting petroleum, because it is more
economical in its consumption and also more easily handled in
transit, and saves nearly all the labour of stoking. So far the
supplies for China and Japan have been exported from Borneo,
but the discoveries of new oil-fields in California, of a character
specially adapted for fuel, have encouraged the belief that it may
be possible to supply Chile and Peru and other South American
countries, where coal is extremely expensive, with Californian
fuel, and it has also found its way across the Pacific to Japan.
There are believed to be large deposits in West Africa, but in the
meantime the only sources of supply to those parts of Africa
where manufacture is progressing, i.e. South Africa and Egypt,
are the oil-fields of Borneo and Texas, from which the import
has well begun, from Texas to Alexandria via the Mediterranean,
and from Borneo to Cape Town via Singapore.
In England, notwithstanding the fact that there exist the
finest coal-fields in the world, there has been a surprising develop-
ment of the use of petroleum as fuel The Great Eastern railway
adapted xao locomotive engines to its use, and these ran with
regularity and success both on express passenger and goods
trains until the increase in price due to short supply compelled
a return to coal fueL The London, Brighton & South Coast
railway also began the adaptation of some of their locomotive
engines, but discontinued the use of liquid fuel from the same
cause Several large firms of contractors and cement manu-
facturers, chiefly on the banks of the Thames, made the same
adaptations which proved mechanically successful, but were
not continued when the price of liquid fuel increased with the
increased demand.
The chief factors of economy are the greater calorific value
Fig. i.— Holden Burner
of ofl than coal (about 16 lb of water per lb of oO fuel evaporated
from a temperature of 2x2° F.), not only in laboratory practice,
but in actual use on a large scale, and the saving of labour both
in transit from the source of supply to the place of use and la-
the act of stoking the furnaces. The use of cranes,
hand labour with shovels, wagons and locomotives, JJJJjy
horses and carts, is unavoidable for the transit of amL
coal; and labour to trim the coal, to stoke it when
under combustion, and to handle the residual ashes, are all
indispensable to steam-raising by coal On the other hand, a
system of pipes end pumps, and a limited quantity of skilled
278
FUEL
tugum
labour to manage them, is all that is necessary for the transit
and combustion of petroleum fuel; and it is certain that even
in England will be found places which, from topographical
and other circumstances, will use petroleum more economically
than coal as fuel for manufacturing purposes under reasonable
conditions of price for the fuel.
The theoretical calorific value of oil fuel is more nearly realized
in practice than the theoretical calorific value of coal, because
the facilities for complete combustion, due to the artificial
admixture of the air by the atomizing process, are greater in
Fig. 2. — Rusdcn and Eeles Burner,
the case of oQ than coal, and for this reason, among others, the
practical evaporative results are proportionately higher with
liquid fueL In some cases the work done in a steam-engine by
9 tons of coal has been performed by x ton of oil fuel, but in
others the proportions have been as 3 to 2, and these latter can be
safely relied on in practice as a minimum. This saving, combined
with the savings of labour and transit already explained, will
in the near future make the use of liquid fuel compulsory, except
in places so near to coal-fields that the cost of coal becomes
sufficiently low to counterbalance the savings in weight of fuel
consumed and in labour in handling it. In some locomotives
on the Great Eastern railway the consumption of oil and coal
for the same development of horse-power was as 17 lb oil is
to 35 lb coal; all, however, did not realize so high a result.
The mechanical apparatus for applying petroleum to steam-
raising in locomotives is very simple. The space in the tender
usually occupied by coal is dosed up by steel-plating closely
HjUrP^,
riveted and tested, so as to form a storage tank. From this tank
a feed-pipe is led to a burner of the combined steam-and-oil
type already indicated, and this burner is so arranged tl> , tf
as to enter a short distance inside the furnace iw/at
mouth. The ordinary fire-bars are covered with a thin ***
layer of coal, which starts the ignition in the first ■"****
place, and the whole apparatus is ready for work. The burner
best adapted for locomotive practice is the Holden Burner
(fig. x), which wss used on the Great Eastern railway. The
steam-pipe is connected at A, the oil-pipe at B, and the hand-
wheels C and D are for the adjustment of the
internal orifices according to the rate of com-
bustion required. The nozzle E is directed
towards the furnace, and the external ring
FF, supplied by the small pipe G and the
by-pass valve H, projects a series of steam
jets into the furnace, independent of the
injections of atomized fuel, and to induces aa
artificial inrush of air for the promotion of
combustion. This type of burner has alts
been tried on stationary boilers and on board
ship. It works well, although the great con-
sumption of steam by the supplementary ring
is a difficulty at sea, where the water lost by
the consumption of steam cannot easOy he
made up.
Although the application of the new fuel
for land and locomotive boilers has already
been large, the practice at sea has -.
been far more extensive. The reason JJJH
is chiefly to be found in the fact that
although the sources of supply are at a dis-
tance from Great Britain, yet they are in
countries to whose neighbourhood British
steamships regularly trade, and in which
British naval squadrons are regularly stationed,
so that the advantages of adopting liquid fuel
have been more immediate and the economy
more direct. The certainty of continuous supply of the fuel and
the wide distribution of storage stations have so altered the
conditions that the general adoption of the new fuel for marine
purposes becomes a matter of urgency for the statesman, the
merchant and the engineer. None of these can afford to neglect
the new conditions, lest they be noted and acted upon by their
competitors. Storage for supply now exists at a number of sea
ports. London, Barrow, Southampton, Amsterdam, Copen-
hagen, New Orleans, Savannah, New York, Philadelphia,
Singapore, Hong Kong, Madras, Colombo, Sues, Hamburg,
Port Arthur, Rangoon, Calcutta, Bombay, Alexandria,
Bangkok, Saigon, Penang, Batavia, Surabaya, Amoy, Swatov,
Fuchow, Shanghai, Hankow, Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide,
Zanzibar, Mombasa, Yokohama, Kobe and Nagasaki; also
in South African and South American ports.
The British admiralty have undertaken experiments with
liquid fuel at sea, and at the same time investigations of the
3-**~rr*** <g B p^ L_ ^« g^3^^
Fxo.3w--StMag^ofLiqitMlFodooOuKaayiaf
CFlanaery-Boyd Systam).
LIQUID) FUEL
possibility of supply from sources within the regions of the
British empire. There is an enormous supply of shale under the
north-eastern counties of England, but no oil that can be pumped
—still less oil with a pressure above it so as to " gush " like the
wells in America— and the only sources of liquid supply under the
British flag appear to be in Burma and Trinidad. The Borneo
*79
Fig. 4.— Installation on as. "Trocas."
fields are not tinder British control, although developed
entirely by British capital. The Italian admiralty have fitted
several large warships with boiler apparatus to burn petroleum.
The German admiralty are regularly using liquid fuel on the
China station. The Dutch navy have fitted coal fuel and liquid
fuel furnaces in combination, so that the smaller powers required
Fig. 5.— Details of Furnace, Meyer System.
may be developed by coal alone, and the larger powers by
supplementing coal fuel with oil fuel. The speeds of some
vessels of the destroyer type have by this means been accelerated
nearly two knots.
Hie questions which govern the use of fuel in warships are
more largely those of strategy and fighting efficiency than
economy of evaporation. Indeed, the cost of construct-
JJ^to kg am - maintaining in fighting efficiency a modern
vtnhif*. warship is so great that the utmost use strategically
must be obtained from the vessel, and in this compari-
son the cost of fuel is relatively so small an item that its increase
Fie. 6. — Details of Exterior Elongation of Furnace, Meyer System.
or decrease may be considered almost a negligible quantity.
The desideratum in a warship is to obtain the greatest fighting
efficiency based on the thickest armour, the heaviest and most
numerous guns, the highest maximum speed, and, last and not
least, the greatest range of effective action based upon the
maximum supplies of fuel, provisions and other consumable
stores that the ship can carry. Now, if by changing the type
of fuel it be possible to reduce its weight by 30% , and to abolish
the stokers, who are usually more than half the ship's
company, the weight saved will be represented not
merely by the fuel, but by the consumable stores
otherwise necessary for the stokers. Conversely, the
radius of effective action of the ship will be doubled
as regards consumable stores if the crew be halved, and
will be increased by 50% if the same weight of fuel be
carried in the form of liquid instead of coal. In space
the gain by using oil fuel is still greater, and 36 cubic
feet of oil as stored are equal In practical calorific value
to 67 cubic feet of coal according to the allowance usual
for ship's bunkering. On the other hand, coal has
been relied upon, when placed in the side bunkers of
unarmoured ships, as a protection against shot and
shell, and this advantage, if it really exists, could not
be claimed in regard to liquid fuel
Recent experiments in coaling warships at sea have
not been very successful, as the least bad weather has
prevented the safe transmission of coal bags from the collier to
the ship. The same difficulty does not exist for oil fuel, which
has been pumped through flexible tubing from one ship to the
other even in comparatively rough weather. Smokelessness,
so important a feature of sea strategy, has not always been
attained by liquid fuel, but where the combustion is complete,
by reason of suitable furnace arrangements and
careful management, there is no smoke. The
great drawback, however, to the use of liquid
fuel in fast small vessels is the confined space
allotted to the boilers, such confinement being
unavoidable in view of the high power con-
centrated in a small hull. The British ad-
miralty's experiments, however, have gone far
to solve the problem, and the quantity of oil
which can be consumed by forced draught in
confined boilers now more nearly equals the
quantity of coal consumed under similar con*
ditions. All recent vessels built for the British
navy are so constructed that the spaces between
their double bottoms arc oil-tight and capable
of storing liquid fuel in the tanks so formed. Most recent battle-
ships and cruisers have also liquid fuel furnace fittings, and in
1910 it already appeared probable that the use of oil fuel in war-
ships would rapidly develop.
In view of recent accusations of insufficiency of coal storage in
foreign naval depots, by reason of the allegation that coal so
stored quickly perishes, it is interesting to note that liquid fuel
may be stored in tanks for an indefinite time without any
deterioration whatever
In the case of merchant steamers large progress has also been
made. The Shell Transport and Trading Company have twenty-
one vessels successfully navigating in all parts of the Advam*
world and using liquid fuel. The Hamburg- American <*/•• /•
Steamship Company have four large vessels similarly "*£?**
fitted for oil fuel, which, however, differ in furnace "*•*■*
arrangements, as will be hereafter described, although using
coal when the fluctuation of the market renders that the more
economical fuel One of the large American transatlantic
lines is adopting liquid fuel, and French, German, Danish and
American mercantile vessels are also beginning to use it in
considerable amounts.
In the case of very large passenger steamers, such as those
of 20 knots and upwards in the Atlantic trade, the saving in cost
of fuel is trifling compared with the advantage arising from the
greater weight and space available for freight. Adopting a basis
of 3 to * as between coal consumption and oil consumption,
there is an increase of 1000 tomvpf dead weight cargo in even a
a8o
FUEL
(LIQUID
Fie 7. — Furnace on s*. " Ferdinand Laetsz." A, it is proposed to do away with this ring
of brickwork as being useless; B, it b proposed to fill this space up, thus continuing lining
of furnace to combustion chamber, and abo to fit protection bricks in way of saddle plate.
ships, whilst considerable additional speed
is obtainable. The cost of the installa-
tion, however, is very considerable, as
it includes not only burners and pipes for
the furnaces, but also the construction of
oil-tight tanks, with pumps and numerous
valves and pipe connexions.
Fig. a shows a burner of Rosden and
Eclcs' patent as generally used on board
ships' for the purpose of injecting the oil.
A is a movable cap holding the packing B,
which renders the annular spindle M oil and
steam tight. E is the outer casing contain-
ing the steam jacket from which the steam,
after being fed through the steam-supply
pipe G, passes into the annular space sur-
rounding the spindle P. It will be seen that
if the spindle P be travelled inwards by
turning the handle N, the orifice at the
nozzle RR will be opened so as to allow
the steam to flow out radially. If at the
same time the annular spindle M be drawn
inwards by revolving the handle L, the oil
which passes through the supply pipe F will
also have emission at RR, and, coming in
contact with the outflowing steam, will be
JSSJSmS Stiftittm * Smi
Fie. 8.— Fuel Tanks. &c, of ss. " Murex/*
medium-sized Atlantic steamer, and a collateral gain of about
100,000 cub. ft. of measurement cargo, by reason of the ordinary
bunkers being left quite free, and the oil being stored in the double
bottom spaces hitherto unutilized except for the purpose of
water ballast. The cleanliness and saving of time from bunkering
by the use of oO fuel is also an important factor m passenger
pulverized arid sprayed into the furnace. Fig. 3 is a profile and
plan of a steamer adapted for carrying oil in bulk, and showing
all the storage arrangements for handling liquid fuel. Fig. 4 shows
the interior arrangement of the boiler furnace of the steamship
" Trocas." A is broken fire-brick resting on the ordinary
fire-bars, B is a brick bridge, C a casing of fire-brick intended
to protect the riveted seam immediately above it from the direct
Fife 9.— Furnace Gear of as. " Mure*. '
CASEOUS!
FUEL
281
impact of the flame, and D is a lining of fire-brick at tne back of the
combustion-box, also intended to protect the plating from the direct
impact of the petroleum flame. The arrangement of the furnace on
the Meyer system is shown in fig. 5, where £ is an annular pro-
jection built at the mouth of the furnace, and BB are spiral passages
for heating the air before it passes into the furnace. Fig. 6 shows
the lings CC and details of the casting which forms the projection
or exterior elongation of the furnace. The brickwork arrangement
adopted for the double-ended boilers on the Hamburg- American
Steamship Company's M Ferdinand Lacisz " is represented in fig. 7.
The whole furnace is lined with fire-brick, and the burner is mounted
upon a circular disk plate which covers the mouth of the furnace.
The oil is injected not by steam pulverization, but by pressure due
to a steam-pump. The oil is heated to about 60* C. before entering
the pump, and further heated to 90* C. after leaving the pump. It
is then filtered, and passes
to the furnace injector C at
about 30-tb pressure; and
its passage through this in-
jector and the spiral pass-
ages of which it consists
pulverizes the oil into spray,
in which form it readily
ignites on reaching the
interior of the furnace. The
injector is on the Korting
Erinciple, that is, it atomizes
y fracture of the liquid oil
arising from its own mo-
mentum under pressure.
The advantage of this
system as compared with
Fic. 10.— Section through Furnace the steam-jet system is the
of ss. " Murex.* saving of fresh water, the
abstraction of which is so
injurious to the boiler by the formation of scale.
The general arrangement of the fuel tanks and filling pipes on the
ss. " Murex " is shown in fig. 8; and fig. 9 represents the furnace
gear of the same vessel, A being the steam-pipe, B the oil-pipe,
C the injector, D the swivel upon which the injector is hung so that
it may be swung clear of the furnace, E the fire-door, and F the
handle for adjusting the injector. In fig. 10, which represents a
section of the furnace, H is a fire-brick pier and K a fire-brick
fire-bars ordinarily
iquid fuel than the
nd protecting them
have been run for
' construction it is
longer and narrower
for the combustion
(F. F.*)
Caseous Fuel.
Strictly speaking, much, and sometimes even most, of the
beating effected by solid or liquid fuel is actually performed by
the gases given off during the combustion. We speak, however,
of gaseous fuel only in those cases where we supply a combustible
gas from the outset, or where we produce from ordinary solid
(or liquid) fuel in one place a stream of combustible gas which
is burned in another place, more or less distant from that where
it has been generated.
The various descriptions of gaseous -fuel employed in practice
may be classified under the following heads:
I. Natural Gas.
II. Combustible Gases obtained as by-products, in various
technical operations.
III. Coal Gas (Illuminating Gas).
IV. Combustible Gases obtained by the partial combustion of
coal, &c.
I. Natural Gas.— From time immemorial it has been known
that in some parts of the Caucasus and of China large quantities
of gases issue from the soil, sometimes under water, which can
be lighted and burn with a luminous flame. The "eternal
fires " of Baku belong to this class. In coal-mines frequently
similar streams of gas issue from the coal ; these are called
" blowers," and when they are of somewhat regular occurrence
are sometimes conducted away in pipes and used for underground
lighting. As a regular source of heating power, however, natural
gas is employed only in some parts of the United States, especially
in Pennsylvania, Kansas, Ohio and West Virginia, where it
always occurs in the neighbourhood of coal and petroleum
fields. The first public mention of it was made in 1775, but it was
not till 1821 that it wis turned to use si Fredonia, N.Y. In
Pennsylvania natural gas was discovered in 1859, hut at first
very little use was made of it. Its industrial employment dates
only from 1874, and became of great importance about tea
years later. Nobody ever doubted that the gas found in these
localities was an accumulation of many ages and that, being
tapped by thousands of bore-holes, it must rapidly come to an
end. This assumption was strengthened by the fact that the
" gas-wells," which at first gave out the gas at a pressure of 700
or 800, sometimes even of 1400 lb per sq. in., gradually showed
a more and more diminishing pressure and many of them ceased
to work altogether. About the year 1890 the belief was fairly
general that the stock of natural gas would soon be entirely
exhausted. Indeed, the value of the annual production of natural
gas in the United States, computed as its equivalent of coal,
was then estimated at twenty-one million dollars, in 1895 at
twelve millions, in 1809 at eleven and a half millions. But the
output rose again to a value of twenty-seven millions in xoox,
and to fifty million dollars in 1907. Mostly the gas, derived
from upwards of 10,000 gas-wells, is now artificially compressed
to a pressure of 300 or 400 lb per sq. in. by means of steam-
power or gas motors, fed by the gas itself, and is conveyed over
great distances in iron pipes, from 9 or 10 to 36 in. in diameter.
In 1904 nearly 30,000 m. of pipe lines were in operation. In
1907 the quantity of natural gas consumed in the United States
(nearly half of which was in Pennsylvania) was 400,000 million
cub. ft., or nearly 3 cub. m. Canada (Ontario) also produces
some natural gas, reaching a maximum of about $746,000 in
1007.
The principal constituent of natural gas is always methane,
CH4, of which it contains from 68*4 to 94*0% by volume. Those
gases which contain less methane contain all the more hydrogen,
viz. 2-9 to 29-8%. There is also some ethylene, ethane and
carbon monoxide, rarely exceeding 2 or 3%. The quantity
of incombustible gases — oxygen, carbon dioxide, nitrogen-
ranges from mere traces to about 5%. The density is from
o*4 s to 0*55. The heating power of 1000 cub. ft. of natural gas
is equal to from 80 to 120 lb, on the average 100 lb, of good
coal, but it is really worth much more than this proportion
would indicate, as it burns completely, without smoke or ashes,
and without requiring any manual labour. It is employed lor
all domestic and for most industrial purposes.
The origin of natural gas is not properly understood, even
now. The most natural assumption is, of course, that its forma-
tion is connected with that of the petroleum always found in
the same neighbourhood, the latter principally consisting of the
higher-boiling aliphatic hydrocarbons of the methane series.
But whence do they both come ? Some bring them into con*
ncxion with the formation of coal, others with the decomposition
of animal remains, others with that of diatomaceae, etc., and
even an inorganic origin of both petroleum and natural gas has
been assumed by chemists of the rank of D. I. Mendeleeff and
H. Moissan.
II. Gases obtained as By-products. — There are two important
cases in which gaseous by-products are utilized as fuel; both
are intimately connected with the manufacture of iron, but in
a very different way, and the gases are of very different
composition.
(a) Blast-furnace Gases. — The gases issuing from the mouths
of blast-furnaces (see Iron and Steel) were first utilized in
1837 by Faber du Faur, at Wasseralfingen. Their use became
more extensive after i860, and practically universal after 187a
The volume of gas given off per ton of iron made is about x 58,000
cub. ft. Its percentage composition by volume is:
Carbon monoxide . 21-6 to 29*0, mostly about 26 %
Hydrogen . . . 1-8 „ 6-3, „ „ 3 %
Methane . . . . 01 „ o-8, „ „ 0-5%
Carbon dioxide . . 6 „ 12, „ %, 9*5%
Nitrogen ... 51 „ 60, „ „ 56 %
Steam .... 5 „ 12, ., 5 %
100%
There is always a large amount of mechanically suspended
28a
FUEL
[GASEOUS
flue-dust in this gas. It is practically equal to a poor producer-
gas (see below), and is everywhere used, first for heating the blast
in Cowper stoves or similar apparatus, and secondly for raising
all the steam required for the operation of the blast-furnace,
that is, for driving the blowing-engines, hoisting the materials,
&c. Where the iron ore is roasted previously to being fed into
the furnace, this can also be done by this gas, but in some cases
the waste in using it is so great that there is not enough left for
the last purpose. The calorific power 01 this gas per cubic foot
is from So to 120 B.Th.U.
Since about 1900 a great advance has been made in this field.
Instead of burning the blast-furnace gas under steam boilers
and employing the steam for producing mechanical energy, the
gas is directly burned in gas-motors on the explosion principle.
Thus upwards of three times the mechanical energy is obtained
in comparison with the indirect way through the steam boiler.
After all the power required for the operations of the blast-
furnace has been supplied, there is a surplus of from 10 to
20 h.p. for each ton of pig-iron made, which may be applied
to any other purpose.
(6) Coke-nun Cases.— Where the coking of coal is performed
in the old beehive ovens or similar apparatus the gas issuing
at the mouth of the ovens is lost. The attempts at utilizing the
gases in such cases have not been very successful. It is quite
different where coke is manufactured in the same way as illumin-
ating gas, viz. by the destructive dis-
tillation of coal in dosed apparatus
(retorts), heated from the outside.
This industry, which is described in
detail in G. Lunge's Coal-Tor and
Ammonia (4th ed., J909), origin-
ated in France, but has spread far
more in Germany, where more than
half of the coke produced is made
by it; in the United Kingdom and the
United States its progress has been
much slower, but there also it has long
been recognized as the only proper
method. The output of coke is
increased by about 15% in comparison with the beehive ovens,
as the heat required for the process of distillation is not produced
by burning part of the coal itself (as in the beehive ovens), but
by burning part of the gas. The quality of the coke for iron-
making is quite as good as that of beehive coke, although it
differs from it in appearance. Moreover, the gases can be made
to yield their ammonia, their tar, and even their benzene vapours,
the value of which products sometimes exceeds that of the coke
itself. And after all this there is still an excess of gas available
for any other purpose.
As the principle of distilling the coal is just the same, whether
the object is the manufacture Of coal gas proper or of coke as the
main product, although there is much difference in the details
of the manufacture, it follows that the quality of the gas is very
similar in both cases, so far as its beating value is concerned.
Of course this heating value is less where the benzene has been
extracted from coke-oven gas, since this compound is the richest
heat-producer in the gas. This is, however, of minor importance
in the present case, as there is only about x % benzene in these
gases.
The composition of coke-oven gases, after the extraction of
the ammonia and tar, is about 53% hydrogen, 36% methane,
6% carbon monoxide, 2^ ethylene and benzene, 0*5% sul-
phuretted hydrogen, 1*5% carbon dioxide, 1% nitrogen.
III. Coat Gas (Illuminating Gas).— Although ordinary coal gas
is primarily manufactured for illuminating purposes, it is also
extensively used for cooking, frequently also for heating domestic
rooms, baths, &c, and to some extent also for industrial opera-
tions on a small scale, where cleanliness and exact regulation of
the work are of particular importance. In chemical laboratories
it is preferred to every other kind of fuel wherever it is available.
The manufacture of coal gas being described elsewhere in this
work (see Gas, $ Manufacture), we need here only point out that
it is obtained by heating bituminous coal in fireclay retorts and
purifying the products of this destructive distillation by cooling,
washing and other operations. The residual gas, the ordinary
composition of which is given in the table below, amounts to
about 10,000 cub. ft. for a ton of coal, and represents about
3i% of its original heating value, $6*5% being left in the coke,
5*5% in the tar and 17% being lost. As we must deduct from
the coke that quantity which is required for the heating of the
retorts, and which, even when good gas producers arc employed,
amounts to 12% of the weight of the coal, or 10% of its heat
value, the total loss of heat rises to 27%. Taking, further, into
account the cost of labour, the wear and tear, and the capital
interest on the plant, coal gas must always be an expensive fuel
in comparison with coal itself, and cannot be thought of as a
general substitute for the latter. But in many cases the greater
expense of the coal gas is more than compensated by its easy
distribution, the facility and cleanliness of its application, the
general freedom from the mechanical loss, unavoidable in the
case of coal fires, the prevention of black smoke and so forth.
The following table shows the average composition of coal gas
by volume and weight, together with the heat developed by
its single constituents, the latter being expressed in kilogram*
calories per cub. metre (0*252 kilogram-calories* x British heat
unit; x cub. metre* 35-3 cub. ft; therefore 01 123 calories per
cub. metre*! British heat unit per cub. foot).
Constituents.
Volume
per cent.
Weight
percent.
Heat-value
per Cubic
Metre
Calories.
Heat-value
per Quantity
contained in
l Cub. Met.
Heat-value
pa- cent.
ofTouL
Hydrogen, H»
Methane, CH« .
Carbon monoxide, CO
Benzene vapour, QHj
Ethylene, CjH 4 . .
Carbon dioxide, CO, .
Nitrogen, N»
Total . .
47
34
9
1-2
3«
25
25
199
B
55
2,582
8.524
3.043
33.815
13.960
2898
273
40S
530
29%
34*5
51
77
9-9
IOO-0
1000
53»9
fOO-O
One cubic metre of such gas weighs 568 grammes. Rich gas,
or gas made by the destructive distillation of certain bituminous
schists, of oil, &c, contains much more of the heavy hydrocarbons,
and its heat-value is therefore much higher than the above.
The carburetted water gas, very generally made in America, and
sometimes employed in England for mixing with coal gas, is
of varying composition; its heat-value is generally rather less
than that of coal gas (see below).
IV. Combustible Gases produced by the Partial Combustion of
Coal, &c. — These form by far the most important kind of gaseous
fuel. When coal is submitted to destructive distillation to
produce the illuminating gas described in the preceding para-
graph, only a comparatively small proportion of the heating
value of the coal (say, a sixth or at most a fifth part) is obtained
in the shape of gaseous fuel, by far the greater proportion remain-
ing behind in the shape of coke.
An entirely different class of gaseous fuels comprises those
produced by the incomplete combustion of the total carbon
contained in the raw material, where the result is a mixture of
gases which, being capable of combining with more oxygen, can
be burnt and employed for heating purposes. Apart from some
descriptions of waste gases belonging to this class (of which the
most notable are those from blast-furnaces), we roust distinguish
two ways of producing such gaseous fuels entirely different ia
principle, though sometimes combined in one operation. The
incomplete combustion of carbon may be brought about by
means of atmospheric oxygen, by means of water, or by i
simultaneous combination' of these two actions. In the first
case the chemical reaction is
C+O-CO (s);
the nitrogen accompanying the oxygen in the atmospheric air
necessarily remains mixed with carbon monoxide, and the result-
ing gases, which always contain some carbon dioxide, soae
CASEOUS]
FUEL
283
products of the destructive distillation of the coal, &c, are known
as producer gas or Siemens gas. In the second case the chemical
reaction is mainly
C+H,0-CO+H« . . . (b):
that is to say, the carbon is converted into monoxide and the
hydrogen is set free. As both of these substances can combine
with oxygen, and as there is no atmospheric nitrogen to deal
with, the resulting gas (water gas) is, apart from a few impurities,
entirely combustible. Another kind of water gas is formed by
the Teaction
C+2HaO-COi-2H, . . . (c),
but this reaction, which converts all the carbon into the incom-
bustible form of COt, is considered as an unwelcome, although
never entirely avoidable, concomitant of (6).
The reaction by which water gas is produced being endothermic
(as we shall see), this gas cannot be obtained except by introducing
the balance of energy in another manner. This might be done
by heating the apparatus from without, but as this method would
be uneconomical, the process is carried out by alternating the
endothermic production of water gas with the exothermic
combustion of carbon by atmospheric air. Pure water gas is
not, therefore, made by a continuous process, but alternates
with the production of other gases, combustible or not. But
instead of constantly interrupting the process in this way, a
continuous operation may be secured by simultaneously carrying
on both the reactions (a) and (6) in such proportions that the heat
generated by (a) at least equals the heat absorbed by (b). For
this purpose the apparatus is fed at the same time with atmo-
spheric air and with a certain quantity of steam, preferably
in a superheated state. Gaseous mixtures of this kind have been
made, more or less intentionally, for a long time past. One of
the best known of them, intended less for the purpose of serving
as ordinary fuel than for that of driving machinery, is the
Dowson gas.
An advantage common to all kinds of gaseous fuel, which
indeed forms the principal reason why it is intentionally pro-
duced from solid fuel, in spite of inevitable losses in the course
of the operation, is the following. The combustion of solid fuel
(coal, &c.) cannot be carried on with the theoretically necessary
quantity of atmospheric air, but requires a considerable excess
of the latter, at least 50%, sometimes 100% and more. This is
best seen from the analyses of smoke gases. If all the oxygen
of the air were converted into CO* and HVO, the amount of COi
in the smoke gases should be in the case of pure carbon nearly
tz volumes %, as carbon dioxide occupies the same volume as
oxygen; while ordinary coal, where the hydrogen takes up a
certain quantity of oxygen as well, should show about 18*5%
COj. But the best smoke gases of steam boilers show only 12
or 13%, much more frequently only io%CO», and gases from
reverberatory furnaces often show less than 5%. This means
that the volume of the smoke gases escaping into the air is
from x| to 2 times (in the case of high-temperature operations
often 4 times) greater than the theoretical minimum; and as
these gases always carry off a considerable quantity of heat,
the loss of heat is all the greater the less complete is the utilization
of the oxygen and the higher the temperature of the operation.
This explains why, in the case of the best-constructed steam-
boiler fires provided with heat economizers, where the smoke
gases are deprived of most of their heat, the proportion of the
heat value of the fuel actually utilized may rise to 70 or even 75%,
while in some metallurgical operations, in glass-making and
similar cases, it may be below 5%.
One way of overcoming this difficulty to a certain extent is
to reduce the solid fuel to a very fine powder, which can be
intimately mixed with the air so that the consumption of the
latter is only very slightly in excess of the theoretical quantity;
but this process, which has been only recently introduced on a
somewhat extended scale, involves much additional expense and
trouble, and cannot as yet be considered a real success. Generally,
too, it is far less easily applied than gaseous fuel. The latter
can be readily and intimately mixed with the exact quantity of
air that is required and distributed in any suitable way, and
much of the waste heat can be utilized for a preliminary heating
of the air and the gas to be burned by means of " recuperators."
We shall now describe the principal classes of gaseous fuel,
produced by the partial combustion of coal.
A. Producer Gas, Siemens Gas. — As we have seen above, this
gas is made by the incomplete combustion of fuel. The materials
generally employed for its production are anthracite, coke or
other fuels which are not liable to cake during the operation,
and thus stop the draught or otherwise disturb the process, but
by special measures also bituminous coal, lignite, peat and other
fuel may be utilized for gas producers. The fuel is arranged in
a deep layer, generally from 4 ft. up to 10 ft., and the air is
introduced from below, either by natural draught or by means of
a blast, and either by a grate or only by a slit in the wall of the
" gas producer." Even if the primary action taking place at
the entrance of the air consisted in the complete combustion of
the carbon to dioxide, CO,, the latter, in rising through the high
column of incandescent fuel, must be reduced to monoxide:
COi-f C-2CO. But as the temperature in the producer rises
rather high, and as in ordinary circumstances the action of
oxygen on carbon above 1000 C. consists almost entirely in
the direct formation of CO, we may regard this compound as
primarily formed in the hotter parts of the gas-producer. It is
true that ordinary producer gas always contains more or less
COt, but this may be formed higher up by air entering through
leakages in the apparatus. If we ignore the hydrogen contained
in the fuel, the theoretical composition of producer gas would
be 33\3% CO and 667% N, both by volume and weight. Its
weight per cubic metre is 1-351 grammes, and its heat value 10x3
calories per cubic metre, or less than one-fifth of the beat-value
of coal gas. Practically, however, producer gas contains a small
percentage of gases, increasing its heat-value, like hydrogen,
methane, &c, but on the other hand it is never free from carbon
dioxide to the extent of from 2 to 8%. Its heat-value may
therefore range between 800 and x 100 calories per cubic metre.
Even when taking as the basis of our calculation a theoretical gas
of 33'3% CO, we find that there is a great loss of heat-value in
the manufacture of this gas. Thermochemistry teaches us that
the reaction C+O develops 29*5% of the heat produced by the
complete oxidation of C to CO,, thus leaving only 70*5% for
the stage CO+O-CO* If, therefore, the gas given off in the
producer is allowed to cool down to ordinary temperature,
nearly 30% of the heat-value of the coal is lost by radiation.
If, however, the gas producer is built in close proximity to the
place where the combustion takes place, so that the gas does not
lose very much of its heat, the loss is correspondingly less. Even
then there is no reason why this mode of burning the fuel, i.e.
first with ''-primary air " in the producer (C4-0= CO), then with
"secondary air" in the furnace (CO+0«C0 2 ), should be
preferred to the direct complete burning of the fuel on a grate,
unless the above-mentioned advantage is secured, viz. reduction
of the smoke gases to a minimum by confining the supply of air
as nearly as possible to that required for the formation of CO*,
which is only possible by producing an intimate mixture of the
producer gas with the secondary air. The advantage in question
is not very great where the heat of the smoke gases can be very
fully utilized, e.g. in well-constructed steam boilers, salt-pans
and the like, and as a matter of fact gas producers have not
found much use in such cases. But a very great advantage is
attained in high-temperature operations, where the smoke
gases escape very hot, and where it is on that account all*
important to confine their quantity to a minimum.
It is precisely in these cases that another requirement frequently
comes in, viz. the production at a given point of a higher tempera-
ture than is easily attained by ordinary fires. Gas-firing lends
itself very well to this end, as it is easily combined with a pre-
liminary heating up of the air, and even of the gas itself, by
means of " recuperators.** The original and best-known form
of these, due to Siemens Brothers, consists of two brick chambers
filled with loosely stacked fire-bricks in such manner that any
gases passed through the chambers must seek their way through
the interstices left between the bricks, by which means a thorough
284
FUEL
IGASBOUS
interchange of temperature takes place. The smoke gases,
instead of escaping directly into the atmosphere, are made to
pass through one of these chambers, giving up part of their
heat to the brickwork. After a certain time the draught is
changed by means of valves, the smoke gases are passed through
another chamber, and the cold air intended to feed the com-
bustion is made to pass through the first chamber, where it
takes up beat from the white-hot bricks, and is thus heated up
to a bright red heat until the chamber is cooled down too far,
when the draughts are again reversed. Sometimes the producer
gas itself is heated up in this manner (especially when it has
been cooled down by travelling a long distance); in that case
four recuperator chambers must be provided instead of two.
Another class of recuperators is not founded on the alternating
system, but acts continuously; the smoke gases travel always
in the same direction in flues contiguous to other flues or pipes
in which the air flows in the opposite direction, an interchange
of heat taking place through the walls of the flues or pipes. Here
the surface of contact must be made very large if a good effect
is to be produced. In both cases not merely is a saving effected
of all the calories which are abstracted by the cold air from the
recuperator, but as less fuel has to be burned to get a given
effect, the quantity of smoke gas is reduced. For details and
other producer gases, see Gas, II. For Fuel and Fewer.
. Gas-firing in the manner just described can be brought about
by very simple means, viz. by lowering the fire-grate of an
ordinary fire-place to at least 4 ft. below the fire-bridge, and by
introducing the air partly below the grate and partly behind
the fire-place, at or near the point where the greatest heat
is required. Usually, however, more elaborate apparatus is
employed, some of which we shall describe below. Oas-firing
has now become universal in some of the most important in-
dustries and nearly so in others. The present extension of
steel-making and other branches of metallurgy is intimately
connected with this system, as is the modern method of glass-
making, of heating coal gas retorts and so forth.
The composition of producer gas differs considerably, princi-
pally according to the material from which it is made. Analyses
of ordinary producer gas (not such as falls under the heading of
"semi-water gas," see sub C) by volume show 22 to 33% CO,
x to 7% COi, 05 to 2% H 3 , 0-5 to 3% hydrocarbons, and
64 to 68% N,.
B. Water Gas.— The reaction of steam on highly heated
carbonaceous matter was first observed by Felice Fontana in
1780. This was four years before Henry Cavendish isolated
hydrogen from water, and thirteen years before William Murdoch
made illuminating gas by the distillation of coal, so that it was
no wonder that Font ana's laboratory work was soon forgotten.
Nor had the use of carburctted water gas, as introduced by
Donovan in 1830 for illuminating purposes, more than a very
short life. More important is the fact that during nine years
the illumination of the town of Narbonne was carried on by
incandescent platinum wire, heated by water gas, where also
internally heated generators were for the first time regularly
employed. The Narbonne process was abandoned in 1865, and
for some time no real progress was made in this field in Europe.
But in America, T. S. C. Lowe, Strong.Tessie du Motay and others
took up the matter, the first permanent success being obtained
by the introduction (1873) of Lowe's system at Phoenixville, Pa.
In the United States the abundance of anthracite, as well as of
petroleum naphtha, adapted for carburetting the gas, secures a
great commercial advantage to thb kind of illuminant over coal
gas, so that now three-fourths of all American gas-works employ
carburctted water gas. In Europe the progress of this industry
was naturally much less rapid, but here also since 1882, when
the apparatus of Lowe and D wight was introduced in the town
of Essen, great improvements have been worked out, principally
by E. Blass, and by these improvements water gas obtained a
firm footing also for certain heating purposes. The American
process for making carburetted water gas, as an auxiliary to
ordinary coal gas, was first introduced by the London Gas Light
sad Coke Company on a large scale in 1800.
Water gas in its original state is called " blue gas," because it
burns with a blue, non-luminous flame, which produces a very
high temperature. According to the equation C+HiO- CO+Ht,
this gas consists theoretically of equal volumes of carbon
monoxide and hydrogen. We shall presently see why it is
impossible to avoid the presence of a little carbon dioxide and
other gases, but we shall for the moment treat of water gas at
if it were composed according to the above equation. The
reaction C+HxO-CO+Hj is endotbermic, that is, its thermal
value is negative. One gram-molecule of carbon produces 97
great calories (1 great calorie or kilogram-calorie* x 000 gram-
calories) when burning to COj, and this is of course the maximum
effect obtainable from this source. If the same gram-molecule
of carbon is -used for making water gas, that is, CO-f H», the
heat produced by the combustion of the product is 684+
576= 1 26 great calories, an apparent surplus of 29 calories,
which cannot be got out of nothing. This is made evident by
another consideration. In the above reaction C is not burned
to COi, but to CO, a reaction which produces 28-6 calories per
gram-molecule. But as the oxygen is furnished from water,
which must first be decomposed by the expenditure of energy,
we must introduce this amount, 68*5 calorics in the case of
liquid water, or 57*6 calories in the case of steam, as a negative
quantity, and the difference, viz. +28*6- 57-6* 29 great calories,
represents the amount of beat to be expended from another
source in order to bring about the reaction of one grara-rnolecule
of carbon on one gram-molecule of HjO in the shape of steam.
This explains why steam directed upon incandescent coal will
produce water gas only for a very short time: even a large
mass of coal will quickly be cooled down so much that at first a
gas of different composition is formed and soon the process wiQ
cease altogether. We can avoid this result by carrying on the
process in a retort heated from without by an ordinary coal fire,
and all the early water gas apparatus was constructed in this
way; but such a method is very uneconomical, and was long ago
replaced by a process first patented by J. and T. N. Kirk ham
in 1854, and very much improved by successive inventors. This
process consists in conducting the operation in an upright brick
shaft, charged with anthracite, coke or other suitable fueL This
shaft resembles an ordinary gas producer, but it differs in being
worked, not in a continuous manner, which, as shown above*
would be impossible, but by alternately blowing air and steam
through the coal for periods of a few minutes each. During the
first phase, when carbon is burned by atmospheric oxygen, and
thereby heat is produced, this heat, or rather that part of it
which is not carried away by radiation and by the products
of combustion on leaving the apparatus, is employed in raising
the temperature of the remaining mass of fuel, and is thus
available for the second phase, in which the reaction (ft)
C+H t O«> CO + Hi goes on with the abstraction of a corresponding
amount of heat from the incandescent fuel, so that the latter
rapidly cools down, and the process must be reversed by blowing
in air and so forth. The formation of exactly equal volumes,
of carbon monoxide and hydrogen goes on only at temperature*
over x 200 C, that is, for a very few minutes. Even at 1 100° C
a little CO* can be proved to exist in the gas, and at 000* its
proportion becomes too high to allow the process to go 00.
About 650 C. the CO has fallen to'a minimum, and the reaction
is now essentially (c) C+2H,0=CO,+2H,; soon alter tbe
temperature of the mass will have fallen to such a low point
that the steam passes through it without any perceptible action.
The gas produced by reaction (c) contains only two-thiidsof
combustible matter, and is on that account less valuable than
proper water gas formed by reaction (6); moreover, it requires
the generation of twice the amount of steam, and its presence is
all the less desirable since it must soon lead to a total cessation
of the process. In ordinary circumstances it is evident that the
more steam is blown in during a unit of time, tbe sooner reaction
(c) will set in; on the other hand, the more heat has been
accumulated in the producer the longer can tbe blowing-in of
steam be continued.
Tbe process of making water gas consequently comprises
GASEOUS)
FUEL
285
two alternating operations, via. first " blowing-up " by means
of a current of air, by which the heat of the mass of fuel is raised
to about X2co° C; and, secondly " steaming," by injecting a
current of (preferably superheated) steam until the temperature
of the fuel had fallen to about ooo° C, and too much carbon
dioxide appears in the product. During the steaming the gas
is carried off by a special conduit into a scrubber, where the dust
mechanically carried away in the current is washed out, and the
gas is at the same time .cooled down nearly to the ordinary
temperature. It is generally stored in a gas-holder, from which
it is conducted away as required. It is never quite free from
nitrogen, as' the producer at the beginning of steaming contains
much of this gas, together with CO or CO* The proportion of
hydrogen may exceed 50%, in consequence of reaction (c)
setting in at the dose of the steaming. Ordinary " blue " water
gas, if, as usual, made from coke or anthracite, contains 48-52%
Hi, 40-41% CO, x-5% CO*, 4-5% N,, and traces of hydro-
carbons, especially methane. If made from bituminous coal,
it contains more of the latter. If " carburetted " (a process
which increases its volume 50% and more) by the vapours from
superheated petroleum naphtha, the proportion of CO ranges
about 25%, with about as much methane, and from 10 to 15%
of " iDuminants " (heavy hydrocarbons). The latter, of course,
greatly enhance the fuel-value of the gas. Pure water gas would
possess- the following fuel-value per cubic metre:
0*5 cub. met. H t ■ 1291 calorics
0-5 „ .» CO "152a ..
2813 „
Ordinary "blue" water gas has a fuel-value of at least 3500
calories. Carburetted water gas, which varies very much in
its percentage of hydrocarbons, sometimes reaches nearly the
heat-value of coal gas, but such gas is only in exceptional cases
used for heating purposes.
We must now turn to the " blowing-up " stage of the process.
Until recently it was assumed that during this stage the combus-
tion of carbon cannot be carried on beyond the formation of
carbon monoxide, for as the gas-producer must necessarily
contain a deep layer of fuel (generally about 6 to 10 ft.), any COi
formed at first would be reduced to CO; and it was further
assumed that hardly any COj would be formed from the outset,
as the temperature of the apparatus is too high for this reaction
to take place. But as the combustion of C to CO produces only
about 30% of the heat produced when C is burned into COj;
the quantity of fuel consumed for " blowing-up " is very large,
and in fact considerably exceeds that consumed in "steaming."
There is, of course, a further loss by radiation and minor sources,
and the result is that x kilogram of carbon yields only about
x • 2 cub. met. of water gas. Each period of blowing-up generally
occupies from 8 to x* minutes, that of steaming only 4 or 5
minutes. This low yield of water gas until quite recently appeared
to be unavoidable, and the only question seemed to be whether
and to what extent the gas formed during blowing-up, which
is in fact identical with ordinary producer gas (Siemens gas),
could be utilized. In America, where the water gas is mostly
employed for illuminating purposes, at least part of the blowing-
up gas is utilized for heating the apparatus in which the naphtha
is volatilized and the vapours are " fixed " by superheating.
This process, however, never utilizes anything like the whole
of the blowing-up gas, nor can this be effected by raising and
superheating the steam necessary for the second operation;
indeed, the employment of this gas for raising steam is not very
easy, owing to the irregularities of and constant interruptions
in the supply. In some systems the gas made during the blowing-
up stage is passed through chambers, loosely filled with bricks,
like Siemens recuperators, where it is burned by " secondary "
air: the beat thus impaited to the brickwork is utilized by passing
through the recuperator, and thus superheating, the steam
required for the next steaming operation. In many cases,
principally where no carburetting is practised, the blowing-up
gas is simply burned at the mouth of the producer, and is thus
altogether lost; and in no case can it be utilized without great
waste. A very important improvement in this respect was
effected by C. Dellwik and E. Fleischer. They found that the
view that it is unavoidable to buru the carbon to monoxide
during the blowing-up holds good only for the pressure of blast
formerly applied. This did not much exceed that which is
required for overcoming the frictional resistance within the
producer. If, however, the pressure is considerably increased,
and the height of the column of fuel reduced, both of these
conditions being strictly regulated in accordance with the result
desired, it is easy to attain a combustion of the carbon to dioxide,
with only traces of monoxide, in spite of the high temperature.
Evidently the excess of oxygen coming into contact with each
particle of carbon in a given unit of time produces other conditions
of chemical equilibrium than those existing at lower pressures. At
any rate, experience has shown that by this process, in which the
full heat-value of carbon is utilized during the blowing-up stage,
the time of heating-up can be reduced from 10 to 1$ or 2 minutes,
and the steaming can be prolonged from 4 or 5 to 8 or xo minutes,
with the result that twice the quantity of water gas is obtained,
viz. upwards of 2 cub. metres from 1 kilogram of carbon.
The application of water gas as a fuel mainly depends upon
the high temperatures which it is possible to attain by its aid,
and these are principally due to the circumstance that it forms
a much smaller flame than coal gas, not to speak of Siemens gas,
which contains at most 33% of combustible matter against
00% or more in water gas. The latter circumstance also allows
the gas to be conducted and distributed in pipes of moderate
dimensions. Its application, apart from its use as an fllumimtat
(with which We are not concerned here), was formerly retarded
by its high cost in comparison with Siemens gas and other
sources of heat, but as this state of affairs has been changed by
the modern improvements, its use is rapidly extending, especially
for metallurgical purposes.
C. Mixed Gas (Semi-WoUr G<w}.— This class is sometimes
called Dowson gas, irrespective of its method of production,
although it was made and extensively used a long time before
J. E. Dowson constructed his apparatus for generating such a
gas principally for driving gas-engines. By a combination of
the processes for generating Siemens gas and water gas, it is
produced by injecting into a gas-producer at the same time a
certain quantity of air and a corresponding quantity of steam,
the latter never exceeding the amount which can be decomposed
by the heat-absorbing reaction, C+HrO-CO+H,, at the ex-
pense of the heat generated by the action of the air in the
reaction C+0 — CO. Such gas used to be frequently obtained in
an accidental way by introducing liquid water or steam into
an ordinary gas-producer for the purpose of facilitating its
working by avoiding an excessive temperature, such as might
cause the rapid destruction of the brickwork and the fusion of
the ashes of the fuel into troublesome cakes. It was soon found
that by proceeding in this way a certain advantage could be
gained in regard to the consumption of fuel, as the beat abstracted
by the steam from the brickwork and the fuel itself was usefully
employed for decomposing water, its energy thus reappearing
in the shape of a combustible gas. It is hardly necessary to
mention explicitly that the total heat obtained by any such
process from a given quantity of carbon (or hydrogen) can in
no case exceed that which is generated by direct combustion;
some inventors, however, whether inadvertently or intentionally,
have actually represented this to be possible, in manifest violation
of the law of the conservation of energy.
Roughly speaking, this gas may be said to be produced by
the combination of the reactions, described sub A and B, to the
joint reaction: 2C+0+H^)»2CO+H t . The decomposition
of H2O (applied in the shape of steam) absorbs 57*6 gram calories,
the formation of 2C0 produces 59 gram calories; hence there is
a small positive excess of x -4 calories at disposal. This in reality
would not be sufficient to cover the loss by radiation, &c;
hence rather more free oxygen (i.e. atmospheric air) must be
employed than is represented by the above equation. All this
free oxygen is, of course, accompanied by nearly four times
its volume of nitrogen.
286
FUENTE OVEJUNA— FUERO
The mixed gas thus obtained differs very much in composition,
but is always much richer in hydrogen (of which it contains
sometimes as much a3 20%) and poorer in carbon monoxide
(sometimes down to 20%) than Siemens gas; generally it
contains more of CO, than the latter. The proportion of nitrogen
is always less, about 50%. It is therefore a more concentrated
fuel than Siemens gas, and better adapted to the driving of gas-
engines. It scarcely costs more to make than ordinary Siemens
gas, except where the steam is generated and superheated in
special apparatus, as is done in the Dowson producer, which,
on the other hand, yields a correspondingly better gas. As is
natural, its properties are some way between those of Siemens
gas and of water gas; but they approach more nearly the
former, both as to costs and as to fuel-value, and also as to the
temperatures reached in combustion. This is easily understood
if we consider that gas of just the same description can be
obtained by mixing one volume of real water gas with the four
volumes of Siemens gas made during the blowing-up stage — an
operation which is certainly too expensive for practical use.
A modification of this gas is the Mond gas, which is made,
according to Mond's patent, by means of such an excess of steam
that most of the nitrogen of the coke is converted into ammonia
(Grouven's reaction). Of course much of this steam passes on
undecomposcd, and the quantity of the gas is greatly increased
by the reaction C+2H,0=COi+2H,; hence the fuel-value
of this gas is less than that of semi-water gas made in other ways.
Against this loss must be set the gain of ammonia which is
recovered by means of an arrangement of coolers and scrubbers,
and, except at very low prices of ammonia, the profit thus made
is probably more than sufficient to cover the extra cost. But
as the process requires very large and expensive plant, and its
profits would vanish in the case of the value of ammonia becoming
much lower (a result which would very probably follow if it were
somewhat generally introduced), it cannot be expected to sup-
plant the other descriptions of gaseous fuel to more than a
limited extent.
Semi-water gas is especially adapted for the purpose of driving
gas-engines on the explosive principle (gas-motors). Ordinary
producer-gas is too poor for this purpose in respect of heating
power; moreover, owing to the prevalence of carbon monoxide,
it does not light quickly enough. These defects arc sufficiently
overcome in semi-water gas by the larger proportion of hydrogen
contained in it. For the purpose in question the gas should be
purified from tar and ashes, and should also be cooled down before
entering the gas-engine. The Dowson apparatus and others
are constructed on this principle.
Air Gat. — By forcing air over or through volatile inflammable
liquids a gaseous mixture can be obtained which burns with a
bright flame and which can be used for illumination. Its employ-
ment for heating purposes is quite exceptional, e.g. in chemical
laboratories, and we abstain, therefore, from describing any of the
numerous appliances, some of them bearing very fanciful names,
which have been devised for its manufacture. (G. L.)
FUENTE OVEJUNA [Fuentcovcjuno], a town of Spain, in the
province of Cordova; near the sources of the river Guadiato,
and on the Fuente del Arco-Bclmez-Cordova railway. Pop.
(1000) n,777- Fuente Ovejuna is built on a hill, in a well-
irrigated district, which, besides producing an abundance of
wheat, wine, fruit and honey, also contains argentiferous lead
mines and stone quarries. Cattle-breeding is an important
local industry, and leather, preserved meat, soap and flour
are manufactured. The parish church formerly belonged to
the kni ghts o f Calatrava (c. 1163-14S6).
FUENTERRABIA (formerly sometimes written Fontarabia;
Lat. Fons Rapidus), a town of northern Spain, in the province
of Guipflxcoa; on the San Sebastian-Bayonnc railway; near
the Bay of Biscay and on the French frontier. Pop. (1870)
about 750; (1000) 4345. Fuenterrabia stands on the slope of a
hill on the left bank of the river Bidassoa, and near the point
where its estuary begins. Towards the close of the 19th century
the town became popular as a summer resort for visitors from
the interior of Spain, and, in consequence, its appearance under-
went many changes and much of its early prosperity returned.
Hotels and villas were built in the new part of the town that
sprang up outside the picturesque walled fortress, and there is
quite a contrast between the part inside the heavy, half-ruined
ramparts, with its narrow, steep streets and curious gable-roofed
houses, its fine old church and castle and its massive town hall,
and the new suburbs and fishermen's quarter facing the estuary
of the Bidassoa. Many industries flourish on the outskirts of
the town, including rope and net manufactures, flour mills, saw
mills, mining railways, paper mills.
Fuenterrabia formerly possessed considerable strategic im-
portance, and it has frequently been taken and retaken in
wars bet ween France and Spain. The rout of Charlemagne in
778, which has been associated with Fontarabia, by Milton
{Parodist Lost, i. 587), is generally understood to have taken
place not here but at Roncesvalles (?.».), which is nearly 40 m.
E.S.E. Unsuccessful attempts to seize Fuenterrabia. were
made by the French troops in 1476 and again in 1503. In a
subsequent campaign (1521) these were more successful, but the
fortress was retaken in 1524. The prince of Condi sustained a
severe repulse under its walls in 1638, and it was on this occasion
that the town received from Philip IV. the rank of city {muy
noble, muy leal, y muy valerosa ciudad, " most noble, most loyal,
and most valiant city"), a privilege which involved sons
measure of autonomy. After a severe siege, Fuenterrabia
surrendered to the duke of Berwick and his French troops in
1 7 19; and in 1794 it again fell into the hands of the French,
who so dismantled it that it has never since been reckoned by
the Spaniards among their fortified places. It was by the ford
opposite Fuenterrabia that the duke of Wellington, on the 8th of
October 18x3, successfully forced a passage into France in the
face of an opposing army commanded by Marshal Soult. Severe
fighting also took place here during the Carlist War in 1837.
FUERO, a Spanish term, derived from the Latin form*. The
Castilian use of the word in the sense of a right, privilege or
charter is most probably to be traced to the Roman (inventus
juridici, otherwise known as jurisdictions or fora, which ia
Pliny's time were already numerous in the Iberian peninsula. In
each of these provincial fora the Roman magistrate, as is well
known, was accustomed to pay all possible deference to the
previously established common law of the district; and it was
the privilege of every free subject to demand that he should be
judged in accordance with the customs and usages of his proper
forum. This was especially true in the case of the inhabitants of
those towns which were in possession of the jus italicum. It is
not, indeed, demonstrable, but there are many presumptions,
besides some fragments of direct evidence, which make it more
than probable that the old administrative arrangements both of
the provinces and of the towns, but especially of the latter,
remained practically undisturbed at the period of the Gothic
occupation of Spain. 1 The Theodosian Code and the Breviary
of Alaric alike seem to imply a continuance of the municipal
system which had been established by the Romans; nor does the
later Lex Visigothorum, though avowedly designed in some
points to supersede the Roman law, appear to have contemplated
any marked interference with the former fora, which were slul to
a large extent left to be regulated in the administration of justice
by unwritten, immemorial, local custom. Little is known of the
condition of the subject populations of the peninsula during ike
Arab occupation; but we are informed that the Christians were,
sometimes at least, judged according to their own lavs ia
separate tribunals presided over by Christian judges;* and ike
mere fact of the preservation of the name alcalde, an officii!
whose functions corresponded so closely to those of the judex or
defensor eivUatis, is fitted to suggest that the old municipal ftrt,
if much impaired, were not even then in all cases wholly destroyed
At all events when the word forum 9 begins to appear for the first
time in documents of the zoth century in the sense of a liberty off
1 The nature of the evidence may be gathered from Savigity.Gtfcl
d. rdm. Reehts. See especially i. j>p. 154, 259 acq.
1 Compare Lembke u. Schafer, Cesekuku mm Sptnicn, L 314; fi. U7>
* Or rather forus. See Ducange, s.9.
FUERTEVENTURA— FUGGER
287
privilege, it is generally implied that the thing so named is
nothing new. The earliest extant written f uero is probably that
which was granted to the province and town of Leon by Alphonso
V. in 1020. It emanated from the king in a general council of the
kingdom of Leon and Castile, and consisted of two separate
parts; in the first 19 chapters were contained a series of statutes
which were to be valid for the kingdom at large, while the rest of
the document was simply a municipal charter. 1 But in neither
portion does it in any sense mark a new legislative departure,
unless in so far as it marks the beginning of the era of written
charters for towns. The " fuero general " docs not profess to
supersede the consuetudines ontiquorum jurium or Chindaswint's
codification of these in the Lex Visigothorum; the "fuero
municipal " is really for the most part but a resuscitation of
usages formerly established, a recognition and definition of
liberties and privileges that had long before been conceded or
taken for granted. The right of the burgesses to self-government
and self-taxation is acknowledged and confirmed, they, on the
other hand, being held bound to a constitutional obedience and
subjection to the sovereign, particularly to the payment of
definite imperial taxes, and the rendering of a certain amount of
military service (as the ancient municipia had been). Almost
contemporaneous with this fuero of Leon was that granted to
Najera (Naxera) by Sancho d Mayor of Navarre {ob. 1035), and
confirmed, in 1076, by Alphonso VI. 1 Traces of others of perhaps
even an earlier date are occasionally to be met with. In the fuero
of Cardena, for example, granted by Ferdinand L in 1039,
re f erence is made to a previous forum Burgense (Burgos), which,
however, has not been preserved, if, indeed, it ever had been
reduced to writing at alL The phraseology of that of Sepulveda
(1076) in like manner points back to an indefinitely remote
antiquity.* Among the later fueros of the nth century, the
most important are those of Jaca (1064) and of Logrono (1095).
The former of these, which was distinguished by the unusual
largeness of its concessions, and by the careful minuteness of its
details, rapidly extended to many places in the neighbourhood,
while the latter charter was given also to Miranda by Alphonso
VI., and was further extended in 1181 by Sancho d Sabio of
Navarre to Vitoria, thus constituting one of the earliest written
foro of the " Provincias Vascongadas." In the course of the 1 sth
and 13th centuries the number of such documents increased very
rapidly; that of Toledo especially, granted to the Mozarabic
population in xxoi, but greatly enlarged and extended by
Alphonso VII. (n 18) and succeeding sovereigns, was used as a
basis for many other Castilian fueros. Latterly the word fuero
came to be used in Castile in a wider sense than before, as mean-
ing a general code of laws; thus about the time of Saint Ferdi-
nand the old Lex Visigothorum, then translated for the first
time into the vernacular, was called the Fuero Juzgo, a name
which was soon retranslated into the barbarous Latin of the period
as Forum Judicum; 4 and among the compilations of Alphonso
the Learned in like manner were an Espejo de Fueros and also the
Fuero de las leyes, better known perhaps as the Fuero JUaL The
famous code known as the Ordenamienlo Real de Akald, or Fuero
Viejo de Costilla, dates from a still later period. As the power of
the Spanish crown was gradually concentrated and consolidated,
royal pragmaticas began to take the place of constitutional laws;
•Cap. xx. begins: " Constituimus ctiam ut Legionensis dvitas,
quae oepopulata fuit a Sarracenis in dicbus patris md Vercmundi
regis, repopulatur per kos foros subscripts "
■ " Mando et concedo ct ronfirmo ut ista civitas cum sua piebc et
cum omnibus suis pertinentiis sub tali lege ct sub tali foro mancat
per taecula cuncta. Amen. Isti sunt fueros quae habuerunt in
Naxera in diebus Sanctii regis et Gartiani regis.'
* " Ego Aldcfoosus rex et uxor mea Agnes confirraamus ad Septera-
pubBca suo foro quod habuit in tempore antiquo de avolo meo et in
tempore comitum Ferrando Gonzalez et comitc Garcia Ferdinandez
et comite Dotnno Santio."
* This Latin is later even than that of Ferdinand, whose words are :
** Stattto et mando quod Liber Judicum, quo ego misi Cordubam.
translatetur in vulgarem et vocetur forum de Corduba . . . et quod
per saecula cuncta sit pro foro et nullus sit au5us istud forum alitcr
appdlare nisi forum ae Corduba et jubeo et mando quod omnia
morator et populator . . . veniet ad judicium et ad forum : de
Corduba,"
the local fueros of the various districts slowly yielded before the
superior force of imperialism; and only those of Navarre and the
Basque provinces (see Basques) have had sufficient vitality to
enable them to survive to comparatively modern times. While
actually owning the lordship of the Castilian crown since about the
middle of the 14th century, these provinces rigidly insisted upon
compliance with their consuetudinary law, and especially with
that which provided that the sefior, before assuming the govern-
ment, should personally appear before the assembly and swear
to maintain the ancient constitutions. Each of the provinces
mentioned had distinct sets of fueros, codified at different periods,
and varying considerably as to details; the main features, how-
ever, were the same in an. Their rights, after having been re-
cognised by successive Spanish sovereigns from Ferdinand the
Catholic to Ferdinand VII., were, at the death of the latter in
x 833, set aside by the government of Castaftos. The result was a
civil war, which terminated in a renewed acknowledgment of the
fueros by Isabel IL (1839). The provisional government of 1868
also promised to respect them, and similar pledges were given
by the governments which succeeded. In consequence, however,
of the Carlist rising of 1873-1876, the Basque fueros were finally
extinguished in 1876. The history of the Faroes of the Portu-
guese towns, and of the Fors du Btam^ is precisely analogous to
fueros of Castile.
e numerous works that more or less expressly deal with
that of Marina (Eruavo kistorico-crilico sobre la antiguo
f principals cuerpos lefales de los reynos de Leon y
1 continues to hold a high place. Reference may also
Cohnriro's Curso de dereeko politico sent* la historic de
CasiUla (Madrid, 1873); to Schafer T s Ceschichte vou
418-428, lii. 293 seq.; and to Hallam's Middle Ages,
FUERTEVENTURA, an island in the Atlantic Ocean, forming
part of the Spanish archipelago of the Canary Islands (f.v.).
Pop. (1900) 1 1 ,669; area 665 sq. m. Fuerteventura lies between
Lanzarote and Grand Canary. It has a length of 5 a m., and an
average width of 1 2 m. Though less mountainous than the other
islands, its aspect is barren. There are only two springs of fresh
water, and these are confined to one valley. Lava streams and
other signs of volcanic action abound, but tlhere has been no
igneous activity since the Spaniards took possession. At each
extremity of the island are high mountains, which send off
branches along the coast so as to enclose a large arid plain.
The highest peak reaches 2500 ft. In external appearance,
climate and productions, Fuerteventura greatly resembles
Lanzarote. An interval of three years without rain has been
known. Oliva (pop. 1900, 2464) is the largest town. A smaller
place in the centre of the island named Bctancuria (586) is the
administrative capital. Cabras (1000) on the eastern coast is
the chief port. Dromedaries are bred here.
FUGGER, the name of a famous German family of merchants
and bankers. The founder of the family was Johann Fugger,
a weaver at Graben, near Augsburg, whose son, Johann, settled
in Augsburg probably in 1367. The younger Johann added the
business of a merchant to that of a weaver, and through his
marriage with Clara Widolph became a citizen of Augsburg.
After a successful career he died in 2408, leaving two sons,
Andreas and Jakob, who greatly extended the business which
they inherited from their father. Andreas, called the "rich
Fugger," had several sons, among them being Lukas, who was
very prominent in the municipal politics of Augsburg and who
was very wealthy until he was ruined by the repudiation by the
town of Louvain of a great debt owing to him, and Jakob, who
was granted the right to bear arms in 1452, and who founded the
family of Fugger vom Reh— so called from the first arms of the
Fuggcrs, a roc (Rth) or on a fidd azure— which became extinct
on the death of his great-grandson, Ulrich, in 1583. Johann
Fuggcr's son, Jakob, died in 1469, and three of his seven sons,
Ulrich (1441-1510), Georg (1453-150°) and Jakob (i459-»525)»
men of great resource and industry, inherited the family business
and added enormously to the family wealth. In 1473 Ulrich
obtained from the emperor Frederick III. the right to bear arms
for himself and his brothers, and about the same time he began
*88
FUGITIVE SLAVE LAWS
to act as the banker of the Habsburgs, a connexion destined to
bring fame and fortune to his house. Under the lead of Jakob,
who had been trained for business in Venice, the Fuggers were
interested in silver mines in Tirol and copper mines in Hungary,
while their trade in spices, wool and silk extended to almost
all parts of Europe. Their wealth enabled them to make large
loans to the German king, Maximilian I., who pledged to them
the county of Kirchberg, the lordship of Weissenhora and other
lands, and bestowed various privileges upon them. Jakob
built the castle of Fuggerau in Tirol, and erected the Fuggerei
at Augsburg, a collection of 106 dwellings, which were let at low
rents to poor people and which still exist. Jakob Fugger and
his two nephews, Ulrich (d. 1525) and Hieronyraus (d. 1536),
the sons of Ulrich, died without direct heirs, and the family was
continued by Georg's sons, Raimund (1480-1535) and Anton
(1493-1560), under whom the Fuggers attained the summit of
their wealth and influence.
Jakob Fugger'* florins had contributed largely to the election
of Charles V. to the imperial throne in 1510, and his nephews
and heirs maintained close and friendly relations with the great
emperor. In addition to lending him large sums of money, they
farmed his valuable quicksilver mines at Almaden, his silver
mines at Guadalcanal, the great estates of the military orders
which had passed into his hands, and other parts of his revenue
as king of Spain; receiving in return several tokens of the
emperor's favour. In 1530 Raimund and Anton were granted
the imperial dignity of counts of Kirchberg and Weissenhora,
and obtained full possession of these mortgaged properties;
in 1534 they were given the right of coining money; and in 1541
received rights of jurisdiction over their lands. During the diet
of Augsburg in 1530 Charles V. was the guest of Anton Fugger
at his house in the Weinmarkt, and the story relates how the
merchant astonished the emperor by lighting a fire of cinnamon
with an imperial bond for money due to him. This incident
forms the subject of a picture by Carl Becker which is in the
National Gallery at Berlin. Continuing their mercantile career,
the Fuggers brought the new world within the sphere of their
operations, and also carried on an extensive and lucrative
business in farming indulgences. Moreover, both brothers
found time to acquire landed property, and were munificent
patrons of literature and art. When Anton died he is said to
have been worth 6,000,000 florins, besides a vast amount of
property in Europe, Asia and America; and before this time
the total wealth of the family had been estimated at 63,000,000
florins. The Fuggers were devotedly attached to the Roman
Catholic Church, which benefited from their liberality. Jakob
had been made a count palatine (Pfalzgraf) and had received
other marks of favour from Pope Leo X., and several members
of the family had entered the church; one, Raimund 's son,
Sigmund, becoming bishop of Regcnsburg.
In addition to the bishop, three of Raimund Fugger's sons
attained some degree of celebrity. Johann Jakob (1 516-1575),
was the author of Wahrhaftigen Beschrcibung des dsterrcichisehen
und kabsburgischen Nahmcns, which was largely used by S. von
Sircken in his Spiegel der Ehren des Erzhauses Osterreich (Nurem-
berg, 1668), and of a Gekcim Ernbuch des Fuggerischcn GcschlechUs.
He was also a patron of art, and a distinguished counsellor of
Duke Albert IV. of Bavaria. After the death of his son Kon-
stantin, in 1627, this branch of the family was divided into three
Knes, which became extinct in 1738, 1705 and 1846 respectively.
Another of Raimund's sons was Ulrich (1 526-1 584), who, after
serving Pope Paul III. at Rome, became a Protestant. Hated
on this account by the other members of his family, he took
refuge in the Rhenish Palatinate; greatly interested in the
Greek classics, he occupied himself in collecting valuable manu-
scripts, which he bequeathed to the university of Heidelberg.
Raimund's other son was Georg (d. 1579), who inherited the
countships of Kirchberg and Weissenhom, and founded a branch
of the family which still exists, its present head being Georg,
Count Fugger of Kirchberg and Weissenhom (b. 1850).
Anton Fugger left three sons, Marcus (1 529-1 597), Johann
(d. 1598) and Jakob (d. 1508), all of whom left male issue.
Marcus was the author of a book on horse-breeding, WU und
wo man tin GestiU von guUn eddn Kriegsrossen oufrickUn soil
(1578), and of a German translation of the Historic eccl esi astic*
of Nicephorus Callistus. He founded the Nordendorf branch
of the family, which became extinct on the death of his grandson,
Nicolaus, in 1676. Another grandson of Marcus was Franx
Fugger (16x2-1664), who served under Wallenstein during the
Thirty Years' War, and was afterwards governor of Ingolsiadt
He was killed at the battle of St Gotthard on the xst of August
1664.
Johann Fugger had three sons, Christoph (d. 1615) and
Marcus id. 1614), who founded the families of Fugger-GIdtt and
Fugger-Kirchheim respectively, and Jakob, bishop of Constance
from 1604 until his death in 1626. Christoph 's son, Otto Hein-
rich (1592-1644), was a soldier of some distinction and a knight
of the order of the Golden Fleece. He was one of the most
active of the Bavarian generals during the Thirty Years' War,
and acted as governor of Augsburg, where his rule aroused
much discontent. The family of Kirchheim died out in 1672.
That of Gldtt was divided into several branches by the sons
of Otto Heinrich and of his brother Johann Ernst (d. 1628).
These lines, however, have gradually become extinct except the
eldest line, represented in 1909 by Karl Ernst, Count Fugger of
Glott (b. 1859). Anton Fugger's third son Jakob, the founder of
the family of Wellenburg, had two sons who left issue, but in 1777
the possessions of this branch of the family were again united by
Ansetra Joseph (d. 1793), Count Fugger of Babenhausen. It
1803 Ansclm's son, Anselm Maria (d. X821), was made a prince of
the Holy Roman Empire, the title of Prince Fugger of Baben-
hausen being borne by his direct descendant Karl (b. 1861). Ob
the fall of the empire in 1806 the lands of the Fuggers, which
were held directly of the empire, were mediatized under Bavaria
and Wurttemberg. The heads of the three existing branches
of the Fuggers are all hereditary members of the Bavarian
Upper House.
Augsburg has many interesting mementoes of the Fuggers,
including the family burial-chapel in the church ot St Anna;
the Fugger chapel in the church of St Ulrich and St Afra; the
Fuggerhaus, still in the possession of one branch of the family;
and a statue of Johann Jakob Fugger.
iggers, engraved by
\ugsburg. Edition*
, the former accom-
n German. Another
d at Vienna In 1754.
te Fugger torn Jain
•cigcr. Jakob Fan",
Tie Fufupr in Rem,
ZeilaUer der Fugger
tgterschen Haualwnt
Haus Fugger (Aor*
\er Fugger (Leipzig.
FUGITIVE SLAVE LAWS, a term applied in the United
States to the Statutes passed by Congress in 1793 and 1850 to
provide for the return of negro slaves who escaped from oac
state into another or into a public territory. A fugitive slave
clause was inserted in the Articles of Confederation of the New
England Confederation of 1643, providing for the return of the
fugitive upon the certificate of one magistrate in the jurisdiction
out of which the said servant fled—no trial by jury being provided
for. This seems to have been the only instance of an inter-
colonial provision for the return of fugitive slaves; there were,
indeed, not infrequent escapes by slaves from one colony to
another, but it was not until after the growth of anti-slavery
sentiment and the acquisition of western territory, that it
became necessary to adopt a uniform method for the return of
fugitive slaves. Such provision was made in the Ordinance of
1787 (forthe Northwest Territory), which in Article VI. provided
that in the case of " any person escaping into the same ftst
Northwest Territory! from whom labor or service is lawfully
claimed in any one of the original states, such fugitive may be
lawfully reclaimed and conveyed to the person claiming Us at '
her labor or service as aforesaid." An agreement of the sort w»
FUGLEMAN— FUGUE
289
necessary to persuade the slave-hoi
the Federal Constitution, Article V
that " no person held to service or 1
laws thereof, escaping into another,
law or regulation therein, be disci
labor, but shall be delivered up on
such service or labour may be due.'
The first specific legislation on th
zith of February 1793, and like the.
Territory and the section of the Co
not contain the word " slave "; 1
district or circuit judge or any stat
to decide finally and without a jury
fugitive. The measure soon met v
northern states, and Personal Libert;
officials in the execution of the law
necticut in 1828 providing jury trk
from an original decision against th<
Vermont extended the right of tri
provided them with attorneys. A*
the 19th century individual dissalis
had taken the form of systematic a;
escaping from the South to Can
so-called " Underground Railroac
Supreme Court of the United Sta
Pennsylvania in 1842 (16 Peters
could not be forced to act in fug
national authorities must carry c
followed by legislation in Massachus
Pennsylvania (1847) and Rhode Is!
officials to help enforce the law ai
gaols for fugitive slaves. The dem;
effective Federal legislation was voic
law, drafted by Senator J. M. Maso
the 18th of September 1 850 as a part 1
of that year. Special commissions
jurisdiction with the U.S. circuit
inferior courts of Territories in cnfoi
not testify in their own behalf; no
1 The precise amount
cannot be definitely asc<
the figure of railroading
the road. Robert Pur via
doctors," and their disc
shipped by them. The a
across Ohio, and from
York, to New England a
anti-slavery men in rout)
1000 slave*. The Qua!
work of the mysterious
them was Thomas Garn
who, in 1822, removed
convicted in 1848 on fom
was fined $8000; he is a
The most picturesque :
Harriet Tubman (<:. 18
" General " Tubman, ai
made- about a score of trips into the
Jfoo negroes altogether. At one time ;
or her capture. She was a mystic,
powers, and did great service as a n
Civil War. Levi T Coffin (1798-1877
(whose cousin. Vestal Coffin, had cstal
of the Underground near what is now
Una), in 1826 settled in Wayne C01
Garden (now Fountain City) was the
from Kentucky; and in 1847 he rcm<
labours in bringing slaves out of the Sc
It has been argued that the Undcrgn
decision of the slavery question, ii
valve " ; for, without it, the more i
negro slaves would, it is asserted, h
surrections in the South, and would
the places where they could have
William Still. The Underground RaUra
tion of anecdotes by a negro agent of
Society, and of the Philadelphia bra
important and scholarly work of Wilb
Railroad from Slavery to Freedom (Nc
penalties were imposed upon marshals who refused to enforce JLhe
law or from whom a fugitive should escape, and upon individuals
who aided negroes to escape; the marshal might raise a posse
comttalus; a fee of $10 was paid to the commissioner when his
decision favoured the claimant and only $5 when it favoured tht
fugitive; and both the fact of the escape and the identity of the
fugitive were to be determined on purely ex parte testimony.
The severity of this measure led to gross abuses and defeated its
purpose; the number of abolitionists increased, the operations
of the Underground Railroad became more efficient, and new
Personal Liberty Laws were enacted in Vermont (1850), Con-
necticut (1854), Rhode Island (1854), Massachusetts (1855),
Michigan (1855), Maine (1855 and 1857), Kansas (1858) and
Wisconsin (1858). These Personal Liberty Laws forbade justices
and judges to take cognizance of claims, extended the habeas
corpus act and the privilege of jury trial to fugitives, and
punished false testimony severely. The supreme court of
Wisconsin went so far (1859) as to declare the Fugitive Slave Law
unconstitutional. These state laws were one of the grievances
officially referred to by South Carolina (in Dec. i860) as justifying
her secession from the Union. Attempts to carry into effect the
law of 1850 aroused much bitterness. The arrests of Sims and
of Shadrach in Boston in 1851; of "Jerry" M* Henry, in
Syracuse, New York, in the same year; of Anthony Burns in
1854, in Boston; and of the two Garner families in 1856, in
Cincinnati, with other cases arising under the Fugitive Slave
Law of 1850, probably had as much to do with bringing on the
Civil War as did the controversy over slavery in the Territories.
With the beginning of the Civil War the legal status of the
slave was changed by his master's being in arms. General B. F.
Butler, in May 1861, declared negro slaves contraband of war.
A confiscation bill was passed in August 1861 discharging from
his service or labour any slave employed in aiding or promoting
any insurrection against the government of the United States.
By an act of the 17th of July 1862 any slave of a disloyal master
who was in territory occupied by northern troops was declared
ipso facto free. But for some time the Fugitive Slave Law was
considered still to hold in the case of fugitives from masters in
the border states who were loyal to the Union government, and
it was not until the 28th of June 1864 that the Act of 1850 was
repealed.
Sec J. F. Rhodes. History of the United States from tie Compromise
of 1850, vols. i. and ii. (New York. 1893); and M. G. M'Dougall,
Fugitive Slaves, 1619-186$ (Boston, 1891).
FUGLEMAN (from the Gcr. FlUgdmann, the man on the
FlUgel or wing), properly a military term for a soldier who is
selected to act as " guide," and posted generally on the flanks
with the duty of directing the march in the required line, or of
giving the time, &c, to the remainder of the unit, which conforms
to his movements, in any military exercise. The word is then
applied to a ringleader or one who takes the lead in any move-
ment or concerted movement.
FUGUE (Lat. fuga, flight), in music, the mutual " pursuit *'
of voices or parts. It was, up to the end of the 16th century,
if not later, the name applied to two art-forms. (A) Fuga
ligata was the exact reproduction by one or more voices of the
statement of a leading part. The reproducing voice (comes)
was seldom if ever written out, for all differences between it
and the dux were rigidly systematic; e.g. it was an exact inversion,
or exactly twice as slow, or to be sung backwards, &c. &c.
Hence, a rule or canon was given, often in enigmatic form, by
which the comes was deduced from the dux: and so the term
canon became the appropriate name for the form itself, and is
still retained. (B) A composition in which the canonic style
was cultivated without canonic restriction was, in the 16th
century, called fuga ricercala or simply a rictrcare, a term which
is still used by Bach as a title for the fugues in Das musikalische
Opfer.
The whole conception of fugue, rightly understood, is one of
the most important in music, and the reasons why some con-
trapunlal compositions arc called fugues, while others arc not,
are so trivial, technically as well as aesthetically, that we have
290
FttHRICH— FU-KIEN
preferred to treat the subject separately under the general
heading of Contrapuntal Forms, reserving only technical
terms for definition here.
(i.) If in the beginning or " exposition " the material with which
the opening voice accompanies the answer is faithfully reproduced
as the accompaniment to subsequent entries of the subject, it
is called a counter subject (sec Counterpoint, under sub-heading
Double Counterpoint). Obviously the process may be carried
further, the first countersubject going on to a second when the
subject enters in the third part and so on. The term is also
applied to new subjects appearing later in the fugue in combina-
tion (immediate or destined) with the original subject. Cherubini,
holding the doctrine that a fugue cannot have more than one
subject, insists on applying the term to the less prominent of
the subjects of what are commonly called double fugues, i.e.
fugues which begin with two parts and two subjects simultan-
eously, and so also with triple and quadruple fugues.
(ii.) Episodes are passages separating the entries of the subject. 1
Episodes are usually developed from the material of the subject
and countersubjects; they are very rarely independent, but
then conspicuously so.
(iii.) StreUo, the overlapping of subject and answer, is a resource
the possibilities of which may be exemplified by the setting of
the words omnes generation** in Bach's Magnificat (see Bach).
(iv.) The distinction between real and tonal fugue, which is
•till sometimes treated as a thing of great historical and technical
importance, is really a mere detail resulting from the' fact that
a violent oscillation between the keys of tonic and dominant
is no part of the function of a fugal exposition, so that the answer
is (especially in its first notes and in points that tend to shift the
key) not so much a transposition of the subject to the key of
the dominant as an adaptation of it from the tonic part to the
dominant part of the scale, or vice versa; in short, the answer
is as far as possible on the dominant, not in the dominant. The
modifications this principle produces in the answer (which have
been happily described as resembling " fore-shortening ") are
the only distinctive marks of tonal fugue; and the text-books
are half filled with the attempt to reduce them from matters
of ear to rules of thumb, which rules, however, have the merit
(unusual in those of the academic fugue) of being founded on
observation of the practice of great masters. But the same
principle as often as not produces answers that are exact trans-
positions of the subject; and so the only kind of real fugue
(i.e. fugue with an exact answer) that could rightly be contrasted
with tonal fugue would be that in which the answer ought to
be tonal but U not. It must be admitted that tonal answers are
rare in the modal music of the 16th century, though their melodic
principles are of yet earlier date; still, though tonal fugue does
not become usual until well on in the 17th century, the idea
that it is a separate species is manifestly absurd, unless the term
simply means " fugue in modern tonality or key/' whatever the
answer may be.
The term " answer " is usually reserved for those entries of
the subject that are placed in what may be called the " comple-
mentary " position of the scale, whether they are " tonally "
modified or not. Thus the order of entries in the exposition of
the first fugue of the Wokltemp. Klav. is subject, answer, answer,
subject; a departure from the usual rule according to which
subject and answer are strictly alternate in the exposition.
In conclusion we may remind the reader of the most accurate
as well as the most vivid description ever given of the essentials
of a fugue, in the famous lines in Paradise Lost, book xi.
" His volant touch,
Instinct through all proportions, low and high,
Fled and pursued transverse the resonant fugue."
It is hard to realize that this description of organ-music was
written in no classical period of instrumental polyphony, but
just half-way between the death of Frescobaldi and the birth
'An episode occurring during the exposition is sometimes called
codetta, a distinction the uselessness of which at once appears on
an analysis of Bach's and fugue in the Wokltemp. Klav. (the term
codetta is more correctly applied to notes filling in a gap between
subject and its first answer, but such a gap is rare in good examples).
of Bach. Every word is a definition, both retrospective and
prophetic; and in "transverse" we see all that Sir Frederick
Gore Ouselcy expresses in his popular distinction between the
u perpendicular " or homophonic style in which harmony is
built up in chords, and the " horizontal " or polyphonic style in
which it is woven in threads of independent melody. (D. F. T.)
FtiHRICH, JOSEPH VON (1800-1876), Austrian painter, was
born at Kratzau in Bohemia on the 9th of February 1800. Deeply
impressed as a boy by rude pictures adorning the wayside chapels
of his native country, his first attempt at composition was a
sketch of the Nativity for the festival of Christmas in his father's
house. He lived to sec the day when, becoming celebrated as
a composer of scriptural episodes, his sacred subjects were
transferred in numberless repetitions to the roadside churches of
the Austrian state, where humble peasants thus learnt to admire
modern art reviving the models of earlier ages. Fiihrich has
been fairly described as a " Nazarenc," a romam ic religious artist
whose pencil did more than any other to restore the old spirit
of Durer and give new shape to countless incidents of the gospel
and scriptural legends. Without the power of Cornelius or the
grace of Overbcck, he composed with great skill, especially ia
outline. His mastery of distribution, form, movement and
expression was considerable. In its peculiar way his drapery
was perfectly cast. Essentially creative as a landscape
draughtsman, he had still no feeling for colour; and when
he produced monumental pictures he was not nearly so
successful as when designing subjects for woodcuts. FUhrich's
fame extended far beyond the walls of the Austrian capital,
and his illustrations to Ticck's Genofcwi, the Lord's Prayer,
the Triumph of Christ, the Road to Bethlehem, the Succession
of Christ according to Thomas a Kempis, the Prodigal
Son, and the verses of the Psalter, became well known. Hit
Prodigal Son, especially, is remarkable for the fancy with which
the spirit of evil is embodied in a figure constantly r ec u r rin g,
and like that of Mcphislophclcs exhibiting temptation in a human
yet demoniacal shape. Fiihrich became a pupil at the Academy
of Prague in 1816. His first inspiration was derived from the
prints of Diirer and the Faust of Cornelius, and the first fruit of
this turn of study was the Genofeva series. In 1826 he went to
Rome, where he added three frescoes to those executed by
Cornelius and Overbcck in the Palazzo Massimi. His subjects
were taken from the life of Tasso, and are almost solitary examples
of his talent in this class of composition. In 1831 he finished
the Triumph of Christ now in the Raczynski palace at Bern's.
In 1834 he was made custos and in 1841 professor of composition
in the Academy of Vienna. After this he completed the moan*
mental pictures of the church of St Nenomuk, and in 1854-1861
the vast series of wall paintings which cover the inside of the
Lerchenfcld church at Vienna. In 1872 he was pensioned and
madca knight of the order of Franz Joseph; 1875 is the date of his
illustrations to the Psalms. He died on the 13th of March 1876.
His autobiography was published in 1875, and a memoir by ail
son Lucas in 1886.
FUJI (Fuji-san, Fujiyama, Fujiyama), a celebrated moontais
of Japan, standing W.S.W. of Tokyo, its base being about 70 a.
by rail from that city. It rises to a height of 12,395 ft* **•<- "*
southern slopes reach the shore of Suruga Bay. It b a cone of
beautifully simple form, the more striking to view became it
stands isolated; but its summit is not conical, being broken by
a crater some 2000 ft. in diameter, for Fuji is a quiescent volcano.
Small outbursts of steam are still to be observed at some points.
An eruption is recorded so lately as the first decade of the iStk
century. The mountain is the resort of great numbers ofraliTiM
(see also Japan).
FU-KIEN (formerly Min), a south-eastern province of Cains,
bounded N. by the province of Cheh-kiang, S. by that of Kwiftf-
tung, W. by that of Kiang-si and E. by the sea. It occupies as
area of 53,480 sq. m. and its population is estimated at 20,ooo/x»
The provincial capital is Fuchow Fu, and it is divided intoefevca
prefectures, besides that ruled over by the prefect of the capital
city. Fu-kien is generally mountainous, being overspread by the
Nan-ahan ranges, which run a general course of N.E. and S.W.
FUKUI— FULA
291
The principal river is the Min, which is Conned by the junction,
in the neighbourhood of the city of Yen-p'ing Fu, of three riven,
namely, the Nui-si, which takes its rise in the mountains on the
western frontier in the prefecture of Kien-ning Fu, the Fuh-tun
Ki, the source of which is found in the district of Kwang-tsih in
the north-west of the province, and the Ta-shi-ki (Shao Ki), which
rises in the mountains in the western district of Ning-hwa. From
Yen-p'ing Fu the river takes a south-easterly course, and after
passing along the south face of the city of Fuchow Fu, empties
itself into the sea about 30 m. below that town. Its upper course
is narrow and rocky and abounds in rapids, but as it approaches
Fuchow Fu the channel widens and the current becomes slow
and even. Its depth is very irregular, and it is navigable only by
native boats of a small class. Two other rivers flow into the sea
near Amoy, neither of which, however, is navigable for any
distance from its mouth owing to the shallows and rapids with
which they abound. Thirty-five miles inland from Amoy stands
the city of Chang Chow, famous for the bridge which there spans
the Kin-lung river. This bridge is 800 ft. long, and consists of
granite monoliths stretching from one abutment to another. The
soil of the province is, as its name, " Happy Establishment,"
indicates, very productive, and the scenery is of a rich and varied
character. Most of the hills are covered with verdure, and the
less rugged are laid out in terraces. The principal products of
the province are tea, of which the best kind is that known as
Bohea, which takes its name, by a mispronunciation, from the
Wu-e Mountains, in the prefecture of Kien-ning Fu, where it is
grown; grains of various kinds, oranges, plant ins, lichis, bamboo,
ginger, gold, silver, lead, tin, iron, salt (both marine and rock),
deers* horns, beeswax, sugar, fish, birds' nests, medicine, paper,
doth, timber, &c Fu-kien has three open ports, Fuchow Fu
•pened in 1842, Amoy opened to trade in the same year and
Funing. The latter port was only opened to foreign trade in
1808, but in 1904 it imported and exported goods to the value of
£7668 and £278,160 respectively.
FUKUI, a town of Japan in the province of Echisen, Nippon,
near the west coast, 20 m. N. by E. of Wakasa Bay. It lies in
a volcanic district much exposed to earthquakes, and suffered
severely during the disturbances of 1891-1892, when a chasm over
40 m. long was opened across the Nco valley from Fukui to
Katabira. But Fukui subsequently revived, and is now in a
flourishing condition, with several local industries, especially the
manufacture of paper, and an increasing population exceeding
50,000. Fukui has railway communication. There are ruins of
a castle of the Daimios of Echizen.
FUKUOKA, a town on the north-west coast of the island of
Kiushiu, Japan, in the province of Chikuzcn, 90 m. N.N.E. of
Nagasaki by rail. Pop. about 72,000. With Hakata, on the
opposite side of a small coast stream, it forms a large centre of
population, with an increasing export trade and several local
industries. Of these the most important is silk-weaving, and
Hakata especially is noted for its durable silk fabrics. Fukuoka
was formerly the residence of the powerful daimio of Chikuzen,
and played a conspicuous part in the medieval history of Japan,
the renowned temple of Yciyas in the district was destroyed by
fire during the revolution of 1868. There are several other places
of this name in Japan, the most important being Fukuoka in the
province of Mutsu, North Nippon, a railway station on the main
line from Tokyo to Aimori Ura Bay. Pop. about 5000.
FTJLA (Fulbe, Fellatah or Peuls), a numerous and powerful
African people, spread over an immense region from Senegal
nearly to Darfur. Strictly they have no count ry of their own, and
nowhere form the whole of the population, though nearly always
the dominant native race. They are most numerous in Upper
Senegal and in the countries under French sway immediately
south of Senegambia, notably Futa Jallon. Farther east they
rule, subject to the control of the French, Segu and Massena,
countries on both banks of the upper Niger, to the south-west of
Timbuktu. The districts within the great bend of the Niger
have a large Fula population. East of that river Sokoto and its
tributary emirates are ruled by Fula princes, subject to the
control of the British Nigerian administration. Fula are settled I
in Bomu, Bagirmi, Wadai and the upper Nile Valley, 1 but have
no political power in those countries. Their most southerly
emirate is Adamawa, the country on both sides of the upper
Benue. In this vast region of distribution the Fula populations
are most dense towards the west and north, most scattered
towards the east and south. Originally herdsmen in the westers
and central Sudan, they extended their sway east of the Niger,
under the leadership of Othman Dan Fodio, during the early
years of the 19th century, and having subdued the Hausa states,
founded the empire of Sokoto with the vassal emirates of Kano,
Gando, Nupe, Adamawa, &c
The question of the ethnic affinities of the Fula has given rise
to an enormous amount of speculation, but the most reasonable
theory is that they are a mixture of Berber and Negro. This it
now the most generally accepted theory. Certainly there is no
reason to connect them with the ancient Egyptians. In the
district of Senegal known as Fuladugu or " Fula Land," where
the purest types of the race are found, the people are of a reddish
brown or light chestnut colour, with oval faces, ringlety or even
smooth hair, never woolly, straight and even aquiline noses,
delicately shaped lips and regular features quite differentiating
them from the Negro type. Like most conquering races the
Fula are, however, not of uniform physique, in many districts
approximating to the local type. They nevertheless maintain
throughout their widespread territory a certain national solid-
arity, thanks to common speech, traditions and usages. The
ruling caste of the Fula differs widely in character from the
herdsmen of the western Sudan. The latter are peaceable,
inoffensive and abstemious. They are mainly monogamous,
and by rigidly abstaining from foreign marriages have preserved
racial purity. The ruling caste in Nigeria, on the other hand,
despise their pastoral brethren, and through generations of
polygamy with the conquered tribes have become more Negroid
in type, black, burly and coarse featured. Love of luxury,
pomp and finery is their chief characteristic. Taken as a whole,
the Fula race is distinguished by great intelligence, frankness of
disposition and strength of character. As soldiers they are
renowned almost exclusively as cavalry; and the race has
produced several leaders possessed of much strategical skill.
Besides the ordinary Negro weapons, they use iron spears with
leatherbound handles and swords. They arc generally excellent
rulers, stern but patient and just. The Nigerian emirs acquired,
however, an evil reputation during the 19th century as slave
raiders. They have long been devout Mahommedans, and
mosques and schools exist in almost all their towns. Tradition
says that of old every Fula boy and girl was a scholar; but
during the decadence of their power towards the close of the 19th
century education was not highly valued. Power seems to have
somewhat spoilt this virile race, but such authorities as Sir
Frederick Lugard believe them still capable of a great future.
The Fula language has as yet found no place in any African
linguistic family. In its rudiments it is akin to the Hamito-
Semitic group. It possesses two grammatical genders, not
masculine and feminine, but the human and the non-human;
the adjective agrees in assonance with its noun, and euphony
plays a great part in verbal and nominal inflections. In some
ways resembling the Negro dialects, it betrays non-Negroid
influences in the use of suffixes. The name of the people has many
variations Fulbe or Fula (sing. Pullo, Peul) is the Mandingan
name. Follani the Hausa, Fellatah the Kanuri, Fullan the
Arab, and Fuide on the Benue. Like the name Abate, " white,"
given them in Kororofa, all these seem to refer to their light
reddish hue.
Sec F. Ratzet. History of Mankind (English ed., London, 1806-
1898); Sir F Lugard, " Northern Nigeria, in Geographical Journal
(July 1904); Grimal dc Guirodon. Les Puis (1887); E. A. Bracken*
bury. A Short Vocabulary of the Fulani Language (Zungcni, 1907);
the articles Nigeria and Sokoto and authorities there cited.
1 Sir Wm. Wallace in a report on Northern Nigeria (" Colonial
Office" scries. No. J551, 1007) calls attention to the exodus "of
thousands of Fulani of all sorts, but mostly Mcllawa, from the
French Middle Niger." and states that the majority of the emigrant*
are settling in the Nile valley.
292
FULCHER— FULGENTIUS
PULCHSR (or Fouckek) OP CHARTRES (1058-c. 1130),
French chronicler, was a priest who was present at the council
of Clermont in 1095, and accompanied Robert II., duke of
Normandy, on the first crusade in 1096. Having spent some
time in Italy and taken part in the fighting on the way to the
Holy Land, he became chaplain to Baldwin, who was chosen
king of Jerusalem in 11 00, and lived with Baldwin at Edessa
and then at Jerusalem. He accompanied this king on several
warlike expeditions, but won more lasting fame by writing his
Historic Hierosolymitana or Cesta Francorum Jerusalem ex-
pugnantium, one of the most trustworthy sources for the history
of the first crusade. In its final form it is divided. into three
books, and covers the period between the council of Clermont
and xi 27, and the author only gives details of events which he
himself had witnessed. It was used by William of Tyre, Fulcher
died after 1127, probably at Jerusalem. He has been confused
with Fouchcr of Mongervillier (d. 1171), abbot of St-Pere-en-
Vallee at Chartres, and also with another person of the same
name who distinguished himself at the siege of Antioch in
1098.
The Historic, but in an incomplete form, was first published by
J. Bongars in the Gesta Dei per Francos (Hanover, 161 1). The best
edition is in tome iii. of the Recueil des kistoriens des croisades,
Historiens occidentaux (Paris, 1866); and there is a French transla-
tion in tome xxiv. of Guizot's Collection des mtmoires relaiifs a
rhistcire de France (Paris, 1823-1835).
See H. von Sybel, Geschickle des ersten Kreuttuges (Leipzig, 1881) ;
and A. Molinier, Les Sources de I'histoire de France, tome it. (Paris,
1902).
FULDA, a town and episcopal see of Germany, in the Prussian
province of Hesse- Nassau, between the Rhon and the Vogel-
Gebirge, 69 m. N.E. from Frankfort-on-Main on the railway
to Bcbra. Although irregularly built the town is. pleasantly
situated, and contains two fine squares, on one of which stands a
fine statue of St Boniface. The present cathedral was built
at the beginning of the 18th century on the model of St Peter's
at Rome, but it has an ancient crypt, which contains the bones
of St Boniface and was restored in 1892. Opposite the cathedral
is the former monastery of St Michael, now the episcopal palace.
The Michaclskirche, attached to it, is a small round church built,
in imitation of the Holy Sepulchre, in 822 and restored in 1853.
Of other buildings may be mentioned the Library, with upwards
of 80,000 printed books and many valuable MSS., the stately
palace with its gardens and orangery, the former Benedictine
nunnery (founded 1625, and now used as a seminary), and the
Minorite friary ( z 238) now used as a furniture warehouse, f Among
the secular buildings are the fine Schloss, the Bibliotkek, the
town hall and the post office. There arc several schools, a hospital
founded in the 13th century, and some new artillery barracks.
Many industries are carried on in Fulda. These include weaving
and dyeing, the manufacture of linen, plush and other textiles
and brewing. There are also railway works in the town. A
large trade is done in cattle and grain, many markets being held
here. Fine views are obtained from several hills in the neighbour-
hood, among these being the Frauenberg, the Petersburg and
the Kalvaricnberg.
Fulda owes its existence to its famous abbey. t It became a
town in 1208, and during the middle ages there were many
struggles between the abbots and the townsfolk. During the
Peasants' War it was captured by the rebels and during the
Seven Years' War by the Hanoverians. It came finally into the
possession of Prussia in 1S66. From 1734 to 1804 Fulda was
the seat of a university, and latterly many assemblies of German
bishops have been held in the town.
The great Benedictine abbey of Fulda occupies the place in
the ecclesiastical history of Germany which Monte Cassino holds
in Italy, St Gall in South Germany, Corvey in Saxony, Tours
in France and Iona in Scotland. Founded in 744 at the instiga-
tion of St Boniface by his pupil Sturm, who was the first abbot,
it became the centre of a great missionary work. It was liberally
endowed with land by the princes of the Carolingian house and
others, and soon became one of the most famous and wealthy
establishments of its kind. About 968 the pope declared that
its abbot was primate of all the abbots in Germany and Gaul,
and later he became a prince of the Empire. Fulda was specially
famous for its school, which was the centre of the theological
learning of the early middle ages. Among the teachers here
were Alcuin, Hrabanus Maurus, who was abbot from 822 to 842,
and Walafrid Strabo. Early in the 10th century the monastery
was reformed by introducing monks from Scotland, who were
responsible for restoring in its old strictness the Benedictine rule.
Later the abbey lost some of its lands and also its high position,
and some time before the Reformation the days of its glory
were over. Johann von Hcnneberg, who was abbot from 1529
to 1 54 1, showed some sympathy with the teaching of the re-
formers, but the Counter-Reformation made great progress here
under Abbot * Balthasar von Dernbach. Gustavus Adorphus
gave the abbey as a principality to William, landgrave of Hesse,
but William's rule only lasted for ten years. In 1752 the abbot
was raised to the rank of a bishop, and Fulda ranked as a prince-
bishopric. This was secularized in 1802, and in quick succession
it belonged to the prince of Orange, the king of France and the
grand-duchy of Frankfort. In 18x6 the greater part of the
principality was ceded by Prussia to Hesse-Cassel, a smaller
portion being united with Bavaria. Sharing the fate of Hesse-
Cassel, this larger portion was annexed by Prussia in «866. In
1829 a new bishopric was founded at Fulda.
For the town sec A. Hartmann, Zcitpsckickle von Fulda (Fulda,
1895); J. Schneider, Fuhrer durck die Stadi Fulda (Fulda, 1809);
and Chronik von Fulda und dessen Vmecbungen (1839). For the
history of the abbey see Gegenbaur, Das Kloster Fulda im KaroHntrr
ZeUaUer (Fulda, 1871-1874); Arndt, Geschichte des HocksHfls Fulda
(Fulda, i860); and the Fuldaer GesckichtsbUUer (190a fol.).
FULGENTIUS, FABIUS PLAMCIADES, Latin grammarian,
a native of Africa, flourished in the first half of the 6th (or the
last part of the 5th) century a.d. He is to be distinguished
from Fulgentius, bishop of Ruspe (468-533), to whom he was
probably related, and also from the bishop's pupil and biographer,
Fulgentius Fcrrandus. Four extant works are attributed to
him. (1) Mylhologiarum libri Hi., dedicated to a certain
Catus, a presbyter of Carthage, containing 75 myths briefly told,
and then explained in the mystical and allegorical manner of
the Stoics and Neoplatonists. For this purpose the author
generally invokes the aid of etymologies which, borrowed from
the philosophers, are highly absurd. As a Christian", Fulgentius
sometimes (but less frequently than might have been expected)
quotes the Bible by the side of the philosophers, to give a
Christian colouring to the moral lesson. (2) Exposilio Vergiliauae
continent iae incontinentia^ contents), a sort of appendix to (1),
dedicated to Catus. The poet himself appears to the author and
explains the twelve books of the Aeneid as a picture of humus
life. The three words arma ( - virtus) , vir ( - sapientia) »primus
(=princcps) in the first line represent respectively substantia
corporal is, sctisualis, ornans. Book i. symbolizes the birth and
early childhood of man (the shipwreck of Aeneas denotes the
peril of birth), book vi. the plunge into the depths of wisdom.
(3) Exposilio scrmonum atdiquorum, explanations of 63 rare and
obsolete words, supported by quotations (sometimes from authors
and works that never existed). It is much inferior to the similar
work of Nonius, with which it is often edited. (4) IAbcr absent
littcris de aclalibus mundi el ho minis. In the MS. heading of this
work, the name of the author is given as Fabius Claudius
Gordianus Fulgentius (Claudius is the name of the lather, and
Gordianus that of the grandfather of the bishop, to whoa some
attribute the work) The title Absque I Uteris indicates that est
letter of the alphabet is wholly omitted in each successive book
(A in bk. I, B in bk. ii.). Only 14 books arc preserved. The
matter is chiefly taken from sacred history. In addition to these,
Fulgentius speaks of early poetical attempts after the manner of
Anacreon, and of a work called Physidogus, dealing with medical
questions, and including a discussion of the mystical signification
of the numbers 7 and 9. Fulgentius is a representative of the
so-called late African style, taking for his models Apukws,
Tcrtullian and Martianus Capella. His language is bombastic,
affected and incorrect, while the lengthy and elaborate periods
make it difficult to understand his meaning.
FULGINIAE— FULK
293
See the edition of the four works by R. Helm (1898, Tcubncr
aeries); also M. Zinlc, Der Mylhobf Fulgentius (1867); E. Jung-
inann, " Dc Fulgentii aetate ct scriptis," in Acta Socielatu Pkilologae
Lipnensis, i. (1871); A. Ebcrt, AUtemeitu Geschkkte der LiU. des
UiUttolUrs, i.; article " Fulgentius T ' by C. F. Bdhr in Ersch and
Gruber's AUtemeitu EncykloPadie; Teuffel-Schwabe, Hitiory of
Roma* Literature (Eng. trans.}.
FULOmiAB (mod. Foligno), an ancient town of Umbria,
Italy, on the later line of the Via Flaminia, 15 m. S. of Nuceria.
It appears to have been of comparatively late origin, inasmuch
as it had no city walls, but, in imperial times especially, owing
to its position on the new line of the Via Flaminia, it must have
increased in importance as being the point of departure of roads
to Perusia and to Picenum over the pass of Plcstia. It appears
to have had an amphitheatre, and three bridges over the Topino
are attributed to the Roman period. Three miles to the N. lies
the independent community of Forum Flaminii, the site of
which is marked by the church of S. Giovanni Profiamma, at
or near which the newer line of the Via Flaminia rejoined the
older. It was no doubt founded by the builder of the road,
C. FUminius, consul in 220 b.c. (See Foligno and Flaminia,
Via.) (T. As.)
FULGURITE (from Lat. fuJgnr, lightning), in petrology, the
name given to rocks which have been fused on the surface by
lightning, and to the characteristic holes in rocks formed by the
same agency. When lightning strikes the naked surfaces of
rocks, the sudden rise of temperature may produce a certain
amount of fusion, especially when the rocks are dry and the
electricity is not readily conducted away. Instances of this
have been observed on Ararat and on several mountains in the
Alps, Pyrenees, &c. A thin glassy crust, resembling a coat of
varnish, is formed; its thickness is usually not more than one-
eighth of an inch, and it may be colourless, white or yellow. When
examined under the microscope, it usually shows no crystalliza-
tion, and contains minute bubbles due to the expansion of air
or other gases in the fused pellicle. Occasionally small microlit hi
may appear, but this is uncommon because so thin a film would
cool with extreme rapidity. The minerals of the rock beneath
are in some cases partly fused, but the more refractory often
appear quite unaffected. The gloss has arisen from the melting
of the most fusible ingredients alone.
Another type of fulgurite is commonest in dry sands and
takes the shape of vertical tubes which may be nearly half an
inch in diameter. Generally they are elliptical in cross section,
or flattened by the pressure exerted by the surrounding sand on
the fulgurite at a time when it was still very hot and plastic.
These tubes are often vertical and may run downwards for
several feet through the sand, branching and lessening as they
descend. Tubular perforations in hard rocks have been noted
also, but these are short and probably follow original cracks.
The glassy material contains grains of sand and many small
round or elliptical cavities, the long axes of which are radial.
Minerals like felspar and mica are fused more readily than
quartz, but analysis shows that some fulgurite glasses are very
rich in silica, which perhaps was dissolved in the glass rather
than simply fused. The central cavity of the tube and the
bubbles in its walls point to the expansion of the gases
(air, water, &c) in the sand by sudden and extreme heating.
Very fine threads of glass project from the surface of the tube
as if fused droplets had been projected outwards with con-
siderable force. Where the quartz grains have been greatly
healed but not melted they become white and semi-opaque,
but where they are in contact with the glass they usually show
partial solution. Occasionally crystallization has begun before
the glass solidified, and small microliths, the nature of which is
undeterminable, occur in streams and wisps in the clear hyaline
matrix. (J. S. F.)
FULHAH, a western metropolitan borough of London,
England, bounded N.W. by Hammersmith, N.E. by Kensington,
£. by Chelsea, and S.E., S. and S.W. by the river Thames.
Pop. (2001) 137,289. The principal thoroughfares arc Fulham
Palace Road running S. from Hammersmith, Fulham Road
and King's Road, W. from Chelsea, ooverglng and leading to
Putney Bridge over the Thames; North End Road between
Hammersmith and Fulham Roads; Lillie Road between South
Kensington and Fulham Palace Road; and Wandsworth Bridge
Road leading S. from New King's Road to Wandsworth Bridge.
In the north Fulham includes the residential district known as
West Kensington, and farther south that of Walham Green.
The manor house or palace of the bishops of London stands m
grounds, beautifully planted and surrounded by a moat, believed
to be a Danish work, near the river west of Putney Bridge. Its
oldest portion is the picturesque western quadrangle, built by
Bishop Fitzjames (1 506-1522). The parish church of AS
Saints, between the bridge and the grounds, was erected in
1881 from designs by Sir Arthur Blomfield. The fine old monu-
ments from the former building, dating from the x6th to the
28th centuries, are mostly preserved, and in the churchyard are
the memorials of several bishops of London and of Theodore Hook
(1841). The public recreation grounds include the embankment
and gardens between the river and the palace grounds, and
there are also two well-known enclosures used for sports within
the borough. Of these Hurlingham Park is the headquarters
of the Hurlingham Polo Gub and a fashionable resort; and
Queen's Club, West Kensington, has tennis and other courts
for the use of members, and is also the scene of important
football matches, and of the athletic meetings between Oxford
and Cambridge Universities, and those between the English
and American Universities held in England. In Scagrave Road
is the Western fever hospital. The parliamentary borough of
Fulham returns one member. The borough council consists of
a mayor, 6 aldermen and 36 councillors. Area, 1703*5 acres.
Fulham, or in its earliest form Fullanham, js uncertainly
staled to signify " the place " either " of fowls " or " of dirt."
The manor is said to have been given to Bishop Erkenwald
about the year 691 for himself and his successors in the see of
London, and Holinshed relates that the Bishop of London was
lodging in his manor place in 114 1 when Geoffrey de Mandeville,
riding out from the Tower of London, took him prisoner. At
the Commonwealth the manor was temporarily out of the
bishops' hands, being sold to Colonel Edmund Harvey. There
is no record of the first erection of a parish church, but the first
known rector was appointed in 1242, and a church probably
existed a century before this. The earliest part of the church
demolished in 1881, however, did not date farther back than
the 15th century. In 879 Danish invaders, sailing up the
Thames, wintered at Fulham and Hammersmith. Near the
former wooden Putney Bridge, built in 1729 and replaced in
1886, the earl of Essex threw a bridge of boats across the river
in 1642 in order to march his army in pursuit of Charles L, who
thereupon fell back on Oxford. Margravine Road recalls the
existence of Bradcnburg House, a riverside mansion built by
Sir Nicholas Crispe in the time of Charles I., used as the head-
quarters of General Fairfax in 1647 during the civil wars, and
occupied in 1792 by the margrave of Bradenburg-Anspach
and Bayreulh and his wife, and in 1820 by Caroline, consort of
George IV.
FULK, king of Jerusalem (b. 1092), was the son of Fulk IV*
count of Anjou, and his wife Bertrada (who ultimately deserted
her husband and became the mistress of Philip L of France).
He became count of Anjou in 1 109, and considerably added to
the prestige of his house. In particular he showed himself a
doughty opponent to Henry I. of England, against whom he
continually supported Louis VI. of France, until in n 27 Henry
won him over by betrothing his daughter Matilda to Fulk's son
Geoffrey Plantagenet. Already in n 20 Fulk had visited the
Holy Land, and become a close friend of the Templars. On his
return he assigned to the order of the Templars an annual sub-
sidy, while he also maintained two knights in the Holy Land
for a year. In 11 28 he was preparing to return to the East,
when he received an embassy from Baldwin II., king of Jerusalem,
who had no male heir to succeed him, offering his daughter
Mefisfada In marriage, with the right of eventual succession to
the kingdom. Fulk readily accepted the offer; and in nso
he came and was married to Mdisinda, recerviag the town of
294
FULK— FULLEBORN
Acre and Tyre as her dower. In 1 131 , at the age of thirty-nine,
he became king of Jerusalem. His reign is not marked by any
considerable events: the kingdom which had reached its zenith
under Baldwin II., and did not begin to decline till the capture
of Edessa in the reign of Baldwin III., was quietly prosperous
under his rule. In the beginning of his reign he had to act as
regent of Antioch, and to provide a husband, Raymund of
Poitou, for the infant heiress Constance. But the great problem
with which he had to deal was the progress of the atabcg Zengi
of MosuL In 1 137 he was beaten near Barin, and escaping into
the fort was surrounded and forced to capitulate. A little
later, however, he greatly improved his position by strengthening
his alliance with the vizier of Damascus, who also had to fear
the progress of Zengi (1140); and in this way he was able to
capture the fort of Banias, to the N. of Lake Tiberias. Fulk
also strengthened the kingdom on the south; while his butler,
Paganus, planted the fortress of Krak to the south of the Dead
Sea, and helped to give the kingdom an access towards the
Red Sea, he himself constructed Blanche Garde and other forts
on the S.W. to overawe the garrison of Ascalon, which was still
held by the Mahommedans, and to clear the road towards Egypt.
Twice in Fulk's reign the eastern emperor, John Comnenus,
appeared in northern Syria (1137 and 1142); but his coming
did not affect the king, who was able to decline politely a visit
which the emperor proposed to make to Jerusalem. In 1 143 he
died, leaving two sons, who both became kings, as Baldwin III.
and Amalric I.
Fulk continued the tradition of good statesmanship and
sound churchmanship which Baldwin I. and Baldwin II. had
begun. William of Tyre speaks of him as a fine soldier, an able
politician, and a good son of the church, and only blames him
for partiality to bis friends, and a forgctfulness of names and
faces, which placed him at a disadvantage and made him too
dependent on his immediate intimates. Little, perhaps, need
be made of these censures: the real fault of Fulk was his neglect
to envisage the needs of the northern principalities, and to
bead a combined resistance to the rising power of Zengi of
MosuL
His reign in Jerusalem is narrated by R. Rohricht (Geukschte des
Kdnigreuhs Jerusalem, Innsbruck, 1898), and has been made the
subject of a monograph by G. Dodu (De Fulconis Uierosolymitani
regno, Paris, 1894). (E. Br.)
FULK (d. 000), archbishop of Reims, and partisan of Charles
the Simple in his struggle with Odo, count of Paris, was elected
to the see as archbishop in 883 upon the death of Hincmar.
In 887 he was engaged in a struggle with the Normans who
invaded his territories. Upon the deposition of Charles the Fat
he sided with Charles the Simple in his contest for the West
Frankish dominions against Count Odo of Paris, and crowned
him king in his own metropolitan church at Reims after most
of the nobles had gone over to Odo (803). Upon the death of
Odo he succeeded in having Charles recognized as king by a
majority of the West Frankish nobility. In 893 be obtained
special privileges for his province from Pope Formosus, who
promised that thereafter, when the archbishopric became
vacant, the revenues should not be enjoyed by anyone while
the vacancy existed, but should be reserved for the new incum-
bent, provided the election took place within the canonical
Emit of three months. From 808 until his death he held the
office of chancellor, which for some time afterwards was regularly
filled by the archbishop of Reims. In his efforts to keep the
wealthy abbeys and benefices of the church out of the hands
of the nobles, he incurred the hatred of Baldwin, count
of Flanders, who secured his assassination on the 17th of
Jnne 900, a crime which the weak Carolingian monarch left
unpunished.
Fulk left some letters, which are collected in Migne, Patrologia
Lalina, vol* exxxi. 11-14.
FULKB, WILLI AH (1 538-1 589), Puritan divine, was born
in London and educated at Cambridge. After studying law for
six years, he became a fellow at St John's College, Cambridge,
In 1564. He took a leading part in the "vestiarian" controversy,
ajarfpgCTusAdtbxcolkgetodisqrdtheMiplico. In<
he was expelled from St. John's for a time, but in 1567 he became
Hebrew lecturer and preacher there. After standing unsuccess-
fully for the headship of the college in 1569, he became chaplain
to the earl of Leicester, and received from him the livings of
Waricy, in Essex, and Dennington in Suffolk. In 1578 he was
elected master of Pembroke Hall, Cambridge. As a Puritan
controversialist he was remarkably active; in 1580 the bishop
of Ely appointed him to defend puritanism against the Roman
Catholics, Thomas Watson, ex-bishop of Lincoln (15x3-2584),
and John Feckenham, formerly abbot of Westminster, and in
1581 he was one of the disputants with the Jesuit, Edmund
Campion, while in 158a he was among the clergy selected
by the privy council to argue against any papist. His
numerous polemical writings include A Defense of the sincere
true Translation* of the hoik Scriptures into the English
tout (London, 1583), and confutations of Thomas Staple-
ton (1535*1508), Cardinal Allen and other Roman Catholic
controversialists.
FULK NBRRA (c. 970-1040), count of Anjou, eldest son of
Count Geoffrey L, " Griscgonclle " (Grey Tunic) and Adda of
Vermandois, was born about 970 and succeeded his father in
the countship of Anjou on the tist of July 987. He was success-
ful in repelling the attacks of the count of Rennes and laying the
foundations of the conquest of Touraine (see Anjou). In this
connexion he built a great number of strong castles, which has
led in modern times to his being called "the great builder."
He also founded several religious houses, among them the abbeys
of Beaulieu, near Loches (c 1007), of Saint-Nicholas at Angers
(1020) and of Ronceray at Angers (1028), and, in order to expiate
his crimes of violence, made three pilgrimages to the Holy Land
(in 1002-1003, c. 1008 and in 1039). On his return from the
third of these journeys he died at Meu in Lorraine on the aist of
June 1040. By his first marriage, with Elisabeth, daughter of
Bouchard le Venerable, count of Vendome, he had a daughter,
Adela, who married Boon of Nevers and transmitted to her
children the countship of Venddme. Elizabeth having died in
1000, Fulk married Hildegarde of Lorraine, by whom be had a
son, Geoffrey Martel (a.v.), and a daughter Ermengarde, who
married Geoffrey, count of Gatinais, and was the mother of
Geoffrey " le Barbu " (the Bearded) and of Fulk " Je Redan n
(see Anjou).
See Louis Halphen, Le Comti f Anion au XI* sOeU (Paris, 1906).
The biography of Fulk Nerra by Alexandre de Saliea, Histoirt it
Fonlqnes Nerra (Angers, 1874) is confused and uncritical. A very
Norgace, England under the Angevin Kings (? vols.. London, 1887),
vol. 1. ch. til (L. H. # )
FtJLLEBORN. GEORO GUSTAV (1760-1803), German phno-
sopher, philologist and miscellaneous writer, was born at GJogau,
Silesia, on the and of March 1769, and died at Breslan on the
6th of February 1803. He was educated at the University of
Halle, and was made doctor of philosophy in recognition of his
thesis De Xenophane, Zenone et Corgia. He took diacooal orders
in 1791, but almost immediately became professor of classics at
Breslau. His philosophical works include annotations to Gam's
translation of the Politics of Aristotle (1799-1800), and a large
share in the Beitrdge zur CeschickU der Philosophic (published in
twelve parts between 2791 and 1799)* >° which he collaborated
with Forberg, Reinhold and Niethammer. In philology at
wrote Encyclopaedia phildogica site priuute timeae Isegogts in
antiquerum studio (1798; 2nd ed., 1805); Kurze Theorie 4a
lateiniscken Stils (1793); Leitfaden der JUutorik (1802); and as
annotated edition of the Satires of Persius. Under the pseudonym
" Edelwald Justus " he published several collections of popular
tales— Bunte Blatter (1795); Kleine Sckriften zur UnterMSmug
(1798); Nebenstunden (1799)- After his death were poblished
Taschenbuck far Brunnengdste (1806) and Kametredem (1807).
He was a frequent contributor to the press, where his writings
were very popular.
sfciisti. frrfrtrtf 1 Trfffrrltfiffrf. vol. j_
FULLER, A.— FULLER, MARGARET
*95
FULL1R, ANDREW (1754-1815), English Baptist divine, was
born on the 6th of February 1754, at Wicken in Cambridgeshire.
In his boyhood and youth he worked on his father's farm. In his
seventeenth year he became a member of the Baptist church at
Soham, and his gifts as an exhorter met with so much approval
that, in the spring of 1775, he was called and ordained as pastor
of that congregation. In 1782 he removed to Kettering in
Northamptonshire, where he became friendly with some of the
most eminent ministers of the denomination. Before leaving
Soham he had written the substance of a treatise in which he had
sought to counteract the prevailing Baptist hyper-Calvinism
which, "admitting nothing spiritually good to be the duty
of the unregenerate, and nothing to be addressed to them
in a way of exhortation excepting what related to external
obedience/' had long perplexed his own mind This work he
published, under the title The Gospel worthy of all Acceptation,
soon after his settlement in Kettering; and although it immedi-
ately involved him in a somewhat bitter controversy which lasted
for nearly twenty years, it was ultimately successful in consider-
ably modifying the views prevalent among English dissenters.
In 1793 he published a treatise, The Calvinistic and Socinian
systems examined and compared as to their moral tendency ; in which
he rebutted the accusation of antinomianism levelled by the
Socimans against those who over-emphasized the doctrines of
free grace. This work, along with another against Deism,
entitled The Gospel its own Witness, is regarded as the production
on which his reputation as a theologian mainly rests. Fuller
also published an admirable Memoir of the Ret Samuel Pcarce,
of Birmingham, and a volume of Expository Lectures in Genesis,
besides a considerable number of smaller pieces, chiefly sermons
and pamphlets, which were issued in a collected form after his
death. He was a man of forceful character, more prominent on
the practical side of religion than on the devotional, and accord-
ingly not pre-eminently successful in his local ministry His
great work was done in connexion with the Baptist Missionary
Sodety, formed at Kettering in 1792, of which he was secretary
until his death on the 7th of May 181 5 Both Princeton and
Yale, U.S.A., conferred on him the degree of D D.. but he never
used it.
Several editions of his collected works have appeared, and a
Memoir, principally compiled from his own papers, was published
about a year after his decease by Dr RylamJ, his most intimate
friend and coadjutor in the affairs of the Baptist mission. There
is also a biography by the Rev I \V Morris (1816): and his ton
pr efixe d a memoir to an edition of his chief works in Bonn's Standard
Library (1852).
FULLER, GEORGE (1822-1884), American figure and portrait
painter, was born at Dcerficld, Massachusetts, in 1822. At the
age of twenty he entered the studio of the sculptor II. K. Brown,
at Albany, New York, where he drew from the cost and modelled
heads. Having attained some proficiency he went about the
country painting portraits, settling at length in Boston, where he
studied the works of the earlier Americans, Stuart, Copley and
AUston. After three years in that city, and twelve in New York,
where in 1857 he was elected a member of the National Academy
of Design, he went to Europe for a brief visit and for study
During all this time his work had received little recognition and
practically no financial encouragement, and on his return be
settled on the family farm at Dcerficld, where he continued to
work in his own way with no thought of the outside world. In
1876, however, he was forced by pressing needs to dispose of
his work, and he sent some pictures to a dealer in Boston, where
he met with immediate success, financial and artistic, and for the
remaining eight years of his life he never lacked patrons. He
died in Boston on the 21st of March 1884. He was a poetic
painter, and a dreamer of delicate fancies and quaint, intangible
phases of nature, his canvases being usually enveloped in a brown
mist that renders the outlines vague. Among his noteworthy
canvases are: " The Turkey Pasture," " Romany Girl," " And
she was a Witch," " Nydia," " Winifred Dysart " and " The
Ouadroon."
FULLER. MARGARET, Maxchioxiss Ossou (1810-1850),
American authoress, eldest child of Timothy Fuller (x 778-1835),
a lawyer and politician of some eminence, was born at Cambridge-
port, Massachusetts, on the 23rd of May 18 10. Her education
was conducted by her father, who, she states, made the mistake
of thinking to " gain time by bringing forward the intellect aa
early as possible," the consequence being " a premature develop-
ment o( brain that made her a youthful prodigy by day, and by
night a victim of spectral illusions, nightmare and somnambul-
ism." At six years she began to read Latin, and at a very early
age she bad selected as her favourite authors Shakespeare,
Cervantes and Moliere. Soon the great amount of study
exacted of her ceased to be a burden, and reading became
a habit and a passion. Having made herself familiar with the
masterpieces of French, Italian and Spanish literature, she in
1833 began the study of German, and within the year had
read some of the masterpieces of Goethe. Koroer, Novalis
and Schiller.
After her father's death in 1835 she went to Boston to teach
languages, and in 1837 she was chosen principal teacher in the
Green Street school, Providence, Rhode Island, where she
remained till 1839. From this year until 1844 she staved at
different places in the Immediate neighbourhood of Boston,
forming an intimate acquaintance with the colonists of Brook
Farm, and numbering among her closest friends R. W. Emerson,
Nathaniel Hawthorne and W. H. Channing. In 1839 she
published a translation of Eckermann's Conversations with
Goethe, which was followed in 1842 by a translation of the corre-
spondence between Karoline von Gunderodc and Bettina von
Arnim, entitled Gunderode. Aided by R. W. Emerson and
George Ripley, she in 1840 started The Dial, a poetical and
philosophical magazine representing the opinions and aims of
the New England Transcendentalisms. This journal she con-
tinued to edit for two years, and while in Boston she also con-
ducted conversation classes for ladies in which philosophical and
social subjects were discussed with a somewhat over-accentuated
earnestness. These meetings may be regarded as perhaps the
beginning of the modern movement in behalf of women's rights.
R. W Emerson, who had met her as early as 1836, thus describes
her appearance: " She was then twenty-six years old She had
a face and frame that would indicate fulness and tenacity of life.
She was rather under the middle height, her complexion was
fair, with strong fair hair. She was then, as always, carefully and
becomingly dressed, and of ladylike self-possession. For the
rest her appearance had nothing prepossessing. Her extreme
plainness, a trick of incessantly opening and shutting her eyelids,
the nasal tone of her voice, all repelled; and 1 said to myself we
shall never get far." On better acquaintance this unprepossessing
exterior seemed, however, to melt away, and her inordinate self-
esteem to be lost in the depth and universality of her sympathy.
She possessed an almost irresistible power of winning the intel-
lectual and moral confidence of those with whom she came in
contact, and " applied herself to her companion as the sponge
applies itself to water." She obtained from each the best they
had to give. It was indeed more as a conversationalist than as a
writer that she earned the title of the Priestess of Transcend-
entalism. It was her intimate friends who admired her most.
Smart and pungent though she is as a writer, the apparent
originality of her views depends more on eccentricity than either
intellectual depth or imaginative vigour. In 1844 she removed
to New York at the desire of Horace Greeley to write literary
criticism for The Tribune, and in 1846 she published a selection
from her articles on contemporary authors in Europe and
America, under the title Papers on Literature and A rt. The same
year she paid a visit to Europe, passing some time in England
and France, and finally taking up her residence in Italy. There
she was married in December 1S47 to the marquis Giovanni
Angclo Ossoli, a friend of Mazzini. During 1848-1849 she was
present with her husband in Rome, and when the city was
besieged she, at the request of Mazzini, took charge of one
of the two hospitals while her husband fought on the walls.
In May 1850, along with her husband and infant son, she
embarked at Leghorn for America, but when they had all
but reached their destination the vessel was wrecked on Fire
296
FULLER, M. W.— FULLER, THOMAS
Island beach on the i6tb of June, and the Ossolis were among
the passengers who perished.
Life Without and Life Within (Boston, i860) is a collection of
essays, poems, &c, supplementary to her Collected Works, printed
in 1855. See the Autobiography of Margaret Fuller Ossoli, with
additional memoirs by J. r. Clarke, R. w Emerson and W. H.
Charming {2 vols., Boston, 1852); also Margaret Fuller (Marcheso
Ossoli), by Julia Ward Howe (1883), in the " Eminent Women "
•cries; Margaret Fuller Ossoli (Boston, 1884), by Thomas Went-
worth Higginson in the " American Men of Letters " series, which is
i larjrcly on unedited material ; and The Love Letters of Margaret
Fuller, J 84$- 1 846 (London and New York, 1903), with an intro-
duction by Julia Ward Howe.
FULLER, MELVILLE WESTON (1833-1910), American jurist,
chief justice of the Supreme Court of the United States, was born
at Augusta, Maine, on the 1 x th of February 1833. After graduat-
ing at Bowdoin College in 1853 he spent a year at the Harvard
Law School, and in 1855 began the practice of law at Augusta,
where he was an associate-editor of a Democratic paper, The
Age, and served in the city council and as city attorney. In
1856 he removed to Chicago, Illinois, where he continued to
practise until 1888, rising to a high position at the bar of the
Northwest. For some years he was active in Democratic politics,
being a member of the Illinois Constitutional Convention in
1862 and of the State House of Representatives from 1863 to
1865. He was a delegate to various National conventions of
his party, and in that of 1876 placed Thomas A. Hendricks in
nomination for the presidency. In 1888, by President Cleveland's
appointment, he succeeded Morrison R. Waite as chief- justice
of the Supreme Court of the United States. In 1899 he was
appointed by President McKinley a member of the arbitration
commission at Paris to settle the Venezuela-British Guiana
boundary dispute.
FULLER, THOMAS (1608- 1661), English divine and historian,
eldest son of Thomas Fuller, rector of Aldwincle St Peter's,
Northamptonshire, was born at his father's rectory and was
baptized on the 19th of June 1608. Dr John Davenant, bishop
of Salisbury, was his uncle and godfather According to Aubrey,
Fuller was" a boy of pregnant wit.* At thirteen he was admit ted
to Queens' College, Cambridge, then presided over by Dr John
Davenant His cousin, Edward Davenant, was a tutor in the
tame college. He was apt and quick in study; and in Lent
1624-1625 he became B.A. and in July 1628 M.A. Being over-
looked in an election of fellows of his college, he was removed
by Bishop Davenant to Sidney Sussex College, November 1628.
In 1630 he received from Corpus Christi College the curacy of
St Benet's, Cambridge.
Fuller's quaint and humorous oratory soon attracted attention.
He published in 163 1 a poem on the subject of David and
Bathsheba, entitled David's Hainous Sitmc, Heartie Repentance,
Heavie Punishment. In June of the same year his uncle gave him
a prebend in Salisbury, where his father, who died in the following
year, held a canonry. The rectory of Broadwindsor, Dorset-
shire, then in the diocese of Bristol, was his next preferment
(1634), and on the nth of June 1635 he proceeded B.D. At
Broadwindsor he compiled The Historie of Ike Holy Wane (1639),
a history of the crusades, and The Holy State and the Prophane
State (1642). This work describes the holy state as existing in
the family and in public life, gives rules of conduct, model
"characters" for the various professions and profane bio-
graphies. It was perhaps the most popular of all his writings.
He was in 1640 elected proctor for Bristol in the memorable
convocation of Canterbury, which assembled with the Short
Parliament. On the sudden dissolution of the latter he joined
those who urged that convocation should likewise dissolve as
usual That opinion was overruled ; and t he assembly continued
to sit by virtue of a royal writ. Fuller has left in his Church
History a valuable account of the proceedings of this synod,
for sitting fn which he was fined £200, which, however, was never
exacted. His first published volume of sermons appeared in
1640 under the title of Joseph's party-coloured Coat, which contains
many of his quaint utterances and odd conceits. His grosser
\ of style, derived from the divines of the formet
generation, disappeared for the most part in his subsequent
discourses.
About 1640 he had married Eleanor, daughter of Hugh
Grove of Chisenbury, Wiltshire. She died in 1641. Their eldest
±ild, John, baptized at Broadwindsor by his father, 6th
Tune 1641, was afterwards of Sidney Sussex College, edited
:he Worthies of England, 1662, and became rector of Great
Watering, Essex, where he died in 1687.
At Broadwindsor, early in the year 1641, Thomas Fuller, his
zurate Henry Sanders, the church wardens, and others, nine
persons altogether, certified that their parish, represented by
242 grown-up male persons, had taken the Protestation ordered
by the speaker of the Long Parliament. Fuller was not formally
dispossessed of his living and prebend on the triumph of the
Presbyterian party, but he relinquished both preferments about
this time. For a short time he preached with success at the Inns
of Court, and thence removed, at the invitation of the master
of the Savoy (Dr Balcanqual) and the brotherhood of-that
foundation, to be lecturer at their chapel of St Mary Savoy.
Some of the best discourses of the witty preacher were delivered
st the Savoy to audiences which extended into the chapel-yard.
In one he set forth with searching and truthful minuteness the
hindrances to peace, and urged the signing of petitions to the
king at Oxford, and to the parliament, to continue their care in
advancing an accommodation. In his Appeal of Injured Innocence
Fuller says that he was once deputed to carry a petition to the
king at Oxford. This has been identified with a petition entrusted
to Sir Edward Wardour, clerk of the pells, Dr Dukeson, " Dr
Fuller," and four or five others from the city of Westminster
and the parishes contiguous to the Savoy. A pass was granted
by the House of Lords, on the 2nd of January 1643, for an
equipage of two coaches, four or six horses and eight or ten
attendants. On the arrival of the deputation at Uxbridge, on
the 4th of January, officers of the Parliamentary army stopped
the coaches and searched the gentlemen; and they found upon
the latter " two scandalous books arraigning the proceedings
of the House," and letters with ciphers to Lord Viscount Falkland
and the Lord Spencer. Ultimately a joint order of both Houses
remanded the party; and Fuller and his friends suffered a
brief imprisonment. The Westminster Petition, notwithstanding,
reached the king's hands; and it was published with the royal
reply (see J. E. Bailey, Life of Thomas Fuller, pp. 945 et see.).
When it was expected, three months later, that a favourable
result would attend the negotiations at Oxford, Fuller preached
a sermon at Westminster Abbey, on the 27th of March 1643, on
the anniversary of Charles I 's accession, on the text, " Yea, let
him take all, so my Lord the King return in peace.' On
Wednesday, the 26th of July, he preached on church reformation,
satirizing the religious reformers, and maintaining that only the
Supreme Power could initiate reforms.
He was now obliged to leave London, and in August 1643 he
joined the king at Oxford. He lived in a hired chamber at
Lincoln College for 17 weeks. Thence he put forth a witty and
effective reply to John Salt marsh, who had attacked bis views
on ecclesiastical reform. Fuller subsequently published by
royal request a sermon preached on the xoth of May 1644, tt
St "Mary's, Oxford, before the king and Prince Charles, called
Jacob's Vow.
The spirit of Fuller's preaching, always characterized by calm-
ness and moderation, gave offence to the high royalists, who
charged him with lukewarmness in their cause, To silence
unjust censures he became chaplain to the regiment of Sir
Ralph Hopton. For the first five years of the war, as he said,
when excusing the non-appearance of his Church History, u l
had little list or leisure to write, fearing to be made a history, and
shifting daily for my safety. All that time I could not five to
study, who did only study to five." After the defeat of Hopton
at Cheriton Down, Fuller retreated to Basing House. He took
an active part in its defence, and his life with the troops caused
him to be afterwards regarded as one of " the great cavalier
parsons." In his marches with his regiment round about Oxford
and in the west, be devoted much time to the collection of detaflsj
FULLER, THOMAS
297
from churches, old buildings, and the conversation of ancient
gossips, for his Church-History and Worthies of England. He
compiled in 164s a small volume of prayers and meditations, —
the Good Thoughts in Bad Times, — which, set up and printed in
the besieged city of Exeter, whither he had retired, was called
by himself " the first fruits of Exeter press." It was inscribed to
Lady Dalkeith, governess to the infant princess, Henrietta Anne
(b. 1644)1 to whose household he was attached as chaplain. The
corporation gave him the Bodleian lectureship on the 21st of
March 1645/6, and he held it until the 17th of June following,
soon after the surrender of the city to the parliament. The Fear
of losing the Old Light (1646) was his farewell discourse to his
Exeter friends. Under the Articles of Surrender Fuller made his
composition with the government at London, his "delinquency"
being that he had been present in the king's garrisons. In
Andronicus, or the Unfortunate Politician (1646), partly authentic
and partly fictitious, he satirized the leaders of the Revolution;
and for the comfort of sufferers by the war he issued (1647) a
second devotional manual, entitled Good Thoughts in Worse
Times, abounding in fervent aspirations, and drawing moral
lessons in beautiful language out of the events of his life or the
circumstances of the time. In grief over his losses, which included
hb library and manuscripts (his " upper and nether millstone "),
and over the calamities of the country, he wrote his work on
the Cause and Cure of Wounded Conscience (1647). It was
prepared at Boughton House in his native county, where he and
his son were entertained by Edward Lord Montagu, who had
been one of his contemporaries at the university and had taken
the side of the parliament.
For the next few years of his life Fuller was mainly dependent
upon his dealings with booksellers, of whom he asserted that
none had ever lost by him. He made considerable progress in
an English translation from the MS. of the Annates of his friend
Archbishop Ussher. Amongst his benefactors it is curious to
find Sir John Danvers of Chelsea, the regicide. Fuller in 1647
began to preach at St Clement's, Eastcheap, and elsewhere
in the capacity of lectureT. While at St Clement's he was
suspended; but speedily recovering his freedom, he preached
wherever he was invited. At Chelsea, where also he occasionally
officiated, he covertly preached a sermon on the death of Charles
I., but he did not break with hb Roundhead patrons. James
Hay, and carl of Carlisle, made him hb chaplain, and presented
him in 1648 or 1649 to the curacy of Waltham Abbey. Hb
possession of the living was in jeopardy on the appointment of
Cromwell's " Tryers "; but he evaded their inquisitorial ques-
tions by hb ready wit. He was not disturbed at Waltham in
1655, when the Protector's edict prohibited the adherents of
the late king from preaching. Lionel, 3rd earl of Middlesex,
who lived at Copt Hall, near Waltham, gave him what remained
of the books of the lord treasurer his father; and through the
good offices of the marchioness of Hertford, part of hb own
pillaged library was restored to him. Fuller was thus able to
prosecute hb literary labours, producing successively his descrip-
tive geography of the Holy Land, called A PisgahSight of
Palestine (1650), and his Church- History of Britain (1655), from
the birth of Jesus Christ until the year 1648. With the Church-
History was printed The History of the University of Cambridge
since the Conquest and The History of Waltham Abbey. These
works were furthered in no slight degree by his connexion with
Sion College, London, where he had a chamber, as well for
the convenience of the press as of his city lectureships. The
Church-History was angrily attacked by Dr P. Heylyn, who, in
the spirit of High-Churchmanship, wished, as he said, to vindicate
the truth, the church and the injured clergy. About 1652
Fuller married hb second wife, Mary Roper, youngest sister of
Thomas, Viscount Baltinglass, by whom he had several children.
At the Oxford Act of 1657, Robert South, who was Terrae dlius,
lampooned Fuller, whom he described in thb Oratio as living
in London, ever scribbling and each year bringing forth new
folia like a tree. At length, continues South, the Church-History
came forth with its x66 dedications to wealthy and noble friends;
and wfth this huge volume under one arm, and his wife (said to
be little of stature) on the other, he ran up and down the streets
of London, seeking at the houses of hb patrons' invitations to
dinner, to be repaid by hb dull jests at table.
Hb last and best patron was George Berkeley, xst Earl Berkeley
(1628-1698), of Cranford House, Middlesex, whose chaplain he
was, and who gave him Cranford rectory ( 1658). To thb noble-
man Fuller's reply to Hcylyn's Examen Historicum t called The
Appeal of Injured Innocence (1659), was inscribed. Al the end
of the A ppeal b an epbtle " to my loving friend Dr Peter Heylyn,"
conceived in the admirable Christian spirit which characterized
all Fuller's dealings with controversialists. "Why should
Peter," he asked, " fall out with Thomas, both being disciples
to the same Lord and Master ? I assure you, sir, whatever you
conceive to the contrary, I am cordial to the cause of the English
Church, and my hoary hairs will go down to the grave in sorrow
for her sufferings."
In An Alarum to Ike Counties of England and Wales (1660)
Fuller argued for a free and full parliament— free from force,
as he expressed it, as well as from abjurations or previous
engagements. Mixt Contemplations in Better Times (1660),
dedicated to Lady Monk, tendered advice in. the spirit of its
motto, " Let your moderation be known to all men: the Lord
b at hand." There b good reason to suppose that Fuller was at
the Hague immediately before the Restoration, in the retinue
of Lord Berkeley, one of the commissioners of the House of
Lords, whose last service to his friend was to interest himself in
obtaining him a bishopric. A Panegyrkk to His Majesty on his
Happy Return was the last of Fuller's verse-efforts. On the
?nd of August, by royal letters, he was admitted D.D. at Cam-
bridge. He resumed hb lectures at the Savoy, where Samuel
Pepys heard him preach; but he preferred his conversation or
his books to hb sermons. Fuller's last promotion was that of
chaplain in extraordinary to Charles II. In the summer of 1661
he visited the west in connexion with the business of hb prebend,
which had been restored to him. On Sunday, the 1 2th of August,
while preaching at the Savoy, he was seized with typhus fever,
and died at hb new lodgings in Covcnt Garden on the 16th of
August. He was buried in Cranford church, where a mural
tablet was afterwards set up on the north side of the chancel,
with an epitaph which contains a conceit worthy of hb own pen,'
to the effect that while he was endeavouring (viz. in The Worthies),
to give immortality to others, he himself attained it.
Fuller's wit and vivacious good-humour made him a favourite
with men of both sides, and hb sense of humour kept him from
extremes. Probably Heylyn and South had some excuse for
their attitude towards his very moderate politics. "By hb
particular temper and management," said Echard (Hist, of
England, Hi. 71), "he weathered the late great storm with more
success than many other great men." He was known as "a
perfect walking library." The strength of hb memory was
proverbial, and some amusing anecdotes are connected with it.
Hb writings were the product of a highly original mind. He
had a fertile imagination and a happy faculty of illustration.
Antithetic and axiomatic sentences abound in his pages, errfbody-
ing literally the wisdom of the many in the wit of one. He was
" quaint," and something more. " Wit," said Coleridge, in a
well-known eulogy, " was the stuff and substance of Fuller's
intellect. It was the element, the earthen base, the material
which he worked in; and thb very circumstance has defrauded
him of his due praise for the practical wisdom of the thoughts,
for the beauty and variety of the truths, into which he shaped
the stuff. Fuller was incomparably the most sensible, the least
prejudiced, great man of an age that boasted a galaxy of great
men " (Literary Remains, vol. ii. (1836), pp. 389-390). Thb
opinion was formed after the perusal of the Church-History.
That work and The History of the Worthies of England are
unquestionably Fuller's greatest efforts. They embody the
collections of an entire life; and since his day they have been
the delight of many readers. The Holy Slate has taken rank
amongst the best books of " characters." Charles Lamb made
some selections from Fuller, and had a profound admiration for
the " golden works " of the " dear, fine, silly old angel/' Since
»gS
FULLER, W.— FULLERTON, LADY
Lamb's time, mainly through the appreciative criticisms of
S. T. Coleridge, Robert Southey and others, Fuller's works have
received much attention.
There is an elaborate account of the life and writings of Fuller
wit lends itself to selection, and there are several modern volumes of
extracts from his works.
FULLER, WILLIAM (1670-tf. 1717), English impostor, was
born at Milton in Kent on the 20th of September 1670. His
paternity is doubtful, but he was related to the family of Herbert.
After 1688 he served James 11. 's queen, Mary of Modena, and
the Jacobites, seeking at the same time to gain favour with
William III.; and after associating with Titus Oates, being
imprisoned for debt and pretending to reveal Jacqbite plots, the
House of Commons in 169a declared he was an " imposter,
cheat and false accuser." Having stood in the pillory he was
again imprisoned until 1695, when he was released; and at this
time he took the opportunity to revive the old and familiar
story that Mary of Modena was not the mother of the prince of
Wales. In 1701 he published his autobiographical Life of
William Fuller and some Original Letters of the late King James.
Unable to prove the assertions made in his writings he was put
in the pillory, whipped and fined. He died, probably in prison,
about 17 17. Fuller's other writings are Mr William Fuller's
trip to Bridewell, with a full account of his barbarous usage in the
pillory; The sincere and hearty confession of Mr William Fuller
(1704); and An humble appeal to the impartial judgment of all
parties in Great Britain (1716).
He must be distinguished from William Fuller (1608-1675),
dean of St Patrick's (1660), bishop of Limerick (1663), and bishop of
Lincoln (1667), the friend of Samuel Pepys: and also from William
Fuller (c. 1580-1659), dean of Ely and later dean of Durham.
FULLER'S EARTH (Ger. Walkererde, Fr. terre A foul on, argile
smcctique) — so named from its use by fullers as an absorbent of
the grease and oil of cloth,— a day-like substance, which from
its variability is somewhat difficult to define. In colour it is
most often greenish, olive-green or greenish-grey, on weathering
it changes to a brown tint or it may bleach. As a rule it falls
to pieces when placed in water and is not markedly plastic;
when dry it adheres strongly to the tongue; since, however,
these properties arc possessed by many clays that do not exhibit
detergent qualities, the only test of value b'es in the capacity
to absorb grease or clarify oil. Fuller'searth has a specific gravity
of 1-7-2-4, and a shining streak; it is usually unctuous to the
touch. Microscopically, it consists of minute irregular-shaped
particles of a mineral that appears to be the result of a chloritic
or talcose alteration of a felspar. The small size of most of the
grains, less than -07 mm., makes their determination almost
impossible. Chemical analysis shows that the peculiar properties
of this earth are due to its physical rather than its chemical
nature.
The following analyses of the weathered and unweathcred con-
dition of the earth from Nut field, Surrey, represent the composition
of one of the best known varieties: —
Blue Earth (dried at too* C).
Insoluble residue
F«*0. , . .
AW,. . . .
CaO
W:
SO,
NaCl. . . .
K/> . . . .
HiO (combined).
6996
248
346
5-«7
1-41
0-27
O-05
0-05
0-74
15-37
9986
Insoluble residue—
SiO, ... .
AW, . . , .
FcO, . -. ? .
CaO ... .
MgO ....
6281
3-46
130
1-53
086
69^96
Yellow Earth (dried at 100* C).
1893). The completest account of him is The Life of Thomas Fuller,
with Notices of hts Books, his Kinsmen and his Friends (1874), by
J. E. Bailey, who gives a detailed bibliography (pp. 713-762) of hfs
works. The Worthies of England was reprinted by John Niche
(181 1) and by P. A. Nuttall (1840). His Collected Sermons we
edited by J. E. Bailey and W. E. A. Axon in 1891. Fuller's quaint
Nichols
Insoluble residue
Ferf), .
2»: :
». : : :
SO, ... .
NaCl* . . .
K/> . . . .
HiO (combined).
. 76- 13
. 241
1-77
. 4'3«
1*05
. 014
0-07
0-14
084
. 1319
10005
Insoluble residue—
SiO, . . . 59.37
AI,Oi .... 10-05
Fcrf), .... 386
CaO .... 1-86
MgO .... 104
76-18
(Analysts by P. G. Sanford. Ceol. Mat., 1889. 6, pp. 456, 526.)
Of other published analyses, not a few show a lower silica content
(44 %, 50 %), along with a higher proportion of alumina (1 1 %» 23 %).
Fuller'searth may occur on any geological horizon; at Nutfield
in Surrey, England, it is in the Cretaceous formations; at Midford
near Bath it is of Jurassic age; at Bala, North Wales, it occurs in
Ordovician strata; in Saxony it appears to be the decomposition
product of a diabasic rock. In America it is found in California
in rocks ranging from Cretaceous to Pleistocene age; in S.
Dakota, Custer county and elsewhere a yellow, gritty earth of
Jurassic age is worked; in Florida and Georgia occurs a brittle,
whitish earth of Oligocenc age. Other deposits are worked in
Arkansas, Texas, Colorado, Massachusetts and South Carolina.
Fuller's earth is cither mined or dug in the open according to
local circumstances. It is then dried in the sun or by artificial
heat and transported in small lumps in sacks. In other cases it
is ground to a fine powder after being dried; or it is first roughly
ground and made into a slurry with water, which is allowed to
carry off the finer from the coarser particles and deposit them in a
creamy state in suitable tanks. After consolidation this fine
material is dried artificially on drying floors, broken into lumps,
and packed for transport. The use of fuller's earth for cleansing
wool and cloth has greatly decreased, but the demand for the
material is as great or greater than it ever was. It b now used
very largely in the filtration of mineral oils, and also for decolour-
izing certain vegetable oils. It is employed in the formation of
certain soaps and cleansing preparations.
The term " Fuller's Earth " has a special significance in
geology, for it was applied by W. Smith in 1799 to certain days
in the neighbourhood of Bath, and the use of the expression is
still retained by English geologists, either in this form or in the
generalized " Fullonian." The Fullonian lies at the base of the
Great Oolite or Bathonian series, but its palaeontologies!
characters place it between that scries and the underlying
Inferior Oolite. The zonal fossils are Pcrisphinctes arbustigma
and Macrocephalus subcontracts with Ostrea acuminata,
Rliynchonclla concinna and Coniomya angulifera. The formation
is in part the equivalent of the " Vcsulicn " of J. Marcou (Vesoul
in Hautc-Sa6nc). In Dorsetshire and Somersetshire, where it
is best developed, it is represented by an Upper Fuller's Earth
Clay, the Fuller's Earth Rock (an im persistent earthy limestone,
usually fossilifcrous), and the Lower Fuller's Earth Clay. Com*
mcrcial fuller's earth has been obtained only from the Upper
Clay. In eastern Gloucestershire and northern Oxfordshire
the Fuller's Earth passes downwards without break into the
Inferior Oolite; northward it dies out about Chipping Norton
in Oxfordshire and passes laterally into the Stonesfield Slates
series; in the midland counties it may perhaps be represented
by the " Upper Estuarine Series." In parts of Dorsetshire the
clays have been used for brick making and the limestone (rock)
for local buildings.
See H. B. Woodward, " Jurassic Rocks of Great Britain," voL
iv. (1894), Mem. Ceol. Survey (London). U- A. H.J
FULLERTON, LADY GEOROIANA CHARLOTTE (1812-1885),
English novelist and philanthropist, youngest daughter of the
isi Earl Granville, was born at Tixall Hall in Staffordshire on
the 23rd of September 181 2. In 1833 she married Alexander
George Fuller ton, then an Irish officer in the guards. After
living in Paris for some eight years she and her husband accom-
panied Lord Granville to Cannes and thence to Rome. la xl*j
FULMAR— FULMINIC ACID
299
her husband entered the Romtn Catholic church, and in the
following year Lady GeorgianaFullerton published her first novel,
Ellen Middleton, which attracted W. E. Gladstone's attention
in the English Review. In 1846 she entered the Roman Catholic
church. The death of her only son in 1854 plunged her in grief,
and she continued to wear mourning until the end of her life.
In 1856 she became one of the third order of St Francis, and
thenceforward devoted herself to charitable work. In conjunc-
tion with Miss Taylor she founded the religious community
known as " The Poor Servants of the Mother of God Incarnate,"
and she also took an active part in bringing to England the
sisters of St Vincent of Paul. Her philanthropic work Is described
in Mrs Augustus Craven's work Lady Georgian* FuUerton, sa
tie el sa mtvrts (Paris, 1888), which was translated into English
by Henry James Coleridge. She died at Bournemouth on the xoth
of January 1885. Among her other novels were Graniley Manor
(1847), Lady Bird (1852), and Too Strange not to be True (1864).
FULMAR, from the Gaelic Fulmaire, the Fulmarus glacialis of
modern ornithologists, one of the largest of the petrels (Proccl-
lariidae) of the northern hemisphere, being about the size of the
common gull (Larus eanus) and not unlike it in general coloration,
except that its primaries are grey instead of black. This bird,
which ranges over the North Atlantic, is seldom seen on the
European side below lat. 53* N., but on the American side comes
habitually to lat. 4S°oreven lower. In the Pacific it is represented
by a scarcely separable form, F. gjufnscka. It has been commonly
believed to have two breeding-places in the British Islands,
namely, St Rilda and South Barra; but, according to Robert
Gray (Birds of the West of Scotland, p. 490), it has abandoned
the latter since 1844, though still breeding in Skye. Northward
it established itself about 1838 on Myggenaes Holm, one of the
Faeroes, while it has several stations off the coast of Iceland and
Spitsbergen, as well as at Bear Island. Its range towards the
pole seems to be only bounded by open water, and it is the con-
stant attendant upon all who are employed in the whale and
seal fisheries, showing the greatest boldness in approaching boats
and ships, and feeding on the offal obtained from them. By
British seamen it is commonly called the " molly mawk " l
(corrupted from Jfotfrmnc*), and is extremely well known tothem,
its flight, as it skims over the waves, first with a few beats of
the wings and then gliding for a long way, being very peculiar.
It only visits the land to deposit its single white egg, which is
laid on a rocky ledge, where a shallow nest is made in the turf
and lined with a little dried grass. Many of its breeding-places
are a most valuable property to those who live near them and
take the eggs and young, which, from the nature of the locality,
are only to be had at a hazardous risk of life. In St Kilda a
large number of the young are killed in one week of August, the
only time when, by the custom of the community, they are
allowed to be taken. These, after the oil is extracted from them,
serve the islanders with food for the winter. The oil has been
chemically analysed and found to be a fish-oil, and to possess
nearly all the qualities of that obtained from the liver of the cod,
with a lighter specific gravity. It, however, has an extremely
strong scent, which is said by those who have visited St Kilda
to pervade every thing and person on the island, and is certainly
retained by an egg or skin of the bird for many years. Whenever
a live example is seized in the hand it ejects a considerable
quantity of this oil from its mouth.
FULMINIC ACID, HCNO or H,C,N,0», an organic acid
isomeric with cyanic and cyanuric acids; its salts, termed
fulminates, are very explosive and are much employed as de-
tonators. The free acid, which is obtained by treating the salts
with acids, is an oily liquid smelling like prussic acid; it is very
explosive, -and the vapour b poisonous to about the same degree
as that of prussic acid. The first fulminate prepared was the
"fulminating silver "of L. G. Brugnatelli, who found in 1708
that if silver be dissolved in nitric acid and the solution added
to spirits of wine, a white, highly explosive powder was obtained.
This substance is to be distinguished from the black M fulminating
»A name misapplied in the southern hemisphere to Diomedoa
silver " obtained by C. L. Berthollet in 1788 by acting with
ammonia on precipitated silver oxide. The .next salt to be
obtained was the mercuric salt, which was prepared in 1709 by
Edward Charles Howard, who substituted mercury for silver in
Brugnatelli's process. A similar method is that of J. von Liebig
(1823), who heated a mixture of alcohol, nitric acid and mercuric
nitrate; the salt is largely manufactured by processes closely
resembling the last. A laboratory method is to mix solutions
of sodium nitromethanc, CH a : NO(ONa), and mercuric chloride,
a yellow basic salt being formed at the same time. Mercuric
fulminate is less explosive than the silver salt, and forms white
needles (with $HtO) which are tolerably soluble in water. The
use of mercuric fulminate as a detonator dates from about 1814,
when the explosive cap was invented. It is still the commonest
detonator, but it is now usually mixed with other substances;
the British service uses for percussion caps 6 parts of fulminate,
6 of potassium chlorate and 4 of antimony sulphide, and for
time fuses 4 parts of fulminate, 6 of potassium chlorate and 4
of antimony sulphide, the mixture being damped with a shellac
varnish; for use in blasting, a home office order of 1897 prescribes
a mixture of 4 parts of fulminate and 1 of potassium chlorate.
In 1000 Bielefeldt found that a fulminate placed on top of an
aromatic nitro compound, such as trinitrotoluene, formed a
useful detonator; this discovery has been especially taken
advantage of in Germany, in which country detonators of this
nature are being largely employed. Tetranitromethylaniline
(tctryl) has also been employed (Brit. Pat. 13340 of 1005).
It has been proposed to replace fulminate by silver azoimide
(Wdhler * Matter, Brit. Pat. 4468 of 1008), and by lead azoimide
(Hyronimus, Brit. Pat. 1819 of 1908).
The constitution of fulminic acid has been investigated by many
experimenters, but apparently without definitive results. The
researches of Liebig (1823), Liebig and Gay-Lussac (1824), and of
Liebig again in 1838 showed the acid to be isomeric with cyanic add,
and probably (HCNO)* since it gave mixed and add salts. Kckule,
in 1858, concluded that it was nit roacctonit rile, NOrCHrCN, a
view opposed by Steiner (1883), E. Divers and M. Kawakita (1884),
R. Scholl (1890), and by J. U. Nef (1894), who proposed the formulae:
C:N-OH „.N:CH CH:NO r . Mmi
C-.N-OH. °<N:OOH. CH :NO. CNOHl
Steiner, Divers, Scholl, Nef.
The formulae of Kelrule, Divers and Armstrong have been discarded,
and it remains to be shown whether Nrf's carbonyloxime formula
(or the bimolecular formula of Steiner) or Scholl "» gfyoxime peroxide
formula is correct. There is some doubt as to the molecular formula
of fulminic add. The existence of double salts, and the observations
of L. Wohler and K. Theodorovits (Ber., 1005. 3*. P- 345). that only
compounds containing two carbon atoms yielded fulminates, points
to (HCNO)i; on the other hand, Wohler {loc. cit. p. 1351) found
that cryoacopic and electric conductivity measurements showed
sodium fulminate to be NaCNO. Nef based his formula, which
involves bivalent carbon, on many reactions; in particular, that
silver fulminate with hydrochloric add gave salts of formylchlorid*
oxime, which with water gave hydroxylamine and formic acid, thus
C:NO OAg->HC<^ OA «->HC<^|J )H -»H.CO,H+H t N.OH,
and also on the production from sodium nitromethane and mer-
curic chloride, thus CH, :NOOhg-»H,0+C :NOhg(hg-,Hg). H.
Widand and F. C. Palazzo (1907) support this formula, finding that
methyl nitrolic acid, NOrCH : NOH. yielded under certain con-
ditions fulminic add, and vice versa (Palazzo. 1907)- M.Z. Jowitsch-
itsch (Ann., 1906, 347, d. 233) inclines to Scholl's formula; be
found that the synthetic silver salt of glyoxime peroxide resembled
stiver fulminate in yielding hydroxylamine with hydrochloric add,
but differed in being less explosive, and in being soluble in nitric
add. H . Wieland and his collaborators regard " glyoxime peroxide •
as an oxide of f urazane (a.v.).and have shown that a dose relationship
exists between the nitnle oxides, furoxane, and fulminic add (see
Ann. Rep., London Chcra. Soc., »9?9..P- 84). Fulminuru acid,
(HCNO)i. obtained by Liebig by boiling mercuric fulminate with
water, was synthesized in 1905 by C. ulpiani and L. Bernardini
(Gaseha, Hi. 35. p. 7). who regard ft as NO,CH(CN)CONH,. It
deflagrates at 145*, and forms a characteristic cuprammonium salt.
The early history of mercuric fulminate and a critical account of its
application as a detonator is given in The Rue and Progress ej the
British Explosives Industry (International Congress of Applied
Chemistry, 1909). The manufacture and modern aspects are treated
in Oscar Guttmann. The Manufacture of Explosives, and Mauw
fmchwo of Rxplosims, Tmenty Years* Progress (1909).
300
FULTON, R.— FUMAROLE
FULTON, ROBERT (1765-18x5), American engineer, was bora
in 1765 in Little Britain (now Fulton, Lancaster county), Pa.
His parents were Irish, and so poor that they could afford him
only a very scanty education. At an early age he was bound
apprentice to a jeweller in Philadelphia, but subsequent 1>
adopted portrait and landscape painting as his profession. Ir
his twenty-second year, with the object of studying with his
countryman, Benjamin West, he went to England, and there
became acquainted with the duke of Bridge water, Earl Stanhope
and James Watt. Partly by their influence he was led to devote
his attention to engineering, especially in connexion with canal
construction; he obtained an English patent in 1704 for super-
seding canal locks by inclined planes, and in 1706 he published
a Treatise on Ike Improvement of Canal Navigation. He then took
up his residence in Paris, where he projected the first panorama
ever exhibited in that city, and constructed a submarine boat,
the " Nautilus," which was tried in Brest harbour in 1801 before
a commission appointed by Napoleon I., and by the aid of which
he was enabled to blow up a small vessel with a torpedo. It
was at Paris also in 1803 that be first succeeded in propelling a
boat by steam-power, thus realizing a design which he had
conceived ten years previously. Returning to America he
continued his experiments with submarine explosives, but failed
to convince either the English, French or United States govern-
ments of the adequacy of his methods. With Steam navigation
he had more success. In association with Robert R. Livingston
(q. ».), who in 1708 had been granted the exclusive right tc
navigate the waters of New York sfatc with steam-vessels, he
constructed the " Clermont," which, cngined by Boulton &
Walt of Birmingham, began to ply on the Hudson between
New York and Albany in 1807. The privilege obtained by
Livingston in 1708 was granted jointly to Fulton and Living-
ston in 1803, and by an act passed in 1808 the monopoly was
secured to them and their associates for a period depending on
the number of steamers constructed, but limited to a maximum
of thirty years. In 1814-181 5, on behalf of the United States
government, he constructed the " Fulton," a vessel of 38 tons
with central paddle-wheels, which was the first steam warship.
He died at New York on the 24th of February 1815. Among
Fulton's inventions were machines for spinning flax, for making
copes, and for sawing and polishing marble.
See C. D. Colden, Life of Robert Fulton (New York, 181 7); Robert
H. Thurston, History of the Growth of the Steam-Engine (New York,
1878); George H. Preble, Chronological History of Steam Navigation
(Philadelphia, 1883) ; and Mrs A. C. Sutclitte, Robert Fulton and the
Clermont (New York, 1909).
FULTON, a city and the county-seat of Callaway county,
Missouri, U.S.A., 25 m. N.E. of Jefferson City. Pop. (1800)
4314; (1000) 4883 (1167 negroes); (1910) 5228. It is served by
the Chicago & Alton railway. The city has an important stock
market and manufactures fire-brick and pottery. At Fulton
are the Westminster College (Presbyterian, founded in 1853),
the Sy nodical College for Young Women (Pres., founded in
187 1), the William Woods College for Girls (Christian Church,
1890), and the Missouri school for the deaf (1851). Here, too,
is a state hospital for the insane (1847), the first institution
of the kind in Missouri. The place was laid out as a town in
1825 and named Volney, but in honour of Robert Fulton the
present name was adopted a little later. Fulton was incorporated
in 1859.
. FULTON, a dty of Oswego county, New York, U.S.A., on the
right bank of the Oswego river, about 10 m. S. by E. of Oswego.
Pop. (tooo) 5281; (1905, state census) 8847; (1910) 10480.
Fulton is served by the Delaware, Lackawanna & Western, the
New York Central & Hudson River, and the New York, Ontario
& Western railways, by electric railway to Oswego and Syracuse
and by the Oswego Canal. The city has a Carnegie library.
Ample water-power is furnished by the Oswego river, which here
flows in a series of rapids, and the manufactures are many in
kind. On the 3rd of July 1756, on an island (afterward called
Battle Island) 4 m. N. of the present city of Fulton, a British
force of about 300 under Captain John Bradstreet (1 711-1774)
defeated an attacking force of French and Indians (numbering
about .700) under De Villiers. Soon after this, Bradstreet built
a fort within the present limits of Fulton. The first civilian
settler came in 1793, and the first survey (which included only
a part of the subsequent village) was made in 1815. Fulton
was incorporated as a village in 1835, and in April 1902 was
combined with the village of Oswego Falls (pop. in 1900, 2925)
and was chartered as a city.
FUM, or Funj Hwang, one of the four symbolical creatures
which in Chinese mythology are believed to keep watch and ward
over the Celestial Empire. It was begotten by fire, was born in
the Hill of the Sun's Halo, and its body bears inscribed on it
the five cardinal virtues. It has the breast of a goose, the hind-
quarters of a stag, a snake's neck, a fish's tail, a fowl's forehead,
a duck's down, the marks of a dragon, the back of a tortoise,
the face of a swallow, the beak of a cock, is about six cubits high,
and perches only on the woo-tung tree. The appearance of Fuao
heralds an age of universal virtue. Its figure is that which is
embroidered on the dresses of some mandarins.
FUMARIC AND MALEIC ACIDS, two isomeric unsaturated
acids of composition QI^O*. Fumaric acid is found in fumitory
{Fumaria officinalis), in various fungi (Agaricus piperaius, &c.),
and in Iceland moss. It is obtained by healing malic acid alone
to 1 50 C, or by heating it with hydrochloric acid (V. Dessaignes,
Jahrcsb., 1856, p. 463) or with a large quantity of hydxobromic
acids(A.Kekule > , j4*fi., 1864, 130, p. 21). It may also be obtained
by boiling monobromsuccinic acid with water; by the action of
dichloracetic acid and water on silver malonate (T. Komnenos,
Ann., 1883, 218, p. 169); by the cyanide synthesis from acetylene
di-iodide; and by heating maleic acid to 210° C (Z. Skraup,
Ifonals. f. Chemie, 1891, 12, p. 112). It crystallizes in small
prisms or needles, and is practically insoluble an cold water. It
sublimes to some extent at about 200 C, being partially con-
verted into maleic anhydride and water, the reaction becoming
pract ically quantitative if dehydrating agents be used. Reducing
agents (zinc and caustic alkali, hydriodic acid, sodium *m*1gam t
&c.) convert it into succinic acid. Bromine converts it into
dibromsuccinic acid. Potassium permanganate oxidizes it to
raccmic acid (A. Kekule. and R. Anschutz, Ber., 1881, 14,
p. 713). By long-continued heating with caustic soda at 100 C.
it is converted into inactive malic acid.
Maleic acid is obtained by distilling malic or fumaric acids;
by healing fumaric acid with acetyl chloride to ioo° C; ox by
the hydrolysis of trichlorphcnomalic acid OS-trichloraceto-
acrylic acid) (A. Kekule, Ann., 1884, 223, p. 185]. It crystallizes
in monoclinic prisms, which are easily soluble in water, melt
at 130° C, and boil at 160° C, decomposing into water and
maleic anhydride. When heated with concentrated hydrobromic
or hydriodic acids, it is converted into fumaric acid. It yields
an anilide; oxidation converts it into mesotarlaric acid. Maleic
anhydride is obtained by distilling fumaric acid with phosphorus
pentoxidc. It forms triclinic crystals which melt at 6o° C. and
boil at 196 C.
Both acids are readily esterihed by the actios of alky! baKdesos
their silver salts, and the maleic ester is readily transformed into the
fumaric ester by warming -villi iodine, the same result being obtained
by cstcri heat ion of maleu. acid in alcoholic solution by meant of
hydrochloric acid. Both acids yield acetylene by the elcctroiyas
of aqueous solutions of their alkali salts, and on reduction bota
yield succinic acid, whilst by the addition of hydrobromic add tbey
both yield monobromsuccinic acid (R. Fixt'ig, Ann., 1877, 188,0.98).
From these results it follows that the two acids are struct urifly
identical, and the isomerism has consequently to be explained on
other grounds. This was accomplished by W. Wislicenus |" Obrf
die raumliche Anordnung der Atonic," &c, Trans, of the Saxon Aad.
of Sciences (Math. Phys. Section), 1887, p. 14] by an extension of
the van't Hofl hypothesis (see Stereo-Isomerisu). The formulae
of the acids are written thus:
HCCO.H w . HCCO.H
HCCO.H Ma,c « c *cid- HCfcCOH
These account for maleic acid readily yielding an anhydride, t
fumaric acid does not, and for the behaviour of the acids towanb
bromine, fumaric acid yielding ordinary dibromsuccinic acid, aad
maleic acid the isomeric isodibromsuccinic acid.
FUMAROLE, a vent from which volcanic vapours issae,
named, indirectly from the LaL JumarUbm> ft
Fumade add.
FUMIGATION— FUNCTION
301
The vapours from fumarolcs were studied first by R. W. Bunsen,
on bis visit to Iceland, and afterwards by H. Saiate-Claire Deville
and other chemists and geologists in France, who examined the
vapours from Santorin, Etna, &c The hottest vapours issue
from dry fumarolcs, at temperatures of at least 500° C, and
consist chiefly of anhydrous chlorides, notably sodium chloride.
The acid fumaroles yield vapours of lower temperature (300° to
400°) containing much water vapour, with hydrogen chloride
and sulphur dioxide. The alkaline fumaroles are still cooler,
though above ioo°, and evolve ammonium chloride with other
vapours. Cold fumaroles, below ioo°, discharge principally
aqueous vapour, with carbon dioxide, and perhaps hydrogen
sulphide. The fumaroles of Mont Pele in Martinique during the
eruption of 1902 were examined by A. Lacroix, and the vapours
analysed by H. Moissan, who found that they consisted chiefly
of water vapour, with hydrogen chloride, sulphur, carbon dioxide,
carbon monoxide, methane, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and
argon. These vapours issued at a temperature of about 400°.
Armand Gautier has pointed out that these gases are practically
of the same composition as those which he obtained on heating
granite and certain other rocks. (See Volcano).
FUMIGATION (from Lat. Jumigare, to smoke), the process
of producing smoke or fumes, as by burning sulphur, frankin-
cense, tobacco, &c, whether as a ceremony of incantation, or
for perfuming a room, or for purposes of disinfection or destruc-
tion of vermin. In medicine the term has been used of the ex-
posure of the body, or a portion of it, to fumes such as those of
nitre, sal-ammoniac, mercury, &c; fumigation, by the injection
of tobacco smoke into the great bowel, was a recognized procedure
in the 18th century tor the resuscitation of the apparently
drowned. " Fumigated " or " fumed " oak is oak which has
been darkened by exposure to ammonia vapour.
FUMITORY, in botany, the popular name for the British
species of Fumaria, a genus of small, branched, often climbing
annual herbs with much-divided leaves and racemes of small
flowers. The flowers are tubular with a spurred base, and in the
British species are pink to purplish in colour. They are weeds of
cultivation growing in fields and waste places. F. capreolata
climbs by means of twisting petioles. In past times fumitory
was in esteem for its reputed cholagogue and other medicinal
properties; and in England, boiled in water, milk or whey, it
was used as a cosmetic. The root of the allied species (Corydalis
cava or tubcrosa) is known as radix arisldochia, and has been used
medicinally for various cutaneous and other disorders, in doses
of 10 to 30 grains. Some eleven alkaloids have been isolated
from it. The herbage of Fumaria officinalis and P. racemosa is
used in China under the name of Tsu-hwa-li-ting as an applica-
tion for glandular swellings, carbuncles and abscesses, and was
formerly valued in jaundice, and in cases of accidental swallowing
of the beard of grain (see F. Porter Smith, Contrib. towards the
Mai. Medica . . . of China, p. 99, 187 1). The name fumitory,
Latin fumus lerrae, has been supposed to be derived from the
fact that its juice irritates the eyes like smoke (see Fuchs, Dt
historic stirpium, p. 338, 1542); but The Crete Her bell, cap.
dxix., 1529, fol., following the Dt simpHci nudicina of Platearius,
fo. xciii. (see in Nicolai Praepositi dispensalonum ad aromotarios,
1536), says: " It is called Fumus terre fume or smoke of the
erthe bycause it is engendred of a cours fumosyte rysynge frome
the erthe in grete quantyte lyke smoke: this grosse or cours
fumosyte of the erthe wyndeth and wryeth out: and by work-
ynge of the ayre and sonne it turneth into this herbe. "
FUNCHAL, the capital of the Portuguese archipelago of the
Madeiras; on the south coast of Madeira, in 32° 37' N. and
16° 54' W. Pop. (1900) 20,850. Funchal is the see of a bishop,
in the archiepiscopal province of Lisbon; it is also the admini-
strative centre of the archipelago, and the residence of the
governor and foreign consuls. The city has an attractive
appearance from the sea. Its whitewashed houses, in their
gardens full of tropical plants, are built along the curving shore
of Funchal Bay, and on the lower slopes of an amphitheatre of
mountains, which form a background 4000 ft. high. Numerous
country houses (quintal), with terraced gardens, vineyards and
sugar-cane plantations occupy the surrounding heights. Three
mountain streams traverse the city through deep channels,
which in summer are dry, owing to the diversion of the water
for irrigation. A small fort, on an isolated rock off shore,
guards the entrance to the bay, and a larger and more powerfully
armed fort crowns an eminence inland. The chief buildings
include the cathedral, Anglican and Presbyterian churches,
hospitals, opera-house, museum and casino. There are small
public gardens and a meteorological observatory. In the steep
and narrow streets, which are lighted by electricity, wheeled
traffic is impossible; sledges drawn by oxen, and other primitive
conveyances are used instead (see Madeira). In winter the fine
climate and scenery attract numerous invalids and other visitors,
for whose accommodation there are good hotels; many foreigners
engaged in the coal and wine trades also reside here permanently.
The majority of these belong to the British community, which
was first established here in the 18th century. Funchal is the
headquarters of Madeiran industry and commerce (see Madeira).
It has no docks and no facilities for landing passengers or goods;
vessels are obliged to anchor in the roadstead, which, however,
is sheltered from every wind except the south. Funchal is
connected by cable with Carcavellos (for Lisbon), Porthcurnow
(for Falmouth, England) and St Vincent in the Cape Verde
Islands (for Pernambuco, Brazil).
FUNCTION, 1 in mathematics,. a variable number the value
of which depends upon the values of one or more other variable
numbers. The theory of functions is conveniently divided into
(L) Functions of Real Variables, wherein real, and only real,
numbers are involved, and (II.) Functions of Complex Variables,
wherein complex or imaginary numbers are involved.
I. Functions of Real Variables
x. Historical. — The word function, defined in the above sense,
was introduced by Leibnitz in a short note of date 1694 con-
cerning the construction of what we now call an " envelope "
(Leibnixens mathcmalische Schri/lcn, edited by C. I. Cerhardt,
Bd. v. p. 306), and was there used to denote a variable length
related in a defined way to a variable point of a curve. In 1698
James Bernoulli used the word in a special sense in connexion with
some isoperimetric problems (Joh. Bernoulli, Opera, t. L p. 255).
He said that when it is a question of selecting from an infinite set
of like curves that one which best fulfils some function, then of
two curves whose intersection determines the thing sought one
is always the " line of the function " (Linea fuuetitnis) . In 1 7 1 8
John Bernoulli- (Opera, t. ii. p. 241) defined a " function of a
variable magnitude " as a quantity made up in any way of this
variable magnitude and constants; and in 1730 (Opera, t. iii.
p. 174) he noted a distinction between " algebraic " and " tran-
scendental " functions. By the latter he meant integrals of
algebraic functions. The notation/Or) for a function of a variable
x was introduced by Leonhard Euler in 1734 (Comm, Acad.
Petropol. t. vii. p. 186), in connexion with the theorem of the
interchange of the order of differentiations. The notion of
functionality or functional relation of two magnitudes was thus
of geometrical origin; but a function soon came to be regarded
as an analytical expression, not necessarily an algebraic expres-
sion, containing the variable or variables. Thus we may have
rational integral algebraic functions such &s ax* + bx + c, ot
rational algebraic functions which are not integral, such as
C|g*-f q > jf- | -f ... +o».
or irrational algebraic functions, such as V*, or, more generally
the algebraic functions that are determined implicitly by an
algebraic equation,- as, for instance,
M*J) +f-*(x,y) + . . .+/» -o
1 The word " function " (from Lat. fungt, to perform) has many
uses, with the fundamental sense of an activity special or proper
to an office, business or profession, or to an organ of an animal ot
plant, the definite work for which the organ is an apparatus. Frosa
the use of the word, as in the Italian funsione, for a ceremony of
the Roman Church, " function " is often employed for a public
ceremony of any kind, and loosely of a social entertainment or
gathering.
3©2
FUNCTION
where fw(x t y), • • . mean homogeneous expressions in x and y
having constant coefficients, and having the degrees indicated
by the suffixes, and /« is a constant. Or again we may have
trigonometrical functions, such as sin x and tan x, or inverse
trigoro metrical functions, such as sin' 1 *, or exponential functions,
tuch as e* and a*, or logarithmic functions, such as log x and log
(i+x). We may have these functional symbols combined in
various ways, and thus there arises a great number of functions.
Further we may have functions of more than one variable, as, for
Instance, the expression xy/(x* + /), in which both x and y are
regarded as variable. Such functions were introduced into
analysis somewhat unsystematically as the need for them arose,
and the later developments of analysis led to the introduction
of other classes of functions.
a. Graphic Representation.— In the case of a function of one
variable x, any value of x and the corresponding value y of the
function can be the co-ordinates of a point in a plane. To any
value of x there corresponds a point N on the axis of x, in accord-
ance with the rule that x is the abscissa of N. The corresponding
value of y determines a point P in accordance with the rule that
x is the abscissa and y the ordinate of P. The ordinate y gives
the value of the function which corresponds to that value of
the variable x which is specified by N; and it may be described
as " the value of the function at N." Since there is a one-to-one
correspondence of the points N and the numbers x, we may also
describe the ordinate as " the value of the function at x." In
simple cases the aggregate of the points P which are determined
by any particular function (of one variable) is a curve, called
the " graph of the function " (see § 14). In like manner a function
of two variables defines a surface.
3. The Variable. — Graphic methods of representation, such
as those just described, enabled' mathematicians to deal with
irrational values of functions and variables at the time when there
was no theory of irrational numbers other than Euclid '3 theory
of incommensurables. In that theory an irrational number was
the ratio of two incommensurable geometric magnitudes. In
the modern theory of number irrational numbers are denned in
a purely arithmetical manner, independent of the measurement
of any quantities or magnitudes, whether geometric or of any
other kind. The definition is effected by means of the system
of ordinal numbers (see Number). When this formal system is
established, the theory of measurement may be founded upon it;
and, in particular, the co-ordinates of a point are denned as
numbers (not lengths), which are assigned in accordance with a
rule. This rule involves the measurement of lengths. The theory
of functions can be developed without any reference to graphs, or
co-ordinates or lengths. The process by which analysis has been
freed from any consideration of measurable quantities has been
called the " arithmetization of analysis." In the theory so
developed, the variable upon which a function depends is always
to be regarded as a number, and the corresponding value of the
function is also a number. Any reference to points or co-
ordinates is to be regarded as a picturesque mode of expression,
pointing to a possible application of the theory to geometry.
The development of "arithmelized analysis" in the 19th century
is associated with the name of Karl Weierstrass.
All possible values of a variable are numbers. In what
follows we shall confine our attention to the case where the
numbers are real. When complex numbers are introduced,
instead of real ones, the theory of functions receives a wide
extension, which is accompanied by appropriate limitations
(see below, II. Functions of Complex Variables). The set of ail
real numbers forms a continuum. In fact the notion of a one-
dimensional continuum first becomes precise in virtue of the
establishment of the system of real numbers.
4. Domain of a Variable. — Theory of Aggregates.— The notion
of a " variable " is that of a number to which we may assign
at pleasure any one of the values that belong to some chosen set,
or aggregate, of numbers; and this set, or aggregate, is called
the " domain of the variable." This domain may be an
" interval," that is to say it may consist of two terminal numbers,
all the numbers between them and no others. When this is
the case the number is said to be "continuously variable.'
When the domain consists of all real numbers, the variable is
said to be " unrestricted." A domain which consists of all the
real numbers which exceed some fixed number may be described
as an " interval unlimited towards the right "; similarly we
may have an interval " unlimited towards the left."
In more complicated cases we must have some rule or process for
assigning the aggregate of numbers which constitute the domain of
a variable. The methods of definition of particular types of sure-
gates, and the theorems relating to them, form a branch of arulv&is
called the " theory of aggregates (Mengenlehre, TkSorie its ensembtei.
Theory of sets of points). The notion of an " aggregate " in general
underlies the system of ordinal numbers. An aggregate is said to
be " infinite " when it is possible to effect a one-to-one correspond-
ence of all its elements to some of its elements. For example, we
may make all the integers correspond to the even integers, by making
1 correspond to 2, 2 to 4, and generally n to 2*. The aggregate of
positive integers is an infinite aggregate. The aggregates of all
rational numbers and of all real numbers and of points on a line are
other examples of infinite aggregates. An aggregate whose elemeots
are real numbers is said to extend to infinite values " if, after any
number N, however great, is specified, it is possible to find in the
aggregate numbers which exceed N in absolute value. Such an
aggregate is always infinite. The "neighbourhood of a number
(or point) a for a positive number k " is the aggregate of all numbers
(or points) x for which the absolute value of x— a denoted by
lx— «l, does not exceed k.
5. General Notion of Functionality. — A function of one variable
was for a long time commonly regarded as the ordinate of a
curve; and the two notions (1) that which is determined by a
curve supposed drawn, and (2) that which is determined by as
analytical expression supposed written down, were not for a
long time clearly distinguished. It was for this reason that
Fourier's discovery that a single analytical expression is capable
of representing (in different parts of an interval) what would
in his time have been called different functions so profoundly
struck mathematicians (§ 23). The analysts who, in the middle
of the 19th century, occupied themselves with the theory of the
convergence of Fourier's scries were led to impose a restriction
on the character of a function in order that it should admit of
such representation, and thus the door was opened for the
introduction of the general notion of functional dependence.
This notion may be expressed as follows: We have a variable
number, y, and another variable number, x, a domain of the
variable x, and a rule for assigning one or more definite values
to y when x is any point in the domain; then y is said to be s
" function " of the variable x, and x is called the " argument "
of the function. According to this notion a function is, as it
were, an indefinitely extended table, like a table of logarithms;
to each point in the domain of the argument there correspond
values for the function, but it remains arbitrary what values the
function is to have at* any such point.
For the specification of any particular function two things art
requisite: (1) a statement of the values of the variable, or of the
aggregate of points, to which values of the function are to be made
to correspond, i.e. of the " domain of the argument " ; (2) a rok
for assigning the value or values of the function that <
any point in this domain. We may refer to the second of these two
essentials as " the rule of calculation." The relation of function
to analytical expressions may then be stated in the form that tk
rule of calculation is: " Give the function the value of the expresnoa
at any point at which the expression has a determinate value," or
again more generally, " Give the function the value of the expression
at all points of a definite aggregate included in the domain of tie
argument." The former ofthese is the rule of those among tk
earlier analysts who regarded an analytical expression and a function
heir usage may be retained without casrisf
advantage of brevity, the analytical exprcs-
:he domain of the argument as well as the
ve may speak of " the function l/x." This
the analytical expression i/x at all points
But in complicated cases separate state-
' the argument and the rule of calculation
h. In general, when the rule of calculation
>y an analytical expression at any 1
said to be " r epr e se nted " by thee
ulation assigns a single definite value for a
n the domain of the argument the function
hrnlued." In what follows it is to be under*
me considered are one-valued, and tat van**
FUNCTION
assigned by the rule of calculation real. In the most important
cases the domain of the argument of a function of one variable b an
interval, with the possible exception of isolated points.
6. Limits. — Let /(x) be a function of a variable number x;
and let a be a point such that there are points of the domain
oi the argument x in the neighbourhood of a for any number
k, however small. If there is a number L which has the properly
that, after any positive number «, however small, has been
specified, it is possible to find a positive number k t so that
|L— /(x)| <« for all points x of the domain (other than a) for
which \x-a\ <h, then L is the " limit of./(x) at the point a."
The condition for the existence of £ is that, after the positive
number « has been specified, it must be possible to find a positive
number h, so that |/(«0-/(*)|< c for all points * and** of
the domain (other than a) for which \x—a\<h and jx*— « |<A.
It is a fundamental theorem that, when this condition is
satisfied, there exists a perfectly definite number L which is the
limit of f(x) at the point a as defined above. The limit of /(*)
at the point a is denoted by Lt xmm f{x) t or by lixn* B «/(x).
If f(x) b a function of one variable x in a domain which extends
to infinite values, and if, after « has been specified, it is possible to
find a number N, so that |/(x')-/(x)| <«for all values of x and x*
which are in the domain and exceed N, then there is a number L
which has the property that J/(x) — L\ <« for all such values of x.
In this case /(x) has a limit L at x-co. In like manner /(x) may
have a limit at x «■—<». This statement includes the case where
the domain of the argument consists exclusively of positive integers.
The values of the function then form a " sequence," «i, «»,...
Mm, . . ., and this sequence can have a limit at *— «o.
The principle common to the above definitions and theorems is
called, after P. du Bob Reymond, " the general principle of con-
vergence to a limit."
It must be understood that the phrase " x»«o " does not mean
that x takes some particular value which b infinite. There is no
such value. The phrase always refers to a limiting process in which,
as the process b carried out, the variable number x increases without
limit; it may, as in the above example of a sequence, increase by
taking successively the values of all the integral numbers; in other
cases it may increase by taking the values that belong to any domain
which " extends to infinite values."
A very important type of limits b furnished by infinite series.
When a sequence of numbers « ( , ut, . . . u m , . . . is given, we may
form a new sequence s u ** ...*.,.. .from it by the rules ii-»<i,
JS*«i+*)ii ... *««»«i+«i+ ... +««. or by the equivalent rules
Si**u, j„— $»_i »»„(«- 2, 3,. . .). If the new sequence has a limit
at w - oo , this limit is called the " sum of the infinite scries "
ni+Ki-K . ., and the scries b said to be "convergent" (see
Series).
A function which has not a limit at a point a may be such that,
if a certain aggregate of points b chosen out of the domain of the
argument, and the points x in the neighbourhood of a are restricted
to oelong to this aggregate, then the function has a limit at a. For
example. sin(i/x) has limit zero at o if x is restricted to the
aggregate i/r, i/2r, ... i/nv, ... or to the aggregate i/2v,
i[$r, . • • »/(«*+ 1 )» but if x takes all values in the neighbour-
hood of O, sin (l /x) has not a limit at o. Again, there may be a limit
at a if the points x in the neighbourhood of a are restricted by the
condition that x— a is positive; then we have a "limit on the*
right " at o; similarly we may have a " limit on the left " at a
point. Any such limit is described as a " limit for a restricted
domain." The limits on the left and on the right are denoted by
/(o-o) ano/(a+o).
The limit L otf(x) at a stands in no necessary relation to the value
of /(x) at a. lithe point a is in the domain of the argument, the
vafue of /(x) at a is assigned by the rule of calculation, and may be
different from L. In case /(a) =L the limit is said to be " attained."
If the point a is not in the domain of the argument, there b no value
for/(x) at a. In the case where /(x) is defined for all points in an
interval containing a, except the point a, and has a limit L at a,
we may arbitrarily annex the point a to the domain of the argument
and assign to f(a) the value L; the function may then be said to
be " extnnsically defined." The so-called " indeterminate forms "
(see Infinitesimal Calculus) are examples.
7. Superior and Inferior Limits; Infinities.— The value of a
function at every point in the domain of its argument is finite,
since, by definition, the value can be assigned, but this does not
necessarily imply that there is a number N which exceeds all
the values (or is less than all the values). It may happen that,
however great a number N we take, there are among the values
of the function numbers which exceed A/ (or are less than -AT).
If a number can be found which b greater than every value.
of the function, then either (a) there a one value of the function
3©3
eds all the others, or (jS) there b a number 5 which
try value of the function but b such that, however
tive number* we take, there are values of the function
edS -€. In the case (a) the function has a greatest
isc (0) the function has a " superior limit " 5, and
must be a point a which has the property that there
>f the domain of the argument, in the neighbourhood
y A, at which the values of the function differ from
tan c. Thus S is the limit of the function at a, either
nam of the argument or for some more restricted
a b in the domain of the argument, and if, after
a, there b a superior limit 5 which b in thb way the
function at a, if further /(c) —5, then 5 b the greatest
e function; in thb case the greatest value b a limit
e for a restricted domain) which b attained; it may
" superior limit which b attained." In like manner
vt a " smallest value " or an " inferior limit," and a
iue may be an "inferior limit which b attained."
ay be adapted to the description of
, &c, of a function in a restricted
n of the argument. In particular,
ly contain an interval; and therein
or limit, or an inferior limit, which
taximmm value or a minimum value
T, however great, has been specified,
e domain of the argument at which
Is N, the values of the function are
ior limit," and then there must be
that there are points of the domain,
- a, at which the value of the function
a the domain of the argument the
nine infinite " at a; it has of course
: a is not in the domain of the argu-
' become infinite " at a; it has of
nanner we may have a (negatively)
fter any number N, however great,
r k found, so that all the values of
ighbourhood of a for a, exceed N in
lay have the same sign ; the function
tend to become, determinately
te " ; otherwise it b said to become
inately infinite."
1 the theory of functions are of the
rs t with the single exception of the
in infinite aggregate. The latter is described as an
nity," the former as " improper infinities." There is no
initcly small " corresponding to the actual infinity,
infinitely small " b zero. All " infinite values " are of
f superior and inferior limits which are not attained,
ring and Decreasing Functions. — A function /(x) of one
lefined in the interval between a and 6, b " increasing
the interval " if, whenever x and x' are two numbers
val and x*>x, then f(x*)>f{x)\ the function "never
iroughout the interval " if, ar* and x being as before,
Similarly for decreasing functions, and for functions
r increase throughout an interval. A function which
r increases or never diminishes throughout an interval
" monotonous throughout " the interval. If we take
i definition b>a, the definition may apply to a function
restriction that x* is not b and x is not a; such a
" monotonous within " the interval. In thb case we
icorem that the function (if it never decreases) has
fie left at b and a limit on the right at a, and these are
r and inferior limits of its values at all points within
1 (the ends excluded); the like holds mutatis mutandis
ion never increases. If the function b monotonous
the interval, f(b) is the greatest (or least) value
le interval; and if f(b) is the limit of fix) on the left
greatest (or least) value is an example of a superior
1 limit which is attained. In these cases the function
nually to its limit.
ttrcm* and definitions can be extended, with obvious
is, to the cases of a domain which is not an interval, or
ifinite values. Bv means of them we arrive at sufficient,
essary, criteria lor the existence of a limit; and these
ly easier to apply than the general principle of conver-
imit (t 6). of which principle they are particular cases.
t. the function represented by x log (i'x) continually
3o+
FUNCTION
diminishes when ife>x>0 and x diminishes towards zero, and it
oever becomes negative. It therefore has a limit on the right at
x-o. This limit is zero. The function represented by x sin (i/x)
does not continually diminish towards zero as x diminishes towards
zero, but is sometimes greater than zero and sometimes less than
zero in any neighbourhood of x-o, however small. Nevertheless,
the function has the limit zero at x-o.
9. Continuity of Functions. — A function f(x) of one variable x
is said to be continuous at a point a if (1) /(x) is defined in an
interval containing a; (2) f(x) has a limit at c; (3) f(a) is
equal to this limit. The limit in question must be a limit for
continuous variation, not for a restricted domain. If f(x) has
a limit on the left at a and /(«) is equal to this limit, the function
may be said to be " continuous to the left " at 0; similarly the
function may be " continuous to the right " at a.
A function is said to be " continuous throughout an interval "
when it is continuous at every point of the interval. This implies
continuity to the right at the smaller end-value and continuity
to the left at the greater end-value. When these conditions at the
ends are not satisfied the function is said to be continuous
" within " the interval. By a " continuous function " of one
variable we always mean a function which is continuous through-
out an interval.
The principal properties of a continuous function are:
1. The function is practically constant throughout sufficiently
small intervals. This means that, after any point a of the interval
has been chosen, and any positive number c, however small, has
been specified, it is possible to find a number A, so that the difference
1 of the function in the interval between
n c There is an obvious modification if a
erval.
the function is " uniform." This means
corresponds to any • as in (1) may be the
iterval. or, in other words, that the numbers
for different values of a have a positive
1 greatest value and a least value in the
interval, and these are superior and inferior limits which are attained.
4. There is at least one point of the interval at which the function
takes any value between its greatest and least values in the interval.
5. If the interval is unlimited towards the right (or towards the
left), the function has a limit at 00 (or at — 00).
10. • Discontinuity of Functions.— -The discontinuities of a
function of one variable, defined in an interval with the possible
exception of isolated points, may be classified as follows:
(1) The function may become infinite, or tend to become
Infinite, at a point.
(2) The function may be undefined at a point.
(3) The function may have a limit on the left and a limit on
the right at the same point; these may be different from each
other, and at least one of them must be different from the value
of the function at the point.
(4) The function may have no limit at a point, or no limit on
the left, or no limit on the right, at a point.
In case a function f(x), defined as above, has no limit at a point a,
there are four limiting values which come into consideration. What-
ever positive number a we take, the values of the function at points
between a and a+A (« excluded) have a superior limit (or a greatest
value), and an inferior limit (or a least value) ; further, as h decreases,
the former never increases and the latter never decreases; accordingly
each of them tends to a limit. We have in this way two limits on
the right — the inferior limit of the superior limits in diminishing
neighbourhoods, and the superior limit of the infe rior limi ts in
diminishing neighbourhoods. These are. denoted by /(«-f-o) and
/ja-fo) , and they arc called the " limits of ind efinitcn ess " on the
right. Similar limits on the left are denoted by/(o— o) and /(a— o) .
Unless /(x) becomes, or tends to become, infinite at a, all these must
exist, any two of then may be equal, and at least one of them must
be different from /(a), if /(a) exists. If the first two are eoual there
is a limit on the right denoted by/(a+o); if the second two are
equal, there is a limit on the left denoted cry f(a— o). In case the
function becomes, or tends to become, infinite at a, one or more of
these limits is infinite in the sense explained in } 7: and now it is
to be noted that, e.g. the superior limit of the inferior limits in
diminishing neighbourhoods on the right of a may be negatively
infinite; this happens if, after any number N, however great, has
been specified, it is possible to find a positive number h, so that all
the values of the function in the interval between a and a+h (a
excluded) an less than —M; in such a case /(x) tends to become
£g*tivefy infinite when x decreases towards «; other modes of
tending to infinite limits may be described in similar terms.
betwe en the
tf+o),/(a-o),
ocilhuion " or
rhis difference
; superior and
points in the
ling difference
illation of the
four limits of
> in the sense
dethei
x>ints between
rval between a
i taken so thai
by which, as a
'*_•,. ..*i-a
to be divided
le exception of
divided into a
the function n
the oscillations
, provided the
in-such a case
lumber for any
irtial intervals.
n that the sua
cttona are said
hraae "limited
function with
as the sum of
es and the other
function has a
of the interval
a finite number
which haveaa
1 not include all
differentia rios
measuring the
»mpared with
in an interval
points of the
(1)
>, defined at aO
pt the point 0.
exist, and two
two are equal
roefnetent " of
either of them
at a; when iH
ntiable " at a,
"of /{*)•*«.
is denoted by
limit at l«o,
r limits here in
»* of A*) an-
ions they flu?
nt at aO points
val. tmt iftae
of the interval
ut the interval;
without bciof
ince, from the
n the discover*
but taefaflwe
■cry coobmwu*
the first step is
rhtch represent
i bccnjpvea by
»4). Ttene*
■fictions is the
u.Calculus)
FUNCTION
3<>5
13. Analytic Functum.—li f(x) and its first n differential
coefficients, denoted by f(x), /'(*), . . •/(")'(*), are continuous
in the interval between a and o+k, then
/(«+*)-/(«)+*T(«)+5iVw+. . .
where R a may have various forms, some of which are given in
the article Infinitesimal Calculus. This result is known as
" Taylor's theorem."
When Talyor's theorem leads to a representation of the
function by means of an infinite series, the function is said to be
"analytic" (cf. $ 21)
14. Ordinary Function.— -The idea of a curve representing a
continuous function in an interval is that of a line which has the
following properties: (1) the co-ordinates of a point of the curve
are a value x of the argument and the corresponding value y of
the function; (2) at every point the curve has a definite tangent;
(3) the interval can be divided into a finite number of partial
intervals within each of which the function is monotonous;
(4) the property of monotony within partial intervals is retained
after interchange of the axes of co-ordinates x and y. According
to condition (2) y is a continuous and differentiable function
of x, but this condition does not include conditions (3) and (4):
there are continuous partially monotonous functions which are
sot differentiable, there are continuous differentiable functions
which are not monotonous in any interval however small; and
there are continuous, differentiable and monotonous functions
which do not satisfy condition (4) (cf. { 24). A function which
can be represented by a curve, in the sense explained above, b
said to be " ordinary," and the curve is the graph of the function
(|a). All analytic functions are ordinary, but not all ordinary
functions are analytic.
15. IntegrabU P unction. — The idea of integration is twofold.
We may seek the function which has a given function as its
differential coefficient, or we may generalize the question of
finding the area of a curve. The first inquiry leads directly to the
indefinite integral, the second directly to the definite integral.
Following the second method we define " the definite integral
of the function /(or) through the interval between a and b " to be
the limit of the sum
when the interval is divided into ultimately indefinitely small
partial intervals by points x,, x it . . . *»-i. Here x*; denotes
any point in the rth partial interval, x« is put for a, and x m for 6.
It can be shown that the limit in question is finite and inde-
pendent of the mode of division into partial intervals, and of the
choice of the points such as x*,, provided (1) the function is
defined for all points of the interval, and does not tend to become
infinite at any of them; (2) for any one mode of division of the
interval into ultimately indefinitely small partial intervals, the
sum of the products of the oscillation of the function in each
partial interval and the difference of the end-values of that
partial interval has limit zero when n is increased indefinitely.
When these conditions are satisfied the function is said to be
u integrable " in the interval. The numbers a and b which limit
the interval are usually called the " lower and upper limits."
We shall call them the " nearer and further end-values." The
above definition of integration was introduced by Riemann in
his memoir on trigonometric series (1854). A still more general
definition has been given by Lcbcsgue. As the more general
definition cannot be made intelligible without the introduction
of some rather recondite notions belonging to the theory of
aggregates, we shall, in what follows, adhere to Riemann's
definition.
Wc have the following theorems:—
1. Any continuous function is integrable.
2. Any function with restricted oscillation is integrable.
3. A discontinuous function is integrable if it docs not tend to
become infinite, and K the points at which the osculation of the
function exceeds a given number #, however small, can be enclosed
xx. 6
in partial intervals the sum of whose breadths can be diminUhed
indefinitely.
These partial intervals must be a set chosen out of some complete
set obtained by the process used in the definition of integration.
4. The sum or product of two integrable functions is integrable.
As regards integrable functions we have the following theorems:
1. If 3 and / are the superior and inferior limits (or greatest and
least values) of /(*) in the interval between a and b, J f(x)dx is
intermediate between S(b — a) and 7(6— a). "*
2. The integral is a continuous function of each of the cnd*valuea.
3. If the further end-value b Is variable, and if |/(x)rfx - F(x),
then if /(*) is continuous at b, F(x) is differentiable at b. and
4. In case /Or) is continuous throughout the interval Fix) h con-
tinuous and differentiable throughout the interval, and F(x) «/(x)
throughout the interval.
5. In case f{x) is continuous throughout the interval between a
and b.
£f(x)dx-f(b)-f(a).
6. I n cut fix) Is discontinuous at one or more points of the interval
between a and 0, in which it is integrable,
£
fix)dx
is a function of x, of which the four derivatcs at any point of the
interval are equal to the limits of indefinitencs* of /(x) at the point.
7. It may be that there exist functions which are differentiable
throughout an Interval in which their differential coefficients are
not integrable; if, however, F(x) is a function whose differential
coefficient, f(x), is integrable in an interval, then
F{x) t - J F (x)dx -f const..
where a is a fixed point* and x a variable point, of the interval.
Similarly, if any one of the four derivatcs of a function is integrable
in an interval, all are integrable, and the integral of cither differs from
the original function by a constant only.
The theorems (4), (6), (7) show that there is some discrepancy
between the indefinite integral considered as the function which has
a given function as its differential coefficient, and as a definite
integral with a variahle end-value.
Wc have also two theorems concerning the integral of the product s
of two integrable functions Hx) and 4>{x) : these are known as " the
first and second theorems of the mean.' The first theorem of the
mean is that, if *(x) is one-signed throughout the interval between
a and b, there is a number M intermediate between the superior
and inferior limits, or greatest and least values, of f(x) in the interval,
which has the property expressed by the equation
Mfl^dx~fr{x)*{x)dx.
The second theorem of the mean is that, if /(x) is monotonous
throughout the interval, there is a number £ between a and * which
has the property expressed by the equation
£f(x)+(x)dx-f(a)fo(x)dx+f{b)fa{x)d*.
(Sot Fourier's Ssries.)
16. Improper Definite Integrals. — We may extend the idea of
integration to cases of functions which are not defined at some
point, or which tend to become infinite in the neighbourhood of
some point, and to cases where the domain of the argument
extends to infinite values. If c is a point in the interval between
a and b at which f(x) is not defined, we impose a restriction on
the points x' r of the definition: none of them is to be the point c.
This comes to the same thing as defining J m J{x)dx to be
zjr^+yf^™***
Co
where, to fix ideas, b is taken > a, and e and c are positive. The
same definition applies to the case where /(x) becomes infinite, or
tends to become infinite, at c, provided both the limits exist.
This definition may be otherwise expressed by saying that a
partial interval containing the point c is omitted from the
interval of integration, and a limit taken by diminishing the
breadth of this partial interval indefinitely; in this form it
applies to the cases where c is a or b.
Again, when the interval of integration is unlimited to the
right, or extends to positively infinite values, we have as a
definition
306
FUNCTION
provided this limit exists. Similar definitions apply to
("" ftx)dx, and to f" f(x)dx.
All Mich definite integrals as the above are said to be " improper."
For example, J ~^x i* improper in two ways. It means
U U fim x dx,
* = - ««(J« x
in which the positive number e is first diminished indefinitely,
and the positive number h is afterwards increased indefinitely-
The " theorems of the mean" (§ 15) require modification when
the integrals arc improper (sec Fourier's Scries).
When the improper definite integral of a function which
becomes, or tends to become, infinite, exists, the integral is said
to be " convergent." If J(x) tends to become infinite at a point
c in the interval between a and b, and the expression (1) does not
exist, then the expression I f(x)dx t which has no value, is called
a " divergent integral," and it may happen that there is a definite
value for
Lt\J m C ~ ( f(x)dx+^ w f{x)dx\
provided that e and i are connected by some definite relation,
and both, remaining positive, tend to limit zero. The value of
the above limit is then called a " principal value "of the divergent
integral. Cauchy's principal value is obtained by making 4»e,
i.e. by taking the omitted interval so that the infinity is at
its middle point. A divergent integral which has one or more
principal values is sometimes described as " semi-convergent."
17. Domain of a Set of Variables. — The numerical continuum
of n dimensions (C») is the aggregate that is arrived at by attribut-
ing simultaneous values to each of n variables x iy x,, . . . x*,
these values being any real numbers. The elements of such an
aggregate are called " points," and the numbers x it %%, . . . x«
the " co-ordinates " of a point. Denoting in general the points
(xi, xt, . . . «.) and (*'», xf% . . . *'«) by x and x* t the sum of
the differences | x%— x* x | + f *t— x** | + • • • + 1 *«— *• I may
be denoted by |x— x'l and called the " difference of the two
points." We can in various ways choose out of the continuum
an aggregate, of points, which may be an infinite aggregate, and
any such aggregate can be the " domain " of a " variable point."
The domain is said to " extend to an infinite distance " if, after
any number AT, however great, has been specified, it is possible
to find in the domain points of which one or more co-ordinates
exceed N in absolute value. The " neighbourhood " of a point
a for a (positive) number h is the aggregate constituted of all the
points *, which are such that the "difference" denoted by
fjc— a I <k. If an infinite- aggregate of points does not extend
to an infinite distance, there must be at least one point a, which
has the property that the points of the aggregate which axe in
the neighbourhood of a for any number A, however small, them*
selves constitute an infinite aggregate, and then the point a is
called a " limiting point " of the aggregate; it may or may not
be a point of the aggregate. An aggregate of points is " perfect "
when all its points are limiting points of it, and all its limiting
points are points of it; it is "connected" when, after taking
any two points a, b of it, and choosing any positive number t,
however small, a number m and points x* t *", . . . x^" ) of the
aggregate can be found so that all the differences denoted by
|*'-a|,|x ,/ -x / |,...|6-x (, " ) |arc less than c. A perfect con-
nected aggregate is a continuum. This is G. Cantor's definition.
The definition of a continuum in C. leaves open the question of
the number of dimensions of the continuum, and a further explana-
tion is necessary in order to define arithmetically what is meant by a
" homogeneous part M H» of C.. Such a part would correspond to
an interval in G, or to an area bounded by a simple closed contour
in Ct\ and, besides beingjperfect and connected, it would have the
following properties: (1) There are points of C», which are not points
of //«; these form a complementary aggregate H' m . (2) There are
points " within " //,: this means that Tor any such point there is
a neighbourhood consisting exclusively of points of//*. (3) The
points of //■ which do not lie " within " H„ arc limiting points of
H' m ; they are not points of */'«, but the neighbourhood of any such
point for any number A, however small, contains points within H n
and points of //'■: the aggregate of these points is called the
" boundary " of F? n . (4) When any two points a. b within //. are
taken, it is possible to find a number < and a corresponding number
m, and to choose points x', x*, . . -^"K so that the neighbourhood
of a for « contains x', and consists exclusively of points within //.,
and similarly for x' and x*, x* and x",...x< M > and b. Condition
(3) would exclude such an aggregate as that of the points within and
upon two circles external to each other and a line joining a point on
one to a point on the other, and condition (4) would exclude such
an aggregate as that of the points- within and upon two circles which
toucn externally.
18. Functions of Several Variables. — A function of several
variables differs from a function of one variable in that the
argument of the function consists of a set of variables, or is a
variable point in a C« when there arc n variables. The function
is definable by means of the domain of the argument and the
rule of calculation. In the most important cases the domain of
the argument is a homogeneous part //• of C« with the possible
exception of isolated points, and the rule of calculation is that
the value of the function in any assigned part of the domain
of the argument is that value which is assumed at the point by
an assigned analytical expression. The limit of a function at a
point a is defined in the same way as in the case of a function of
one variable.
We take a positive fraction c and consider the neighbourhood of a
for k, and from this neighbourhood we exclude the point a, and we
also exclude any point which is not in the domain of the argument.
Then we take x and x* to be any two of the retained points in the
neighbourhood. The function/ has a limit at a if for any positive %
however small, there is a corresponding h which has the property
neighbourhood
n there are two
kin of the arga-
hc function are
ion has a limit
gion containing
N the values of
i at the region
ril as we please
nenstons of the
nt of a function
«a" limit at
small, has beta
/<*'W(*)|<«.
ne or more co-
of functions of
for a restricted
Jie same as the
>f one variable
have a limit at
keeping x% con-
Exprtased i»
pproaching the
ior and inferior
tattoos of what
-tables becomes
ilmost identical
lanations in the
of a continuous
t it is very im-
portant to observe that a function of two or more variables may be
a continuous function of each of the variables, when the rest are kept
constant, without being a continuous function of its argument.
For example, a function of x and y may be defined by the conditions
that when x— o it is zero whatever value ir may have, and when
x«*o it has the value of sin |4tan -, 0'/x)|. when yhasaay particular
value this function is a continuous function of x, and, when x has
any particular value this function is a continuous function of y;
but the function of x and y is discontinuous at (x =0, y »o).
19. Differentiation and Integration. — The definition of partial
differentiation of a function of several variables presents no
difficulty. The most important theorems concerning differ-
entiable functions are the " theorem of the total differential,"
the theorem of the interchangeability of the order of partial
differentiations, and the extension of Taylor's theorem (see
Infinitesimal Calculus).
With a view to the establishment of the notion of integration
through a domain, we must define the " extent " of the domain.
Take first a domain consisting of the point a and all the points t
for which |x-aJ<JA, where h is a chosen positive number;
the extent of this domain is h*,n being the number of variables;
such a domain may be described as " square," and the number a
may be called its " breadth "; it is a homogeneous part of the
FUNCTION
3©7
numerical continuum of n dimensions, and its boundary consists \
of all the points for which |x— a| «*JA. Now the points of
any domain, which does not extend to an infinite distance, may
be assigned to a finite number m of square domains of finite
breadths, so that every point of the domain is either within one
of these square domains or on its boundary, and so that no point
is within two of the square domains; also we may devise a rule
by which, as the number m increases indefinitely, the breadths
of all the square domains arc diminished indefinitely. When
this process is applied to a homogeneous part, R, of the numerical
continuum C», then, at any stage of the process, there will be
some square domains of which all the points belong to H, and
there will generally be others of which some, but not all, of the
points belong to H. As the number m is increased indefinitely
the sums of the extents of both these categories of square
domains will tend to definite limits, which cannot be negative;
when the second of these limits is zero the domain H is said to
be " measurable," and the first of these limits is its " extent ";
it is independent of the rule adopted for constructing the square
domains and contracting their breadths. The notion thus intro-
duced may be adapted by suitable modifications to continua of
lower dimensions in C«.
The integral of a function /(x) through a measurable domain H,
which it a homogeneous part of the numerical continuum of a
dimensions, is defined in just the same way as the integral through
an interval, the extent of a square domain taking the place of the
difference of the end-values of a partial interval; and the condition
of integrabUity takes the same form as in the simple case. In par-
ticular, the condition is satisfied when the function is continuous
throughout the domain. The definition of an integral through a
domain may be adapted to any domain of measurable extent. The
extensions to ''improper" definite integrals may be made in the
same way as for a function of one variable; in the particular case
of a function which tends to become infinite at a point in the domain
of integration, the point is enclosed in a partial domain which is
omitted from the integration, and a limit is taken when the extent
of the omitted partial domain is diminished indefinitely; a divergent
integral may have different (principal) values for different modes
of contracting the extent of the omitted partial domain. In applica-
tions to mathematical physics great importance attaches to con-
vergent integrals and to principal values of divergent integrals.
For example, any component of magnetic force at a point within a
magnet, and the corrcsjwnding component of magnetic induction
at the same point are expressed by different principal values of the
same divergent integral. Delicate questions arise as to the possibility
of representing the integral of a function of n variables through a
domain H+, as a repeated integral, of evaluating it by successive
integrations with respect to the variables one at a time and of inter-
changing the order 01 such integrations. These questions have been
discussed very completely by C. Jordan, and we may quote the
result that all the transformations in question are valid when the
function is continuous throughout the domain.
20. Representation of Functions in Genera!.— We have seen
that the notion of a function is wider than the notion of an
analytical expression, and that the same function may be
" represented " by one expression in one part of the domain of
the argument and by some other expression in another part of
the domain <} 5). Thus there arises the general problem of the
representation of functions. The function may be given by
specifying the domain of the argument and the rule of calcula-
tion, or else the function may have to be determined in accord-
ance with certain conditions; for example, it may have to
satisfy in a prescribed domain an assigned .differential equation.
In either case the problem is to determine, when possible, a
single analytical expression which shall have the same value as
the function at all points in the domain of the argument. For
the representation of most functions for which the problem can
be solved recourse must be had to limiting processes. Thus we
may utilize infinite series, or infinite products, or definite in-
tegrals; or again we may represent a function of one variable
as the limit of an expression containing two variables in a domain
in which one variable remains constant and another varies.
An example of this process is afforded by the expression
D, -- xy/(x*y+ t), which represents a function of x vanishing at
x»o and at aO other values of x having the value of i/x. The
method of aeries fails under this more general process (cf. fi 6).
When the terms u%, *»,... of a series are functions of a variable
x, the sum s m of the first n terms of the series \s a function of *
and n; and, when the series is convergent, its sum, which is
Dm =» • j„ can represent a function of x. In roost cases the series
converges for some values of x and not for others, and the values
for which it converges form the "domain of convergence,"
The sum of the series represents a function in this domain.
The apparently more general method of representation of a
function of one variable as the limit of a function of two variables
has been shown by R. Baire to be identical in scope with the method
of series, and it has been developed by him so as to give a very
complete account of the possibility of representing functions by
analytical expressions. For example, he has shown that Rlemann*
totally discontinuous function, which is equal to 1 when x is rational
and to o when x is irrational, can be represented by an analytical
expression. An infinite process of a different kind has been adapted
to the problem of the representation of a continuous function by
T. Broden. He begins with a function having a graph in the form
of a regular polygon, and interpolates additional angular points in
an ordered sequence without limit. The representation of a function
by means of an infinite product falls clearly under Baire 's method,
while the representation t>y means of a definite integral is analogous
to BrodGn's method. As an example of these two latter processes
we may cite the Gamma function (r(x)] defined for positive values
of x by the definite integral
or by the infinite product
Lt~ m «'/x(t +x)(i +|x) . (1 + jJL-) .
The second of these expressions avails for the representation of the
function at all points at which r is not a negative integer.
ai. Power Series.— Taylor's theorem leads in certain cases
to a representation of a function by an infinite series. We have
under certain conditions (§ 13)
fix) -/(a) +2' 'ii^2l>>(a) +*.,
and this becomes
M-/(fl)+:
Lffa).
provided that (a) a positive number k can be found so that at
all points in the interval between a and a+k (except these points)
fix) has continuous differential coefficients of all finite orders,
and at a has progressive differential coefficients of all finite
orders; (0) Cauchy's form of the remainder R m , viz.
\~r 1 yU-9)* ml f n> \a+0(x-o)), has the limit zero when ji in-
creases indefinitely, for all values of 9 between o and 1, and for
all values of x in the interval between a and a+k, except possibiy
a+k. When these conditions are satisfied, the series (1) repre-
sents the function at all points of the interval between a and a+k,
except possibly a+k, and the function is " analytic " (§ 13) in
this domain. Obvious modifications admit of extension to an
interval between a and a—k, or between a— k and a+k. When
a scries of the form (1) represents a function it is called " the
Taylor's scries for the function."
Taylor's series is a power series, ijt. a series of the form
2o.{x-o)\
n^
As regards power series we have the following theorems :
1. If the power scries converges at any point except a there is a
number k which has the property that the series converges absolutely
in the interval between a-k and a+k, with the possible exception
of one or both end-points.
2. The power series represents a continuous function in its domain
of convergence (the end-points may have to be excluded).
3. This function is analytic in the domain, and the power series
representing it is the Taylor's series for the function.
The theory of power series has been developed chiefly from the
point of view of the theory of functions of complex variables.
*2. Uniform Convergence.— We shall suppose that the domain
of convergence of an infinite series of functions is an interval with
the possible exception of isolated points. Let /(x) be the sum
of the series at any point x of the domain, and /«(*) the sum of
the first ft+i terms. The condition of convergence at a point
a h that, after any positive number e, however small, has been
specified, it must be possible to find a number n so that
\fm(a)-f P (aT\<€ for all values of m and p which exceed n.
The sum, /(a), is the limit of the sequence of numbers /.(a) at
3©8
FUNCTION
Eat i
m- oo. The convergence is said to be " uniform " in an interval
if, after specification of «, the same number n suffices at all
points of the interval to make \/{x)-f m {x) I < e for all values of
m which exceed ». The numbers n corresponding to any f,
however small, are all .finite, but, when c is less than some fixed
finite number, they may have an infinite superior limit (§7);
when this is the case there must he at least one point, a, of the
interval which has the property that, whatever number N we
take, • can be taken so small that, at some point in the neigh-
bourhood of a, * must be taken > N to make |/(x) — f*{x)\ < c
when m>n ; then the series docs not converge uniformly in the
neighbourhood of a. The disti nction may be otherwise expressed
thus: Choose a first and e afterwards, then the number n is
finite; choose e first and allow a to vary, then the number n
becomes a function of a, which may tend to become infinite, or
may remain below a fixed number; if such a fixed number
exists, however small e may be, the convergence is uniform.
For example, the scries sin x— \ sin 2X+1 sin 3x— . . .is conver-
ent for all real values of x. and, when s->x>— » its sum'is i x;
_ut, when x is but a little less than w, the number of terms which
must be taken in order to brine the sum at all near to the value of
|x is very large, and this number tends to increase indefinitely as
x approaches ». This series does not converge uniformly in the
neighbourhood of x»v. Another example is afforded by the scries
.Jo^x^' fr+it'x'+i ' ° f Whkh *** remainder after » tcrm8
it ax/OiV+i). If we put x-i/», for any value of «, however
great, the remainder is i ; and the number of terms required to be
taken to make the remainder tend to zero depends upon the value of
x when x is near to zero — it must, in fact, be large compared with
t/x. The series docs not converge uniformly in the neighbourhood
of x-o.
As regards scries whose terms represent continuous functions
we have the following theorems:
(1) If the scries converges uniformly in an interval it represents
a function which is continuous throughout the interval.
(2) If the scries represents a function which is discontinuous
in an interval it cannot converge uniformly in the interval.
(3) A scries which does not converge uniformly in an interval
may nevertheless represent a function which is continuous
throughout the interval.
(4) A power scries converges uniformly in any interval con-
tained within its domain of convergence, the end-points being
excluded.
(5) If 5 /f(x)«/(x) converges uniformly in the interval
r -0
between a and b
JI/w*-,!JImo«*
or a series which converges unformly may be integrated term by
term.
(6) If 2 f r{x) converges uniformly in an interval, then
. '-°
2 f r (x) converges in the interval, and represents a continuous
r-0
- diilcren liable function, <j>(x); in fact we have
♦'w- r f rrv*>.
or a series can be differentiated term by term if the series of
derived functions converges uniformly.
A series whose terms represent functions which are not con-
tinuous throughout an interval may converge uniformly in the
interval. If * //(*),-/(*), is such a series, and if all the
r-0
functions JM have limits at a t then/(x) has a limit at 0, which
is 2 LtfAjc). A similar theorem holds for limits on the left
r-0*— •
or on the right.
23. Fourier's Series.— An extensive class of functions admit
of being represented by series of the form
«.+J 1 (^co.2f+6.sin5f), <i.)
and the rule for determining the coefficients a». b m of such a
scries, in order that it may represent a given function /(x) in
the interval between-* and c, was given by Fourier, vis, we
have
The interval between -c and c may be called the "periodic
interval," and we may replace it by any other interval, $.g. that
between o and 1, without any restriction of generality. When
this is done the sum of the series takes the form
U f l, z"/(s)cos|2r«(s-x)l&,
Fourier's theorem is that, if the periodic interval can be divided
into a finite number of partial intervals within each of which the
function is ordinary (j 14), the series represents the function
within each of those partial intervals. In Fourier's time a
function of this character was regarded as completely arbitrary.
By a discussion of the integral (ii.) based on the Second Theoren
of the Mean ({ 15) it can be shown that, if /(x) has restricted c '**
and this is
tion in the interval (} 1 1), the sum of the series U equal to |J/(x+o)+
/(x— o)| at any point x within the interval, and that it is equal to
i l/(+o)+/(i-o)| at each end of the interval. (See the article
Fourier's Series.) It therefore represents the function at any
point of the periodic interval at which the function is continuous
(except possibly the end-points), and has a definite value at each
point of discontinuity. The condition of restricted oscillation
includes all the functions contemplated in the statement of the
theorem and some others. Further, it can be shown that, in any
partial interval throughout which f(x) is continuous, the series
converges unifqnnly, and that no scries of the form (i), with co-
efficients other than those determined by Fourier's rule, can represent
the function at all points, except points of discontinuity, in the same
periodic interval. The result can be extended to a function f(x)
which tends to become infinite at a finite number of points a of the
interval, provided (i)/(x) tends to become dcterminately infinite
at each of the points a, (2) the improper definite integral of /(r)
through the interval is convergent, (3)/(x) has not an infinite number
of discontinuities or of maxima or minima in the interval.
34. Representation of Continuous Functions by Series. — If the
series for /(x) formed by Fourier's rule converges at the point
a of the periodic interval, and if f(x) is continuous at a, the
sum of the series is /(a) ; but it has been proved by P. du Bois
Rcymond that the function may be continuous at a t and yet the
series formed by Fourier's rule may be divergent at a. Thus
some continuous functions do not admit of representation by
Fourier's series. All continuous functions, however, admit of
being represented with arbitrarily close approximation in either
of two forms, which may be described as " terminated Fourier's
scries " and " terminated power series," according to the two
following theorems:
(1) If /(x) is continuous throughout the interval between o and
2v, and if any positive number e however small is specified,
it is possible to find an integer n, so that the difference between
the value of f(x) and the sum of the first 11 terms of the series
for /(x), formed by Fourier's rule with periodic interval from
o to 2v, shall be less than c at all points of the interval. This
result can be extended to a function which is continuous in any
given interval.
(2) If /(x) is continuous throughout an interval, and any
positive number e however small is specified, it is possible to
find an integer n and a polynomial in x of the nth degree, so
that the difference between the value of /(x) and the value of tat
polynomial shall be less than e at all points of the interval
Again it can be proved that, if /(*) is continuous throughout
a given interval, polynomials in x of finite degrees can be found,
so as to form an infinite series of polynomials whose sum is equal
to/(x) at all points of the interval. Methods of represents! im
of continuous functions by infinite series of rational fractional
functions have also been devised.
Particular interest attaches to continuous functions which are
not differentiable. Weierstrass gave as an example the function
represented by the aeries £ a* cos (fanr), where a is positive and less
• -0
than unity, and b is an odd integer exceeding (1 +|v)M- It can be
shown that this aeries is uniformly convergent ia every interval
FUNCTION
3©9
and that the continuous function f(x) represented by it hat the
property that there is, in the neighbourhood of any point x* an
infinite aggregate of points x\ having x* as a limiting point, for
which L/Oc')— /C*a)|/(x'— *,) tends to become infinite with one
sign when x / — Xc approaches zero through positive values, and
infinite with the opposite sign when x'—xt approaches zero through
negative values. Accordingly the function u not differcntiablc at
any point. The definite integral of such a function /(x) through the
interval between a fixed point and a variable point x, is a continuous
differentiablc function ^(x), for which F (x) »/(x) ; and, if /(x) is
one-signed throughout any interval F(x) is monotonous throughout
that interval, but yet F(x) cannot be represented by a curve. In
any interval, however small, the tangent would have to take the
same direction for infinitely many points, and yet there is no interval
in which the tangent has everywhere the same direction. Further,
it can be shown that all functions which are everywhere continuous
and nowhere differentiate arc capable of representation by scries of
the form £o*4«(x). where Za n is an absolutely convergent scries of
numbers, and $»(x) is an analytic function whose absolute value
never exceeds unity.
25. Calculations with Divergent Series— When the series
described in (1) and (2) of § 24 diverge, they may, nevertheless,
be used for the approximate numerical calculation of the values
of the function, provided the calculation is not carried beyond a
certain number of terms. Expansions in series which have the
properly of representing a function approximately when the
expansion is not carried too far arc called " asymptotic expan-
sions." Sometimes they arc called " semi-convergent scries ";
but this term is avoided in the best modern usage, because
it is often used to describe scries whose convergence depends
upon the order of the terms, such as the series 1 - \ +J -. . .
In 1 neral, let jfo(x)+/i(x)+ . be a series of functions which
does not converge in a certain domain. It may happen that, if any
number «, however small, is first specified, a number n can after-
wards be found so that, at a point a of the domain, the value /(a) of
a certain function /(x) is connected with the sum of the first «+i
•
terms of the series by the relation |/(a)— Z/ r (a)|<c It must
also happen that, if any number N, however great, is specified, a
number n'(>n) can be found so that, for all values of m which exceed
Is then an
asymptotic expansion for the function f(x) in the domain.
The best known example of an asymptotic expansion is Stirling's
formula for n! when n is lar ge, vi z.
where is some number lying between o and 1. This formula is
included in the asymptotic expansion for the Gamma function.
We have in fact
log |r(x)|-(x-l) log *-*+! log as-+«(x),
where a(x) is the function defined by the definite integral
number «'(>«) c
«'. 1 2/r(a)l > N. The divergent series /,(x) +/.(x) + . .
»(*)«/j<
i-0" l -r- | HJ r " , ^ l *<".
asymptotic expansions for the sum, difference, product, quotient,
or integral, as the case may be.
26. Interchange of the Order 0/ Limiting Operations.— -When
we require to perform any limiting operation upon a function
which is itself represented by the result of a limiting process,
the question of the possibility of interchanging the order of the
two processes always arises. In the more elementary problems
of analysis it generally happens that such an interchange it
possible; but in general it is not possible. In other words, the
performance of the two processes in different orders may lead
to two different results; or the performance of them in one of the
two orders may lead to no result. The fact that the interchange
is possible under suitable restrictions for a particular class of
operations is a theorem to be proved.
Among examples of such interchanges we have the differentiation
and integration of an infinite series term by term (J 22), and the
differentiation and integration of a definite integral with respect to
a parameter by performing the like processes upon the subject of
integration (§ 19). As a last example we may take the limit of the
sum of an infinite series of functions at a point in the domain of
convergence. Suppose that the series S/,(x) represents a function
(ft) in an interval containing a point a. and that each of the functions
/r(x) has a limit at a. If we first put x-a, and then sum the scries,
we have the value /(a); if we first sum the scries for any r, and
afterwards take the limit of the sum at x«a, we have the limit of
fix) at a: if we first replace each function /,(x) by its limit at a, and
The multiplier of e~* a under the sign of integration can be expanded
in the power series
where Bi, Bi,. . . are " Bernoulli's numbers " given by the formula
B H «2.2m! (2»)-*-2 (/-*-).
r-1
When the series is integrated term by term, the right-hand member
of the equation for a(xj takes the form
I«2 x~3.4x 1 " t "5.6 x*"** *
This series is divergent ; but. if it is stopped at any term, the difference
between the sum of the scries so terminated ami the value of a(x) is
less than the last of the retained terms. Stirling's formula is obtained
by retaining the first term only. Other well-known examples of asymp-
totic expansions are afforded by the descending scries for Bushel's
functions. Methods of obtaining such expansions for the solutions of
linear differential equations of the second order were investigated by
G. G. Stokes (Math, and Pkys. Papers, vol. ii. p. 329), and a general
theory of asymptotic expansions has been developed by H. Poincare.
A still more general theory of divergent scries, and of the conditions
in which they can be used, as above, for the purposes of approximate
calculation has been worked out by E. Bore I. The great merit of
asymptotic expansions is that they admit of addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division, term by term, in the same way as
absolutely convergent series, and they admit also of integration
term by term; that is to say, the results of such operations are
des series trigonornemqucs," Oelle l Bd. iv.; P. Du Bois Keymond,
AUumeine Functionentheorie (Tubingen, 1882), and many memoirs
in Vrelle and in Math. Ann.; Heine, " Functioncnlchrc," CreUe,
Bd. lxxiv.; J. Pierpont, The Theory of Functions of a real Variable
(Boston, 1905); F. Klein, " AUgcmcinc Functionsbegriff," Math,
Ann. Bd. xxit.; W. F. Osgood, " On Uniform Convergence," Amer.
J. of Math vol. xix.; Pincherle, " Funzioni analitiche sccondo
Wcierstrass," Ciom. di mat. t. xviii.; PringfJieim. " Bedingungcn
d. Taylorschen Lchrsatzes," Math. Ann. Bd. xliv.; Riemann,
" Trigonometrische Reihc,"Oj. Werke (Leipzig, 1876); Schoenflics,
" Entwickclung d. Lehre v. d. Punktmannigjaltigkeiten," Jahresber*
d. deutschtn Motk.-Vcreinigung, Bd. viu.; Study, Memoir on
"Functions with Restricted Oscillation," Math. Ann. Bd. xlvlf.;
Wcierstrass, Memoir on " Continuous Functions that are not Differ-
entiablc," Ces. math. Werke, Bd. ii. p. 71 (Berlin, 1895), and on the
" Representation of Arbitrary Functions" ibid. Bd. iiL p. 1 ; W. H.
Young, " On Uniform and Non-uniform Convergence," Proc. London
Math. Soe. (Ser. 2) t. 6. Further information and very full references
will be found in the articles by Pringsheim, Schoenmes and Vow in
the En cy dc p i dm der stafa. Wtssenuhaflen, Bdc. i., ii. (Leipzig. 1*98,
H99). *"■*-" ia.£h:l.ji
3io
FUNCTION
U.-FuNcnoNS op Complex Variables
In the preceding section the doctrine of functionality is dis-
cussed with respect to real quantities; in this section the theory
when complex or imaginary quantities are involved receives
treatment. The following abstract explains the arrangement
of the subject matter: (§ i), Complex numbers, states what a
complex number is, (§ 2), Plotting of simple expressions involving
complex numbers, illustrates the meamng in some simple cases,
introducing the notion of conformal representation and proving
that an algebraic equation has complex, if not real, roots; (§ 3),
Limiting operations, defines certain simple functions of a complex
variable which are obtained by passing to a limit, in particular
the exponential function, and the generalized logarithm, here
denoted by \(z); ($4), Functions 0/0 complex variable in general,
after explaining briefly what is to be understood by a region of
the complex plane and by a path, and expounding a logical
principle of some importance, gives the accepted definition of a
function of a complex variable, establishes the existence of a
complex integral, and proves Cauchy's theorem relating thereto;
(§5), Applications, considers the differentiation and integration
of scries of functions of a complex variable, proves Laurent's
theorem, and establishes the expansion of a function of a complex
variable as a power scries, leading, in ((6), Singular points, to
a definition of the region of existence and singular points of a
function of a complex variable, and thence, in (§ 7), Monogenic
Functions, to what the writer believes to be the simplest definition
of a function of a complex variable, that of Weierstrass; (} 8),
Some elementary properties of single valued functions, first discusses
the meaning of a pole, proves that a single valued function with
only poles is rational, gives Mittag-Leffier's theorem, and Wcier-
strass's theorem for the primary factors of an integral function,
stating generalized forms for these, leading to the theorem of
({ 9), The construction of a monogenic function with a given region of
existence, with which isconnecled (§ 10), Expression of a monogenic
function by rational functions in a given region, of which the
method is applied in ($ 1 1), Expression of (1 -z)~ l by polynomials,
to a definite example, used here to obtain (5 12), Au expansion
•/ an arbitrary function by means of a scries of polynomials, over
a star region, also obtained in the original manner of Mittag-
Lefflcr; (§ 13), Application of Cauchy*s theorem to the determination
of definite integrals, gives two examples of this method; (J 14),
Doubly Periodic Functions, is introduced at this stage as furnish-
ing an excellent example of the preceding principles. The
reader who wishes to approach the matter from the point of view
of Integral Calculus should first consult the, section (§ 20) below,
dealing with Elliptic Integrals-, (§ 15), Potential Functions,
Conformal representation in general, gives a sketch of the con-
nexion of the theory of potential functions with the theory of
conformal representation, enunciating the Schwa rz-Christoffel
theorem for the representation of a polygon, with the application
to the case of an equilateral triangle; (§ 16), Multiple-valued
Functions, Algebraic Functions, deals for the most part with
algebraic functions, proving the residue theorem, and establishing
that an algebraic function has a definite Order; (§ 17), Integrals
of Algebraic Functions, enunciating Abel's theorem; (§ 18),
Indeterminateness of Algebraic Integrals, deals with the periods
associated with an algebraic integral, establishing that for an
elliptic integral the number of these is two; (J iq), Reversion of
an algebraic integral, mentions a problem considered below in
detail for an elliptic integral; ($20), Elliptic Integrals, considers
the algebraic reduction of any elliptic integral to one of three
standard forms, and proves that the function obtained by
reversion is single- valued; <§ it), Modular* Functions, gives a
statement of some of the more elementary properties of some
functions of great importance, with a definition of Automorphic
Functions, and a hint of the connexion with the theory of linear
differential equations; (§ 22), A property of integral functions,
deduced from the theory of modular functions, proves that there
cannot be more than one value not assumed by an integral
function, and gives the basis of the well-known expression of
the modulus of the elliptic functions in terms of the ratio of the
periods; (J 23), Geometrical applications of Elliptic Functions,
shows that any plane curve of deficiency unity can be expressed
by elliptic functions, and gives a geometrical proof of the addition
theorem for the function $(«); (S '4)1 Integrals of Algebraic
Functions in connexion with the theory of plane curves, discusses
the generalization to curves of any deficiency, (§35), Monogenic
Functions of several independent variables, describes briefly the
beginnings of this theory, with a mention of some fundamental
theorems: (§ 26), Multiply- Periodic Functions and the Theory
of Surfaces, attempts to show the nature of some problems now
being actively pursued.
Beside the brevity necessarily attaching to the account here
given of advanced parts of the subject, some of the more ele-
mentary results are stated only, without proof, as, for instance:
the monogeneily of an algebraic function, no reference being
made, moreover, to the cases of differential equations whose
integrals are monogenic, that a function possessing an algebraic
addition theorem is necessarily an elliptic function (or a particular
case of such) ; that any area can be conformally represented on
a half plane, a theorem requiring further much more detailed
consideration of the meamng of area than we have given; while
the character and properties, including the connectivity, of a
Riemann surface have not been referred to. The theta functions
are referred to only once, and the principles of the theory of
Abelian Functions have been illustrated only by the develop-
ments given for elliptic functions.
§ 1. Complex Numbers. — Complex numbers are numbers of
the form x+iy, where x. y are ordinary real numbers, and i is a
symbol imagined capable of combination with itself and the
ordinary real numbers, by way of addition, subtraction, multi-
plication and division, according to the ordinary commutative,
associative and distributive laws; the symbol i is further inch
that i*"*-i.
Taking in a plane two rectangular axes Or, Ov, we assume that
every point of the plane is definitely a&bociatcd with two real numbers
x, y (its co-ordinates) and conversely; thus any point of the plane is
associated with a single complex number; in particular, for every
point of the axis Ox/for which y**Q, the associated number is an
ordinary real num1>er; the complex numbers thus include the real
numbers. The axis Ox is often called the real axis, and the axis Oy
the imaginary axis, if P be the point associated with the complex
variable t-x+iy, the distance OP be called r, and the positive
angle less than 2* between Ox and OP be called 9, we may write
* = r(cos 0+1 sin 9): then r is called the modulus or absolute value
of s and often denoted by |s| and 9 is called the phase or amplitude
of t, and often denoted by ph (*); strictly the phase is ambiguous
by additive multiples of 2*. If s'-x'-ftv'be represented by P\
the complex argument s'-r-s is represented by a point P* obtained
by drawing from P' a line equal to and parallel to OP; the geo-
metrical representation involves for its validity certain properties
of the plane; as, for instance, the equation x+t=>z+x involves
the possibility of constructing a parallelogram (with OP'asdiagonalj.
It is important constantly to bear in mind, what is capable of easy
algebraic proof (and geometrically is Euclid's proposition IN. 7),
that the modulus of a sum or difference of two complex numbers is
generally less than (and is never greater than) the sum of their
moduli, and is greater than (or equal to) the difference of their
moduli; the former statement thus holds for the sum of any number
of complex numbers. We shall write E(itt) for cos •+ j sin 0; it is
at once verified that E(io). Ep0) - E(i(«+0)1. *o that the phase of a
product of complex quantities is obtained by addition of their
respective phases.
§ 2. Plotting and Properties of Simple Expressions involving
a Complex Number. — If we put f «(s-f)/(ji+t) f and, putting
f = £+"7. take a new plane upon which £, if are rectangu-
lar co-ordinates, the equations $ Bs (**+y t -x)/lx*-r-(y+i) , l,
»• — ixy/(x*+(y+i)'l will determine, corresponding to any
point of the first plane, a point of the second plane. There if
the one exception of s- -t, that is, x»o, y« — x, of which the
corresponding point is at infinity. It can now be easily proved
that as x describes the real axis in its plane the point f describes
once a circle of radius unity, with centre at f -o, and that there
is a definite correspondence of point to point between points
ib the x-plane which are above the real axis mud points of the
f -plane which are interior to this circle; in particular j-i
corresponds to f — o.
Moreover, t being a rational function of t, both f and « are con*
tinuous differentiablc functions of x and y, save when r w Infinite:
FUNCTION
writing f -/(*. y) -f(*-iy, y). the fact that tftfe it really independent
of y lead* at once todffdx+tdfldy-o, and hence to
!£"!/$" ~&i£ + $" o;
to that | is Dot any arbitrary function of *, y, and when £ b known
^ is determinate save for an additive constant. Also, in virtue of
these eguations, if f, f be the values of f corresponding to two
near values of x, say s and x\ the ratio (r — f)A»'— *) has a definite
limit when x*«x, independent of the ultimate phase of a'— x, this
limit being therefore equal to dtldx, that is, dt/dur+tfi/dx. Geo-
metrically this fact is interpreted by saying; that if two curves in the
x-plane intersect at a point P, at which both the differential co-
efficients dZJdx, dnJdx are not zero, and P\ P* be two points near
to P on these curves respectively, and the corresponding points of the
f-plane be Q, Q', Q r , then (i) the ratios PP*/PP'. QQ7QQ' are
ultimately equal. (2) the angle FPP' is equal to Q'QQ'j (3) the
rotation from PP to PP* is in the same sense as from QQ to QQ'.
it being understood that the axes of {, sj in the one plane are related
as are the axe* of x, y. Thus any diagram of the s- plane becomes a
diagram of the f-plane with the same angles; the magnification,
however, which Is
— »[©'+<sfl
varies from point to
point. Conversely, it appears subsequently that the expression
of any copy of a diagram (say. a map) which preserves angles requires
the intervention of the complex variable.
As another illustration consider the case when f is a polynomial
H being an arbitrary real positive number, it can
radius K can be found such for every 1 1 1 > R »t
consider the lower limit of |rlfor|sj <R; as
continuous function of x, y for |s| <K, there u
say (r», >). at which | M « least, say equal to
within a circle in the f- plane whose centre is the ori
there are no points f representing values correspor
But if ft be the value of f corresponding to (x§. y»),
sioo of f— ?• near XtBXt-f-ijt, in terms of s— z*.
B(s— *•}***+ ■ • -> where A is not aero, to two points near to (x* >),
aay (*i» yO or n and St-tt+(si-tt)(co3-j*+i «injy , will corre-
spond two points near to ft, say ft, and *f«— f/i. situated so that ft
is between them. One of these must be within the circle (p). \Vc
infer then that p-o, and have proved that every polynomial in
s vanishes for some value of z, and can therefore be written an a
product of factors of the form s— a, where ■ denotes a complex
number. This proposition alone suffices to suggest the importance
of complex numbers.
§ 3. Limiting Operations. — In order that a complex number
f = {+•■ may have a limit it is necessary and sufficient that each
of £ and n has a limit. Thus an infinite scries tr\>+vi+iP:+ . . .,
whose terms are complex numbers, is convergent if the real
series formed by taking the real parts of its terms and that
formed by the imaginary terms are both convergent. The
series is also convergent if the real series formed by the moduli
of its terms is convergent; in that case the scries is said to be
absolutely convergent, and it can be shown that its sum is
unaltered by taking the terms in any other order. Generally
the necessary and sufficient condition of convergence is that,
for a given real positive «, a number m exists such that for ever*.
*>m, and every positive p, the batch of terms w a +w»+i+
. . . +*?*+, is less than c in absolute value. If the terms depend
upon a complex variable x, the convergence is called uniform
for a range of values of z, when the inequality holds, for the
same c and m, for all the points x of this range.
The infinite series of most importance are those of which the
general term is o*x*, wherein a. is a constant, and s is regarded as
variable, w— o, I. 2, 3... . Surh a series is called a power series.
If a real and positive number M exists such that for s~x» and every
if, [ffnZo") <M, a condition which is satisfied, for instance, if the
series converges for z-a* then it is at once proved that the series
converges absolutely for every z for which | x | < I :• |. and con-
verges uniformly over every range |s[ <r' for which r*< |x»|>
To every power scries there belongs then a circle of convergence
within which it converges absolutely ami uniformly; the function
of x represented by it is thus continuous within the circle (this being
the result of a general property of uniformly convergent series of
continuous functions); the sura for an interior point : is, however,
continuous with the sum for a point a> on the circumference, as s
approaches to s» provided the scrip* converges for z—zo, as can be
shown without much difficulty. Within a common circle of con-
vergence two power series 2o.r". 2fr.x" can be multiplied together
according to the ordinary rule, this being a consequence of a theorem
for absolutely convergent series. If r, be less than the radius of
convergence of a series 2a,** and for | x | —r u the sum of the seriei
3"
intity M. it can be
ii in absolute value,
ill neighbourhood of
power series TajC*,
or «■« b„i thus also
radius about x — o as
>r which the sura of
"ZunS* of radius of
with |/| <R-|*1.
1 as a double scries
>lutely convergent;
f I. Thus we may
I/(*+/)-/(s.))/l-
nght reduces to A»
tc limit when 1-0,
s, the original series
- point =o of its circle
St+0-rrV**»(ss)/«l.
Repeating for this
2-0 for 2a*r\ we
reduces it to zero is
c number lie within
^of/(t).
■cxp (s) -!+*»/*!+
ice is infinite. By
f-s 1 ). In particular
1 exp (iy). Now tot
un y,
-iyM-i-coay,...
•nt of any one after
f a real variable) is
skive, we infer, for
ve; proceeding to a
, + T f ¥ y t -....
hus have exp (iy) ••
y). In other words,
is y. Hence also
n (y+2r)J,
as the period 2wi,
1 arbitrary integer*
unction exp (x) cart
xp (z) has no other
ig between the lines
) upon a new plane,
Tvcry complex value
this strip, and that
cp (s) thus defines a,
additive ambiguity
; when f is real this
k* Ifl +• Ph (f)+
ibes a closed circuit
by a», or k increases
have d{Jd3—{, so
different table, with
icsf-l-i(r-l)»+
icnce converges for
wevtr, l-(f-l)+
if tHf) denote this
Kf). regarded aa m
1 coefficients; if we
- 1 we infer thence
is to be remarked
-1 1 <l to make •
which If— i|£l, we
: series, utilizing the
1 f and a are complex
is as 2 tftX(f)]*/RL
■SO
I Is immaterial here,
is of the form 1/9,
s possible for f 1 *, of
i,... j- 1, all other
x>wcr of any one of
re integers without
p*«(f**)». The
it ion of the ordinary
•nl. As an example.
the number 1 is of
2*»); thus
I
312
FUNCTION
The function exp (s) is used also to define a generalised form of
the cosine and sine functions when s is complex; we write, namely,
cos i-l[exp (u) + cxp (-is)l and sins«"-Jilexp(w)-cxp (-fc)L
It will be found that these obey the ordinary relations holding when
s is real, except that their moduli arc not inferior to unity. For
example, cos i - 1 + !/<*!+ 1/4I+. . .is obviously greater than unity.
$4. Of Functions of a Complex Variable in General.— Vfc have
In what precedes shown how to generalize the ordinary rational,
algebraic and logarithmic functions, and considered more
general cases, of functions expressible by power scries in s.
With the suggestions furnished by these cases we can frame a
general definition. So far our use of the plane upon which 1 is
represented has been only illustrative, the results being capable
of analytical statement. In what follows this representation is
vital to the mode of expression we adopt; as then the properties
of numbers cannot -be ultimately based upon spatial intuitions,
it is necessary to indicate what are the geometrical ideas requiring
elucidation.
Consider a square of ride a, to whose perimeter is attached a
definite direction of description, which we take to be counter-
clockwise; another square, also of side a. may be added to this, so
that there is a side common; this common side being erased we
have a composite region with a definite direction of perimeter;
to this a third square of the same sue may be attached, so
that there is a side common to it and one of the former squares,
and this common side may be erased. If this process be continued
any number of times we obtain a region of the plane bounded by one
or more polygonal closed lines, no two of which intersect ; and at
each portion of the perimeter there is a definite direction of descrip-
tion, which is such that the region is on the left of the describing
point. Similarly we may construct a region by piecing together
triangles, so that every consecutive two nave a side in common,
it being understood that there is asw^ncd an upper limit for the
greatest side of a triangle, and a lower limit for the smallest angle.
In the former method, each square may be divided into four others
by lines through its centre parallel to its sides; in the latter method
each triangle may be divided into four others by lines joining the
middle points of its sides; this halves the sides and preserves the
angles. When we speak of a region of the plane in general, unless
the contrary is stated, we shall suppose it capable of bring generated
in this latter way by means of a finite number of triangles, there
being an upper limit to the length of a side of the triangle and a
lower limit to the size of an angle of the triangle. We shall also
require to speak of a path in the plane; this is to be understood as
capable of arising as a limit of a polygonal path of finite length,
there being a definite direction or sense of description at every point
of the path, which therefore never meets itself. From this the
meaning of a closed path is clear. The boundary points of a region
form one or more closed paths, hut, in general, it is only in a limiting
sense that the interior points of a closed path arc a region.
There is a logical principle also which must be referred to. Wc
frequently have cases whcre (< about every, interior or boundary,
point r» of a certain region a circle can be put, say of radius ro, such
that for all points z of the region which are interior to this circle,
for which, that is, |«-r»|<ro, a certain property holds. Assuming
that to u is given the value which is the upper limit for z* of the
possible values, we may call the points |s— r©|<r<>, the neighbour*
hood belonging to or proper to so, and may speak of the property
as the property («,«*). The value of r* will in general vary with ce;
what is in most eases of importance is the question whether the
lower limit of r» for all positions is zero or greater than zero. (A)
This lower limit Is certainly greater than zero provided the property
(s,s») is of a kind which we may call extensive; such, namely, that
if it holds, for some position of s% and all posit ionsof s, within a certain
region, then the property (s.s ( ) holds within a circle of radius R
about any interior point t\ of this region for all points s for which
the circle |s— «i|-K is within the region. Also in this case r«
varies continuously with s». (B) Whether the property is of this
extensive character or not wc can prove that the region canbedivided
into a finite number of sub-regions such that, for every oneof these,
the property holds, (1) (or some point Co within or upon the boundary
of the sub-region, (2) for every point 2 within or upon the boundary
of the sub-region.
We prove these statements (A), (B) in reverse order. To prove
(B) let a region for which the property (x,3o) holds for all points c and
some point z«of the region, be called suitable: if each of the triangles
of which the region Is built up be suitable, what is desired is proved ;
if not let an unsuitable triangle be subdivided into four, as before
explained; if one of these subdivisions is unsuitable let it be again
subdivided; and so oh. Either the process terminate* and then
what is required is proved; or else wc obtain an indefinitely con-
tinued sequence of unsuitable triangles, each contained in the
preceding, which converge to a point, say f ; after a certain stage
all these will be interior to the proper region of f; this, however, is
contrary to the supposition that they are all unsuitable.
Wc now make some applications of this result (B). Suppose a
or boundary
pper limit H
* /(x.r) > H.
small « may
re is then at
Tgion within
H, however
in put about
pper limit of
? the region
of which the
ic hypothcfU
A similar statement
function /(x.y) » the
y point £•, spoken of
\) above.
. if possible, that the
it such that the lower
bout t however Miiall ;
opcr to f ; take r« so
ring extensive, holds
f|, which is greater
liminishes; this being
' r« is not zero for the
ippoacd. This pro\«
-f |, may similarly be
arbitrarily little from
is, r varies continu-
f(x,y), which has a
jion considered, to be
about every point u,
being an arbitrary real
rle is possible, so that
this circle, we have
icing any other point
We can then apply
neighbourhood proper
h, for any two points
This is clearly an
signablc, greater than
(x ./) within a circle
>iJW)-/(*.?n<*.
ere 1 is an arbitrary
i.
ctremc points arc Se, a,
►f the path, in order;
1. and let /, denote any
1 1; consider the sum
*-,)/^,.
ft bcirfc large enough,
so taken that if z»
to x, and Sr«i, wc have
This lwing so, we can
For this it is sufficient.
f one real varinltle, to
btaincd by taking new
rr ones. If, however,
' to u and Zr+i. and
:e between Z(z, # i— e,)/,
n-«r^r»)/r^-»l.
ire |/(Shi)-/(5,)|<s.
er of the polygnn fmm
b therefore arbitrarily
1. In particular whto
lat lis value Is t-u;
equally dear that its
cd immediately.
KHindary point u of a
te numbers fiu). F(?i),
may be, a real positive
turned for every point t,
atUfying the limitation
iable function of the
rcntial coefficient beinf
wis function of the real
■H
FUNCTION
variables * , *, where s#-x»-H'js, over the region; it will appear
that F(aj) b abo continuous and m fact abo a dinereatiabte function
3»3
#(*) • Jg/fo yX** for interior point* a* s, is a differentiable function
of 8, having for its differential coefficient the function /(*, j), which
is therefore also a differcntiable function of * at interior points.
(3) Hence if the series *.(x) +«,(*)+. . . to eo be uniformly con-
vergent over a region, its terms being differcntiable functions of s.
then its sum S(z) is a diffcrentiable function of s, whose differential
This theorem, unlike (1), does not hold for functions of a
real variable.
(4) If the region of definition of a diffcrentiable function fit)
include the region bounded by two concentric circles of radii r, R,
with centre at the origin, and a* be an interior point of this region,
/(*) -ttjit^H^nnJJ^* where ^ integrals arc'both counter-
clockwise round the two circumferences respectively; putting in the
first (<-*)-* - 2 *«»/<■♦», and in the second (l-ajj -1 -- ST/ai**'.
»-0
of*
Supposing * to be retained the same for all points s» of the region,
and #0 to be the upper limit of the possible values of « for the point a*
it is to be presumed that * will vary with s» and it is not obvious
as vet that the lower limit of the values of «■ as s% varies over the
region may not be zero. We can, however, show that the region . . r rS(t)dt
can be divided into a finite number of sub-regions for each of which coefficient, given by — ^ I ,._..§ , is obtainable by differentiating the
the condition (s, u). above, is satisfied for all points a, within or upon _ . . * 9tJ *■ "'
the boundary of this sub-region, for an appropriate position of a».
within or upon the boundary of this sub-region. This is proved
above as result (B).
Hence it can be proved that, for a diffcrentiable function /(s),
the integral J ,f{t)dt has the same value by whatever path within
the region we pass from % x to s. This wc prove by showing that when
taken round a closed path in the region the integral ff{t)dz vanishes.
Consider first a triangle over which the condition {z, s>) holds, for
some position of so and every position of z, within or upon the
boundary of the triangle. Then as
/«-/(*) +(«-a,)F(*)+*C*-*). whcrel*|<i.
we have
//(xMs-r/Ca.) -nf<p § )]f*+Ttofm+-Hto-*M*,
which, as the path is closed, is nfo(s-t,)dz. Now, from the theorem
that the absolute value of a sum
values of the terms, this last is
where a is the greatest side of th
A be the area of the triangle, we
a is the least angle of the triangl
<4*A/«; the integral ff(t)ds roi
is thus<4r*A/«. Now consider
as before explained, in each of w
in the triangle just taken. The ii
of the region n equal to the sum
the component triangles, and f
4avK/«, whore K is the whole area
angle of the component triang
such a division of the region into a finite number of component
triangles has been shown possible; the integral round the perimeter
of the region is thus arbitrarily small. Thus it is actually zero,
which it waa dciircd to prove. Two remarks should be added:
(t) The theorem is proved only on condition that the closed path of
integration belongs to the region at every point of which the con-
ditions are satisfied. (a) The theorem, though proved only when
the region consists of triangles, holds also when the boundary points
of the region consist of one or more closed paths, no two of which
Hence we can deduce the remarkable result that the value of /(r)
at any interior point of a region is expressible in terms of the value
of /(a) at the boundary points. For consider in the original region
the function /(s)/(s— s»), where £• is an interior point: this satisfies
the same conditions as f(s) except in the immediate neighbourhood
of a* Taking out then from the original region a small regular
polygonal region with u as centre, the theorem holds for the remain-
ing portion. Proceeding to the limit when the polygon becomes a
circle, it appears that the integral J -^"? round the boundary of
the original region is equal to the same integral taken counter-
clockwise round a small circle having a> as centre: on this circle,
however, if s-*»-rE(i0), di/(a—*>)-ul0, and/(s) differs arbitrarily
little from /(&>) if r is sufficiently small: the value of the integral
round this circle is therefore, ultimately, when r vanishes, equal to
2*1/(8,). Hence /(s.) -^/^. where this integral b round the
boundary of the original region. From this it appears that
abo round the boundary of the original region. This form shows,
however, that F(s>) is a continuous, finite, differentiable function of *•
over the whole interior of the original region.
5 5 Applications.— The previous results have manifold appli-
cations.
fi) If an infinite series of differcntiable functions of s be
uniformly convergent along a certain path lying with the region
of definition of the functions, so that S(s) -* (»)+«i (*) + ••• +
»_i(r)+R»(«). where I R„(:) |<« for all points of the path, we have
fos{t)<h-f\(s)d*+f\(*)dM+ +£»-i tods +£**{%)*<
wherein, in absolute value, J R«(s)dz<«L, if L be the length of the
path. Thus the series may be integrated, and the resulting series
is also uniformly convergent.
(a) If /(x, y) be definite, finite and continuous at every point of a
region, ami over any closed path in the region//(*. y)rfs*o, then
wefind/(s,)-^A^\whcmaA,-j^j r ^}<a taken round any
circle, centre the origin, of radius intermediate between r and R.
Particular cases arc: (■) when the region of definition of the
function includes the whole interior of the outer circle; then we
may take r-o, the coefficients A« for which n<o ad vanish, and
the function £(*) is expressed for the whole interior |s»|<K by a
power scries I A*V. In other words, about every interior point c oj
the region of definition a differentiable function of sis expressible by a
power series in 1— c; a very important result.
OS) If the region of definition, though not including the origin,
extends to within arbitrary nearness of this on all sides, and at the
same time the product **"/(:) has a finite limit when |s| diminishes
to aero, all the coefficients A. for which n<—m vanish, and we have
/C*)-A-*ar- +A_^ l y* M +...+A_is 9 - 4 +A*+A i S9...to 00.
Such a case occurs, for instance, whcn/(s) - cosec s, the number as
being unity.
5 6. Singular Points. — The region of. existence of a differentiable
function of s is an unclosed aggregate of points, each of which
is an interior point of a neighbourhood consisting wholly of
points of the aggregate, at every point of which the function it
definite and finite and possesses a unique finite differential
coefficient. Every point of the plane, not belonging to the
aggregate, which is a limiting point of points of the aggregate,
such, that Is, that points of the aggregate lie in every neighbour-
hood of this, is called a singular point of the function.
About every interior point &of the region of existence the function
may be represented by a power scries in x-sj, and the series con-
verges and ((presents the function over any circle centre at a»
which contains no singular point in its interior. This has been
!x>ve. And it can be similarly proved, putting i-l/f.
c region of existence of the function contain! all points of
for which |s|>R, then the function b rcprescntablc for
toints by a power series in s" 1 or f; in such case we say
egion of existence of the function contains the point s - 00 ,
n a"" 1 has a finite limit when Irl « 00 ; a scries in s cannot
lite for all points t for which [z|>R; for if, for M-R,
f a power series Za»z* in z is in absolute value less than M,
have I a. I <Mr~", and therefore, if M remains finite for all values
of r however great, a* —o. Thus the region of existence of a function
if it contains all finite points of the plane cannot contain the point
s - co ; such is, for instance, the case of the function cxp (3) -Zs"/*!.
Thb may be regarded aa a particular case of a well-known result
(§ 7), that the circumference of convergence of any power series
representing the function contains at least one singular point. Aa
an extreme case functions exist whose region of existence is circubr,
there being a singular point in every arc of the circumference,
however small; for instance, thb is the case for the functions repre-
sented for 1*1 < 1 by the aeries 2 **\ where m -w\ the aeries Z c*
»-0 mO
where n-ul, and the series 2 z"/(m+i)(m+2) where n-a m ,
■—1
a being a positive integer, although in the last case the series actually
converges for every point of the circle of convergence |*| - 1. If s
be a point interior to the circle of convergence of a scries representing
the function, the series may be rearranged in powers of a— a>; as a>
approaches to a singubr point of the function, lying on the circle
of convergence, the radii of convergence of these derived scries in
s— ai diminish to aero; when, however, a circle can be put about a*
not containing any singular point of the function, but containing
points outside the circle of convergence of the original series, then
the series in z— «» gives the value of the function for these external
points. If the function be supposed to be given only for the interior
of the original circle, by the original power series, the scries in i—u
converging beyond the original circle gives what b known as an
analytical continuation of the function. It appears, from what has
3 '4
FUNCTION
? derived series converges for |x— *o|<r— jsJ+D, then it can be
>wn that for points s, interior to the original circle, lying in the
nulus r-\to\<[s-to\<r-\u\ + D, the value represented by the
been proved that the value of the function at all points of its region
of existence can be obtained from its value, supposed given by a
•erics in one original circle, by a succession of such processes of
analytical continuation.
§ 7. Monogenic Functions. — This suggests an entirely different
way of formulating the fundamental parts of the theory of
functions of a complex variable, which appears to be preferable
to that so far followed here.
Starting with a convergent power series, say in powers of x, this
series canoe arranged in powers of J— a* about any point s» interior
to its circle of convergence, and the new scries converges certainly for
|*-a>|<r— M, if r be the original radius of convergence. If for
every position of u this is the greatest radius of convergence of the
derived series, then the original series represents a function existing
only within its, circle of convergence^ If for some position of u
the dei"
shown
annulus . , ., ^. _. . ... - .
derived series agrees with that represented by the original series.
If for another point xi interior to the original circle the derived series
converges for |s— si|<r— kj+E, and the two circles |s— SoJ-
r—W+D. (s— *j|— r— |st|+E have interior points common, lying
beyond | z\ «r, then it can be shown that the values represented by
these series at these common points agree. Either series then can
be used to furnish an analytical continuation of the function as
originally denned. Continuing this process of continuation as far
as possible, we arrive at the conception of the function as defined
by an aggregate of power series of which every one has points of
convergence common with some one or more others; the whole
aggregate of Doints of the plane which can be so reached constitutes
the region of existence of the function; the limiting points of this
region are the points in whose neighbourhood the derived series have
radii of convergence diminishing indefinitely to aero: these are the
singular points. The circle of convergence of any of the series has
at feast one such singular point u pon its circumference. So regarded
the function is called a monogenic function, the epithet having refer-
ence to the single origin, by one power series, of the expressions
representing the function; it is also sometimes called a monogenic
analytical function, or simply an analytical function! all that is
necessary to define it is the value of the function and of all its
differential coefficients, at some one point of the plane ; in the method
previously followed here it was necessary to suppose the function
different table at every point of its region of existence. The theory
of the integration of a monogenic function, and Cauchy's theorem,
that ff(z)dz mo over a cloved path, are at once deducible from the
corresponding results applied to a single power series for the interior
of its circle of convergence. There is another advantage belonging
to the theory of monogenic functions: the theory as originally given
here applies in the first instance only to single valued functions; a
monogenic function is by no means necessarily single valued — it may
quite well happen that starting from a particular power series,
converging over a certain circle, and applying the process of analytical
continuation over a closed path back to an interior point of this circle,
the value obtained does not agree with the initial value. The
notion of basins the theory of functions on the theory of power
series is; after Newton, largely due to Lagrange, who has some
Interesting remarks in this regard at the beginning of his Thiorie
desf suctions analytiques. He applies the idea, however, primarily
to functions of a real variable for which the expression by power
series is only of very limited validity ; for functions of a complex
variable probably the systcmatization of the theory owes most to
Weierstrass, whose use ot the word monogenic is that adopted above.
In what follows we generally suppose this point of view to be regarded
as fundamental.
§ 8. Some Elementary Properties of Single Valued Functions. —
A pole is a singular point of the function fit) which is not a
singularity of the function i{J(z); this latter function is therefore,
by the definition, capable of representation about this point,
<•, by a scries (/(x)!"" 1 — 2a«(s— so)". If herein flo is not zero wc
can hence derive a representation for/(s) as a power series about
So, contrary to the hypothesis that s is a singular point for this
function. Hence a«=o; suppose also fli-o, fli^o, . . . o._i«*o,
but a«*o. Then [/(x)] -1 - (*-x«)"l<u+a- + i(x-2o)+ • • 1. *nd
hence (s-»o)' , /(*)*tf« l +2b»(z— **)*. namely, the expression of
/(a) about s«ss contains a finite number of negative powers
of s— <o and a (finite or) infinite number of positive powers.
Thus a pole is always an isolated singularity.
The integral Jf(*)ds taken by a closed circuit about the pole not
containing any other singularity is at once seen to be 2»i'Ai, where
A| is the coefficient of (z— s») _l in the expansion of /(x) at the pole:
this coefficient has therefore a certain uniqueness, and it is called
the residue of f[t) at the pole. Considering a region in which there
are no other singularities than poles, all these being interior points.
At integral £i)K*)d* reund the boundary of this region is equal to
Ike sum of the residues at Ike included P*Us, a very important result
Any singular point of a function which is not a pole is called an
essential singularity, if it be isolated the function is capable, in the
neighbourhood of this point, of approaching arbitrarily near to any
assigned value. For, the point being isolated, the function can be
represented, in its neighbourhood, as we have proved, by a series
Z a»(x -*»)■; it thus cannot remain finite in the immediate neighbour-
hood of the point. The point b necessarily an isolated essential
singularity also of the function \f{t) — A| ~». for if this were expressible
by a power series about the point, so would also the function /(x)
be; as |/(x)— A|~* approaches infinity, so docs /(x) approach the
arbitrary value A. Similar remarks apply to the point »«■«, the
function being regarded as a function of f-x" 1 . In the neighbour-
hood of an essential singularity, which is a limiting point also of
poles, the function clearly becomes infinite. For an essential singu-
larity which is not isolated the same result does not necessarily
hold.
A single valued function is said to be an integral function
when it has no singular points except x— 00. Such is, for
instance, an integral polynomial, which has 2 <* 00 for a pole, and
the functions cxp (s) which has 2 -co as an essential singularity.
A function which has no singular points for finite values of
% other than poles is called a mcr amorphic function. If it also
have a pole at s- 00 it is a rational function; for then, if
«i, . . . a, be its finite poles, of orders m lt f* t , . . . m„ the
product (s— a{) m i . . . (x— a t ) m J(z) is an integral function with
a pole at infinity, capable therefore, for large values of s, of an
expression (x -1 )"" 2^a r (x~ 1 ) r ; tnus (s-fli)"i . • . («-o.)VW
1 2 bX remains finite for
r-0
■o, and /fc) is a rational
is capable of a form 2 bjT t but a
x-00. Therefore k+4-Vn- . .
function.
If for a single valued function F(s) every singular point in the
finite part ot the plane is isolated there can only be a finite
number of these in any finite part of the plane, ana they can be
taken to be a x , a%, «»,... with |ai]$|ds|€|a»| . . . and limit
|o.|-qo. About a, the function is expressible as Z A«(s— aj m ;
let /i(x)- Z A"(x-«0" be the sum of the negative powers in this
expansion. Assuming x-o not to be a singular point, let /#<s) be
expanded in powers of s, in the form Z C«x\ and a« be chosen so
that F,(s) -/,(s) - Z Cx" - Z Cx"is, for |x] <r.< \a.\, less in absolute
1 M«
value than the general term <• of a fore-agreed convergent series of
real positive terms. Then the series +(x) - £ F«(s) converges uni-
formly in any finite region of the plane, other than at the points a*,
and is expressible about any point by a power series, and near
a» *(x)— u(z) is expressible by a power scries in *—a- Thus
F(s) r-$(xj is an integral function. In particular when all the finite
singularities of F(s) are poles, F(s) is hereby expressed as the sum
of an integral function and a series of rational functions. The
condition (F«(x)|<t« is imposed only to render the series ZF,(s)
uniformly convergent; this condition may in particular cases be
satisfied by a series ZG,(x) where C.(x) -/.(*) - Z C-x* and *<*»
An example of the theorem is the function «• cot ■*— s" 1 for which,
taking at first only half the poles, /.(*)- i/(s— 5); in this case the
series ZF.(x) where F.(x) - (z— s)~++r l is uniformly convergent;
thus w cot «— «-*— Z [(x-*)* l +*~ , l, where *-o is excluded from
the summation, is an integral function. It can be proved that this
integral function vanishes.
Considering an integral function /(s), if there be no finite positions
' s for which this function vanishes, the function »*-'*■*
sccn to be an integral function, 4>(z), or/(«)-exp U(s)J; if however
great R may be there be only a finite number of values of x for which
fit) vanishes, say x-a,, ...«*, then it is at once seen that /(;)«=
cxp |*(s)l. (x-a,)". . .(s-tf„)X where *(x) is an integral function,
and Si, ... km are positive integers. If. however, /(•) vanish for x - a, .
a*,. . .where l«i|^|a«|3 . . . and limit la«|-», and if for simplicity
we assume that x— o is not a zero and all the zeros c t , a* ..art
of the first order, we find, by applying the preceding theorem to
the function^ 4J£>, that /(s) -exp [*»] &J(i -a/a.) exp^WI.
where +(x) is an integral function, and *»(z) is an integral polynomial
of the form *»(»)-£+^i+ . +^» The number s may be the
same for all values of m, or it may increase indefinitely with *: his
sufficient in any case to take s -«. In particular for the function
FUNCTION
3i5
*5-?. we have
rinrx
-U ('-»■*© I-
where » »o b excluded from the product Or again we haw
where C Is a constant, and r(x) b a function expressible when x is
real and positive by the integral J ffW
rhere exist interesting investigations as to the connexion of the
value of s above, the law of increase of the modulus of the integral
function /(s), and the law of increase of the coefficients in the series
f(z) >Za a s" as* increases (see the bibliography below under Integral
Functions). It can be shown, moreover, that an integral function
actually assumes every finite complex value, save, in exceptional
cases, one value at most. For instance, the function exp (s) assumes
every finite value except zero (see below under | 21, Modular
Functions).
The two theorems given above, the one, known as Mittag-
Leffier's theorem, relating to the expression as a sum of simpler
functions of a function whose singular points have the point
s-oo as their only limiting point, the other, Weierstrasss
factor theorem, giving the expression of an integral function as
a product of factors each with only one zero in the finite part of
the plane, may be respectively generalized as follows: —
I. If d, at, a*, ... be an infinite series of isolated points having
the points of the aggregate (c) as their limiting points, so that in
any neighbourhood of a point of (c) there exists an infinite number
of the points a,, 0,, . . ..and with evesy point a, there be associated
a polynomial in (s-tf.H, say f<; then there exists a single valued
function whose region of existence excludes only the points (a) and
the points (t), having in a point a, a pole whereat the expansion
consists of the terms g„ together with a power series in t-e,;
the (unction is expressible as an infinite series of terms gi-yi,
where 7. is also a rational function.
II. With a similar aggregate (a), with limiting points (e), suppose
with every point a, there is associated a positive integer r<. Then
there exists a single valued function whose region of existence
excludes only the points (c), vanishing to order r, at the point a„
but not elsewhere, expressible in the form
.5. (- S9 ^) '••»**
where with every point a. is associated a proper point c* of (0. and
*■ 1 f a«-cn \ *
nm being a properly chosen positive integer.
If it should happen that the points (c) determine a path dividing
the plane into separated regions, as, for instance, if a.-Rd-ft- 1 )
exp (iWsji), when(c) consists of the points of the circle ]s | — R, the
product expression above denote* different monogenic functions in
the different regions, not continuabk into one another.
$ o. Construction of a Monogenic Function with a given Region
of Existence— A series of isolated points interior to a given
region can be constructed in infinitely many ways whose limiting
points are the boundary points of the region, ox are boundary
points of the region of such denseness that one of them is found
in the neighbourhood of every point of the boundary, however
small. Then the application of the last enunciated theorem
gives rise to a function having no singularities in the interior of
the region, but having a singularity in a boundary point in every
small neighbourhood of every boundary point; this function
has the given region as region of existence.
S 10 Expression of a Monogenic Function by means of Rational
Functions in a given Region. — Suppose that we have a region Ro
of the plane, as previously explained, for all the interior or
boundary points of which t is finite, and let its boundary points,
consisting of one or more closed polygonal paths, no two of
which have a point in common, be called C* Further suppose
that all the points of this region, including the boundary points,
are interior points of another region R, whose boundary is
denoted by C. Let s be restricted to be within or upon the
boundary of C§; let a, ft, . . be finite points upon C or outside
R. Then when ft is near enough to a, the fraction U~ft)/(*-ft)
is arbitrarily small for all positions of s; say
|^|<..for|d-*K,;
the rational function of the complex variable I,
. AD-CEO"]-
in which n is a positive integer, is not infinite at I —a, but baa a
pole at /-ft. By taking n large enough, the value of this function,
for all position! 2 of I belonging to R*. differs as little as may be
desired from (/-a)" 1 . By taking a sum of terms such as
we can thus build a rational function differing, in value, in
R«, as little as may be desired from a given rational function
/-ZA„(/-o)-».
and differing, outside R or upon the boundary of R, from /,
in the fact that while/ is infinite at /—a, F is infinite only at
/-ft. By a succession of steps of this kind we thus have the
theorem that, given a rational function of t whose poles are
outside R or upon the boundary of R, and an arbitrary point c
outside R or upon the boundary of R, which can be reached by a
finite continuous path outside R from ail the poles of the rational
function, we can build another rational function differing in R*
arbitrarily little from the former, whose poles are all at the
point c.
Now any monogenic fu net ion /(/) whose region of definition Includes
C and the interior of R can be represented at ail points s in R« by
where the path of Integration is C This integral is the limit of a
* 2«* 1,-s
where the points f, are upon C; and the proof we have given of the
existence of the limit shows that the sum S converges to /(s) uni-
formly in regard to s, when s is in R«, so that we can suppose, when
the subdivision of C into intervals /^i -/, has been carried sufficiently
far, that
|S-/(*)|<«.
for all points s of R* where « is arbitrary and agreed upon beforehand.
The function S is, however, a rational function of t with poles upon C.
that is external to R*. We can thus find a rational function differing
arbitrarily, little from S, and therefore arbitrarily little from fit),
for all points * of R*. with poles at arbitrary positions outside R«
which can be reached by finite continuous curves lying outside R
from the points of C.
In particular, to take the simplest case, if Ce, C be simple closed
polygons, and r be apath to which C approximates by taking the
number of sides of C continually greater, we can find a rational
function differing arbitrarily little from /(c) for all points of R« whose
poles arc at one finite point c external to T. By a transformation
of the form t-c—r- 1 , with the appropriate change in the rational
function, we can suppose this point c to be at infinity, in which case
the rational function becomes a polynomial. Suppose «t, •», . . .
to be an indefinitely continued sequence of real positive numbers,
converging to zero, and P, to be the polynomial such that, within
Cte|P<f(s)l <«,; then the infinite series of polynomials
Pi(»)+|Pt(r) - P.(x)|+|P,(s) - P.WI+. . . ♦
whose sum to n terms is P.(x), converges for all finite values of s and
represcnts/(s) within C*
When C consists of a series of disconnected polygons, some of
which mav include others, and, by increasing indefinitely the number
of sides of the polygons C, the points C become the boundary points
r of a region, we can suppose the poles of the rational function,
constructed to approximate to/(z) within Rp, to be at points of F.
A series of rational functions of the form
H,W+|H,(s)-H,W|+fH,( S )-H t (s)}+. . .
then, as before, represents /(s) within R» And R« may be taken to
coincide as nearly as desired with the interior of the region bounded
by r.
5 xi. Expression of (1-s)- 1 by means of Polynomials. Appli-
cations. — We pursue the ideas just cursorily explained in some
further detail.
Let c be an arbitrary real positive quantity; putting the com-
plex variable t-t+h, enclose the points f-i, f-i+c by means
of (i.) the straight lines 1- *«, from {- 1 to {- 1 +«, (ii.) a semi-
circle convex to f-o of equation ({-l)*4V"a , » (iiy a semicircle
concave to f-o of equation ($-I-*) t •H , -a , . The quantities
c and a are to remain fixed. Take a positive Integer. r so that
^(y bless than unity, and put #- J ^. Now take
c\ m 1 +cfr t c% -1 fiefo . . . a * 1 *<";
3*6
FUNCTION
If »i. »t, ... n, be positive integers, the rational function
is finite at f-i, and has a pole of order hi at f -<i.; the rational
function
■teirih-Gsrr
is thus finite except for f-ci, where it has a pole of order *»*t;
finally, writing
*• W.-r / •
the rational function
U = (i-r)- l (i-Xi)(i-xj)"i(t-Xi)"i"» • (i-*r)»«"« • • • V-i
has a pole only at f - 1 +c , ofordcr »i»i . . . Wr.
The difference (i-f)-'-U is of the form (i-fl^P. where P, of
the form
to which there arc equalities among pi, p|, .. p* is of the form
. . „ 2pi-2piPi+rpiP!*r...;
therefore, if |r, |-|pi I, we have
lP|<Zr,+rr,n+2;r l v l + . <(l+r,)(i+r,).. (i+r*)-i;
now, so long as f is without the closed curve above described round
{■•i, f-i-fc, we have
and hence
l(i-r)-*-U|«r*l(i +**.)(i +*-)-(i+**«)V«.
(i+o"r)"iN- • -V-4-il.
Take an arbitrary real positive *, and ji, a positive number, so that
•**-! <«a, then a value of «i such that 9*i <m/(i +m) and therefore
•■i/Ci-a" 1 ) </i, and values for fin *s, • ■ . such that •**<— e^i,
«i
constructed with an arbitrary aggregate of real positive numbers
«i. «i. <»,... with aero as their limit, converges uniformly and
represents (i-a)" 1 for the whole region considered.
( 12. Expansion of a Monogenic Function in Polynomials, over a
Star Region. — Now consider any monogenic function /(c) of which
the origin U not a singular point; joining the origin to any singular
point by a straight line, let the part of this straight line, produced
beyond the singular point, lying between the singular point and s - ao ,
be regarded as a barrier in the plane, the portion of this straight lint
from the origin to the singular point being erased. Consider next
any finite region of the plane, whose boundary points constitute a
path of integration, in a sense previously explained, of which every
point is at a finite distance greater than zero from each of the barrier*
before explained; we suppose this region to be such that any line
joining the origin to a boundary point, when produced, docs not
meet the boundary again. For every point x in this region R we
can then write
*"!<-
. .o"» < — ff"r»i ; then, as I +x <«•, we have
|(-i*)-MJ|«rMexp («r*i +»,•*+»,»,*"•+
. . +*»% .
and therefore less than
u-M cxp (<r"i +•»■»+ . . . +««r»i)-i),
which is less than
«n|T>H|,
SM-5*)-]
and therefore less than «.
The rational function U, with a pole at f ■ I +c. differs therefore
from (l-f)-\ for all points outside the closed region put about
f-l t f-t+e, by a quantity numerically less than «. So long as
o remains the same, r and o will remain the same, and a less value
of « will require at most on increase of the numbers »i,iti, .... fir! but
If a be taken smaller it may be necessary to increase r, and with this
the complexity of the function U.
Now put
thereby the points f-o, I. i +c become the points s-o, I, so, the
function (i-s)~ l being given by (i -s)-*~e(c + i)" l (l-f)~ 1 -f(c+i)" 1 ;
the function U becomes a rational function of s with a pole only at
s«oo, that is, it becomes a polynomial in a, say^^-H — £, where H
is also a polynomial in s, and
rW-H-.-T-.fTV]'
the lines •- *a become the two circles expressed, if s-x-ft'y, by
the points (ir-o, ?«i-fl), (7-0, S»i+c+a) become respectively
the points (y-o, x-c(i-a)/(c+u),( i y»o. x«-c(i +t+a)/a), whose
limiting positions for a»o are respectively (>»o, x-i), (y-o,
*- -co). The circle (x+0 , +y , -c(r+i)j£ can be written
- - "ic(c+i)/a; its ordinate y. for a given value of x, can
therefore be supposed arbitrarily small by taking a sufficiently small.
We have thus proved the following result ; taking ia the plane of s
any finite region of which every interior and boundary point is at a
finite distance, however short, from the points of the real axis for
which i*3x*3 cer, we can take a quantity o, and hence, with an
arbitrary c, determine a number r; then corresponding to an arbi-
trary 4, we can determine a polynomial P* such that, for all points
interior to the region, we have
l(i-«-')-P.I<«.;
thus the scries of polynomials
Pi+(Pi-P0+(Pr-Pt)+....
•HW-/?^
where /(x) represents a monogenic branch of the function, in case it
be not everywhere single valued, and / is on the boundary of the
region. Describe now another region R, lying entirely within R,
and let x be restricted to be within R* or upon its boundary; then
for any point I on the boundary of R, the points s of the plane for
which sf" 1 is real and positive and equal to or greater than 1, being
points for which |s|»|f| or|sl>|J|, are without the region R* and
not infinitely near to its boundary points. Taking then an arbitrary
real positive « we can determine a polynomial in xf l , say P(xr*).
such that fox all points x in R. we have
|(i-xr«)-»-P(xr*)|<t;
the form of this polynomial may be taken the same for all points I
on the boundary of R, and hence, if E be a proper variable quantity
of modulus net greater than «,
|*«/(x) -Jjf{t)f>(xT*)\ . J Jj'/OE |*.LM,
where L is the length of the path of integration, the boundary of R.
and M is a real positive quantity such that upon this boundary
|r»/(i)|<M. If now
P(xr»)-*+c,xr«+. +c^x-r-
and
this gives
l/(x) - \ew+C lt l l X+...+C m tl m X»\ I SfLM/2*.
where the quantities a,, in, Mt, . . . are the coefficients in the ex-
pansion of J\x) about the origin.
If then an arbitrary finite region be constructed of the kind
explained, excluding the barriers joining the singular points of /(x)
to x-uo, it is possible, corresponding to an arbitrary real positive
number o, to determine a number m, and a polynomial Q(x), of
order m, such that for all interior points of this region
9 before, within
itn this region /(x)
can be r e p re s en ted by a
olynomials, converging uniformly: when /(x) is not a
ed function the series represents one branch of the function.
le result can be obtained without the use of CauehVs
We explain briefly the character of the proof. It a
function of /, ♦(/) be capable of expression as a power
•x about a point x, for |/-x| "J p, and for all points of this
il<i, we know that !**»>(x)|<fp-*f>!). Hence, taking
d, for any assigned positive integer ft, taking m so that
re have 0*+*)" <(l)"t we have
and therefore
where
p»s..«*i'
V-a«
Now draw barriers as before, directed from the origin, joining the
singular point of +(s) toi««, take a finite region excluding all
these barriers, let p be a quantity less than the radii of convergence
of all the power ucries developments of ?(s) about interior points of
this region, so chosen moreover that no circle of radius » with centre
at an interior point of the region includes any singular point ofofz).
let 1 be such that 1 f(z) | <g (or ali circles vl radius p whoaecenlm are
interior points of the region, and, x being any interior point of the
region, choose the positive integer n so that^ I x I< Jp; then take the
points fli-x/n, a,»2rfn, Oi-ja/n. . . . o.-x; it is supposed that
the region is so taken that, whatever x may be, all these are interior
points of the region. Then by what has been said, replacing x. 1
respectively by o and xfn, we have
FUNCTION
3*7
M<g!**»,
with
provided (n+mi+iXCIW; in fact for nW**** it is sufficient
co take ah -a 1 -; by. another application of the same inequality ,
replacing x, s respectively by a t and xfn, we have
*t-0 ^
where |0V| <*/***■■• _
provided U+w*+i)^<(«-i+«: *« take *V-£J 2^2
n<3**-«. So long as X,•^«,*» , -^ and *<*?-• w« t have
st+XiOv*-*, and we can use the previous inequality to substitute
here for #0» + V(ai). When this h done we find
*-tiMtans-
Finafly, for the remaining part of the contour, for which, with
R-«» wc «, we have s-R(cos •+»' sin •) «RE(»9), we have
-Rsinf)E(iRcosa) -exp(Rsiai)EHRottsO
-Ksina)e^fKcos4+exp(Rsin0)£(-ikcoa«i :
when n and therefore R Is very large, the limit of this contribution
to the contour integral is thus
Making » very large the result obtained for the whole contour is
£•)-?«« *-o,
+*•
where |A»|<ig/s**«i.the number* ft*,** being respectively sJ*
and **^*.
Applying then the original inequality to ♦<»>(oi) -♦**>(«, -Hr/iO,
and then using the series just obtained, we find a series for f^'Cai)-
This process being continued, we finally obtain
♦w-2. ?...?«%* & + *
Ai»0*t-0fc»-0 ^ w
where A-N«+X.+ ...+X^ K-W Xtl. .. Xj.rn.-S3* 1 , s»j-s3*«-»...^
m.-*M«|<at7a-..
By this formula +(x) is represented, with any required degree of
accuracy, by a polynomial, within the region in question: and
thence can be expressed as before by a scries of polynomials con-
verging uniformly (and absolutely) within this region.
§ 13. Application of Couch?* Theorem to the Determination of
Definite Integrals. — Some reference must be made to a method
whereby real definite integrals may frequently be evaluated by
me of the theorem of the vanishing of the integral of a function
<of a complex variable round a contour within which the function
is single valued and non singular.
We are to evaluate an integral JJ(x)ds; we form a dosed contour
of which the portion of the real axis from x-a to x-6 forms a part,
nnd consider the integral ff(t)d* round this contour, supposing
that the value of this integral can be determined along the curve
forming the completion of the contour. The contour being supposed
such that, within it,/(s) is a single valued and finite function of the
complex variable s save at a finite number of isolated interior points,
the contour integral is equal to the sum of the values of ff(t)dx taken
round these points. Two instances will suffice to explain the
method. (1) The integralj]"2£*dx y c o n v eigcnt if it be under-
stood to mean the limit when «, f, », . . . all vanish of the sum of the
integrals
/"!»-• tanx. ft^f tan x. fr*-* tanx .
a T"** Ji«r+4 "»** Jlw+t -£-**.—
Now draw a contour consisting in part of the whole of the positive
and negative real axis from x— «w to x- +«*-, where n is a positive
integer, broken by semicircles of small radius whose centres are the
points x- *fo x— *!» the contour containing also the hoes
««»*• and x — »r for values of y between o and nw tan «, where a
b a small fixed angle, the contour being completed by the portion
of a semicircle of radius nr sec a which lies in the upper halt of the
•plane and is terminated at the points x-*»»,y-sjr tan a. Round
this contour the integral J^J*** has the value rero. The contri-
butions to this contour integral arising from the semicircles of centres
-|(a«-i)r, +4(3*-i)*j supposed of the same radius, are at once
seen to have a sum which ultimately vanishes when the radius of the
.semicircles diminishes to aero. The part of the contour lying 00
the real axis gives what is meant by^J^"~^ix. The contri-
bution to the contour integral from the two straight portions at
tanfr \
where « is numerically less than unity. Now supposing « to diminish
to aero we finally obtain
X 3*
(2) For another case, to illustrate a different point, we may take the
integral
m
JIT."*
wherein a is real quantity such that o<a< 1, and the contour con-
sists of a small circle, z»rE(*9), terminated at the points x -r cos «,
y- *r sin «, where a is small, of the two lines >=• *r sin ■ for
r cos afCxtR cos fi t where R sin 0-r sin «, and finally of a large
circle s- RE (i*), terminated at the points x-R cos 0, y- *R sin 0.
We suppose a and both zero, and that the phase of s is sero for
rcosa^K^RcosAy—rsioa—Rsinl. Thenonrcos« B 2x BV Jlco8 0,
y— * sin «, the phase of s will be 2», and *•"* will be equal to
x*-* exp (m(a-l)], where x is real and positive. The two straight
portions of the contour will thus together give a contribution
tM*tH«/!»-'{£fc
It can easily be shown that if the limit of s/(s) for s-o is sero, the
integral ffMdt taken round an arc, of given angle, of a small circle
enclosing the origin is ultimately zero when the radius of the circle
diminishes to sero* and if the limft qf s/(s) for s« 00 is zero, the same
integral taken round an arc, of given angle, of a large circle whose
centre is the origin is ultimately sero when the radius of the circle
increases indefinitely: in our case with/(s)«a*-V(i-f-s), we have
z/(s) «■*•/(! +*), which, for o <a<i, dim wishes to zero both for s~o
ana for *«-». Thus, finally the limit of the contour integral when
r»o, R««» is
[l-«xp b*io)]j'"-g£ i dx.
Within the contour /fs) is angle valued, and has a pole at s- 1 ; at
this point the phase of s is * and s* -1 is exp [f*(a-i)] or - exp(ira);
this a then the residue of /(s) at s— 1 ; we thus have
that Is
[ttxp{2ria)]J^°^- x dx — aW exp (Am).
J* ^(nw+ty -«*-Myj
where i tan *r, — lexp (y)-exp (-y)l/Iexp QO+exp (-y)l. fe a real
quantity which is numerically less than unity, so that the contn-
u..^ uestion is numerically less than
in question
r
1 numerically 1
"^-^p, that is than 2..
5 14. Doubly Periodic Functions.— An excellent illustration
of the preceding principles is furnished by the theory of single
valued functions having in the finite part of the plane no
singularities but poles, which have two periods.
Before passing to this it may be convenient to make here a few
remarks as to the periodicity of (single valued) monogenic functions.
To say that /(») is periodic is to say that there exists a constant «*
such that for every point s of the interior of the region of existence
of f(s) we have/(s+«) »/(s). This involves, considering all existing
period* ««p+t*. that there exists a lower limit of p*+a* other than
zero; for otherwise all the differential coefficients of /(c) would be
zero, and /(«) a constant; we can then suppose that not both o
and 9 are numerically less than c, where «>c. Hence, If g be any
real quantity, since the range (-f, . . . g ) contains only a finite
number of intervals of length «, and there cannot be two periods
u-p+fr such that m« b Jp<0«+i)«. »••>< (f+i)«i where n, p are
integers, it follows that there is only a finite number of periods
g). Considering
multiples of one
o<X»3;i, there is
e, since there is
il and imaginary
[ X, say U U
ido*£A T <Xfcany
O. MQ and X«
istruction of Xo.
jltiples of • arc
fcnd O a period.
If beside • the functions have a period */ which is not ft real
multiple of «, consider all existing periods of the form /m»4W
wherein «, 9 are real, and of these those for which o*>*3i, oO^t;
3i8
FUNCTION
as before there is a least value for r, actually occurring in one or
more periods, say in the period U' ■>ji a w+*tM'; now take, ifjiw-rW
be a period, »-NV»+**. where N' is an integer, and o==r'<n;
thence/«#+"*' -i«+N'(0'-i^)+/i/; uke thenn-N W- NX.+X',
where N is an integer and X» is as above, and o^X'<X,. we
thus have a period NQ+N'C-f X'«+rV, and henoe a period
X'«+»V, wherein X'<X* V<i*; hence »'=o and X'-o. AH
Erriods of the form jk*+m*' are thus expressible in the form
O+N'Q', where Q, I/'are periods and N, N' arc integers. But
in fact any complex quantity, P-H'Q. and in particular any other
possible period of the function, is expressible, with /i, * real, in the
form |R*-rW; for if »-p+iV, oV-^'-HV. this requires only
P= MP +rp\ Q-pff+r*', equations which, since *>'/« is not real,
always give finite values for m and v.
It thus appears that if a single valued monogenic function of s
be periodic, either all its periods are real multiples of one of them,
and then all are of the form MQ, where Qua period and M is an
integer, or else, if the function have two periods whose ratio is not
real, then all its periods are expressible in the form NQ+N'Q\
where O, O'are periods, and N, hr are integers. In the former case,
Cutting f -2*12/0. and the function /(=)■ *(f). the function *(f)
as. like exp ({). the period 2*i. and if we take / -cxp (t) or t »X(/j
the function is a single valued function of L If then in particular/(z)
is an integral function, regarded as a function of /, it has singularities
only for l—o and l»oo, and may be expanded in the form 2 a J*.
Taking the case when the single valued monogenic function has
two periods w, «/ whose ratio b not real, we can form a network
of parallelograms covering the plane of s whose angular points are
the points c-Hw+mV, wherein c is some constant and m, m' are
all possible positive and negative integers; choosing arbitrarily
one of these parallelograms, and calling it the primary parallelogram,
all the values of which the function is at all capable occur for points
of this primary parallelogram, any point, a*, of the plane being,
as it is called, congruent to a definite point, x, of the primary parallelo-
gram, s*-s being of the form nu*+m'<S, where m, m' are integers.
Such a function cannot be an integral function, since then, if, in the
primary parallelogram |/(s)| <M, it would also be the case, on a circle
of centre the origin and radius R, that |/(t)|<M, and therefore, if
ZttaS* be the expansion of the function, which is valid for an integral
function for all finite values of a, we should have |«»|< MR"*, which
can be made arbitrarily small by taking R large enough. The
function must then have singularities for finite values of s.
We consider only functions for which these are poles. Of these
there cannot be an infinite number in the primary parallelogram,
since the* those of these poles which are sufficiently near to one
of the necessarily existing limiting points of the poles would be
arbitrarily near to one another, contrary to the character of a pole.
Supposing the constant c used in naming the comers of the parallelo-
grams so chosen that no pole falls on the perimeter of a parallelogram,
it is dear that the integral ^JfW* round the perimeter of the
primary parallelogram vanishes; for the elements of the integral
corresponding to two such opposite perimeter (points as s, i-f-«
(or as 2, *+<*) are mutually destructive. This integral is, however,
equal to the sum of the residues of /(«) at the poles interior to the
parallelogram. Which sum is therefore zero. There cannot there-
lore be such a function having only one pole of the first order in
any parallelogram ; we shall see that there can be such a function
with two poles only in any parallelogram, each of the first order,
with residues whose sum is zero, and that there can be such a function
with one pole of the second order, having an expansion near this pole
of the form (*-<»)"■+ (power series in s-a).
Considering next the function +(s) ■ a i/(*)]~ 1 ~2s* it is easily seen
tary point of 4(s), that a
d of which /(s) has a form.
pole of +(s) of residue m,
jle of *(a) of residue -n;
. We thus infer, since the
for the function /(s). the
belonging to one parallelo-
i of its poles, Z«; which is
wr of its zeros is equal to
theorem to the function
we have the result, that
Dne of the parallelograms
as many times as it becomes infinite. Thus, by what is proved above,
every conceivable complex value does arise as a value lor the doubly
periodic function/^) in any one of its parallelograms, and in fact
at least twice. The number of times it arises u called the order of the
function; the result suggests a property of rational functions.
Consider further the integral /*$,)*. where /(«)-^. taken
round the perimeter of the primary parallelogram; the contribution
to this arising from two opposite perimeter points such as z and s-f*v
is of the iorm-^jy^ds, which, aa t increases from s» to *+«'. gives,
ized logarithm. ~»|X(f(£,+</))-X[/(s»)]|. that
, gwes 2*iNo>. where N is an integer; similarly
it ion along the other two opposite sides is of
re N' is an integer. The integral, however,
e sum of the residues of zf(s)!fW at the poles
gram. For a zero, of order m, olrts) at t-a.
» sum is 2*ima, for a pole of order n at x«6
nb', we thus infer that Zma-Tnb ■ N«+NV;
is by saying that the sum of the values of s
ny parallelogram is equal to the sum of the
>x save for integral multiples of the periods,
y the function /(s>-A where A is an arbitrary
it each of these sums is equal to the sum of
the function takes the value A in the paral-
be construction of a function having two
y of unreal ratio, which has a single pole
any one of its parallelograms.
t the network of parallelograms whose corners
i+»V, where m, m' cake all positive and
i, putting a small circle about each corner
be a point outside all these circles; this will
ogram whose corners in order may be denoted
*#+«'; we shall denote z% *•+« by A* B»;
is surrounded by eight other parallelograms,
gcr parallelogram Di, of which one side, for
points «•-«-«', *»-</, z»— w'+«, z»-*#'-r-2«,
by Ai, B|, Ci, D t . This parallelogram n ( is
of the original parallelograms, forming with
lelogram Il» of which one side, for instance,
St— 2«— 2«', Sjr*> — 2«', So— 2w', Z»+«— 2«',
/, which we shall denote by A s , B\, Ct. LX
ow consider the sum of the inverse cubes of
taint P from the corners of all the original
turn will contain the terms
rs+^) + (pAi + r^ + -+PEj)+--
' terms, each infinite in number, formed in a
perpendiculars from P to the sides A*B*.
and so on, be p, p+q, p+2q and so on, the
1 to
. S ■ . an-f-I ,
|i "(P+2fl) , " t ** ' * ~*~&+n~q)> + ' ' *
rm is ultimately, when n is large, in a ratio of
o that the scries So is convergent, as we know
this assumes that pfo; ft P be on AsB,
mergence of So-i/PAg is the same. Taking
inalogoos to So we thus reach the result that
♦(s)--aZ(s-fi)-»,
nd m, m' are to take all positive and negative
any point outside small circles described with
i, is absolutely convergent. Its sum is therefore
Icr of its terms. By the nature of the proof,
itions of s outside the small circles spoken of.
ly uniformly convergent outside these circles.
l>erng a monogenic function of s, the series may
ited and integrated outside these circles, and
ic function. It is clearly periodic with the
+«) is the same sum as *(e) with the terms
der. Thus ♦(*+«) - *(s) and ♦(*+«#') -♦(!).
ration
*HKC {♦»+!«}**,
4 integration, the area of uniform convergence
ints-o; this gives
(eluding the term for which R"0 and ar'-a
id /(s-r-«>/(s; arc botn independent of s.
it. by its form, /(s) is an even function of s,
i— -W respectively, we infer that also J\z)
and •/. In the primary parallelogram n*
ifinite at z=o in the neighbourhood of which
form *-*+ (power series in s). Thus /(*) is
function an was to be constructed, having in
eriods only one pole, of the second order.
at any single valued meromorphic function
periods can be expressed rationally in terms
hat [$(«)!« is of the form *{/{*)}+ A/(i)+B,
ints.
FUNCTION 319
To prove the last of these results, we write, for |*j <\Ql
1 1 as ,*■* .
and hence, if 2'Q-** - »., since Z'ir<»»-« - o, we have, for sufficiently
•mall s greater than aero,
/(*)-r«+3*.*+5*i.»M-.-
and
♦(1)— jjt»+6*,.«+20», »»+... ;
using these aeries we find that the function
F(s) -l*(*)P-4l/«l , +6onr«+i40n
contains no negative powers of s, being equal to a power series in s*
beginning with a term in a". The function F(s) is, however, doubly
periodic, with periods «, •/, and can only be infinite when either
/(«) or *(*) i» infinite; this follows from its form in/(») and *(*);
thus ia one parallelogram of periods it can be infinite only when
s-o; we have proved, however, that it is not infinite, but, on the
contrary, vanishes, when s-o. Being, therefore, never infinite for
finite values of a it is a constant, and therefore necessarily always
cero. Patting therefore /(s)-f and +(') -df/4s we see that
Historically it was in the discussion of integrals such as
J«f(4t»-6of».r-i4Cvi)-*.
regarded as a branch of Integral Calculus, that the doubly periodic
functions arose, As in the familiar case
-£'<•-«-»<&
where f-sin s, it has proved finally to be simpler to regard f as a
function of a. We shall come to the other point of view below,
under % 30, EMiptic Integrals.
To prove that any doubly periodic function F(i) with periods
w, «', having poles at the points s « 4, ... s-o» of a parallelo-
gram, these being, for simplicity of explanation, supposed to be
all of the first order, is rationally expressible in terms of 4(<)
and fix), and we proceed a? follows:—
Consider the expression
♦00-; .ft.'U-Hfr'y ■ -
* w (r-Ai)(f-AJ ..(r-A«)
where A.-/C*.). i
(M)-(M)— i.de
m and s*-a, so
entering, constant
of
Tt
be.
inc
a I
pr<
re|
s-
inl ncients in the num
tal he first order in ea
m points —ft, — «t, . . . —a*; that is, if 4(a«)— B* and
v>(-o«) — B n so that we have the m relations
(A.,1),.- B.(A,,i)_i-o;
then the function •(*) will only have the m poles ft, . . . ft.. De-
noting further the m zeros of F(i) by a/, . . . ft,', putting /(a/) —A/,
*(a/) - B/, suppose the coefficients of the numerator of v(s) to
satisfy the farther nt-i conditions
(V.i).+B/CA.',i)m-o
for j-i, 2, . . . (m-i). The ratios of the am coefficients in the
numerator of *(s) can always be chosen so that the ss-Ksv-l) linear
conditions are all satisfied. Consider then the ratio
FW/#d):
it is a doubly periodic function with no singularity other than the
one pole ft/. It is therefore a constant, the numerator of *(s)
vanishing spontaneously in a*'. We have
F(s)-A*(s),
where A is a constant; by which F(s) is expres s ed rationally in
terms of /(s) and ♦(«), as was desired.
When s-o is a pole of F(»). say of order r, the other poles, each of
the first order, being Oi. . . . a*, similar reasoning can be applied to
a function
<r-Aij 1. . . ,fr-A^-
where ft, k a.e such that the greater of ik-Tm, ?Jt+3-*m to equal
to r; the case where some of the poles 4, ... a* are multiple is
to be met by introducing corresponding multiple factors in the de-
nominator and taking a corresponding numerator. We give a
solution of the general problem below, of a different form.
One important application of the restth is the theorem that the
322
FUNCTION
takes each real value once as « passes along the perimeter of th<
triangle ODE, being as can be shown respectively «o , I, o, — I at O
D, H, E, and takes every complex value of imaginary part positivi
once in the interior of this triangle. This leads to
■-lifV-'H*
tt accordance with the general theory.
It can be deduced that r -/* represents the triangle OOH on tbi
upper half plane of r, and J«(i— *"*)* r epr es en ts similarly the
triangle OBD.
| 1 6. Multiple valued Functions. Algebraic Functions.— T\u
explanations and definitions of a monogenic function bilhertc
g^ven have been framed for the most part with a view to single
valued functions. But starting from a power series, say ir
s-r, which represents a single value at all points of Its circle
of convergence, suppose that, by means of a derived series in
f — e' where cf is interior to the circle of convergence, we can
continue the function beyond this, and then by means of a seriec
derived from the first derived series we can make a furthei
continuation, and so on; it may well be that when, after a
closed circuit, we again consider points in the first circle ol
convergence, the value represented may not agree with the
original value. One example is the case r, for which two values
exist for any value of *; another is the generalized logarithm
X(s), for which there is an infinite number of values. In such
Cases, as before, the region of existence of the function consists
of all points which can be reached by such continuations with
power series, and the singular points, which are the limiting
points of the point-aggregate constituting the region of existence,
are those points in whose neighbourhood the radii of convergence
of derived series have zero for limit In this description the
point s- oo does not occupy an exceptional position, a power
series in s— c being transformed to a series in i/x when s is near
enough to c by means of s— c-^i-cT')!!— (i— a~ l )]~ l , and a
series in i/* to a series in *—c, when s is near enough to c, by
■»**-* («+'-rT-
The commonest case of the occurrence of multiple valued functions
is that in which the function s satisfies an algebraic equation /Cm) «
vcess of continuation, a fact which we express by
equation /(i.r)-o defines a monogenic algebraic
leas accuracy we may say that an irreducible
/(*.*) "O determines a single monogenic function
ction of a and s. where f(sj) - o, may be considered
lood of any place (cj) by substituting therein
Q(0; the result is necessarily of the form f"H(/),
iwer series in t not vanishing for /-o and m is an
fitcger is positive, the function is said to vanish
lace; if this integer is negative, - — *, the function
r m at the place. More generally, if A be an
.and, near (c4). R(s.x)-A is of the form /-H(J).
t, we say that R(s.t) becomes m times equal to A
l(sj) is infinite of order m at the place, so also is
i be shown that the sum of the values of m at all
ng the places *-«, where R(j.x) vanishes, which
t of zeros of R(sj) on the algebraic construct, is
the sum of the values of m where R (i.*) is infinite.
ly equal to the sum of the values of m where
re express by saying that a rational function
alue (including so ) the same number of times or
struct; this number is called the ordtr of the
jmbcr of zeros of R (sj) is finite is at one* obvious.
obtainable by rational elimination of $ between
>. That the number is equal to the total number
deduced by means of a theorem which b also of
ty. Let R(s.s) be any rational function of s. s,
xl by/(i.*)»o; about any place (c4) for which
Q(0, expand the product
pick out the coefficient of r 4 . There is only a
laces of this kind. The theorem is that the sum
i of r 1 is zero. This we express by
[ R C">jj]/-.-*
for the case »«i, that is, for rational functions
in that case, about any finite point we haw
c-oo we have s~ 1 -/, and therefore <ft/dr--r*;
the theorem b that in any rational function of a,
: sum of the residues at the finite poles is equal
i/s in the expansion, in ascending powers of i/s,
>bvious result. In general, if for a finite place
struct associated with /(*,£) -o, whose neighbour-
~c+rj -d+Q(/), there be a coefficient of r* in
ill be r times the coefficient of f in R(j,s) or
amely will be the coefficient of t* in the sum of
ible from R(<f+Q(f). c+F] by replacing / by*/,
oot of unity; thus the sum of the coefficients of
r all the places which arise for x-c and the corre-
r, is equal to the coefficient of (*— r)~* in R(j|,s)+
j„,i), whore it, . . . r, are the pi values of s for a
s-c; this latter sum lR(r„ s) is. however, a
" s only. Similarly, near s— ao , for a place given
(0. or *"» -Off), the coefficient of r» in R(f jfadt
i% the coefficient of r in R[«i+Q(0. ^). that is
ive coefficient of f* in the sum of the r series
that, as before, the sum of the coefficients of
the variousplaces which arise for s»«o is equal
indent of r* in the same rational function of s,
n the corresponding theorem for rational functions
e general theorem now being proved is seen to
mi now to the rational function of $ and a,
RM dz '*
near which R(i,x) -rH(0. we have
» generalized logarithmic function, that b equal
mr l + power series in t;
for which R(s, s) - f>K(«) ; the theorem
f t dR(s.t) rfsl _
or. in words, the total number of zeros of R(s,z)
wtruct is equal to the total number of it* poles.
>re true of the function R(j, s) —A, where A ban
thus the number in question, being equal to the
R(*,x)-A, is equal also to the number of 1*
Jie algebraic construct.
+ I j^)+P*HQ«"+...+R.
FUNCTION
323
We have seen above that all tingle valued doubt
morphic functions, with the same periods, are ratk
two variables *,s connected by an equation of thi
Az+B. Taking account of the relation connecting tt
with the argument of the doubly periodic (unctions (
denoted by *), it can then easily be seen that the thee
is a generalization of the theorem proved previous!)
a doubly periodic function a definite order. There
ization of another theorem also proved above for
functions, namely, that the sum of the values of the
parallelogram of periods for which a doubly periodi
a given value is independent of that value; thii
known as Abel's Theorem, is given 1 17 below.
5 17. Integrals of Algebraic Functions.— In treai
Calculus it is proved that if R(z) denote any ra
an indefinite integral /R(z)dz can be evaluate
rational and logarithmic functions, including the
metrical functions. In generalization of this i
discovered that if i'-asM-k+c and R(v) t
function of s, t any integral /R(r,z) ds can be eva
of rational functions of s, 1 and logarithms of
the simplest case w/r~Vfeor/(azM-6*+0~*<k.
if /(*. z) -o be such a relation connecting s,%th
appropriate rational function of s and z both s anc
expressible, in virtue of /(*,*) -o in terms of
f R(i,z)dz is reducible to a fonn/H(0)d0, where
in $, and can therefore also be evaluated by ra
and logarithms of rational functions of s and t.
to inquire whether a similar theorem hold
fR(s,x)dx wherein ** is a cubic polynomial in s.
in the negative. For instance, no one of the thr
fds ftd* C d*
JT' JT> JUFcTs
can be expressed by rational and logarithms of ra
of. s and z; but it can be shown that every in
can be expressed by means of integrals of th
together with rational and logarithms of ratioi
1 and s (see below under | 20, Elliptic Integn
theorem is true when j»-quartic polynomial in
j'-A(s-fl)(«-6)(z-c)(f-rf), putting y-*(z-o)
we obtain /-cubic polynomial in x. Much les
true when the fundamental relation /(*,*) -o is
type. There exists then, however, a very gj
known as AWs Tktorcm; which may be enunci
Beside the rational function R(j, z) occurring
(R(s,z)dz, consider another rational fundi
(ai), . . . (<x») denote the places of the const
with the fundamental equation f(s,s)—o, for
equal to one value A, each taken with its pro]
and let (In), . . . (b m ) denote the places for w
where B is another value; then the sum of
. * . R(j, z) dz is equal to the sum of the coemd
expansions of the function
/:
w^Qttfi-
where X denotes the generalized logarithmic I
various places where the expansion of R(s,
negative powers of I. This fact may be obtain
the equation
[mrW RU,) s].-'- -
wherein m is a constant. (For illustrations s
§ so. Elliptic Integrals.)
§ 18. Indeterminattness of Algebraic Integral*
that the integral j *J(z)dz is independent of th<
z, holds only on the hypothesis that any two
equivalent, that is, taken together from the cot
of a region of the plane within which Jit) is
valued, besides being diffcrcntiable. Suppose
ditions fail only at a finite number of isolated p<
part of the plane. Then any path from a to
in the sense explained, to any other path togc
paths beginning and ending at the arbitrary point a each enclosing
3nc or more of the exceptional points, these closed paths being
zhosen, when f (2) is not a single valued function, so that the final
tralue of /(z) at a is equal to its initial value. It is necessary for'
the statement that this condition may be capable of being
For instance, the integral j'r+d* is liable to an additive indeter-
minateness equal to the value obtained by a doted path about s-o,
which is equal to ?W; if we put «- ( s-Uzi and consider s as a
Function of «, then we most regard this function as unaffected by
the addition of 2wi to its argument u; we know in fact f'urt
i-exp («) and is a single valued function of u, with the period art.
Or again the integral J "(1 +s f )" 1 rfs b liable to an additive indeter-
minatenesa equal to the value obtained by a closed path about
tither of the points z «**»'; thus if we put k-P(i +*•)-*<**, the
, .. .... . ^ _._._.. - - - - ' nction
igthat
s. but
ration
rircuit
Idith*
which
ay be
in its
Jshing
oatdy
the value zero, the sum
J«rV=?5l+L -(t-z«)l + J/ ttW+X TTTJI'
where, in each case, (r-**)l is real and positive; that is, it gives
n ** ■
-JsU^FJl
or 2r. Thus the additive indeterminatcness of the integral is of the
form afcr, where k is an integer, and the function s of*, which to
sin (»), has a» for period. Take now the case
m J%)
dt
VK»-a)(.-M(.-cJv,-rf)|'
1 of the
ippocing
out also
^ration,
nsisttng,
anishing
1 from •
• b.c.i,
he value
« in fact
{tit path
timateh/
the sign
ve arrive
ign; let
oops en-
al deter-
Iculating
ad 6 but
eturninf
x ■ appears
thus that the integral is subject to an additive indeterminatcness
equal to any one of the six differences such as A-B. Of these
324
FUNCTION
equation /(*, z) - o. Such an integral /KC«, s)i$ b called an Abelian
Integral.
1 29. Reversion of an Algebraic Integral. — In a limited number of
cases the equation % - J/H(s)<fe, in which H(s) ban algebraic function
of 1, defines t as a single valued function of «. Several cases of thb
have been mentioned in the previous section; from what was
previously proved under § 14, Doubly Periodic Functions, it appears
that it b necessary for this that the integral should have at most
two linearly independent additive constants of iiidetenninateness;
for instance, for an integral
«-£l(«-<0 C«-*) (•-<) (*-<o Ow) (W)tf *.
there are three such constants, of the form A-B, A-C, A-D,
which are not connected by any linear equation with integral co-
eJaaents, and * b not a single valued function of «.
§ 20. Elliptic Integrals.— An integral of the form /R(s ( «)6,
where s denotes the square root of a quartic polynomial in a,
which may reduce to a cubic polynomial, and R denotes a
rational function of 2 and s, is called an elliptic integral.
To each value of s belong two values of s. of opposite sign ; start-
ing, for some particular value of z, with a definite one of these two
values, the sign to be attached to s for any other value of s will be
determined by the path of integration fct a. When s b in the neigh-
bourhood of any finite value u for which the radical * b not aero,
(4)'
Ja, as we easily see. If then we have any elliptic integral
having algebraic infinities we can, by subtraction from it of an
appropriate sum of constant multiples of Jj, Ji, J« and their differ-
ential coefficients just written down, obtain, as the result, an integral
without algebraic infinities. But, in fact, if J, J 1 denote any two
of the three integrals Ji, J* )», there exists an equation AJ +BJ'+
C/r^- rational function of s, s, where A.B.C are properly chosen
constants. For the rational function
b at once found to become infinite for (*, *). not for (£»—*»). its
infinite part for the first point being 2j/(s— *>). and to become
infinite for s infinitely large, and one sign of * only when these are
separable, its infinite part there being as V a* or 2 V ai V s when a* - o.
It does not become infinite for any other pair (s. s) satisfying the
relation j* «/(*); thb b in accordance with the easily verified
equation
J^+sVa.-J,+J,+(arf3 +2^/7-0;
and there exists the analogous equation
Consider now the integral
r-/(£2*v*)&
Q(0 b a power series; denoting by V a* a particular square root of a«
when a# is not zero, the integral beco m es infinite for s - » for both
signs of s, the value of A being -f Va« or — Vo# according as s is
Vfe** (1 +^;*"*+ • - •) or b the negative of this; hence the integral
Ji—j ( ' j — -+V«») d* becomes infinite when s b infinite, for
the former sign of r, its infinite term being aVoW* or 2V«©-*.
but does not oecome infinite for s infinite for the other sign of s.
When o« - o the signs of r f or s « oo are not separated, being obtained
one from the other by a circuit of s about an infinitely large circle,
and the form obtained represents an integral becoming infinite as
before for *»w . its infinite part being 2^aiJr l or aVfli-V*. Similarly
rf a> be any finite value of s which is not a root of the polynomial
f{z) to which s* is equal, and h denotes a particular one of the deter-
minations of s for s •*», the integral
wherein /(s)-d/(j)/ds, becomes infinite for s— s», $— ** but not for
s«a* *«• — *>, its infinite term in the former case being the negative of
iW(*— *»). For no other finite or infinite value of s b the integral
infinite. If s-# be a root of /(s), in which case the corresponding
value of * b aero, the integral
becomes infinite for *-*, its infinite part being, if !-*-/•, equal to
— V'W"*; and this integral is not* else
of these cases, of the integrals Ji, Jt, Ja, 1
has been chosen so that when the integral i
infinity in the form /IAr , +Br l +9(f)l<ft.
so that the infinity b of algebraic kind, an
two signs distinguishable for the critical
becomes infinite for only one of these.
algebraic infinities, for finite or infinite
integral of the second kind, and it appes
can De formed with only one such inn nit
arising only for one particular, and arbiti
satisfying the equation *•«/(«), this infinil
A function having an algebraic infinity <
only for one sign of s when these signs ar
(2) «•»*>, (3) i«i, b given respectively b;
thb b at once found, to be infinite, for finite values of s, only for
(*»,*), its infinite part being log (*—*»), and f or s - «o , for one 6ign
of s only when these are separable, its infinite part being —log /.
that is — log s when <fe$o, and —log (**) when o*-o. And, if
/(*)-o, the integral
b infinite at s-*, r«o with an infinite part log/, that is log (s-*)*,
is not infinite for any other finite value of x, and is infinite like P for
s-00. An integral possessing such logarithmic infinities is said
to be of the third kind.
Hence it appears that any elliptic integral, by subtraction from
it of an appropriate sum formed with constant multiples of the
integral J« and the rational functions of the form ujj) J u
with constant multiples of integrals such as P or Pi, with constant
multiples of the integral u—JsSlz, and with rational functions,
can be reduced to an integral H becoming infinite only for*- «o,
for one sign of s only when those are separable, its infinite part being
of the form A log J, that b, A log s or A log («*). Such an integral
H ~/R(z,s)dz does not exist, however, as we at once find by writing
R(r,.j)«P(z)+jQ(x), where P(t), Q(sj arc rational functions of z,
I examining .the forms possible for these in order that the integral
ande
may have only the specified infinity. An analogous theorem holds
for rational functions of t and 1; there exists no rational function
which is finite for finite values of s and is infinite only for ««■•
for one sign of s and to the first order only; but there exists a
rational function infinite in all to the first order for each of two or
more pair* (s. 1), however they may be situated, or infinite to the
second order for an arbitrary pair (z.s) ; and any rational function
may be formed by a sum of constant multiples of functions such as
S + Sit . . s , ,
— +sVfloor rZ 3+8V<i.
and their differential coefficients.
The consideration of elliptic integrals is therefore reducible to
that of the three
../* ,./(***+*„)* p-/(j±2 + .v*)*
respectively of the first, second and third kind. Now the equation
jt-oc^-r- . . .««*(* -*)(«~*)(2-*)(*-x). by putting
y-2j(2-*)-*[<io(«-*)(*-*)(v-x)]-»
bat once reduced to the form y* -4x*—fix—fj«4(*—ei)(x—«i(x—rj),
say; and these equations enable us to express s and s rationally
in terms of x ana y. It is therefore sufficient to consider three
elliptic integrals
Of these consider the first, putting
X<«i<fr
•i ~5'
where the limits involve not only a value for x, but a definite sign
for the radical y. When x is very large, if we put *~*"»^oT l "
*''(! - 1&* - If •*•)-«. we have
«-J^(i+if J r«+„.)«ft-/+rWN-.-.
FUNCTION
325
whereby a definite power series in «, valid for sufficiently small value
of «, is found for f , and hence a definite power series for x, of the form
Let this expression be valid for o< | *| < R, and the function defined
thereby, which has a pole of the second order for « »0, be denoted
by <►<")• I n the range in question it is single valued and satisfies the
differential equation
in terms of it we can write x -*(*), y- -♦'(«). and. ♦'(«> being an
odd function, the sign attached to y in the original integral for x»oo
is immaterial. Now for any two values u, 9 in the range ia question
consider the function
it is at once seen, from the differential equation, to be such that
eF/d*«3F/dp; it is therefore a function of m+p; supposing
|«+»i<& we infer therefore, by putting »«o. that
By repetition of this equation we infer that if * a. be any argu-
ments each of which is in absolute value less than R, whose sum isalso
in absolute value less than R, then *(•* + ...+«*) is a rational
function of the 2% functions +(tt«), ♦'(«*); and hence, if |*|<R,
that
«■»-"[♦©• ♦'(
where H is some rational function of the arguments +(«/*), *'(*/«)•
In fact, however, so long as |*/»|< R, each of the functions ♦(*/*),
♦'(*/») is single valued and without singularity save for the pole at
*$»o; and a rational function of single valued functions, each of
which has no singularities other than poles in a certain region, is
also a single valued function without singularities other than poles in
this region. We infer, therefore, that the function of a expressed by
H I + h|} 1 +' (-) J is single valued and without singularities other
than poles so long as |k|<mR; it agrees with 4>(u) when |«1<R, and
hence furnishes a continuation of this function over the extended
range |«|<nR- Moreover, from the method of its derivation, it
satisfies the differential equation U»'(h)F ;*4[+(«)l a -&♦(«) — f*. This
equation has therefore one solution which is a single valued mono-
genic function with no singularities other than poles for any finite
part of the plane, having in particular for a—o, a pole of the second
order; and the method adopted for obtaining this near a=o shows
that the differential equation has no other such solution. This,
however, is not the only solution which is a single valued mero-
morphic function, all the functions 4(k+ a), wherein • is arbitrary,
being such. Taking now any range of values of m, from «-o,
and putting for any value of u, x-*»(u), y=-+'(u), so that
y«4jc*— g»x— gt, we clearly have
conversely if x» -♦(«o), y* ■ —♦'(««) and (, n be any values satisfying
while 9 is defined by
hich arc sufficiently near respectively to x* y*,
then {, • are respectively +(v) and -+'(v); for this equation leads
to an expansion for $—x in terms of p = k», and only one such ex-
pansion, and this is obtained by the same work as would be necessary
to expand ♦(») when v is near to «o; the function 4(u) can therefore
be continued by the help of this equation, from »«*©. provided
the lower limit of |(—xo| necessary for the expansions is not zero
in the neighbourhood of any value (x*,>). In fact the function $(«)
can have only a finite number of poles in any finite part of the plane
of a; each of these can be surrounded by a small circle, and in the
portion of the finite part of the plane of u which is outside these
circles, the lower limit of the radii of convergence of the expansions
of ^(*) is greater than zero; the same will therefore bcthe case
for the lower limit of the radii |{— *o| necessary for the continuations
spoken of above provided that the values of ((. a) considered do not
lead to infinitely increasing values of v; there does not exist, how-
ever, any definite point ($»,*) in the neighbourhood of which the
integral J a \ * increases indefinitely, it is only by a path of infinite
length that the integral can so increase. We infer therefore that
if U.») be any point, where »*«4{ a -f£ -fa, and* be -defined by
«- A-) dx
Jit*) y
then !**(■) and » - -*'(»). Thus this equation determines (fc »)
without ambiguity. In particular the additive indeterminatenesses
it appears that these periods are sums of integral multiples of two
which may be taken to be
these quantities cannot therefore have a real ratio, for else, being
periods of a monogenic function, they would, as we have previously
seen, be each integral multiples of another period; there would
then be a closed path for (x,y), starting from an arbitrary point
(*•,*>), other than one enclosing two of the points (4,0), (e t ,o),
(*».o), (00, 00), which leads back to the initial point (x*,ft), which is
impossible. On the whole, therefore, it appears that the function
4>(u) agrees with the function $(s) previously discussed, and the
discussion of the elliptic integrals can be continued in the manner
given under § 14, Doubly Periodic Functions.
{21. Modular Functions. — One result of the previous theory
is the remarkable fact that if
f m dx j f m dx
where y , »4(x-ei)(x-«0(*~«i)» then wc have
ft -(l»r i +ril(iw+ \)»+m'<*'l J '-[mu+nt'»r*U
and a similar equation for ea, where the summation refers to
all integer values of m and m' other than the one pair «s«o,
s*'=o. This, with similar results, has led to the consideration
of functions of the complex ratio «'/«.
It is easy to sec that the series for $(*), u~*+Zl(u +««+** V)*~
(mu+m'i* 0*1. is unaffected by replacing <•», «' by two quantities Q, 0*
equal respectively to pu+qu'. p'w+gV, where p, q, f/,q* are any.
integers for which Ptf—p'q** * 1 ; further it can be proved that all
substitutions with integer coefficients Qfpu+q*/, & -p'ot+g'u',
wherein Pq?—P'q m i, can be built up by repetitions of the two par-
ticular substitutions (Q- — */, C-w), (Q"«, tf =»«+«')• Consider
the function of the ratio u'/u expressed by
A--?(i«')/*(i«*);
it is at once seen from the properties of the function $(m) that by
the two particular substitutions referred to wc obtain the corre-
sponding substitutions for A expressed by
A'-i/A, A'-i-A;
thus, by all the integer substitutions ft = £«+««/, C»£'w+$V, in
which pq'—P'q ■ 1 , the function A can only take one of the six values
A, ilk, 1 -A. 1/(1 -A), A/(A-i), (A-O/A. which are the roots of an
equation in #,
(i-g-ft*)' (i -A-t-A*)'
•*!-•)» A»(i-A) J •
the function of r, - <*'/«. expressed by the right side, is thus
unaltered by every one of the substitutions ^ m kTtJ » wherein
P* 1\ P'' tf. arc * ntc 8 crs ha v ' n g M'—P'?"**. . If the imaginary part
», of r, wnich we may write t «p+i», is positive, the imaginary part
of r*. which is equal to *{pq , -p'q)/\(p+qp) i +q i o s ], is also positive;
suppose * to be positive: it can be shown that the upper half of the
infinite plane of the complex variable r can be divided into regions,
all bounded by arcs of circles (or straight lines), no two of these
regions overlapping, such that any substitution of the kind under
consideration, r'- (/>'+2'r)/(p+fr) leads from an arbitrary point r.
of one of these regions, to a point t* of another; taking r«p+ •'»,
one of these regions may be taken to be that for which — i<p< ),
p*+o*> 1, together with the points for which p is negative on the
curves limiting this region; then every other region is obtained
from this so-called fundamental region by one and only one of the
substitutions r * (p'+q'i)KP+QT), and hence by a definite combina-
tion of the substitutions t' ■ — l/r, r' - 1 +t. Upon the infinite half
plane of r, the function considered above.
«Cr)-A L
is a sin]
laritiesi
those fo
line ove
essentia
mental
r-p+i<
assigned
as can I
nogenic function, \
r'-0'+srr)/(A+8
my real rational va
unction z{r) can no
11 every arc of it, he
as thus only the s
»; in this fundame
ie just once, the rcl
t r' is of the form
of the integral obtained by closed circuits of the point of integration these being values of r on the boundary of the fundamental region;
are periods of the function +(«) ; by considerations advanced above like s(r) it has an essential singularity for r *p+ic, • - +« . In the
P> f- £*• 9* *re integers with pq*—p'q* ,
a similar behaviour in every other of th<
the plane into regions is analogous to
in the case of doubly periodic functions, i
case we considered only functions with
and in each of the regions the function asi
twice, at least. Putting, as another functt
it can be shown that J(r) »o for r~exp (
these! *
bkei
326
FUNCTION
s aggregate of the substitutions T'-(^'+<fV)/(£+or), wherein
p\ gf are integers with pqf-p'q-li represents a Croup; the
on J(r), unaltered by all these substitutions, is called a Modular
theory of linear differential equations it is important to consider the
inverse function t (J), this is infinitely many valued, having a cycle
of three values for circulation of J about J «o (the circuit of this
point leading to a linear substitution for r of period 3. such as
t'--(i+t)~ 1 ), having a cycle of two values about J -I (the circuit
leading to a linear substitution for r of period 2. such as r' — r _I ),
and having a cycle of infinitely many values about J -00 (the circuit
leading to a linear substitution for r which is not periodic, such as
t'-i+t). These are the only singularities for the function r(J).
Each of the functions
beside many others (see below), is a single valued function of r,
and is expressible without ambiguity in terms of the single valued
function of r,
f (r) -exp (fy Jl i {I -exp (2iwnr)l
-exp (j£) m \ <-«>• exp l(3m«+«)«Vr].
It should be remarked, however, that »(r) is not unaltered by all
the substitutions we have considered; in fact
«l(-r-')-(-»V)l*(r), ,(i+r)-exp< ^ »),(').
The
f. «•>>',
function],. ,. , _._
Function. More generally any function unaltered by all the sub-
stitutions of a group of linear substitutions of its variable is called an
Automorphic Function. A rational function, of its variable h, of this
character, is the function (i-*-f* , ) , A~*(i-*)" 9 presenting itself
incidentally above; and there arc other rational functions with a
similar property, the group of substitutions belonging to any one
of these being, what is a very curious fact, associable with that of
the rotations of one of the regular solids, about an axis through its
centre, which bring the solid into coincidence with itself. Other
automorphic functions are the double periodic functions already
discussed; these, as we have seen, enable us to solve the algebraic
equation y ,es 4**-fix-jjj (and in fact many other algebraic equa-
tions, see below, under ft 23, Geometrical Applications of Elliptic
Functions) in terms of single valued functions x- $(«). y— ty{u).
A similar utility, of a more extended kind, belongs to automorphic
functions in general; but it can be shown that such functions
necessarily have an infinite number of essential singularities except
for the simplest cases.
The modular function J(r) considered above, unaltered by the
group of linear substitutions r' **(p' +q , r)f(p+qr), where 0, q, p', of
are integers with Pqf-p'o — l, may be taken as the independent
variable x of a differential equation of the third order, of the form
*"* 3/i'V- i-«» . t-0 t J _ * t + l -y*-i
T~2\r) 2Tx^TP+"2l?" + 2*(*-i) •
where s'^ds/dx, &c, of which the dependent variable s is equal to r.
A differential equation of this form is satisfied by the quotient of
two independent integrals of the linear differential equation of the
second order satisfied by the hypcrgcometric functions. If the
solution of the differential equation for s be written s(*Ji,yjc),
we have in fact T~s[\ t J, o, J). If we introduce also the function
of r given by
we similarly have r-*(o, o, o, X); this function X is a single valued
function of r, which is also a modular function, being unaltered by a
group of integral substitutions also of the form r* m (p'+g J T)l(p+gr),
with Pqf-p'q-t, but with the restriction that p' and q are even
integers, and therefore P and q* are odd integers. m This group is
thus a subgroup of the general modular group, and is in fact of the
kind called a self -con jugate subgroup. As in the general case this
subgroup is associated with a subdivision of the plane into regions
of which any one is obtained from a particular region, called the
fundamental region, by a j. rticular one of the substitutions of the
subgroup. This fundamental region, putting r—p-r-i*. may be
taken to be that given by-i<p<i, (p-r-J) , +ff 1 >i.(p-i) , +» a >J,
and is built up of six of the regions which arose for the general
modular group associated with l(r). Within this fundamental
region, X takes every complex value just once, except the values
X«o, i,ao, which arise only at the angular points r— o,T—co,r "•-!
and the equivalent point r «■ 1 ; these angular points are essential
singularities for the function X(r). For X(r)as for J (r), the region of
existence is the upper half plane of r, there being an essential singu-
larity in every length of the real axis, however short.
If, beside the plane of r, we take a plane to represent thcvaluesof
X, the function r - s(o, o, o. X) being considered thereon, the values of
t belonging to the interior of the fundamental region of the.r-plane
considered above, will require the consideration of the whole of the
X-plane taken once with the exception of the portions of the real
axis lying between -*> and o and between 1 and +«, the two
sides of the first portion corresponding to the circumferences of the
r -plane expressed
sides of the latte
to the lines of
which X is real,
imaginary axis e
mental region, J
from those belon
making X descrit
X-o, X«i; an;
of the subgroup
from a point of
of one of the oth
{ 22. A Properly of Integral Functions deduced from the Theory
of Modular Functions. — Consider now the function exp(s),
for finite values of 2; for such values of s r exp (z) never vanishes,
and it is impossible to assign a closed circuit for s in the finite
part of the plane of s which will make the function X— exp(z)
pass through a closed succession of values in the plane of X
having X=o in its interior; the function 5(0,0.0, exp (x)],
however s vary in the finite part of the plane, will therefore never
be subjected to those linear substitutions imposed upon
*(o,o,o,X) by a circuit of X about X«o; more generally, if
<p(z) be an integral function of z, never becoming either zero or
unity for finite values of s, the function X = 0(r), however s vary
in the finite part of the plane, will never make, in the plane of X,
a circuit about cither X=*o or X-i, and f(o,o,o,X), that is
j[o,o,o,d*(s)], will be single valued for all finite values of s;
it will moreover remain finite, and be monogenic In other
words, s[o,o,o,4f(x)] is also an integral function — whose imaginary
part, moreover, by the property of j(o,o,o, X), remains positive
for all finite values of s. In that case, however, expitr[o,o,o t d*(s)]}
would also be an integral function of t with modulus less than
unity for all finite values of z. If, however, we describe a circle
of radius R in the s plane, and consider the greatest value of the
modulus of an integral function upon this circle, this certainly
increases indefinitely as R increases. We can infer therefore
that an integral function $(z) tr//icA does not vanish for any finite
value of t, takes the value unity and hence (by considering the
function A-*d»(e)) takes every other value for some definite value
of z; or, an integral function for which both the equations
0(r) = A,0(;) = B are unsatisfied by definite values of s,does not
exist, A and B being arbitrary constants.
A similar theorem can be proved in regard to the values assumed
by the function 4(*) for points 2 of modulus greater than K, however
great R may be, also with the help of modular functions. In general
terms it may be stated that it is a very exceptional thing for an
integral function not to assume every complex value an infinite
number of times.
Another application of modular functions is to prove that the
function *(a, 0, y, X) is a single valued function of r -s(o, o, o, X);
for, putting r' « (r-i')/(r +1), the values of r' which correspond to the
singular points X -o, 1 , » of i(a, fi, y, X). though infinite in number,
all lie on the circumference of the circle |r'| - 1 , within which therefore
*(«• fit y» x) is expressible in a form 2 a»r". More generally any
«-0
monogenic function of X which is single valued save for circuits of
the points X -o, 1, oo , is a single valued function of r — *(o, o, o, X).
Identifying X with the square of the modulus in Legendre's form of
the elliptical integral-, we have.r -tK'/K, where
functions such as X*. (i-X)*.[X(l-X)}*, which have only X-o, 1, m
as singular points, were expressed by Jacobi as power series in q -■#**,
and therefore, at least for a limited range of values of r, as single
valued functions of r; it follows by the theorem given that any
product of a root of X and a root of i-X is a single valued function
of r. More generally the differential equation
may be solved by expressing both the independent and d ep end ent
variables as single valued functions of a single variable r, the expres-
sion for the independent variable being x=X(r).
$23. Geometrical Applications of Elliptic Functions. — Consider
any irreducible algebraic equation rational in x,y,/(x,y)-o, of
such a form that the equation represents a ;,lane curve of older
n with i» (ft- 3) double points; taking ujion this curve s-3
arbitrary fixed points, draw through thrse and the double
points the most general curve of order #1- j; this will intersect
FUNCTION
327
fin *(*— a)— »(»— 3)— (*r— 3)«3 other points, and will contain
homogeneously at least §(«— i)n— !»(«— 3)— (»— 3) -3 arbi-
trary constants, and so will be of the formX4+Xidh+Ac4i+
... - o, wherein Xa, X«, ... are in general zero. Put now
Z-4iI<t>, »«$»/♦ and eliminate x,y between these equations and
/fay) «*o, so obtaining a rational irreducible equation F({jj) =0,
representing a further plane curve. To any point fey) of / will
then correspond a definite point (£,?) of F.
will conversely correspond only one position ucjO „ _
equations have another solution beside (x,y), then any curve
A^-f-Mi+X**i»o which passes (through the double points of /
and) through the n—2 points of / constituted by the fixed n— 3
points and a point fa.)*), wilt necessarily pass through a further
point, say (xt,j»')i and will have only one further intersection with
/; such a curve, with the n—2 assigned points, beside the double
points, of/, will be of the form j^+Mtih-r* • * - "O, where m. m* . . .
are generally sera; considering the curves y+tfj— o, for variable J,
one of these passes through a further arbitrary point of/, by choosing
I properly, and conversely an arbitrary value of i determines a single
further point of /; the co-ordinates of the points of / are thus
rational functions of a parameter t, which is itself expressible ration-
ally by the co-ordinates of the point; it can.be shown algebraically
that such a curve has not i(»— 3)* but §(*— $)»+! double points.
" "* Is
Df
F
P
of
a
:h
»;
ZY»-oX»+6X»Z+tfXZ»4-<fZ»;
by putting X equal to XX+pZ, that b, choosing a suitable line
through Y to be X-o, and choosing X properly, this is reduced to
the form
ZY»-4X»-ftXZ"-*Z»,
of which a representation is given, valid for every point, in terms of
the elliptic functions $(«),*V). by taking X-Z*K«). Y-Z*'(«).
The value of u belonging to any point b definite save for sums of
integral multiples of .the periods of the elliptic functions, being
given by
/W ZrfX-X<C
where («o ) denotes the point of inflection.
It thus appears that the co-ordinate* of any point of a plane curve.
/, of order n with £(*— 3)« double points are expressible as elliptic
functions, there being, save for periods, a definite value of the argu-
ment a belonging to every point of the curve. It can then be shown
that if a variable curve, +, of order m be drawn, passing through
the double points of the curve, the values of the argument u at the
remaining intersections of ♦ with/, have a sum which b unaffected
by variation of the coefficients of +, save for additive aggregates
ot the periods. In virtue of the birational transformation this
theorem can be deduced from the theorem that if any straight line
cut the cubic v , -4* a — g»*— f». in points (wi), («i), (u«), the sum
*i*r-*»*r-Ki is zero, or a period ; or the general theorem b a corollary
from Abel's theorem proved under | 17, Integrals of Algebraic
Functions. To prove the result directly for the cubic we remark
that the variation of one of the intersections (x,y) of the cubic
with the straight line y~*ix+n, due to a variation *m, In in m
and a, b obtained by differentiation of the equation for the three
abscissae, namely the equation
F(x) m 4** -gpr -g, - («*+*)• -o,
and b thus given by
dx.^xlm+9*
and the sura of three such fractions as that on the right for the three
root* of F(x)*»o b cero; hence «i +■*+*! b independent of the
straight line considered, if in particular thb become the inflexional
tangent each of m, «* «i vanishes, it may be remarked in passing
st xi+xt -f*a •!«'. and hence b HCyi-jO/Cxi-xi)!*; *> that we
vc another proof of the addition equation for the function %{u).
Us geometrical
the properties of
om this theorem for the cubic curve many of ii
Bperties, as for example those of its inflections, tfx
icribed polygons, of the three kinds of corresponding points, i
t theory 0/ residuation, arc at once obvious. And similar results
Id for the curve of order n with 4(a— 3)* double points.
§ 34. Integrals of Algebraic Functions in Connexion with the
uwy of Piano Curves. — The developments which have been
plained in connexion with elliptic functions may enable the
ider to appreciate the vastly more extensive theory similarly
isingfox
The alg
Tore be
ities, thi
d those
?re then
lepcndei
eredby
yr>-o;
tt order
t not v
jperly.s
linearly
ublc pot
y integi
egrals <
wtions,
id; an<
leof tb<
rd kind
; corresponding properties lor p=i are proved above.
There b, however, a difference of essential kind in regard to the
rcrsionof integrals of the first kind; if u *>JR(x,y)dx be such an
egral, it can be shown, in common with all algebraic integrab
iociated with/(x,y)« o, to have 2f> linearly independent additive
ostants of indcterminateness; the upper limit of the integral
nnot therefore, as we have shown, be a single valued function
the value of the integral. The corresponding theorem, if /R t (x,y)4r
note one of the integrals of the first kind, b that the p equations
/R.(xi,y,)dn+ . . . +/R.0r„y F )dx,-«i,
terminc the rational symmetric functions of the f> positions (xj.yi).
• (*r>?r) as single valued functions of the p variables, u u . . . Up.
is thus necessary to enter into the theory of functions of several
iependent variables: and the equation /(x.y)=o is thus not.
thb way, capable of solution by single valued functions of <
liable. That solution in fact is to be sought with the help ot
tomorphic functions, which, however, as has been remarked,
vc, for p> 1, an infinite number of essential singularities.
§ 25. Monogenic Functions of Several Independent Variables.—
monogenic function of several independent complex variables
, ... s y is to be regarded as given by an aggregate of power
ries all obtainable by continuation from any one of them in a
inner analogous to that before explained in the case of one
iependent variable. The singular points, defined as the
niting points of the range over which such continuation is
ssiblc, may either be poles, or polar points of indclermination,
essential singularities.
A pole b a point (u^, . . . «<*>) in the neighbourhood of which the
Tction b expressible as a quotient of converging power scries in
-*^. . . Up-u^i of these the denominator series D must
nish at(» ( J\ . . . sj^), since else the fraction is expressible as a
wer series and the point is not a singular point, but the numerator
ies N must not also vanish at ( u( \\ . . . w*p) t or if itdoes.it must
possible to write D-MDo, N-MNo, where M b a converging
wer series vanishing at (sj*J\ . . .w ( ^),and N« is a converging power
\es,\x\(ui'-u™,...Up—'u { y), not so vanishing. A polar point
indeteraiination b a point about which the function can be
pressed as a quotient of two converging power series, both of
ikh vanbh at the point. As in such a simple case as (Ax+By)/
t+by), about x»o, y«o, it can be proved that then the function
n be made to approach to any arbitrarily assigned value by
Jcingthe variables n Xt ...u, approach tony,. . . *r, by a proper
th. It b the necessary existence of such polar points of in-
termination, which in case p>2 are not merely isolated points,
lich renders the theory essentially more difficult than that of
ict ions of one variable. An esseotial singularity b any which
cs not come under one of the two former descriptions and includes
rf various possibilities. A point at infinity in this theory b one
- which any one of the variables «», . . . u, is indefinitely great;
m points are brought under the preceding definitions by means
328
FUNCTION
of the convention that for i/^-oo, the difference •»-
llnder^*~" , *** — •"' '"- -"* rru: - »~ : -~ so, a single val
of Mi. . » for infinite or
of the ion, to be, as ii
#«i. the variables,
having all the variable
called resiiblc by a |
convci variables; a s
functk ? variables no
other idetermination
mcron a function can
as a f i having no o
Kint mination of tl
t th
The ;ur, as explain*
the inversion of algebraic integrals of the first kind, f
mcromorphic. They must also be periodic, unaffected i
the variables «i, . . . u, arc simultaneously increased
proper constant, these being the additive constants of in<
ness for the p integrals /R,(x.y)</x arising when (x.y)mi
circuit, the same for each integral. The theory of such i
meromorphic periodic functions is simpler than that of »
functions of several variables in general, as it is sufficien
only finite values of the variables; it is the natural
the theory of doubly periodic functions previously di
can be shown to reduce, though the proof of this requires
developments of which we cannot speak, to the theorj
integral function of it «,. called the Theta Fmneh
expressible as a series of positive and negative integn
quantities exp (ci*i). cxp (c?u t ), . . . exp(r p « p ). wherein <
proper constants; for p-i this theta function is ess
same as that above given under a different form (see
Periodic Functions), the function o(u). In the case
mcromorphic functions periodic with the same two \
been shown to be rational functions of two of them cor
■ingle algebraic equation ; in the same way all meromorpl
of p variables, periodic with the same sets of simultanc
tp sets in all, can be shown to be expressible rationally
t+ 1 such periodic functions connected by a single algebr
et xi. . . . x p , y denote p-f-i such functions; then each <
derivatives dxjdu, will equally be a meromorphic fun
same periods, and so expressible rationally in terms of
thus there will exist p equations of the form
dx i **R,dui+...+RJu Pt
and hence p equations of the form
> </« l -H„.rfx,+ ...+H,„rfx„
wherein Hi, j arc rational functions of x (a . . . x„ y, thci
nectrd by a fundamental algebraic (rational) equation,say
«o. This then is the generalized form of the correspond
forp=i.
§ 26. Multiply- Per iodic Functions and the Theory oj
The theory of algebraic integrals fR(x,y)dx t whci
connected by a rational equation /(*,y)=o, has
concurrently with the theory of algebraic curves; ii
the existence of the number p invariant by all birat
formations is one result of an extensive theory in w
capable of birational correspondence are regarded as
this point of view has made possible a general the
double integral
C +dxdy
UldT
is everywhere finite; and, the most general every
integral of this form remains invariant in a birational tn
oi the surface /, the theorem being capable of gene
SP
algebraic constructs of any number of dimensions. The number of
linearly independent surfaces of order n-4, possessing the requisite
particularity in regard to the singular lines and points of the surface.
Is thus a number invariant by birational transformation, and
the equality of these numbers for two surfaces 2s a necessary con-
dition of their being capable of such transformation. The number
of surfaces of order m having the assigned particularity in regard to
the singular points and lines of the fundamental surface can be given
by a formula for a surface of given singularity; but the value of this
formula for m - 11-4 is not in all cases equal to the actual number
of surfaces of order «-a with the assigned particularity, and for a
cone (or ruled surface) is in fact negative, being the negative of the
deficiency of the plane section of the cone. Nevertheless this
of the linear system the other curves of the system define a linear
series, called the characteristic series; but even when the linear
system is complete, that is, not contained in another linear sjstcm
of the same order and higher dimension, it docs not fqllow that the
characteristic scries is complete ; it may be contained in a series whose
dimension is greater by p g -P» than its own dimension. When this
is so it can be shown that the linear system of curves is contained
in an algebraic system whose dimension is greater by £,-£«than the
dimension of the linear system. The extra P m P§-P» variable para-
meters so entering may be regarded as the independent co-ordinates
of an algebraic construct f[y,x x p ) =0; this construct has the
property that its co-ordinates are single valued meromorphic
functions of P variables, which arc periodic, possessing ip systems
of periods; the p variables arc expressible in the forms
Ui=JRx{x,y)dx t + . ... +R,(x.y)<*x„
denotes a rational function of x it . . . x. and y.
rface has correspondingly p integrals of the form
herein R, S are rational in x, y, t, which are every*
d it can be shown that it has no other such integrals.
: of view, then, the number p, ~P§~P* is, for a sur-
to the deficiency of a plane curve; another analogy
nparison of the theorems: for a plane curve of aero
exists no algebraic scries of sets of points which
of sets belonging to a linear series; for a surface for
> there exists no algebraic system of curves not
incar system.
or a plane curve of deficiency rcro, the co-ordinates
he curve arc rational functions of a single parameter,
rily the case that for a surface having ^-p«»otbe
the points are. rational functions of two parameters;
hat Pt—p*~O t but this is not sufficient. For sur-
faces, beside' the p, linearly independent surfaces of order «-4
having a definite particularity at the singularities of the surface, it fc»
useful to consider surfaces of order *(n~4), also having each ■
definite particularity at the singularities, the number of these, not
containing the original surface as component, which are' linearly
independent, is denoted by P* It can then be stated that a sufficient
condition for a surface to bf rational consists of the two conditions
p a «o, P1-0. More generally it becomes a problem to classify
surfaces according to the values of the various numbers which are
invariant under birational transformation, and to determine for
each the simplest form of surface to which it isbirationalry eourvaleaL
Thus, for example, the hypcrelliptic surface discussed by Humbert,
FUNDY, BAY OF— FUNERAL RITES
3*9
of which the co-ordinate* are m eromor p hic (unctions of two va '
of the simplest kind, with four sets of periods, is character!
P § - 1, fr « — i : or again, any surface possessing a linear sys
curves of which the order exceeds twice the deficiency of I
dividual curves diminished by two, is reducible by birational
formation to a ruled surface or is a rational surface. But I
the general statement that much progress has already been
in this direction, of great interest to the student of the the
functions, nothing further can be added here.
Bibliography. — The learner will find a lucid introduction
theory in E. Goursat, Cows d' analyse mathimatique, t. ii.
1905), or, with much greater detail, in A. R. Forsyth, The
Functions of a Complex Variable (2nd cd., Cambridge, loo
logical rigour in the more difficult theorems, he should <
W. F. Osgood, Lehrbuch der Functionentheorie, Bd. i. (Leipzig,
>9Q7); for greater precision in regard to the necessary
geometrical axioms, beside the indications attempted here, he
consult W. H. Young, The Theory of Sets of Points (Caml
1906), cha. viii.-xiii., and C. Jordan, Cours d' analyse, t. i.
1693). eh*, i., it. ; a comprehensive account of the Theory of Fm
of Real Variables is by E. W. Hobson (Cambridge, 1907).
theory regarded as based after Wcicrstrass upon the theory of
scries, there is J. Harkness and F. Morlcy, Introduction to the
of Analytic Functions (London, 1898). an elementary tr
for the theory of the convergence of scries there is also T.
Bromwich, An Introduction to the Theory of Infinite Series (L
1908); but the student should consult the collected works of
strass(Berlin. 1894 ff.), and the writings of Mittag-Lefflcr inth
volumes of the Acta mathematical earlier expositions of the
cfudint the Theory of tlie Tketa Functions (Cambridge, 189:
theta functions of one variable a standard work is C. G. J
Fundamcnta nova, &c. (Konigsbcrg, 1828); for the general
of theta functions, consult W. Wirtingcr, Untersuchungen uber
Functionen (Leipzig, 1895). For a history of thcthcory of alf
functions consult A. Brill and M. Noethcr, Die Entwicklu
Theorie der algebraischen Functionen in dlterer und neuerei
Bericht der deutschen Afathematiker-Vereinigung (1894); and
special theory of algebraic functions, K. HcnscT and G. Lam
theorie der algebraischen Function u.s.w. (Leipzig, <902)>
student will, of course, consult also Ricmann's and Weiers
Ges. Werhe. For the applications to gcomctrv in general a
portant contribution, of permanent value, is E. PicardandG.S
Theorie des fonctions olgibriques de deux variables indipen
(Paris, 1897*1906). This work contains, as Note v. t. ii. p.
valuable summary by MM. Castclnuovo and Enriques, Sur q\
risultats nouveaux dans la thiorie des surfaces olgibriques. conl
many references to the numerous memoirs to be found, for th
part, in the transactions of scientific societies and the irathei
journals of Italy.
Beside the books above enumerated there exists an unl
number of individual memoirs, often of permanent impc
and only imperfectly, or too elaborately, reproduced in the
of the volumes in which the student will find references to
The German Encyclopaedia of Mathematics, and the Royal So
Reference Catalogue of Current Scientific Literature, Pure ilathe
published yearly, should also be consulted. (H. F. ',
FUNDY, BAY OF, an inlet of the North Atlantic, sepa
New Brunswick from Nova Scotia. It is 145 m. long and
wide at the mouth, but gradually narrows towards the
where it divides into Chignecto Bay to the north, whic!
divides into Shepody Bay and Cumberland Basin (the 1
Beaubassin), and Minas Channel, leading into Minas Ba
the east and south. Off its western shore opens Passamaq
3ay, a magnificent sheet of deep water with good anch
receiving the* waters of the St Croix river and forming part of
the boundary between New Brunswick and the state of Maine
The Bay of Fundy is remarkable for the great rise and fall of
the tide, which at the head of the bay has been known to reach
6a ft. In Passamaquoddy Bay the rise and fall is about 25 ft.,
which gradually increases toward the narrow upper reaches.
At spring tides the water in the Bay of Fundy is 19 ft. higher
than it is in Bay Verte, in Northumberland Strait, only 15 m.
distant. Though the bay is deep, navigation is rendered
dangerous by the violence and rapidity of the tide, and in summer
by frequent fogs. At low tide, at such points as Moncton or
Amherst, only an expanse of red mud can be seen, and the tide
rushes in a bore or crest from 3 to 6 ft. in height. Large areas
of fertile marshes are situated at the head of the bay, and the
remains of a submerged forest show that the land has subsided
in the latest geological period at least 40 ft. The bay receives
the waters of the St Croix and St John rivers, and has numerous
harbours, of which the chief arc St Andrews (on Passamaquoddy
Bay) and St John in New Brunswick, and Dlgby and Annapolis
(on an inlet known as Annapolis Basin) in Nova Scotia. It was
first explored by the Sieur dc Monts (d. c. 1628) in 1604 and
named by him La Bayc Francaisc.
FUNERAL RITES, the ceremonies associated with different
methods of disposing of the dead. (See also Burial and Burial
Acts; Cemetery; and Cremation.) In general we have little
record, except in their tombs, of races which, in a past measured
not merely by hundreds but by thousands of years, occupied
the earth; and exploration of these often furnishes our only
due to the religions, opinions, customs, institutions and arts of
long vanished societies. In the case of the great'euhure folks
of antiquity, the Babylonians, Egyptians, Hindus, Persians,
Greeks and Romans, we have, besides their monuments, the
evidence of their literatures, and so can know nearly as much of
their rites- as we do of our own. The rites of modern savages
not only help us to interpret prehistoric monuments, but explain
peculiarities in our own rituals and in those of the culture folks
of the past of which the significance was lost or buried under
etiological myths. We must not then confine ourselvos to the
rites of a few leading races, neglecting their less fortunate
brethren who have never achieved civilization. It is better to
try to classify the rites of all races alike according as 1 hey embody
certain leading conceptions of death, certain fears, hopes, beliefs
entertained about the dead, about their future, and their relations
with she living.
The main ideas, then, underlying funeral rites may roughly be
enumerated as follows:
1. The pollution or taboo attaching to a corpse.
2. Mourn inff.
3. The continued life of the dead as evinced in the bousing and
equipment of the dead, in the furnishing of food for them, and in the
orientation and posture assigned to the body.
4. Communion with the dead in a funeral feast and otherwise.
5. Sacrifice for the dead and expiation of their sins.
6. Death witchery.
7. Protection of the dead from ghouls.
8. Fear of ghosts.
1. A dead body is unclean, and the uncleanness extends
to things and persons which touch it. Hence the Jewish law
(Num. v. 2) enacted that " whoever is unclean by the dead
shall be put outside the camp, that they defile not the camp
in the midst whereof the Lord dwells." Such persons were
unclean until the even, and might not eat of the holy things
unless they bathed their flesh in water. A high priest might on
no account " go in to any dead body " (Lev. xxi. xi). Why
a corpse is so widely tabooed is no} certain; but it is natural to
see one reason in the corruption which in warm climates soon
sets in. The common experience that where one has died
another is likely to do so may also have contributed, though, of
course, there was no scientific idea of infection. The old Persian
scriptures are full of this taboo. He who has touched a corpse is
" powerless in mind, tongue and hand " (Zend Avesla in Sacred
Books of the East, pt. i. p. 120), and the paralysis is inflicted by
the innumerable drugs or evil spirits which invest a corpse.
Fire and earth, being alike creations of the good and puze god
33°
FUNERAL RITES.
Ahuramazda, a body must not be burned or buried; and so the
ancient Persians and their descendants the Parse** build Dakmas
or " towers of silence " on hill-tops far from human habitations.
Inside these the corpses are laid on a flagged terrace which
drains into a central pit. Twice a year the bones, picked clean
by dogs and birds of prey, are Collected in the pit, and when it
is full another tower is built. In ancient times perhaps the
bodies of the magi or priests alone were exposed at such expense;
the common folk were covered with wax and laid in the earth,
the wax saving the earth from pollution. In Rome and Greece
the corpse was buried by night, lest it should pollute the sunlight ;
and a trough of water was set at the door of the house of death
that men might purify themselves when they came out, before
mixing in general society. Priests and magistrates in Rome
might not meet or look on a corpse, for they were thereby
tendered unclean and incapable of fulfilling their official duties
without undergoing troublesome rites of purification. At a
Roman funeral, when the remains had been bid in the tomb,
all present were sprinkled with lustral water from a branch of
olive or laurel called aspcrgiUum; and when they had gone
borne they were aspcrged afresh and stepped over a fire. The
house was also swept out with a broom, probably lest the ghost
of the dead should be lying about the floor. Many races, to
avoid pollution, destroy the house and property of the deceased.
Thus the Navahos pull down the hut in which he died, leaving its
ruins on the ground; but if it be an expensive hut, a shanty
Is extemporized alongside, into which the dying man is trans-
ferred before death. No one will use the limbers of a hut so
ruined. A burial custom of the Solomon Islands, noted by
R. H. Codringlon (The Melanesia™, p. 255), may be dictated
by the same scruple. There " the mourners having hung up a
dead man's arms on his house make great lamentations; all
remains afterwards untouched, the house goes to ruin, mantled,
as time goes on, with the vines of the growing yams, a picturesque
and indeed, perhaps, a touching sight; for these things are not
set up that they may in a ghostly manner accompany their
former owner." H. Oldenbcrg (Religion des Veda, p. 436) describes
how Hindus shave themselves and cut of! ihcir nails after a
death, at the same time that they wash, renew the hearth fire,
and furnish themselves with new vessels. For the hair and
nails may harbour pollution, just as the medieval Creeks believed
that evil spirits could lurk in a man's beard (Leo Allatius, Dc
opinionibus quorundam Craecorum). The dead man's body
is shorn and the nails cut for a kindred reason; for it must be
purified as much as can be before it is burned as an offering on
the pyre and before he enters on a new sphere of existence.
2. We are accustomed to regard mourning costume as primarily
an outward sign of our grief. Originally, however, the special
garb seems to have been intended to warn the general public
that persons so al tired were unclean. In ancient Rome mourners
stayed at home and avoided all feasts and amusements; laying
aside gold, purple and jewels, they wore black dresses called
lugubria or even skins. They cut neither hair nor beard, nor
lighted fire. Under the emperors women began to wear white.
On the west coast of Africa negroes wear white, on the Gold
Coast red. The Chinese wear hemp, which is cheap, for mourning
dress must as a rule be destroyed when the season of grief is
past to get rid of the taboo. Among the Aruntas of Australia
the wives of a dead man smear themselves with white pipe-clay
until the last ceremonies are finished, sometimes adding ashes —
this not to conceal themselves from the ghost (which may partly
be the aim of some mourning costumes), but to show the ghost
that they are duly sorrowing for their loss. These widows must
not talk except on their hands for a whole year. " Among the
Maoris," says Frazer (Golden Bough, i. 323), " anyone who had
handled a corpse, helped to convey it to the grave, or touched a
dead man's bones, was cut off from all intercourse and almost
all communication with mankind. He could not enter any
house, or come into contact with any person or thing, without
utterly bedevilling them. He might not even touch food with
hb hands, which had become so frightfully tabooed or unclean
at to be quite useless. Food would be set for him on the ground.
and he would then sit or kneel down, and, with his hands carefully
held behind his back, would gnaw at it as best he could." Often
a degraded outcast was kept in a village to feed mourners. Such
a taboo is strictly similar to those which surround a sacred chief
or his property, a menstruous woman or a homicide, rendering
them dangerous to themselves and to all who approach them.
3. Primitive folk cannot conceive of a man's soul surviving
apart from his body, nor of another life as differing from this,
and the dead must continue to enjoy what they had here.
Accordingly tnc Patagonians kill horses at the grave that the
dead may ride to Alhucmapu, or country of the dead. After a
year they collect a chief's bones, arrange them, tie them together
and dress them in his best garments with beads and feathers.
Then they lay him with his weapons in a square pit, round
which dead horses are placed set upright on their feet by stakes.
As late as 1781 in Pobnd F. Casimir's horse was slain and buried
with him. In the Caucasus a Christian lady's jewels are buried
with her. The Hindus used to burn a man's widow on his pyre,
because he could not do without her; and St Boniface commends
the self-sacrifice of the Wend widows who in his day burned
themselves alive on their husbands' pyres.
The tumuli met with all over the north of Europe (in the
Orkneys alone 2000 remain) arc regular houses of the dead,
models of those they occupied in life. The greater the dignity
of the deceased, the loftier was his barrow. Silbury hill is
170 ft. high; the tomb of Alyaltcs, father of Croesus, was a
fourth of a league round; the Pyramids are still the largest
buildings in existence; at Oberea in Tahiti is a barrow 267 ft.
long, 82 wide and 44 high. Some Eskimo just leave a dead
man's body in his house, and shut it up, often leaving by his
side a dog's head to guide him on his l«st journey, along with
his tools and kayak. The Sea Dyaks set a chief adrift in his war
canoe with his weapons. So in Norse story Hake " was laid
wounded on a ship with the dead men and arms; the ship was
taken out to sea and set on fire." The Viking was regularly
buried in his ship or boat under a great mound. He sailed
after death to Valhalla. In the ship was bid a stone as anchor
and the tools, clothes, weapons and treasures of the dead. The
Egyptians, whose bnd was the gift of the river Nile, equally
believed that the dead crossed over water, and fashioned the
hearse in the form of a boat. Hence perhaps was derived the
Greek myth of Charon and the Styx, and the custom, which still
survives in parts of Europe, of placing a coin in the mouth of the
dead with which to pay the ferryman. The Egyptians pbced
in the tomb books of a kind to guide the dead to the next world.
The Copts in a later age did the same, and to this custom we owe
the recovery in Egypt of much ancient literature. The Armenians
till lately buried with a priest his missal or gospel.
In Egyptian entombmentsof the XHth to the XlVth dynasties
were added above the sepulchres what Professor Petrie terms soul-
houses, viz, small models of houses furnished with couch and
table, &c, for the use of the ka or double whenever It might wish
to come above ground and partake of meats and drinks. They
recall, in point of size, the hut-urns oi the Etruscans, but the
latter had another use, for they contain incinerated remains.
Etruscan tombs, like those of Egypt and Asia Minor, were made
to resemble the dwelling-houses of the living, and furnished with
coffered ceilings, panelled walls, couches, stools, easy chairs with
footstools attached, all hewn out of the living rock (Dennis,
Cities and Cemeteries of Etruria, .vol L p. Ixjl).
Of the old Peruvian mummies in the Kircherian Museum at
Rome, several are of women with babies in their arms, whence
it is evident that a mother had her suckling buried with her;
it would console her in the next world and could hardly survive
her in thb. The practice of burying ornaments, tools and
weapons with the dead characterizes the inhumations of the
Quaternary epoch, as if in that dim and remote age death was
already regarded as the portal of another life closely resembling
this. The cups, tools, weapons, ornaments and other articles
deposited with the dead are often carefully broken or turned
upside down and inside out; for the soul or manes of objects is
liberated by such fracture or inversion and so passes into the
FUNERAL RITES
33 1
dead nun's use and possession. For the same reason where the
dead are burned, their properties are committed to the flames.
The ghost of the warrior has a ghostly sword and buckler to
fight with and a ghostly cup to drink from, and he is also nourished
by the impalpable odourand reek of the animal victims sacrificed
over his grave. Instead of valuable objects cheap images and
models are often substituted; and why not, if the mere ghosts
of the things are all that the wraith can enjoy? Thus Marco
Polo (ii. 76) describes how in the land of Kinsay (Hang-chau)
" the friends and relations make a great mourning for the
deceased, and clothe themselves in hempen garments, and follow
the corpse, playing on a variety of instruments and singing
hymns to their idols. And when they come to the burning place
they take representations of things cut out of parchment, such
as caparisoned horses, male and female slaves, camels, armour,
suits of doth of gold (and money), in great quantities, and these
things they put on the fire along with the corpse so that they
are all burned with it. And they tell you that the dead man
shall have all these slaves and animals of which the effigies are
burned, alive in flesh and blood, and the money in gold, at his
disposal in the next world; and that the instruments which
they have caused to be played at his funeral, and the idol hymns
that have been chauntcd shall also be produced again to welcome
htm in the next world." The manufacture of such paper simu-
iacra for consumption at funerals is still an important industry
in Chinese cities. The ancient Egyptians, assured that a man's
ka or double shall revivify his body, took pains to guard the
flesh from corruption, steeping the corpse in natron and stuffing
ft with spices. A body so prepared is called a mummy {q.v.) t
and the custom was already of a hoary antiquity in 3200 B.C.,
when the oldest dated mummy we have was made. The bowels,
removed in the process, were placed in jars over the corpse in the
tomb, together with writing tablets, books, musical instruments,
lie, of the dead. Cemeteries also remain full of .mummies of
crocodiles, cats, fish, cows and other sacred animals. The
Greeks settled in Egypt learned to mummify their dead, but
the custom was abhorrent to the Jews, although the Christian
belief in the resurrection of the flesh must have been formed to
a large extent under Egyptian influence. Half the superiority of
the Jewish to other ancient religions lay in this, that it prescribed
no funeral rites other than the simplest inhumation.
The dead all over the world and from remote antiquity have
been laid not anyhow in the earth, but with the feet and face
towards the region in which their future will be spent; the
Samoans and Fijians towards the far west whither their souls
have preceded them; the Guarayos with head turned eastwards
because their god Tamoi has in that quarter " his happy hunting
grounds where the dead will meet again " (Tylor, Prim. Cult.
ii. 422). The legend is that Christ was buried with His head to
the west, and the church follows the custom, more ancient than
itself, of laying the dead looking to the East, because that is
the attitude of prayer, and because at the last trump they will
hurry eastwards. So in Euscbius {Hist. Eccl. 430. ig) a martyr
explains to his pagan judge that the heavenly Jerusalem, the
fatherland of the pious, lay exactly in the east at the rising place
of the sun. Where the body is laid out straight it is difficult to
discern the presence of any other idea than that it is at rest. In
Scandinavian barrows, e.g. in the one opened at Goldhavn in
1830, the skeletons have been found seated on a low stone bench
round the wall of the grave chamber facing its opening, which
always looks south or east, never north. Here the dead were
continuing the drinking bouts they enjoyed on earth.
The Peruvians mummified their dead and placed them jointed
and huddled up with knees to chin, looking toward the sunset,
with the hands held before the face. In the oldest prehistoric
tombs along the Nile the bodies are doubled up in the same
position. It would seem as if in these and numerous other
similar cases the dead were deliberately given in their graves
the attitude of a foetus in the womb, and. as Dr Budge remarks
{Egyptian Ideas of ike Future Life, London, 1800. P ioj), " *c
nay perhaps be justified in seeing in this custom the symbol I
of a hope that, as the child is born from this position into the I
world, so might the deceased be born into the life beyond the
grave." The late Quaternary skeletons of the Men tone cave
were laid in a layer of ferrugineous earth specially laid down for
them, and have contracted a red colour therefrom. Many other
prehistoric skeletons found in Italy have a reddish colour, perhaps
for the same reason, or because, as often to-day, the bones were
stripped of flesh and painted. Ambrose relates that the skeletons
of the martyrs Gervasius and Protasius, which he found and
deposited a.d. 386 under the altar of his new basilica in Milan,
were mirae magniludinis ut prisca actas fcrcbal, and were also
coloured red. He imagined the red to be the remains of the
martyrs' blood ! Hie sanguis dantat colons indicia. Salomon
Reinach has rightly divined that what Ambrose really hit upon
was a prehistoric tomb. Red earth was probably chosen as a
medium in which to lay a corpse because demons flee from red.
Sacred trees and stones are painted red. and for the most solemn
of their rites savages bedaub themselves with red day. It is
a favourite taboo colour.
4. A feast is an essential feature of every primitive funeral,
and in the Irish " wake " it still survives. A dead man's soul
or double has to be fed at the tomb itself, perhaps to keep it
from prowling about the homes of the survivors in search of
victuals; and such food must also be supplied to the dead at
staled intervals for months or years. Many races leave a
narrow passage or tube open down to the cavity in which the
corpse lies, and through it pour down drinks for the dead.
Traces of such tubes are visible in the prehistoric tombs of the
British Isles. However, such provision of food is not properly
a funeral feast unless the survivors participate. In the Eastern
churches and in Russia the departed arc thus fed on the ninth,
twelfth and fortieth days from death. " Ye appease the shades
of the dead with wine and meals," was the charge levelled at
the Catholics by the 4th-cenlury Manichaeans, and it has hardly
ceased to be true even now after the lapse of sixteen centuries.
The funeral feast proper, however, is cither a meal of communion
with or in the dead, which accompanies interment, or a banquet
off the flesh of victims slain in atonement of the dead man's
sins. Some anthropologists sec in the common meal held at the
grave " the pledge and witness of the unity of the kin, the chief
means, if not of making, at least of repairing and renewing it." 1
The flesh provided at these banquets is occasionally that of the
dead man himself; Herodotus and Strabo in antiquity relate
this of several half-civilized races in the East and West, and a
similar story is told by Marco Polo of certain Tatars. Nor
among modern savages are funeral feasts of! the flesh of the dead
unknown, and they seem to be intended to effect and renew a
sacramental union or kinship of the living with the dead. The
Uaupes in the Amazons incinerate a corpse a month after death,
pound up the ashes, and mix them with their fermented drink.
They believe that the virtues of the dead will thus be passed on
to his survivors. The life of the tribe is kept inside the tribe
and not lost. Such cannibal sacraments, however, arc rare, and,
except in a very few cases, the evidence for them weak. The
slaying and eating of animal victims, however, at the tomb is uni-
versal and bears several meanings, separately or all at once. The
animals may be slain in order that their ghosts may accompany
the deceased in his new life. This significance we have already
dwelt upon. Or it is believed that the shade feeds upon them,
as the shades came up from Hades and lapped up out of a trench
the blood of the animals slain by Ulysses. The survivors by
eating the flesh of a victim, whose blood and soul the dead thus
consume, sacrament ally confirm the mystic tic of blood kinship
with the dead. Or lastly, the victim may be offered for the sins
of the dead. His sins are even supposed to be transferred into
it and eaicn by the priest Such expiatory sacrificcs'of animals
for the dead survive in the Christian churches of Armenia, Syria
and of the East generally. Their vicarious character is emphasized
in the prayers which accompany them, but the popular under-
standing of them probably combines all the meanings above
enumerated. It has been suggested by Robertson Smith
{Religion of Ike Semites \ 336) that the world-wide customs of
1 E. S. rlartland. Legend of Perseus (1895), ii. 278.
332
FUNERAL RITES
tearing the hair, rending the garments, and cutting and wounding
the body were originally intended to establish a life-bond between
the dead and the living. The survivors, he argues, in leaving
portions of their hair and garments, and yet more by causing
their own blood to stream over the corpse from self-inflicted
wounds, by cutting off a finger and throwing it into the grave,
leave what is eminently their own with the dead, so drawing
closer their tic with him. Conversely, many savages daub them-
selves with the blood and other effluences of their dead kinsmen,
and explain their custom by saying that in this way a portion
of the dead is incorporated in themselves. Often the survivors,
especially the widows, attach the bones or part of them to their
persons and wear them, or at least keep them in their houses.
The retention of the locks of the deceased and of parts of his
dress is equally common. There is also another side to such
customs. Having in their possession bits of the dead, and being
so far in communion with him, the survivors are surer of his
friendship. They have ensured themselves against ghosts who
are apt to be by nature envious and mischievous. But whatever
their original significance, the tearing of checks and hair and
garments and cutting with knives are mostly expressions of real
sorrow, and, as Robertson Smith remarks, of deprecation and
supplication to an angry god or spirit. It must not be supposed
that the savage or ancient man feels less than ourselves the
poignancy of loss.
6. Death-witchery has close parallels in the witch and heretic
hunts of the Christians, but, happily for us, only flourishes
to-day among savages. Sixty % of the deaths which occur in
West Africa arc, according to Miss Mary Kingslcy— a credible
witness— believed to be due to witchcraft and sorcery. The
blacks regard old age or effusion of blood as the sole legitimate
causes of death. All ordinary diseases are in their opinion due
to private magic on the part of neighbours, just as a widespread
epidemic marks the active hatred " of some great outraged nature
spirit, not of a mere human dabbler in devils." l Similarly in
Christian countries an epidemic is set down to the wrath of a God
offended by the presence of Jews, A nans and other heretics.
The duty of an African witch-doctor is to find out who bewitched
the deceased, just as it was of an inquisitor to discover the
heretic. Every African post-mortem accordingly involves the
murder of the person or persons who bewitched the dead man
and caused him to die. The death-rate by these means is nearly
doubled; but, since the use of poison against an obnoxious
neighbour is common, the right person is occasionally executed.
It is also wdl for neighbours not to quarrel, for, if they do and
One of them dies of smallpox, the other is likely to be slain as
a witch, and his lungs, liver and spleen impaled on a pole at the
entrance of the village. It is the same, case with the Australian
blacks: " no such thing as natural death is realized by the
native; a man who dies has of necessity been killed by some
other man, or perhaps even by a woman, and sooner or
later that man or woman will be attacked. In the normal
condition of the tribe every death meant the killing of another
individual."*
7. Lastly, a primitive interment guards against the double
risk of the ghost haunting the living and of ghouls or vampires
taking possession of the corpse. The tatter end is likely to be
achieved if the body is cremated, for then there is no nidus to
harbour the demon; but whether, in the remote antiquity to
which belong many barrows containing incinerated remains,
this motive worked, cannot be ascertained. The Indo-European
nee seems to have cremated at an early epoch, perhaps before
the several races of East and West separated. In Christian
funeral rites many prayers are for the protection of the body
from violation by vampires, and il would seem as if such a motive
dictated the architectural solidity of some ancient tombs.
Christian graves were for protection regularly sealed with the
cross; and the following is a characteristic prayer from the old
Armenian rite for the burial of a layman:
1 Mary Kingsley, West African Studies (1901). p. 178.
» B. S|)cnccrand F. J. Cillcn. The Native Tribes of Central Australia
(1899). P. 4*.
s man*i spirit with all saints and
And do Thou seal and guard the
who shuttcbi up the depths and
right hand ... 10 let the seal of
on this man's dwelling-place and
y servant. And let not any filthy
k him, such as assail the body and
lot the birth of the holy font, and
their graves."
A terrible and revolting picture of the superstitious belief in
ghouls which violate Christian tombs is given by Leo Allatius
(who held it) in his tract De opinionibus quorundam Craecontm
(Paris, 1646). It was probably the fear of such demonic assaults
on the dead that inspired the insanitary custom of burying the
dead under the floors of churches, and as near as possible to the
altar. In the Greek Church this practice was happily forbidden
by the code of Justinian as well as by the older law in the case of
churches consecrated with Encaenia and deposition of relics.
In the Armenian Church the same rule holds, and Ephrem Syrus
in his testament particularly forbade his body to be laid within
a church. Such prohibitions, however, are a witness to the
tendency in question.
The custom of lighting candles round a dead body and watching
at its side all night was originally due to the belief that a corpse,
like a person asleep, is specially liable to the assaults of demons.
The practice of tolling a bell at death must have bad a similar
origin, for it was a common medieval belief that the sound of a
consecrated bell drives off the demons which when a man dies
gather near in the air to waylay his fleeting soul. For a like
reason the consecrated bread of the Eucharist was often buried
with believers, and St Basil is said to have specially consecrated
a Host to be placed in his coffin.
8. Some of the rites described under the previous heads may be
really inspired by the fear of the dead haunting the living, but
it must be kept in mind that the taboo attaching to a dead body
is one thing and fear of a ghost another. A corpse is buried or
burned, or scaffolded on a tree, a lower or a house-lop, in order
to get it out of the way and shield society from the dangerous
infection of its taboo; but ghosts qui ghosts need not be feared
and a kinsman's ghost usually is not. On the contrary, it is fed
and consoled with everything it needs, is asked not to go away
but to stay, is in a thousand ways assured of the sorrow and
sympathy of the survivors. Even if the body be eaten, it is
merely to keep the soul of the deceased inside the circle of
kinsmen, and Strabo asserts that the ancient Irish and Massagetae
regarded it as a high honour to be so consumed by relatives.
In Santa Cruz in Melanesia they keep the bones for arrow heads
and store a skull in a box and set food before it " saying that
this is the man himself " (R. H. Codrington, The Melanesia™,
p. 264), or the skull and jaw bone are kept and "are
called wangtte, which are saka, hot with spiritual power, and by
means of which the help of the lio'a, the powerful ghost of the
man whose relics these arc, can be obtained " (ibid. p. *6j).
Here we have the savage analogue to Christian relics. So the
Australian natives make pointing sticks out of the small bones of
the arm, with which to bewitch enemies.
We may conclude then that in the most primitive societies,
where blood-kinship is the only social tic and root of social custom
it is the shades, not of kinsmen, but of strangers, who as such
arc enemies, that are dangerous and uncanny. In more developed
societies, however, all ghosts alike arc held to he so; and if a
ghost walks it is because its body has not been properly interred
or because its owner was a malefactor. Still, even allowing for
this, it remains true that for a friendly ghosl the proper place is
the grave and not the homes of (he living, and accordingly the
Amnios with cries of Wait! Waht with wearing of fantastic
hend-drcsscs, wild dancing and beating of the air with bands and
weapons " drive ihc spirit away from the old camp which it is
supposed to haunt," and which has been set fire to, and hunt
it at a run into the grave prepared, and there stamp it down into
the earth. " The loud shouting of the men and women shows him
that they do not wish to be frightened by him in his present
state, and that they will be angry with hrm if be does not rest."
FUNGI
333
(Spencer and Gillcn,' Native Tribes of Central Australia, p. 508).
In Mesopotamia cemeteries have been discovered where the
sepulchral jars were sel upside down, clearly by way of hindering
the ghosts from escaping into the upper world. In the Dublin
museum we see specimens of ancient Celtic tombs showing the
same peculiarity. For a like reason perhaps the name of the
dead must among the Aruntas not be uttered, nor the grave
approached, by certain classes of kinsmen. The same repugnance
to naming the dead exists all over the world, and leads survivors
who share the dead man's name to adopt another, at least for a
time. If the dead man's name was that of a plant, tree, animal
or stream, that too is changed. Here is a potent cause of linguistic
change, that also renders any historical tradition impossible.
The survivors seem to fear that the ghost will come when he
hears his name called; but it also hangs together with the taboo
which hedges round the dead as it docs kings, chieftains and
priests.
Au-rnoniTiBS.— B. Spencer and F. J
of Central Australia (London, 189?). F
History of Religion (London, 1896); E.
Perseus, vol. ii.; I. G. Frazer. The Col
L. W. Faraday, Custom and Belief
Folk-lore, vol. xvii. No. 4; E. B. Tylor.
1903); E. A. W. Budge. The Mummy (C
" Lcs Rites funeraires anx 6poquc& prel
pologu (1876); Forrcr. Ober die Totenbe
(Ausland, 1885): J. Lubbock, Origin of
and Prehistoric Times (London, 1865); L
ChrUtianorum scpulchrit," Anted. Craeca (Padua, 1709); Onaphr.
Panviniua, De ritu sepetiendi mortuos a pud veteres ChriUionos, re-
printed in Votbeding's Thesaurus (Leipzig, 1841). (F.C.C)
FUNGI (pi. of Lat. fungus, a mushroom), the botanical name
covering in the broad sense all the lower cellular Cryptogams
devoid of chlorophyll, which arise from spores, and the thallus
of which is either unicellular or composed of branched or un-
b ranched tubes or cell-filaments (hyphae) with apical growth,
or of more or less complex wefted sheets or tissue-like masses
of such (mycelium). The latter may in certain cases attain large
dimensions, and even undergo cell-divisions in their interior,
resulting in the development of true tissues. The spores, which
may be uni- or multi-cellular, are either abstricted free from
the ends of hyphae (acrogenous), or formed from segments in
their course (chlamydos pores) or from protoplasm in their interior
(endogenous). The want of chlorophyll restricts their mode of
life — which is rarely aquatic — since they arc therefore unable
to decompose the carbon dioxide of the atmosphere, and renders
them dependent on other plants or (rarely) animals for their
carbonaceous food-materials. These they obtain usually in the
form of carbohydrates from the dead remains of other organisms,
or in this or other forms from the living cells of their hosts;
in the former case they are termed saprophytes, in the latter
parasites. While some moulds (PenicQlium, Aspergillus) can
utilize almost any organic food-materials, other fungi are more
restricted in their choice — e.g. insect-parasites, horn- and
feather -destroying fungi and parasites generally. It was
formerly the custom to include with the Fungi the Schizomycetcs
or. Bacteria, and the Myxomycctes or Mycetozoa; but the
peculiar mode of growth and division, the cilia, spores and other
peculiarities of the former, and the emission of naked amoeboid
masses of protoplasm, which creep and fuse to streaming Plas-
modia, with special modes of nutrition and spore-formation of
the latter, have led to their separation as groups of organisms
independent of the true Fungi. On the other hand, lichens,
previously regarded as autonomous plants, are now known to
be dual organisms — fungi symbiotic with algae.
The number of species in 1889 was estimated by Saccardo at
about 32,000, but of these 8500 were so-called Fungi imperfecti
— i.e. forms of which we only know certain stages, such as conidia,
pyenidia, &c., and which there are reasons for regarding as merely
the corresponding stages of higher forms. Saccardo also included
about 400 species of Myxomycetes and 650 of Schizomycetcs,
Allowing for these and for the cases, undoubtedly not few,
where one and the same fungus has been described under different
names, we obtain Schroeter's estimate (in 1892) of 30,000 species.
In illustration of the very different estimates that have been
made, however, may be mentioned that of De Bary in 1872 of
1 50,000 species, and that of Cooke in 1895 of 40,000, and Massee
in 1899 of over 50,000 species, the fact being that no sufficient
data are as yet to hand for any accurate census. As regards their
geographical distribution, fungi, like flowering plants, have no
doubt their centres of origin and of dispersal; but we must not
forget that every exchange of wood, wheat, fruits, plants,
animals, or other commodities involves transmission of fungi
from one country to another; while the migrations of birds and
other animals, currents of air and water, and so forth, are particu-
larly efficacious in transmit! ing these minute organisms. Against
this, of course, it may be argued that parasitic forms can only go
where their hosts grow, as is proved to be the case by records
concerning the introduction of Puccinia mahacearum, Perono-
spora vituola, Hemileia vastalrix, &c Some fungi — e.g. moulds
and yeasts— appear to be distributed all over the earth. That
the north temperate regions appear richest in fungi may be due
only to the fact that North America and Europe have been
much more thoroughly investigated than other countries; it is
certain that the tropics arc the home of very numerous species.
Again, the accuracy of the statement that the fleshy Agaricini,
Polyporei, Pexiiae, &c, are relatively rarer in the tropics may
depend on the fact that they are more difficult to collect and
remit for identification than the abundantly recorded woody
and coriaceous forms of these regions. When we remember
that many parts of the world are practically unexplored as
regards fungi, and that new species are constantly being dis-
covered in the United States, Australia and northern Europe —
the best explored of all— it is clear that no very accurate census
of fungi can as yet be made, and no generalizations of value as
to their geographical distribution are possible.*
The existence of fossil fungi is undoubted, though very few
of the identifications can be relied on as regards species or genera.
They extend back beyond the Carboniferous, where they occur
as hyphae, &c, preserved in the fossil woods, but the best speci-
mens arc probably those in amber and in siliceous petrifactions
of more recent origin.
Organs.— Individual hyphae or their branches often exhibit
specialisations of form. In many Basidiomycctes minute branches
arise below the septa; their tips curve over the outside of the latter,
and fuse with the cell above just beyond it, forming a damp-con-
nexion. Many parasitic hyphae put out minute lateral branches,
which pierce trie cell-wall of the host and form a peg-like (Tricho*
sphaerut), sessile (Cystopus), or stalked (Hemileia), knot-like, or a
k' B
Fig. i.— 1. Peronospora parasifira (De Bary). Mycelium with
haustoria (A): a, Erysiphe; A and B, mycelium (m), with haustoria
(a). (After De Bary.)
more or lest branched (Peronospora) or coiled (Protomyces)hAuttorl\im.
In Rhitvpus certain hyphae creep horizontally on the surface of the
substratum, and then anchor their tips to it by means of a tuft of
short branches (oppreuerium), the wall* of which soften and gum
334
FUNGI
themselves to it, then another branch shoots out from the tuft and
repeats the process, like a strawberry-runner. Appressoria are
also formed by some parasitic fungi, as a minute flattening of the tip
of a very short branch (Erysiphe), or the swollen end of any hypha
which comes in contact with the surface of the host (Piptocephalis,
Syncephalts), haustoria piercing in each case the cell-wall below.
In Botrytis the appressona. assume the form of dense tassels of short
branches. In Arthrobolrys side-branches of the mycelium sling them-
selves around the host (TyUuchus) much as tendrils round a support.
Many fungi (Phallus, Agaricus, Fumago. &c) when strongly
growing: put out ribbon-like or cylindrical cords, or sheet-like
mycelial plates of numerous parallel hyphae, all growing together
equally, and fusing by anastomoses, and in this way extend long
distances in the soil, or over the surfaces of leaves, branches, Ac
These mycelial strands may be white and tender, or the outer
hyphae may be hard and black, and very often the resemblance of
the subterranean forms to a root is so marked that they arc termed
rhizomorphs. The outermost hyphae may even put forth thinner
hyphae, radiating into the soil like root-hairs, and the convergent
tips may be closely apprcssed and so divided by septa as to resemble
the root -apex of a higher plant (Armiilaria meUeaj.
ScUrotia. — Fungi, like other plants, are often found to store up
Urge quantities of reserve materials (oil, glycogen, carbohydrates,
Ac.) in special parts of their vegetative tissues, where they lie
accumulated between a period of active assimilation and one of
renewed activity, forming reserves to be consumed particularly
during the formation of large fructifications. These reserve stores
■say be packed away ,in single hyphae or in swollen cells, but the
hyphae containing them are often gathered into thick cords or
mycelial strands (Phallus, mushroom, Ac), or flattened and anasto-
mosing ribbons and plates, often containing several kinds of hyphae
(Merulius lacrymans). In other cases the strands undergo differ-
entiation into an outer layer with blackened, hardened cell-walls
and a core of ordinary hyphae, and are then termed rhixomorphs
{ArmiUaria tnellea), capable not only of extending the fungus in
the soil, like roots, but also of lying dormant, r J *"" "*""
outer casing. Such aggregations 01 hyphae lrc
the soil, like roots, but also of lying dormant, protected by the
outer casing. Such aggregations 01 hyphae frequently become
knotted up into dense masses of interwoven and closefy packed
hyphae, varying in size from that of a pin's head or a pea (Petiza,
Coprinus) to that of a man's fist pr head, and weighing 10 to 25 lb
or more (Polyporus Mylittae, P. tumulosus, Lentmus Wocrmanni,
P. Sapurema, Ac). The interwoven hyphae fuse and branch
copiously, filling up all interstices. They also undergo cutting
up by numerous septa into short cells, and these often divide again
in all planes, so that a pscudoparenchyma results, the walls of
which may be thickened and swollen internally, or hardened and
black on the exterior. In many cases the swollen cell- walls serve
as reserves, and sometimes the substance is so thickly deposited in
strata as to obliterate the lumen, and the hyphae become nodular
{Polyporus sacer, P. rhinoceros, LtnUnus Woermanni). The various
aderotia, if kept moist, give rise to the fructifications of the fungi
concerned, much as a potato tuber docs to a potato plant, and in
the same way- the reserve materials are consumed. They are
principally Polyporei, Agaricini, Pczizac; none are known among
the Pnycomycctcs, Uredincac or Usiilagincae. The functions 01
mycelial strands, rhizomorphs and sclcrotia are not only to collect
and store materials, but also to extend the fungus, and in many
cases similar strands act as organs of attack. The same functions
of storage in advance of fructification arc also exercised by the
stromata so common in Ascomycetcs.
Tissue Differentiations. — The simpler mycelia consist of hyphae
all alike and thin- walled, or merely differing in the diameter ol the
branches of various orders, or in their relations to the environment,
some plunging into the substratum like roots, others remaining on
its surface, and others (aerial hyphae) rising into the air. Such
hyphae may be multicellular, or they may consist of simple tubes
with numerous nuclei and no septa (Phycomycetes), and are then
non-cellular. . In the more complex tibsuc-bodics of higher fungi,
however, we find considerable differences in the various layers or
strands of hyphae.
Anepidermis-likc or cortical protective outer layer is very common,
and is usually characterized by the dose septation *of the densely
interwoven hyphae and the thickening and dark colour of their
outer walls (sdcrotia, Xylaria, Ac). Fibre-like hyphae with
the lumen almost obliterated by the thick walls occur in mycelial
cords (Merulius). Latex-tubes abound in the tissues of Laetarius,
Slereum, Mvcena, Fistulina, filled with white or coloured milky
fluids, and lstvanffvi has shown that similar tubes with fluid or
oily contents are widely spread in other Hymcnomvcctcs. Some-
times fatty oil or watery sap is found in swollen hypha! ends, or
such tubes contain coloured sap. Cystidia and paraphyses may be
also classed here. In Mendtns lacrymans liar tig has observed
thin-walled hypliae with large lumina, the septa of which are per-
forated like those of sieve-tubes.
a As regards its composition, the cell-wall of fungi exhibits varia-
tions of the same kind as those met with in higher plants. While
the fundamental constituent is a cellulose in many Mucorini and
other Phycomyct'tcs, in others bodies like pectose, callose, &c,
commonly occur, and Wissclingh's researches show that chitin, a
gluco-proteid common in animals, forms the main constituent in . .«...
Mited directly as such, though, like
mixed with cellulose. As in other
brines may be altered by deposits
resin, calcium oxalate, colouring
iltercd throughout, or in definite
on (Trametes, DatdaUa), or swelling
a, Cymnosporangium), while cutin-
mmon. One of the most striking
:crmcd carbonization, in which the
, hard and brittle, as if charred —
irotia. At the other extreme the
are soft and colourless, but turn
le young cell-wall is always tenuous
throughout, but in many cases
entiations, as well as the changes
trimary wall considerably. Such
id pits (e.g. Uredospores, septa of
lions, rings, &c. (capillitium fibres
), occur as in the vessels of higher
rks, pitting* and so forth are at
- are on pollen grains.
ungi, in addition to protoplasm,
ter vegetable cells, contain formed
ius kinds. Among those" directly
drops, often coloured (Uredineut)
hail us, Russula), proteid crystals
n (Polyporei). The oidia of Ery-
and the hyphae of Saprolegnicae
ntly never occurs. Invisible to- the
by reagents, are glycogen, ilucor,
ddition to these cell-contents we
fie existence of large series of .other
liydrates, organic acids, alkaloids,
be confounded with the numerous
1 anal) sis of masses of the fungus,
tanner of occurrence of such bodies,
a good show of probability that
mca in the living cell. Such are
ids (acetic, citric and a whole series
d resinous bodies, often combined
gi and lichens, and a number of
> as muscarin (Amanita), ergotin
extracted from fungi are invertasts
Jit cane-sugar ana other complex
pier sugars such as dextrose and
t starches into sugars {Aspergillus,
ellulose similarly (Botrytts, Ac):
cneral one for all enzymes which
rid other "bodies (PenicUUum, Ac.) ;
oils (Entpusa, Phycomyces, Ac);
i oxidations and changes of colour
extracted by Ruchncr from yeast.
n of sugar into alcohol and carbon-
ire formed in the protoplasm is
lyphac, which have been observed
hitinous coats of insects, artificial
x, &c. That a fungus can secrete
ling to the materials its hyphae
c extraction of diastase,
nase, malizitase, emultin,
Bourquclot, and similar
t is indicated by the wide
e utilized by Penicillium
of parasitic fungi which
Many of the coloured
Is or excreted to the out-
» used them for staining
rowing the two together.
re afforded by Cortktum
Levcillei, yellow -green;
ydigris green; and the Dematci.
i hive been regarded es devoid of
been proved to contain them, the
it years have revealed them in the
xamincd. and we are justified in
is e*«ential to the cell of a fungus
The hyphae of many contain
ci (Phycomycetes) ; those of others
h segment, or only two (Exoauus)
Even the isolated cells of the yeast
1 a rule the nuclei of the mycelium
ycomyces), but those of many asci
rendered visible. As with other
roccss of fertilization consists in the
> the ahsence of well-marked sexual
-uli.tr interest attaches to certain
' cells or in young spores of many
_ chlamydosporet, and in Urcdin—f
FUNGI
335
the" teleutospores, each contain two nuclei when young, whicl
fuse as the spores mature. In young asci a similar fusion of twt
nuclei occurs, and also in basidia, in each case the nucleus of tin
ascus or of the basidium resulting from the fusion subsequently
giving rise by division to the nuclei of the ascosporrs and basidio
spores respectively. The significance of these fusions will be dis
cussed under the various groups. Nuclear division is usuaU)
accompanied by all the essential features of karyofrincsis.,
Spores. — No agreement has ever been arrived at regarding the
consistent use of the term spore. This is apparently owing to th<
facts that too much has been attempted in the definition, and thai
differences arise according as we aim at a morphological or a physio
logical definition. Physiologically, any cell or group of celts sepa-
rated off from a hypha or unicellular fungus, and capable of itscll
growing out — germinating — to reproduce the fungus, is a spore; bul
it is evident that so wide a definition docs not exclude the ordinary
vegetative cells of sprouting fungi, such as yeasts, or small sclcrotium
like cell-aggregates of forms like Coniofhrcium. Morphologically
consideredTspores arc marked by peculiarities of form, site, colour,
place of origin, definiteness in number, mode of preparation, and so
forth, such that they can be distinguished more or less sharply from
the hyphae which produce them. The only physiological peculiarity
exhibited in common by all spores is that they germinate ana
initiate the production of a new fungus-plant. Whether a spore
results from the sexual union of two simitar gametes (zygospore)
or from the fertilization of an egg-cell by the protoplasm of a
male organ (oospore); or is developed ascxually as a motile
(zoospore) or a quiescent body cut off from a hypha (conidium) or
developed along its course (oidium or chlamydospore), or in its
protoplasm (endospore), are matters of importance which have their
uses in the classification and terminology of spores, though in many
respects they are largely of academic interest.
Klebs has attempted to divide spores into three categories as
follows: (i) kinospores, arising by relatively simple cell-divisions
and subserving rapid dissemination and propagation, e.g. zoospores,
conidia, endogonidia, stylosporcs, Ac.; (2) paulosporcs, due to
simple rearrangement of cell-contents, and subserving the persistence
of the fungus through periods of exigency, e.g. gemmae, chlamydo-
spore*. rcsting-cells, cysts, &c; (3) carposporcs, produced by a
more or less complex formative process, often in special fructifica-
tions, and subserving either or both multiplication and persistence,
e.g. zygospores, oospores, brand-spores, aecidiosporcs, ascospores,
basidiospores, Ac. Little or nothing is gained by these definitions,
however, which arc especially physiological. In practice these
various kinds of spores of fungi receive further special names in the
separate groups, and names, more-
over, which will appear, to those
unacquainted with the history,
to have been given without any
con&istency or regard to general
principles; nevertheless, for ordi-
nary purposes these names are far
more useful in most cases, owing
to their descriptive character, than
FlC. 2. — Peronospora pata-
tcrm "receptacle " sometimes
applied to these sporc-bcaring
hyphae is better replaced by spiro-
phore. The sporophore is obsolete
m,r- -, rm.~m*wwu*mm ~,~. whcn l ^c sporc-bcaring hyphae
^irn Sri'B^rSnMnSS; * K n0t *"& dist, ' nCt tVOm thC
nltea (De Bary). Comdwphore myceliumt 8m / p , c whcn the con-
with conidia. au / lucnt hyphae arc isolalcd , and
compound when the latter arc
conjoined. The chief distinctive characters of thesporogenous
hyphae arc their orientation, usually vertical; their limited apical
growth; their peculiar branching, form, colour, contents, con-
sistency; and their spore-production. According to the characters
of the last, we might theoretically divide them into conidiophorcs.
sporangiophorcs, gametophores, oidiophores, Ac. ; but since the two
latter rarely occur, and more than one kind of spore or spore-case
may occur on a sporophore, it is impossible to carry such a scheme
fully into practice.
A simple sporophore may be merely a
of which stops growing and becomes cu
formation of a septum, which then split
to fall. More generally the hypha below
again, and repeats this process several
conidium falls, and so a chain of conidia
terminates the scries (Erysipke); whei
thus formed a basipctal series, branches
again repeat this process, thus forming a
primary hypha may first swell at its ape
short peg-like branches (slerigmato) from
provided, each of which develops a simiU
(Aspergillus), and various combinations
the development of numerous varietie
sporophores of this type (BotryHs, Botryo
A second type is developed as follows:
a septum below its apex as before, and t
abstrictcd, puts out a branch at its apex, which starts as a mere
point and rapidly swells to a second conidium; this repeats the
process, and so on, so that we now have a chain of conidia developed
in acropetal succession, the oldest being below, and, as in Penicillium,
Ac, branches put forth lower down may repeat the process (Hormo-
dtndron). In all these cases we may speak of simple conidiophorea.
The simple sporophore does not necessarily terminate in conidia,
however. In Mucor, for example, the end of the primary hypha
swells into a spheroidal head (sporangium), the protoplasm of which
F1C/3.— Cyslopus candidus.
\. a, Conidia. os, Oospherc.
b, Conidiophorea. an, Antheridium.
c, Conidium emitting zoo- C. Formation of zoospores by
spores. oospores.
d, Free zoospore. s, Free zoospores. (After De
3.0£, Oogonium. Bary.)
mdergoes segmentation into more or less numerous globular masses,
rach of which secretes an enveloping cell-wall and becomes a spore
endospore), and branched systems of sporangia may arise as before
Thamnidium). Such may be termed sporangiophorcs. In Sporo*
linia the branches give rise also to short branches, which meet and
use their contents to form zygospores. In Prrtmospora, Saprolegnia,
kc, the ends of the branches swell up into sporangia, which develop
loospores in their interior (zoosporangia), or their contents become
wsphcres, which may be fertilized by the contents of other branches
anthcridia) and so fcrm egg-cases (oogonia). Since in such cases
he sporophore bears scxuaTcells, they may be conveniently termed
;a mctophores.
Compound sporophores arise when any of the branched or un-
iranched types of spore-bearing hyphae described above ascend
nfD the air in consort, and are more or less crowded into definite
ayers, cushions, columns or other complex masses. The same laws
ipply to the individual hyphae and their branches as to simple
porophorcs, and as long as the conidia, sporangia, gametes, Ac,'
ire borne on their external surfaces, it is quite consistent to speak
tf these as compound sporophores, Ac, in the sense described, how-
vcr complex they may become. Among the simplest cases are
he sheet -like aggregates of sporogenous hyphae in Puceinia, Ure-
nyees, Ac, or ofoasidia in Exobasidium, Corlicium, Ac, or of asci in
Zximseus, AscocorHcium, Ac. In the former, where the layer is small,
t is often termed a sorus, but where, as in the latter, the sporo-
;cnous layer is extensive, and spread out more or less sheet-tike on
he supporting tissues, it is more frequently termed a hymenium.
Another simple case is that of the columnar aggregates of sporo-
genous hyphae in forms like StUbum, Corcmium, Ac These lead
33&
FUNGI
ae to cases where the main mass of the sporophorc forms a supporting
tissue of closely crowded or interwoven hyphae, the sporogenous
terminal parts of the hyphae being found at the periphery or apical
regions only. Here we have the cushion-like type (stroma) of
Kccltia and many Pyrcnomycctes, the clavare receptacle of
Clavaria, &c, passing into the complex forms met with in Sparassis,
Xylaria, Polyporei, and Agaricini, Sue. In these cases the compound
sporophorc is often termed the hymenophorc, and its various parts
demand special names (pilcus, stipes, gills, pores, &c.) to denote
peculiarities of distribution of the hymenium over the surface.
Other scries of modifications arise in which the tissues correspond-
ing to the stroma invest the sporogenous hyphal ends, and thus
enclose the spore*, asci, basidia, &c, in a cavity. In the simplest
case the stroma, after bearing its crop of conidia or oidia, develops
ascogenous branches in the loosened meshes of its interior (e.g.
Onygena). Another simple case is where the plane or slightly convex
surface of the stroma rises at its margins and overgrows the sporo-
genous hyphal ends, so that the spores, asci, Ac, come to lie in the
deprcssiun of a cavity — t.g. Solenia, CypheUa — and even simpler
cates are met with in Ifortierella, where the zygospore is invested by
the overgrowth of a dense mat of closely branching hyphae, and in
Cymnoaicus, where a loose mat of similarly barren hyphae covers
in the tufts of asci as they develop.
In such examples as the above we may regard the hymenium
(SoUnia, Cyphella), zygospores, or asci as truly invested by later
growth, but in the vast majority of cases the processes which result
in the enclosure of the spores, asci, &c, in a " fructification " are
much more involved, inasmuch as the latter is developed in the
interior of hyphal tissues, which are by no means obviously homo-
logous with a stroma. Thus in Pentcillium, Eurotium, Lrysipkc,
&c, hyphal ends which are the initials of ascogenous branches, arc
invested by closely packed branches at an early stage of develop-
ment, and the asci develop inside what has by that time Ixrcome
a complete investment. Whether a true sexual process precedes
these processes or not does not affect the present question, the
point being that the resulting spheroidal " fructification " (clcisto-
rarp, perithecium) has a definite wall of its own not directly com-
parable with a stroma. In other cases (Hypomyces, Nectrta) the
perithelia arise on an already mature stroma, while yet more numer-
ous examples can be given (Poronia, Hypoxyion, Ctaviceps, &c.)
where the perithecia originate below the surface of a stroma formed
long before. Similarly with the various types of conidial or oidial
" fructifications," termed pyenidia, spcrmogonia, aecidia, &c. In
the simplest of these cases — e.g. Fumago—z single mycelial cell
divides bv septa in all three planes until a more or less solid clump
results. Then a hollow appears in the centre owing to the more
rapid extension of the outer parts, and into this hollow the cells
lining it put forth short sporogenous branches, from the tips of
which the spores (stylospores, conidia, spermatia) are abstracted. In
a similar way -arc developed the pyenidia of Cicinnobolus, Pleosbora,
Cucurbilaria, Leptosphaeria and others. In other ca>cs (Diplodia,
AecidtHm,&c.) conidial or oidial " fructifications "arise by a number
of hyphae interweaving themselves into a knot, as if they were
forming a sclerotium. The outer parts of the mass then differentiate
as a wall or investment, and the interior becomes a hollow, into
which hyphal ends grow and abstrict the spores. Much more
complicated are the processes in a large series of " fructifications,"
where the mycelium first develops a densely packed mass of hyphae,
all alike, in which labyrinths of cavities subsequently form by
separation of hyphae in the previously homogeneous mass, and the
hymenium covers the walls of these cavities and passages as with a
lining layer. Meanwhile differences in consistency appear in various
strata, and a dense outer protective layer (peridium), soft gelatinous
layers, and so on are formed, the whole eventually attaining great
complexity— e.g. puff-balls, earth-stars and various Phalloiaeae.
Spore-Distribution. — Ordinary conidia and similarly abstricted
dry spores arc so minute, light and numerous that their dispersal
is ensured by any current of air or water, and we also know that
rats and other burrowing animals often carry them on their fur;
similarly with birds, insects, slugs, worms, &c, on claws, feathers,
proboscidcs, Sec, or merely adherent to the slimy body. In addition
to these accidental modes of dispersal, however, there is a series of
interesting adaptations on the part of the fungus itself. Passing
over the locomotor activity of zoospores (Pythium, Perouospora,
Saprotcgnia) we often find spores held under tension in sporangia
(Pilobolus) or in asci (Peziza) until ripe, and then forcibly shot out
by the sudden rupture of the sporangia I wall under the pressure of
liquid behind — mechanism comparable to that of a pop-gun, if we
suppose air replaced by watery sap. Even a single conidium, held
tense to the last moment by the clastic cell-wall, may be thus shot
forward by a spurt of liquid under pressure in the hypha abstrict-
ing it {e.g. Empusa), and similarly with basidiospores (Coprinus,
Agaricus, &c). A more complicated case is illustrated by Sphaero-
bolus, when: the entire mass of spores, enclosed in its own peridium,
is suddenly shot up into the air like a bomb from a mortar by the
clastic retroversion of a peculiar layer which, up to the last moment,
surrounded the bomb, and then suddenly splits above, turns inside
out, and drives the former as a projectile from a gun. Gelatinous
or mucilaginous degenerations of cell-walls arc frequently em-
ployed in the interests of spore dispersal. The mucilage surrounding
endospores of Hue or, conidia of Empusa, Sac., serves to gum the spore
to animals. Such gums arc formed abundantly in pyenidia, and,
absorbing water, swell and carry out the spores in long tendrils,
which emerge for days and dry as they reach the air, the glued spores
gradually being set tree by nun, wind. Sec. In oidial chains (Sclera-
tinia) a minute double wedge of wall -substance arises in the middle
lamella between each pair ofcontiguous oidia, and by its enlargement
splits the separating lamella. These disjunctors serve as points of
application for the clastic push of the swelling spore-ends, and as
the connecting outer lamella of cell-wall suddenly gives way, the
spores are jerked asunder. In many cases the slimy masses of
spermatia (Uredineae), conidia (Clavicepi), basidiospores (Phallus,
Coprinus), &c, emit more or less powerful odours, which attract
flies or other insects, and it has been shown that bees carry the
fragrant oidia of Sclerotinia to the stigma of Vaccinium and infect
it, and that flies carry away the foetid spores of Phallus, just as
pollen is dispersed by such insects. Whether the strong odour of
trimcthylanune evolved by the spores of TUlelia attracts insects is
not known.
The recent observations and exceedingly ingenious experiments of
Falck have shown that the sporophores of the Basidiomycctcs—
especially the large sporophores of such forms as Boletus, Polyporus —
contain quantities of reserve combustible material which arc burnt
up by the active metabolism occurring when the fruit-body is ripe.
By this means the temperature of the sporophorc is raised and the
difference between it and the surrounding air may be one of several
degrees. As a result convection currents arc produced in the air
which are sufficient to catch the basidiospores in their fall and carry
them, away from the regions of comparative atmospheric stillncs*
near the ground, to the upper air where more powerful air-currents
can bring about their wide distribution.
Classification. — It has been accepted for some time now that
the majority of the fungi proper fall into' three main groups,
the Phycomycctcs, Ascomycetes and Basidiomycctcs, the
Schizomyceles and Myxomycctes (Mycetozoa) being considered
as independent groups not coming under the true fungi.
The chief schemes of classification put forward in detail have
been those of P. A. Saccardo (1882-1892), of Oskar Brcfeld and
Von Tavcl (1S92), of P. E. L. Van Tieghem (1893) and of J.
Schroctcr (1892). The scheme of Brcfeld, which was based on
the view that the Ascomycetes and Basidiomycctcs were com-
pletely asexual and that these two groups had been derived
from one division (Zygomycetes) of the Phycomycclcs, has been
very widely accepted. The recent work of the last twelve years
has shown, however, that the two higher groups of fungi exhibit
distinct sexuality, of either a normal or reduced type, and has
also rendered very doubtful the view of the origin of these two
groups from the Phycomycelcs. The real difficulty of classifica-
tion of the fungi lies in the polyphylelic nature of the group.
There is very little doubt that the primitive fungi have been
derived by degradation from the lower algae. It appears,
however, that such a degradation has occurred not only once
in evolution but on several occasions, so that we have in the
Phycomycctes not a scries of naturally related forms, but groups
which have arisen perfectly independently of one another from
various groups of the algae. It is also possible in the absence
of satisfactory intermediate forms that the Ascomycetes and
Basidiomycetes have also been derived from the algae indepen-
dently of the Phycomycctcs, and perhaps of one another.
A natural classification on these lines would obviously be very
complicated, so that in the present state of our knowledge it
will be best to retain the three main groups mentioned above,
bearing in mind thai the Phycomycctcs especially are far from
being a natural group. The following gives a tabular survey of
the scheme adopted in the present article:
A. Phvcomycetes. Alga-like fungi with unicellular 'thaUus
and well-marked sexual organs.
Class I. — Oomycetes. Mycelium usually well developed, but
sometimes |xx>r or absent. Sexual reproduction by oogonia
and antheridia; asexual reproduction by zoospores or
conidia.
1. Monoblepharidincac. Mycelium present, antheridia with
antherozoids, oogonium with single. oosphcrc: Mono-
blepharidaceac.
2. Peronosporincac. Mycelium present; antheridia but no
antherozoids; oogonia with one or more oospberes:
Peronosporaccae, Saprolcgniaeeac.
3. Chytridincae. Mycelium poorly developed or absent;
oogonia and antheridia (without antherozoids) known ift
some cases; zoospores common:. Chytridiaccac. A*
cylistaccae.
FUNGI
337
Class II.— ^Zygomycetes. Mycelium well developed; sexual re-
production by zygospores; asexual reproduction by sporangia
and conidia.
1. Mucorincae. Sexual reproduction as above, asexual
sporangia or conidia or both: Mucoraceae. Mc
laceae, Chaetocladiaccae, Piptoccphalidaccac.
2. Entomophthorineae. Sexual reproduction typical but
with sometimes inequality of the fusing gametes (game-
tangia ?) : Entomophthoraceae.
B. Higher Fuwci. Fungi with segmental thallus; sexual
reproduction sometimes with typical anthcridia and oogonia
(ascogonia) but usually much reduced.
Class I.— IMiUginalcs. Forms with septate thallus. and re-
production by chlamydospores which on germination produce
sporidia ; sexuality doubtful.
Class II. — Ascomycctcs. Thallus scpute: spores developed
in special type of sporangium, the aacus, the number of spores
being usually eight. Sexual reproduction sometimes typical,
usually reduced.
Exoascineac, Saccharomycctincac, Perisporinea, Disco-
myectes, Pyrcnomycctcs Tubcrineae, Laboulbcniincae.
Class III.— Basidia 1c*. Thallus septate. Conidia (basidio-
spores) borne in fours on a special conidiophore, the basidiam.
Sexual reproduction always much reduced.
f. Uredineae. Life-history in some cases very complex and
with well-marked sexual process and alternation of genera-
In Cystopns BUts the oosphera contains numerous nuclei; and aft
the male nuclei from the antheridium pass into it, the male and
female nuclei then fusing in pairs. We thus have a process of
"multiple fertilisation"; the oosphere really represents a large
lions, in others much reduced; basidium (promyi
derived usually from a thick-walled spore (tvleutospore£
a. Basidiomyectcs. Life-history always very simple, no well-
marked alternation of generations; basidium borne
directly on the mycelium.
(A) Protobasidiomycetcs. Basidia septate.
Aurtculariaceae, Puacreaceae. Trcmcllinaccae.
(B) Autobasidiomycctes. Basidia non-septate.
Hymenomycetes, Casteromycctes.
A. Phycomycetes.— Most of the recent work of importance
in this group deals with the cytology of sexual reproduction and
of spore-formation, and the effect of external conditions on the
production of reproductive organs.
Front Smsfcuitor'tfeMiKft *r JMraift. by pomiwion o( Gustav Fbdtcr.
Fio. 4.— Fertilization of the Pcrono^poreac. After Wager.
I. Peronosforo parasitica. Young
multinucleate oogonium (*g)
and antheridium (an).
», Albugo Candida. Oogonium
with the central uninucleate
oosphere and the fertilizing
number of undifferentiated gametes and has been termed a cocno-
gamete. Between Cystopus Bliti on the one hand and Pytktum dt
Baryannm on the other a number of cytologically intermediate
forms are known. The oospore on germination usually gives origin-
tube (a) of the antheridium
which introduces the male
nucleus.
The same. Fertilized egg-
cell (o) surrounded by the
periplasm (p).
these either germinate directly or their contents break up into
i
A «•'>
Fig. $.—Phytophtkora infestans. Fungus of Potato Disease.
B, Section of Leaf of Potato F, G. H. J. Further development
of the sporangia.
K. Germination of the zoospores
formed in the sporangia.
L, M, N, Fertilization of the
oogonium and development of
the oospore in Peranoipara,
to a zoo sp ore agiom, but may form directly a germ tube which infects
the host.
Saprotejptiauae are aquatic forms found growing usually on dead
insects lying in water but occasionally on living fish (e.g. the salmon
disease associated with SaproUgnta fcrax). The chief genera are
with sporangiophores of Phy-
topklkora tnfaians passing
through the stomata D, on
the under surface of the leaf.
£, Sporangia.
ti.6
33»
FUNGI
SaproUtnia. Achlya.Pythicpm.Dutynchus.Aplanes.Mdt'dt tootporc*
which escape from the zoosporangium are present except in A planes.
The sexual reproduction shows all transitions between forms which
are normally sexual, like the Pcronosporaceae, to forms in which
no antheridium is developed and the oosphcrcs develop partheno-
gcnctically. The oogonia, unlike the Pcronosporaceae, contain more
than one oospherc. Klcbs has shown that the development of
zoosporangia or of oogonia and pollinodia respectively in Sapralegnia
is dependent on the external conditions; so long as a continued
stream of suitable food-material is ensured the mycelium grows on
without forming reproductive organs, but directly the supplies of
nitrogenous and carbonaceous food fall below a certain degree of
concentration sporangia are developed. Further reduction of the
supplies of food effects the formation of oogonia. This explains the
sequence of events in the case of a SaproUgnic-myctUum radiating
from a dead fly in water. Those parts nearest the fly and best
supplied develop barren hyphac only; in a zone at the periphery,
where the products of putrefaction dissolved in the water form a
dilute but easily accessible supply, the zoosporangia arc dcvelo|>cd
in abundance; oogonia, however, are only formed in the depths of
this radiating mycelium, where the supplies of available food
materials arc least abundant.
Ckylridincae. — These parasitic and minute, chiefly aquatic, forms
may be looked upon as degenerate Oomycetes, since a sexual process
ana feeble unicellular mycelium occur in some; or they may be
regarded as series of primitive forms leading up to higher members.
There is no means of deciding the question. They are usually
included in Oomycetes, but their simple structure, minute size,
usually uniciliate zoospores, and their negative characters would
justify their retention as a separate group. It contains less than
200 species, chiefly parasitic on or in algae and other water-plants
or animals, of various kinds, or in other fungi, seedlings, pollen and
higher plants. They arc often devoid of hyphac. or put forth fine
protoplasmic filaments into the colls of their hosts. Alter absorbing
the cell-contents of the latter, which it does in a few hours or days,
the fungus puts out a sporangium, the contents of which break up
into numerous minute swarm-spores, usually one-ciliate, rarely
two-ciliate, Any one of these soon comes to rest on a host-cell,
and either pierces it and empties its contents into its cavity, where
the further development occurs (Olpidium), or merely sends in
delicate protoplasmic filaments (Rkizopkydium) or a short hyphal
rube of, at most, two or three cells, which acts as a haustonum,
the further development taking place outside the cell-wall of the
host (Ckytridium). In some cases resting spores are formed inside
the host {Ckytridium), and give rise to zoosporangia on germina-
tion. In a few species a sexual process is described, consisting in
the conjugation of similar cells (Zygockytrium) or the union of
two dissimilar ones (Polypkagus). In the development of dis-
tinct anthcridial and oogonial cells the allied Ancylistineac show
close alliances to Pythium and the Oomycetes. On the other hand,
the uniciliate zoospores of Polypkagus have slightly amoeboid
movements, and in this and the pseudopodium-like nature of the
protoplasmic processes, such forms suggest resemblances to the
Myxoraycetcs. Opinions differ as to whether the Chytridineae arc dc-
Kaded or primitive forms, and the group still needs critical revision,
any new forms will doubtless be discovered, as they are rarely
collected on account of their minuteness. Some forms cause damping
off of seedlings — e.g. Olpidium Brasskae; others discoloured spots
and even tumour-like swellings — e.g. Synchylium Scabtosae, S.
Succisat, Uropklyctis, &c.. on higher plants. Analogies have been
pointed out between Chytridiaccae and unicellular algae, such as
Chlorosphaeraccae. Protococcaccae, " Palmellaceae," &c, some of
which are parasitic, and suggestions may be entertained as to
possible origin from such algae.
The Zygomycetes, of which about 200 species are described, are
especially important from a theoretical standpoint, since they fur-
nished the series whence Brefcld derived the vast majority of the
fungi. They are characterized especially by the zygospores, but
the asexual organs (sporangia) exhibit interesting scries of changes,
beginning with the typical sporangium of Afucor containing numerous
endospores, passing to cases where, as in Thatnnidium, these arc
accompanied with more numerous small sporangia (sporangioles)
containing few spores, and thence to Ckattocladi*m and Piptoupkalis,
where the sporangioles form but one spore and fall and germinate
as a whole; that is to say, the monosporous sporangium has become
a conidium, and Brefcld regarded these and similar series of changes
as explaining the relation of ascus to conidium in higher fungi.
According to his view, the ascus is in effect the sporangium with
several spores, the conidium the sporangiotc with but one spore,
and that not loose but fused with the sporangiole wall. On this
basis, with other interesting morphological comparisons, Brefcld
erected his hypothesis, now untenable, that the Ascomycctes and
Basldiomycetes diverge from the Zygomycetes, the former having
particularly specialized the ascus (sporangial) mode of reproduction,
the latter having specialized the conidiat (indchisccnt one-sporcd
sporangiole) mode. In addition to sporangia and the conidial spores
referred to, some Mucorini show a peculiar mode of vegetative
reproduction by means of gemmae or chlamydospores— i.e. short
segments of the hyphac become stored with fatty reserves and act
as spores. The gemmae formed on submerged Mucors may bud like
a yeast, and even bring about alcoholic fermentation in a saccharine
solution.
The segments of the hyphae in this group usually contain several
nuclei. At the time of sporangial formation the protoplasm with
numerous nuclei streams into the swollen end of the sporangiophore
and there becomes cut off by a cell-wall to form the sporangium.
The protoplasm then becomes cut up by a series of clefts into a
number 01 smaller and smaller pieces
Ptlobolus, multicellular in Sporodinia. These_ then become sur-
which are unicellular in
rounded by a cell-wall and form the spores. This mode of spore-
formation is totally different from that in the ascus; hence one of
the difficulties of the acceptance of Brcfcld's view of the homology
of ascus and sporangium. The cytology of zygospore-forroation is
not known in detail;
the so-called gametes
which fuse are multi-
nucleate and are no doubt
of the nature of game-
tangia. The fate of these
nuclei is doubtful, prob-
ably they fuse fa pairs
% c h :
llakealce has lately
made some very import-
ant observations of the
Zygomycetes. It is well
known that while in some
forms, e.g. Spordinia,
zygospores are easily ob-
tained, io others, e.g. most
species of Mucor, they
arc very erratic in their
appearance. This has now
been explained by
Bbkcslec, who finds that
the Mucorinac can be
divided into two groups,
termed homothallic and
heterothallic respectively.
In the first group zygo-
spores can arise by the
union of branches from
the same mycelium and
so can be produced by the
growth from a single spore;
this group includes Spor-
Frora Slrastorrrt ItMwl 4r
dinia grandis. Spinous J%£2 u Jg£!£\ ibST" ~ ~ ~ *
m*JEL % ArThS^ Fic - *-Mucot Uuctdo. Different
«f 1£Jr. hTS^^SX *«■» in lhe formation and germina-
iL f0 "t& ^Shaili *» ^fL^lSveT^r ***
group, in which the asso- l ~+ * lrom v " Tavc, « Ptht ' )
ciation of branches from _ . . . ,
two myeclia different in »• Jwo conjugating branches tn contact
nature is necessary for the *. Septation of the conjugating cells (a)
formation of zygospores.
These structures cannot
thm be produced from the
product of a single spore
nor even from the thalli
derived from any two
spores. The two kinds of
thalli Blakeslce considers
to have a differentiation
of the nature of sex and
from the suspensors (6).
More advanced stage, the conjugat-
ing cells (a) are stUl distinct from
one another; the warty thickenings
of their walls have commenced to
form.
Ripe zygospore (6) between the sus-
pensors (a).
Germinating zygospore with a germ-
tube bearing a sporangium,
he distinguishes them as (+) and (-) forms; the former being
usually distinguished by a somewhat greater luxuriance of growth.
The classification of the Mucorini depends on the prevalence and
characters of the conidia, and of the sporangia and zygospores— t.g.
the presence or absence of a columella in the former, the formation
of an investment round the latter. Most genera are saprophytes.
but some — Chaetocladium, Piptocephalis—An parasites on othsr
associated casually with the rotting
•ulbs, &c, the fleshy parts of which
e hyphae gain entrance. Even more
nycosis in man and other animals.
md investigated by Lucet and Co-
that transpiration is the important
nation of sporangia, while zygote-
f different conditions; these results
Falck.
tain three genera, Empua. En**
"he two first genera consist of forms
Empusa Muscat causes the weft-
j ring the autumn ; the dead, affected
> the window surrounded by a white
found in the alimentary canal of the
f rr>g and growing on its excrement. In these three genera the conjdU
are cast off with a jerk somewhat in the same way as the sporangiaM
of Pihbelus.
FUNGI
339
B. Higher Fungi— Now that BrcfckTs view of the origir
of these forms from the Zygomycetes has been overthrown
the relationship of the higher and lower forms of fungi is left
in obscurity. The term Eumyeetes is sometimes applied to this
group to distinguish them from the Phycomycetes, but as Um
same name is also applied to the fungi 'as a whole to differential
them from the Mycetoxoa and Bacteria, the term had best b<
dropped. The Higher Fungi fall into three groups: the Usti
laginales, of doubtful position, and the two very sharply market
groups Basidudes and Ascomycetes.
I. Ustilagimales. — This includes two families I
(smuts) arid Tillctiaccae (bunts). The bunts and
damage our grain and fodder plants comprise about A
internal parasites, found in all countries on hcrbaceou
especially on Monocotyledons. They arc remarkable f
spores developed in gall-like excrescences on the b
or in the fruits of the host. The discovery of tfo
these fungi, and their thorough investigation -.
thrown new lights on the group, as also have the A
the nature of the ordinary dark spores — smuts, bunt r 4
their mode of origin ana development are chlamydosporcs.
the latter germinate a slender " promycclium Is put out; ir
Ustilago and its allies this is transversely septate, and bears lateral
conidia (sporidia); in Ttlletia and its allies non-septate, and bear*
a terminal tuft of conidia (sporidia) (fig. 7). Brefeld regarded the
promycclium as a kind of baudium, bearing lateral or terminal
conidia (comparable to basidio-
sports), but since the number ol
1 basidiospores is not fixed, and the
Jbasidium has not yet assumed wry
' definite morphological characters,
Brefeld termed the group Hemi-
basidii, and regarded them as a half-
way stage in the evolution of the
true Basidiomycctes from Phyco-
mycetes, tho TilUtia type leading
to the true basidium (Autobasidium),
the. Uslilatp type to the proto-
basidium, with lateral spores; but this
view is based on very poor evidence,
so that it is best to place these forms
as a separate group, the Ustilaginales.
The yeast-conidia, which bud off
from the conidia or their resulting
mycelium when sown in nutrient
From Vmrt Stems' Ten Beth 4 solutions, are developed in succes-
£««••;. tnrpcnwuMoo(Sw.iiiS*uien- sive crops by budding exactly as
•chcafcCo. j n tne yeast plant, but they cannot
Fig. 7.— "Germinating rest- ferment sugar solutions. It is the
ing-gonidia. A. of Vslilago rapid spread of these yeast-conidia
nceptaadorum; B, of TilUlia in manure and soil waters which
Caries. makes it so difficult to get rid of
sp. Thegonidium. smuts, &c., in the field*, and they.
The promvcelium. »»ke the ordinary conidia, readily
The sporidia: in B the jnfect the seedling wheat, oats,
sporidia have coalesced barley or other cereals. Infection
in pairs at v. in these cases occurs in the seedling
at the place where root and shoot
meet, and the infecting hypha having entered the plant goes on living
in it and growing up with it as if it had no parasitic action at all. When
the flowers form, however, the mycelium Minds hyphac into the young
ovaries and rapidly replaces the stores of sugar and starch, Sec.
which would have gone to make the grain, by the soot-like mass of
spore} so well known as smut, &c. These spores adhere to the grain,
and unless destroyed, by " steeping " or other treatment, arc sown
with it, and again produce spfridia and yeast-conidia which infect
the seedlings. In other species the infix t ion occurs through the
style of the flower, but the fungus after reaching the ovule develops
no further during that year but remains dormant in the embryo
of the seed. On germination, however, the fungus behaves in the
same way as one whkh has entered in the seedling stage. The
O'tology of these forms is very little known; Dangcard .•■fate? that
there is a fusion of two nuclei in the chlamydosporc, but this requires
confirmation. Apart from this observation there is no other trace
of sexuality in the group.
II. Ascomycetes. — This, except in the case of a few of the simpler
forms, is a very sharply marked group characterized by a special
type of sporangium, the ascus. In the development of the ascus we
find two nuclei at the base whi«:h fuse together to form the single
nucleus of the young ascus. The single nucleus di\ides by three
successive divisions to form eight nuclei lying free in the protoplasm
of the ascus. Then by a special method, described first by Harper,
a mass of protoplasm is cut out round each nucleus: thus eight
uninucleate ascospores are formed by free-cell formation. The
protoplasm remaining over is termed epipUum and often contains
glycogen (fig. 8). In some cases nurlear division is carried further
before spore-formation occurs, and the number of spores is then 16,
d,
I
32 and 64, &c.; 'in a few cases the number of spores is less than
eight by abortion of some of the eight nuclei. The ascus is thus one
ofthc most sharply characterized structures among the fungi.
In some forms we find definite male and female sexual organs
(Spkaerotkeca, Pyronema, &c), in others the antheridlum is abortive
or absent, but the ascogonium (oogonium) is still present and the
female nuclei fuso in pairs (Lacknca.
stercorea, Humaria granulate, Asco-
bolus furfurauus); while in other
forms ascogonium and anthcridium
arc both absent and fusion occurs
between vegetative nuclei {Humaria
rutilans, and probably the majority
of other forms). In other cases the
sexual fusion is apparently absent
altogether, as in Exoascus. In the first
case (fig. 9) we have a true sexual
process, while in the second and third
ca>cs we have a reduced sexual process
in which the fusion of other nuclei
has replaced the fusion of the normal
male and female nuclei. It is to be
noted that all the forms exhibit the
fusion of nuclei in the ascus, so that
those with the normal or reduced
sexual process described above have
two nuclear fusions in their life- _ . _
history. The advantage or signifi- Fie. 8.— Development of the
cancc of the second (ascus) fusion is
not clearly understood.
The group of the Hcmiasct was
foundca by Brefeld to include forms
which were supposed to be a connect*
ing link between Phycomycetes and
Ascomycetes. As mentioned before,
the connexion between these two groups is very doubtful, and the de-
rivation of the ascus from an ordinary sporangium of the Zygomycetes
cannot be accepted. The majority of the forms which were formerly
included in this group have been shown to be either true Phycomycetes
(like A uoidea) or true Ascomycetes (like Thelebolus). Eremascus and
Dipodascus, which arc often placed among the Hemiasci, possibly do
not belong to the Ascomycetes series at all.
Exoascaceae are a small group of doubtful extent here used to
include Exoascus, Tapkrina, Ascorticium and Endomyces. The
From Sfrcsbtmtcr's LtMvk im
BHanik, by pcrniSMOo ol CutUv
hue bar.
Ascus.
A-C, Pyronema confluens.
(After Harper.)
D, Young ascus of Bou-
diera with eight spores,
(After Claussen.)
Fron StHsburgrr't L*k+ntk itr Ikmnih, by panuafcxi of GusUv Fischer.
Fic. g.Sphaerotkeca Casta gnei. Fertilization and Development
of the Perithecium. (After Harper.)
Oogonium (pq) with the an-
ther id ial branch {at) applied
to its surface.
Separation of anthcridium
(an).
Passage of the antheridial
nucleus towards that of the
oogonium.
Union of the nuclei.
Fertilised oogonium sur-
rounded by two layers of
hyphae derived from the
stalk-cell (si).
The multicellular ascogonium
derived by division from the
oogonium; the terminal cell
with the two nuclei (as)
gives rise to the ascus.
mycelium is very much reduced in extent. The asci are borne
Jircctly on the mycelium and are therefore fully exposed , being
levoid from the beginning of any investment. The Taphrineae,
vhich include Exoascus and Tapkrina, are important parasites—
-.£. pocket-plums and witches' brooms on birches. &c, are due to
heir action (fig. 10). Exoascus and Ascorticium present interesting
jarallcls to Exobastdium and Corticium among the Basidiomycctes.
Sacckaromycetaceae include the well-known yeasts which belong
nainly to the genus Sacckaromyces. They are characterized by
heir unicellular nature, their power of rapid budding, their capacity
or fermenting various sugars, and their power of forming endogenous
34-0
FUNGI
spores. The sporangium with its endogenous spores has been
compared with an ascus, and on these grounds the groupis placed
among the Ascomycctes — a very doubtful association. The group
has attained an importance of late even beyond that to which it was
brought by Pasteur's researches on alcoholic fermentation, chiefly
owing to the exact results ol the investigations of Hansen, who
first applied the methods of pure cultures to the study of these
organisms, and showed that many of the inconsistencies hitherto
existing in the literature were
due to the coexistence in the
cultures of several species or
races of yeasts morphologically
almost indistinguishable, but
Shysiologically very different,
bout fifty species of Sacckaro-
myces are described more or le»s
completely, but since many of
these cannot be distinguished
by the microscope, and some
have been found to develop
physiological races or varieties
under special conditions of
growth, the limits are still far
too ill-defined for complete
botanical treatment of the genus.
A typical yeast is able to develop
new cells by budding when sub-
merged in a saccharine solution,
Pfftfn ,„„.„„„,, /-i,*,,* j„ an d to ferment the sugar— t.e.
JM?t£ '(££223 \££,'iZtt" •» to break up its molecuVs that,
w .r. ^ • n . apart from small quantities used
Fig. 10.— Taphrma Pruni. for it8) oun su |,s t:incCi tnA9Xi of
Transverse section through the it out of a n proportion to the
epidermis of an infected plum. mass of ycait ' uscd 1^^
Four ripe aso, a,, a,, with eight r^ved into other bodies, such
spores, a,, ««, with yeast -like as car bon dioxide and alcohol,
conidiaabstnctcd from the spores. tne process requiring little or
After Sadcoeck. . no oxygen. Brcfckl regards the
si. Stalk-cells of the asci. budding process as the forma-
m. Filaments of the mycelium t i on f conidia. Under other
^ ru . t , tran5VcriC, y- conditions, of which the tempcra-
cut, Cuticle, turc is an important one, the
ep, bpidermts. nucleus in the yeast-cell divides,
and each daughter-nucleus again,
and four spores arc formed in the mother cell, a process obviously com-
parable to the typical development of ascosiiorcs in an ascus. Under
yet other conditions the quiescent yeast -ceils floating on the surface
of the fermented liquor grow out into elongated sausage-shaped or
cylindrical cells and branching cell-series, which mat together into
mycelium-like veils. At the bottom of the fermented liquor the
ceils often obtain fatty contents and thick walls, and behave as
resting cells (chJamydosporcs). The characters employed by experts
for determining a species of yeast are the sum of its peculiarities as
regards form and size: the shapes, colours, consistency, &c., of
the colonies grown on certain definite media; the optimum tem-
perature for spore-formation, and for the development of the
'* veils "; and the behaviour as regards the various sugars.
The following summary of some of the principal characteristics
of half-a-dozen species will serve to show how such peculiarities can
be utilized for systematic purposes:
and others have shown that a ferment (zymase) can be extracted
from yeast -ceils which causes sugar to break up into carbon dioxide
and alcohol. It has since been shown by Buchncr and Albert that
yeast-cells which have been killed by alcohol and ether, or with
acetone, still retain the enzyme. Such material is far more active
than the zymase obtained originally by Buchncr from the expressed
juke of yeast-cells. Thus alcoholic fermentation is brought into line
with the other fermentations.
Sckizouutharomyccs includes a few species in which the cells do
not " bud " but become elongated and then divide transversely.
In the formation of sporangia two cells fuse together by means of
outgrowths, in a manner very similar to that of Sbirogyra; sometimes,
however, the wall between two cells merely Drcaks down. The
fused cell becomes a sporangium, and in it eight spores are developed.
In certain cases single ecus develop parthenogenctteally, without
fusion, each cell producing, however, only four spores. In Zyt&-
saccharomyces described by Barker (1901; we have a form of the
usual sprouting type, but here again there is a fusion of two cells to
form a sporangium.
Cytology. — The study of the nucleus of yeast-cells is rendered
difficult by the presence of other deeply staining granules termed by
GuiUermond metachromatic granules. These have often been mis-
taken for nuclei and have to be carefully distinguished by differential
stains. In the process of budding the nucleus divides apparently
by a process of direct division. In the formation of spores the nucleus
of the cell divides, the protoplasm collects round the nuclei to form
the spores by free-cell formation; the protoplasm (eptplasm) not
used in this process becomes disorganized. A fusion of nuclei was
originally described by Janscns and Ixblanc, but it was observed
neither by Wager nor GuiUermond and is probably absent. In
Schisosatckaromyces and Zygosacckaromytes, however, we have a
fusion of nuclei in connexion with the conjugation of* cells which
precedes sporangium-formation. The theory may be put forward
that the ordinary forms have been derived from sexual forms like
Schizosacrkaromyccs and Zygosacckaromyees by a loss of sexuality,
the sporangium being formed |»rthenogenetkally without any
nuclear fusion. This suggests a possible relationship to Eremauus,
which can only doubtfully be placed in the Ascomycctes fade smpra).
Carpoascomycetcs.— 7)ic other divisions of the Ascomycctes may
be distinguished as Carpoascomycetcs because they do not bear
the asci free on the mycelium but enclosed in definite fruit bodies
or ascocarps. The ascocarps can be distinguished into two portions,
a mass of sterile or vegetative hyphoe forming the main mass of the
fruit body, and surrounding the fertile ascugenous hyphae whkh
bear at their ends the asci. When the ascogonium (female organ)
is present the ascogenous hyphae arise from it, with or without its
Krcvious fusion with an antheridium. In other cases the ascogenous
yphac arise directly from the vegetative hyphae. In connexion
with this condition of reduction a fusion of nuclei has been observed
in Ilumaria rutJans and is probably of frequent occurrence. The
asci may be derived from the terminal cell of the branches of the
ascogenous hyphae, but usually they are derived from the pen-
ultimate cell, the tip curving over to form the so-called crozicr. By
this means the ascus cell is brought uppermost, and after the fusion
of the two nuclei it develops enormously and produces the asro*pore&.
The a<co5porcs escape from the asci in various ways, sometimes by
a special ejaculation-mechanism. The Ascomycctes, at least the
Carpoascomycetcs, exhibit a well-marked alternation of sexual and
asexual generations. The ordinary mycelium is the garnet ophyte
since it bears the ascogonia and antheridia when present: the
Species.
Optimum Temperature for
S|>orcs
Veils.
Characters of
Fermentation.
Cells.
Spores.
Sugars Fermented and
Products, &c
S. cereviseae I. . .
S. Pastorianus I. .
S. elltpsoideus . .
5. anomatus . .
S. Ludsoigii . .
S. membranaefaciens
■3°
28°-3i°
30°-3t'
30°
20 , -2S»
26°-*8*
33°-J4°
?
?
?
High
Low
Low
High
?
High
Rounded
Rounded
Rounded
Elliptical
Elongated
Elongated
Globoid
Globoid
Globoid
Hat-shaped
Globoid
Globoid
Inverts maltose and sac-
charose and form alcohol
4-6 vol. %-
Ditto, and evolves a fra-
grant ether.
Will not invert maltose.
Inverts neither maltose nor
saccharose.
Two questions of great theoretical importance have been raided
over and over again in connexion with yeasts, namely, (1) the
morphological one as to whether yeasts arc merely degraded forms
of higher fungi, as would seem implied by their tendency to form
elongated, hypha-like cells in the veils, and their development
of " ascospores " as well as by the wide occurrence of yeast -like
" sprouting forms " in other fungi {e.g. Mucor, Exoasci, Ustilagincac,
higher Ascomycctes and Basidiomycctes) ; and (2) the question as
to the physiological nature and meaning of fermentation. With
regard to the first question no satisfactory proof has as yet been
given that Saccharomycctcs are derivable by culture from any
igher form, the recent statements to that effect not having been
confirmed. At the same time there arc strong grounds for insisting
on the resemblances between Endonwcts, a hyphal fungus bearing
yeast-like asci, and such a form as Sactkaromyc.es anomalut. Con-
cerning the second question, the recent investigations of Buchncr
ascogenous hyphae with their asci represent the sporophyte since
they are derived from the fertilized ascogonium. The matter is
complicated by the apogamous transition from ea met ophyte to
fporophyte in the absence of the ascogonium; also by the fact that
there ore normally two fusions in the life-history as mentioned
earlier. If there are two fusions one would expect two reductions,
and Har|XT has suggested that the division of the nuclei into eight
in the ascus, instead of into four spores as in most reduction pro-
cesses, is associated with a double reduction procrss in the asms.
Miss Fraser in Ilumaria ntlilans finds two reductions: a normal
synaptic reduction in the first nuclear division of the a»-cus, and •
peculiar reduction division termed bruehymciosts in the third ascn
division.
Various types of ascocarp are characteristic of the different
divisions of the Carpoascomycetcs: the tlci&ioihccium, apothecium
and nerirrfci'im.
FUNGI
3+»
Perisfforweae.—Tht* includes two chief families, Erysiphaceae
and Pensporiaceae. They are characterized by an ascocarp without
any opening to the exterior, the ascospores being set free by the
decay or rupture of the ascocarp wall; such a duit-body is termed
a cleistotkeeium (clcistocarp). The Erysiphaceae are a sharply
marked group of forms which live as parasites. They form a super-
ficial mycelium on the surface of the plant, the hyphae not usually
penetrating the tissues but merely sending haustoria into the epi-
dermal cells. Only in rare cases is the mycelium intercellular.
Owing to their appearance they so by the popular name of mildews.
Sphoerotiuca Humuli is the well known hop-mildew, Sphatrotheca
Mors-Utae is the gooseberry mildew, the recent advent of which
has led to special legislation in Great Britain to prevent its spreading,
as when rampant it makes the culture of gooseberries Impossible.
characterized in general by the possession of an ascocarp which,
though usually a completely closed structure during the earlier
stages of development, at maturity opens out to form a bowl or
saucer-shaped organ, thus completely exposing the layer of asci
which forms the hymenium. Such an ascocarp goes by the name of
apothecium. Owing to the shape'of the fruit-body many of these
forms are known as cup-fungi, the cup or apothecium often attaining
a large sue, sometimes several inches across (fig. 12). Functional
male and female organs have been shown to exist in Pynmema and
ibearing; an ascogonium at its end) and a straight anthcridium.
Vegetative hyphac then grow up and surround these and enclose
them in a continuous sheath of ptcc tecchy roa (fig. 11). It has lately
been shown by Kramer and Chamliro that in Etmtium both
Flo. 13—Auobolus Jurfuracmu.
Diagrammatic section of the fruc-
tification. (After Janczewsld.)
m, Mycelium.
From Struburtcrt Lthi* C, Archicarp.
fries JaBcttaii, by pcuob- / Pollinodium.
M * 0M FBctr - *„ Ascogcnous filaments.
Fig. la.—Pezisaaur- a, AscL
antiaca. (After Kramb- r, p. The sterile tissue from which
holz, nat. sue.) the paraphyses * spring.
ascogonium and antheridium contain numerous nuclei; they are
to be looked upon as gametangia in which there is no differentiation
of gametes, and since they act as single gametes they are termed
cocnogamctes. In 6ome forms as in Ascobdus the ascogonium to
multicellular, the various cells
communicating by pores in
the transverse walls (fig. 13).
In the Hclvcllaccae there is
no apothecium but a large
irregular fruit body which at
maturity bears the asci on its
surface. The development is
only slightly known, but there
is some evidence for believing
that the fruit-body is dosed in
its very early stages.
The genus Pesiaa (in its
widest sense) may be taken as
the type of the group. Most
of them grow on living plants
or on dead vegetable remains,
very often on fallen wood; a
number, however, arc found
growing on earth which is* rich
in humus. The acnus Sclero-
Fig. 11.— Development of Eurotium repent.- (After De Bary.)
D, The pcrithecium.
E, F, Sections of young
thecia.
tr, Parietal cells.
/, Pseudo-parenchyma.
as, Ascogonium.
G, An aseus.
H, An ascospore.
A, Small portion of mycelium
with conidiophore (c), and t, r . Sections ol young peri-
young archicarp («). ~ L -'-
B, The spiral archicarp fas),
with the anthcridium (p).
D, The same, beginning to be
surrounded by the hyphae
forming the pcrithecium wall.
ascogonium and antheridium contain a number of nuclei (i.e. are
cocnogamctes), but that the anthcridium disorganizes without
passing its contents into the ascogonium. There is apparently a
reduced sexual process by the fusion of the ascoftonul (female)
nuclei in pairs. Aspergillus Orysae nlays an important part in
saccharifying the starch of rice, maize, «c, by means of the abundant
diastase it secretes, and, in symbiosis with a yeast which ferments
the sugar formed, has lone been u*ed bythc Japanese for the pre-
paration of the alcoholic liouor sake*. The process has now been
•ucoeWully introduced into fcuroprnn commerce.
Discomycelcs.— Used in its widest sense this includes the
Hysteriiuue, Phacidiaccac. HtlvclUceac, &c- The group is
From Sirosburner'A ltk**th iu ZUtdNil,
by iK-rmraioa U (Turtiy FiM.Ucr.
Fio. 14.— Pcrithcrium of Pod—
sporafimiseda in longitudinal section
After v. Tavcl.
s, Asci.
o, Paraphyses.
e , Pcriphyacs. .
m, Mycelial hyphae.
, of Vaccinium uliiinosum, while the
t only Ledum palustre. This is the
;n in the vegetable kingdom outsida
xtraordinarily large and varied group
para -lineally or saprophyricully on
parasilic on usect-Urvac. The group
342
FUNGI
is characterized by a special type of ascocarp the perilhecium.
This is typically of a flask-shaped form opening with a small pore at
the top. The asci live at the bottom often mixed with paraphyses,
while the upper " neck " of the flask is lined with special hyphae,
the periphyscs, which aid in the ejection of the spores (fig. 14).
The simpler forms bear the pcrithecia directly on the mycelium, but
the more highly developed forms often bear them on a special
mycelial development — the stroma, which is often of large size and
special shape and colour, and of dense consistence. The cytological
details of development of the pcrithecia are not well known; moat
of them appear to develop their ascogenous hyphae in an apogamout
way without any connexion with an ascogonium. Besides the
special ascocarps, accessory reproductive organs are known in the
majority o£ cases in the form of conidia.
Tuberineae. — These are a small group of fungi including the well-
known truffles. They are found Uvuigsaprophytically (in part
parasiticalty) underground in forests. The asci are developed in
the large dense fruit bodies (cleistothecia) and the spores escape by
the decay of the walL The fruit-body is of complicated structure,
but its early stages of development are not known. Many of the
fruit-bodlcshave a pleasant flavour and are eaten under the name of
truffles (Tubtr brumal* and other species). The exact life-history
of the truffle is not known.
Labonlbcniinea* are a group of about 150 species of fungi found
on insects, especially beetles, and principally known from the re-
searches of Thaxter in America. The plant is a smalt, dark brown,
erect structure (receptacle) of a few cells, and 1-10 mm. high, attached
to the insect by the lowermost end (foot), arid easily mistaken lor a
hair or similar appendage of the insect. The receptacle ends above
in appendages, each consisting of one or a few cells, some of which
are the male organs, others the female organs, and others again may
be barren hairs. The male organ (antheridium) consists of a few
cells, the terminal oneof which either abstricts from its end, or emits
from its interior the non-motile spcrmatia, reminding us of those
of the Florideae. The female organ is essentially a flask-shaped
structure; the neck of the flask growing out as the trichogyne, and
the belly composed of an axial earpogeruc cell surrounded by invest-
ing cells, and with one cell (trichophoric) between it and the tricho-
gyne. These three elements — trichogyne, trichophoric cell, and
carpogenlc cell — are regarded as the procarp. The spermatia have
been shown by Thaxter to fuse with the trichogyne, after which the
axial cell below (carpogenic cell) undergoes divisions, and ultimately
forms asci containing ascospores, whue cells investing this form a
perithecium, the whole structure reminding us essentially of the
fructification of a Pyrenomycete. Many modifications in details
occur, and the plants may be
dioecious. No injury is done to
the infested insects. It has lately
been shown that there is a fusion
of nuclei in connexion with ascus
formation, so that there can be
no doubt of the position of this
extraordinary group of plants
among the Ascomycetcs. The
various cells of these organisms
are connected by large pits
which are traversed by thick
protoplasmic threads connecting
one cell with the next. In this
point and in their method ot
fertilization thcLaboulbcniineac
suggest a possible relationship
ft™ SinutergrtJUfc^tfff *<«,<». °J . Ascomycetes and the Red
fcf fiwiiiii «C Cu*ut Fbcte. Algae.
Rypktloma appendiculatum. tnc V°W\ rhe l»s»9«um is
nuclciderivcdfromthesecond- f*™**™ f ">m which four bas-
ary nucleus of the basidium d,o »P 0r « •"* *• outgrowths;
have passed into the our «"Urtsasa>nucleate structure.
basidiospores.
but soon, like the ascus, becomes
D. Passage of a nucleus through u £ nuclca , te fcK^lf^ 011 * ^ he
the sterigma into the basidfo- t™ "^- . T*"* »"» recessive
snore. nuclear divisions occur resulting
spore.
in the formation of four nuclei
which later migrate respectively into the four basidiospores (fig. 15).
The Basidiales are further characterized by the complete loss of
normal sexuality, but at some time or other in the life-history
there takes place an association of two nuclei in a cell; the two
nuclei arc derived from separate cells or possibly in some cases are
aister nuclei of the same cell. The two nuclei when once associated
•re termed ' conjugate " nuclei, and they always divide at the same
time, a half of each passing into each cell. Thb conjugate condition
is finally brought to a close by the nuclear fusion in the basidium.
Between the nuclear association and the nuclear fusion in the
basidium many thousands of cell generations may be intercalated.
This nuclear association of equivalent nuclei apparently represents
on of female nuclei in Humaria
H rulilans, among the Asco-
il fusion (normally, in a sexual
* association) is delayed until
ring the tetrad division in the
here is thus in all the Basidiales
d, however, by the apogamous
sporophyte. The sporophyte
age of nuclear association and
i basidium.
f about 2000 forms. They are
stly on the leaves of higher
/ globules of an orange-yellow
and spores they are termed
from the other fungi and the
rariety of the spores and the
to be found in many cases.
y be present — teleutospores,
res, spermatia and uredospores
) sporidia which arise from it.
to genera is based chiefly on
Fig. 16. — Puccinia graminis.
A, Mass of teleutospores (/) on a
leaf of couch-grass.
e. Epidermis ruptured.
vulgaris, with a, aeddism
fruits, p, peridium, and if,
. r spermogonia. (After Sachs.)
b, Sub-epidermal fibres. (After C, Mass of uredospores («r),
De Bary.) with one teJeutospore (I).
B, Part of vertical section sh, Sub-hymenial hyphae. (After
through leaf of Berberis De Buy.)
its characters. The teleutosporc puts forth on germination a four-
celled structure, the promycclium or basidium, and this bears later
[our sporidia or basidiospores, one on each cell. When the sporidia
infect a plant the mycelium so produced gives origin to aecidiosporcs
and spermatia ; the aecidiospores on infection produce a mycelium
which bears uredospores and later teleutospores. This is the life-
history of the most complicated forms, of the so-called eu forms.
In theop.su forms the uredospores arc absent, the mycelium from the
aecidiosporcs producing directly the teleutospores. In brachy and
hemi the aecidiospores are absent, the mycelium from the sporidia
riving origin directly to the uredospores; the former poaarn sper-
matia, in the latter they are absent. In Upio and micro forms both
aecidiospores and uredospores arc absent, the sporidia producing a
mycelium which gives rise directly to teleutospores; in the Up*
forms the teleutospores can 'germinate directly, In the mien forms
only after a period of rest. Wc have thus a senes showing a progres*
live reduction in the complexity of the life-history, the Upta and
micro forms having a life-history like that of the Basidiomycetes.
The eu and apsis forms may exhibit the remarkable phenomenon
m heteroecism, ix. the dependence of the fungus on two distinct
host-plants for the completion of the life-history. Heteroecism
is very common in this group and is now known in over one hundred
ind fifty species. In all cases of heteroecism the sporidia infect
erne host leading to the production of aecidiosporcs and spermstis
[\i present), while the aecidiospores are only able to infect toother
FUNGI
343
host on which the uredospore* <
Species.
Teleutospores on
Aecknospores on
Cehosporium Senecumis
UeUmpsor* Roskupi
Puecimastrum Goeppertiana
Gywtnosporannum Sabinao
Uromyces Pisi
Puectuia grammit
P. disperse
P. coroueta
P. Ari-Pkalaridis
P.Caricis
Cnmariium Rfbicola
. Ckrysmmysa Rhododendri
Pinus
Populus
Vaeciuimm
Juuiperus
Pisum, 6Vfc
Trilicum, fir*.
SecaU^c
AgrosHs
Can*
Ribes
Rhododendron
Senecio
Heeurialis
Alms
Pyrus
Euphorbia
Berberis
Ancknsa
Rhamnus
Urtiea
Pinus
Picea
_._ port* (II present) and the teleutospores fn6ro a tAotoq»« but » borne directly on the myeeUunu Formerly,
are developed. A few example* are appended: before the relationship of promyceliura and basidium were under-
stood, the Uredineae were considered as quite independent of the
Bandiomycetea. Later, however, these Uredineae were placed as a
mere subdivision of the Basidiomycetes. Although the Uredineae
clearly lead on to toe Bastdioroycetes, yet owing to their retaining
in many cases definite traces of sexual organs they arc clearly a more
primitive group. Their marked parasitic habit also separate* them
off, so that they are beat included with the Basidiomycetes in a larger
cohort which may
be called Baskii-
ales. Moat of
Baaidiomycetes
are characterised
by the large sporo-
phore on which the
basidia with its
basidiospores are
borne.
It must be
clearly borne in
mind that though
the Baaidiomy-
cetes show no i
traces of differ-
entiated sexual
t, like
n&lepto
le Ure-
ry still
the as-
nuclet
isionof ,
be bas- '
educed
which denotes their derivation, through the Uredineae,
ypicallv sexual forma. No one has yet made out in any
ict way in which the association of nuclei takes place in the
group. The mycelium is always found to contain conjugate nuclei
before the formation of basidia, but the point at which the conjugate
condition arises seems very variable. Miss Nichols finds that it
occurs very soon after the germination of the spore in Coprimus, but
no fusion of celts or migration of nuclei was to be observed.
Pr*U>basidiomyceks.--Th\s, by far the smaller division of Basidio*
fttyceti
arcthi
Some of the Uredineae also exhibit the peculiarity of the develop-
ment of biologic forms within a single morphological species, some-
times termed specialization of parasitism; this will be dealt with
later under the section Physiology.
• Cytology of Uredineae.— Tht study of
the cells of the Uredineae has thrown grea
sexuality. This group like the rest of tl
point
unlike
mycete
in the
defined
thus tl
forms
takes |
aeddiu
aecidiot
rVom Amult »/B»tmy, by perelaloa of tbtCUmdoa Vim.
Fig. i8.
by the
as described by Christmann or
by the migration of the nucleus
of a vegetative cell Into a special
cell of the aeddium. After this
association the nuclei continue
in the conjugate condition so
that the accidiosporcs. the urcdo-
spore-bearing mycelium, the
uredospores and the young
teleutospores all contain two
paired nuclei in their cells (fig.
17). Before the teleutospore
reaches maturity the nuclei fuse,
and the uninucleate condition
then continues again until aeci-
dium formation. In the kemi,
t Tn**Sfi m* m&\LiM«hi*B*m{k. bracky, micro and lepto forms.
trpraisticaciGvs&vriKtar. which po,,^, ^ a^Mini, we
Fig. 17.— Phragmidium Vio- npd that the association takes
taceum. (After Blackman.) t***' *t various points in the
ordinary mycelium but always
Portion of a young eeciriinra. before the formation of the
Sterile cell uredospores in the hemi and
Fertile cells; at a* the bracky forms, and before the
passage of a nucleus from formation of teleutospores in
the adjoining cell is seen. micro and lepto form. Whether
Formation of the first spore- the association of nuclei in the
mother-cell (jik), from the ordinary mycelium takes place
basal cell (a) of one of the by the migration of a nucleus
rows of spores. from one cell to another or
C, A further stage in which whether two daughter nuclei
from ran the first aecidio- become conjugate in one cell,
spore (a) and the intercalary is not yet clear. The most
cell (z) have arisen. reasonable interpretation of the
sm%. The second spore-mothcr*ceIL spcrmatia is that they are
D, Ripe aecidiospore. abortive male cells. They have
never been found to cause in-
fection, and they have not the characters of conidia; the large
size of their nuclei, the reduction of their cytoplasm and the
absence of reserve material and their thin cell wall all point to their
being male gametes. Although in the forms without aecidia the
two generations are not sharply marked off from one another, we
may took up the generation with single nuclei in the cells as the
gametophyte and that with conjugate nuclei as the sporophyte.
The subjoined diagram will indicate the relationship of the forms.
Basidiomyeetes.—Th\% group is characterized by its greatly reduced
life-history as compared with that of the eu forms among the Ure-
dineae. All the forms have the same life-history as the Upio forms
of that group, so that there is no longer any trace of sexual organs.
There is also a further reduction in that the basidium is not derived
A.
B,
Fig. 19.— 'Amanita muscaria,
A, The young plant. . a, The annulus. or remnant of
B, The mature plant, (plant. velum partiale.
C, Longitudinal section of mature v, Remains of tolva or velum
p, The pileus, universal*.
g. The gills. t. The stalk.
The first named contains a small number of forms with the basiditim
divided like the promycelium of the Uredineae. They are charac-
terized by their gelatinous consistence and large size of their sporo-
Ehorc. Hirneola (4uricu!aria) Auricula- Judae is the wcU-known
ew's Ear, so named from the resemblance of the sporophore to a
uman ear.
The Pilacreaccae are a family found by BrefeM to contain the genus
Pilacre, P. PetersH has a transversely divided basidium as ia
Auriculariaceae, but the basidia are surrounded with a peridium-like
sheath. The Tremellinaceae are characterized by the possession of
basidia which are divided by two vertical walls at right angles to
one another. From each of the four segments in the case of TrcmeUa
a long outgrowth arises which reaches to the surface of the hymenium
34+
FUNGI
and bean the basMiospore*. In Dacryomyces only two outgrowths
and two spore* are produced.
AutobasidiomyccUs.—ln this by far the larger division of the
Basidiomycetcs the basidia are undivided and the four basidiospores
are borne on short stcrigmata nearly always at the apex of the
basidium. The group may be divided into two main divisions,
Hymenomyccles and Gasteromycctes.
HymenomyceU
species, most of
or stems, a few
Exobasidium) tl
mycelium, but ii
veloped in laye
actcristic form ii
as the wcll-knov
vegetative mycel
developed for be
rain, &c, and fo
article on distrib
mycelium in many cases
spreads wider and wider
each year, often in a
circular manner, and the
sporophorcs springing
from it appear in the
form of a ring — the so-
called fairy rings. Ar-
millaria nulieus and
Polyporus annosus are
examples of parasitic
forms which attack and
destroy living trees,
while Mendius Ucry-
mans is the well-known
" dry rot " fungus.
. FlG. 3<x—A£oricMS mucidus. Portion GasteromyceUs are
of hymenium. s, Sporidia; it, characterized by having
sterigmata; f, sterile cells; c, cystidium, closed sporophorcs or
with operculum o. fruit-bodies which only
ooen after the spores are
odiesareof.
erperidium
i is usually
icd directly
contain an
the basidia.
often come
ollow fruit -
own genera
are Bovista, Lycoperdon (puff-ball) Scleroderma, CeasUr (earth-star,
£r.). In the last-named genus the peridium is double and the outer
yer becomes ruptured and spreads out in the form of star-shaped
pieces; - the inner layer, however, merely opens at the apex by a
small pore.
The most complex members of the Gasteromycetes belong to the
Phalloideae, which is sometimes placed as a distinct division of the
Autobasidiomycctes. Phallus tmpudicus, the stink-horn, is occasion-
ally found growing in woods in Britain. The fruit-body before it
ruptures may reach the size of a hen's egg and is white in colour;
from this there grows out a hollow cylindrical structure which can
be distinguished at the distance of several yards by its disgusting
odour. It is highly poisonous.
Physiology.— The physiology of the fungi comes under the
head of that of plants generally, and the works of Pfeflcr, Sachs,
Vines, Darwin and Klebs may be consulted for details. But
we may refer generally here to certain phenomena peculiar to
these plants, thelife-actionsof which arc restricted and specialized
by their peculiar dependence on organic supplies of carbon and
nitrogen, so that most fungi resemble the colourless cells of higher
plants in their nutrition. Like these they require water, small
but indispensable quantities of salts of potassium, magnesium,
sulphur and phosphorus, and supplies of carbonaceous and
nitrogenous materials in different stages of complexity in the
different cases. Like these, also, they respire oxygen, and are
independent of light; and their various powers of growth,
secretion, and general metabolism, irritability, and response to
external factors show similar specific variations in both cases.
It is quite a mistake to suppose that, apart from the chlorophyll
function, the physiology of the fungus-cell is fundamentally
different from that of ordinary plant-cells. Nevertheless,
certain biological phenomena in fungi are especially pronounced,
and of these the following require particular notice.
P arasnhsm. — Some fungi, though able to live as saprophytes,
ooaukmslly cater the body oi living plants, and are thus termed
iv«w huiim^ximmui uui wumh w • numucr oi forms wntcn art
FUNGI
3+5
sharply distinguishable by their infecting power. Eriksson found,
for example, that the well-known species Puccini* graminis could be
split up into a number of forms which though morphologically
similar were physiologically distinct. He found that the species
really consisted of six distinct races, each having a more or less
narrow range of grasses on which it can live. The six races he named
P. graminis Secalis, Tritici, Avenae, Airac, Agrostis, Poae. The
first named will grow on rye and barley but not on wheat or oat.
The form Tritici is the least sharply marked and willgrow on wheat,
barley, rye and oat but not on the other grasses. The form Avenae
will grow on oat and many grasses but not on the other three cereals
mentioned. The last three forms grow only on the genera Aira,
Agrostis and Poa respectively. All these forms have ofcourse their
aecidium-stagc on the barberry. The terms biologic forms, biological
species, physiological species, physiological races, specialized forms
have all been applied to these; perhaps the terra biologic forms is
the most satisfactory. A similar specialization has been observed
by Marshall Ward in the Puuinia parasitic on species of Bromus,
and by Ncger, Marchal and especially Salmon in the Erysiphaceac.
In the last-named family the single morphological species Erysiphe
graminis b found growing on the cereals, barley, oat, wheat, rye
and a number of wdd grasses (such as Poa, Bromus, Dactylis). On
each of these host-plants the fungus has become specialized so that
the form on barley cannot infect the other three cereals or the wild
grasses and so on. Just as the uredo&porcs and accidiosporc* both
show these specialized characters in the case of Puccinia graminis
so we find that both the conidia and ascospores of E, graminis show
this phenomenon. Salmon has further shown in investigating the
relation of E. graminis to various species of the genus, Bromus, that
certain species may act as " bridging species," enabling the transfer
or a biologic form to a host-plant which it cannot normally infect.
Thus the biologic form on B. racemosus cannot infect B. cemmutatus.
If, however, conidia from B. raumosus arc sown on B. hordaceus,
the conidia which develop on that plant arc now able to infect
B. commutatus ; thus B. hordaceus acts as a bridging species. Salmon
also found that injury of a leaf by mechanical means, by heat, by
anaesthetics, &c, would affect the immunity of the plant and allow
a normal leaf. The
stop the production
re or antitoxins, the
n the leaf.
mmon first observed
o form a compound
ither, has now been
liens arc in all cases
rphae of fungi (see
nent (alga) furnishes
a supply of mineral
d symbiosis. Since
been demonstrated,
its invaded by fungi
hese being injurious,
za (fungus-root) is
is also the case with
. ^ ._ rids — e.g. Ericaceae,
Pyrolaceae, Gcntianaccac, Orchidaa*ae, ferns, &c. Recent
experiments have shown that the difficulties of getting orchid
seeds to germinate are due to the absence of the necessary fungus,
which muit be in readiness to infect the young needling immediately
it emerges from the seed. The well-known failures with rhododen-
drons, heaths, &c, in ordinary garden soils are also explained by
the need of the fungus-infected peat for their roots. The role of the
fungus appears to be to supply materials from the leaf-mould around,
in forms which ordinary root-hairs arc incapable of providing for
the plant; in return the latter supports the fungus at slight expense
from its abundant stores of reserve materials. Numerous other
cases of symbiosis have been discovered among the fungi of fer-
mentation, of which those between Aspergillus and yeast in sake
manufacture, and between yeasts and bacteria inkepfiir and in the
finger-beer plant are best worked out. For cases of symbiosis sec
Iactemology.
Authorities.— General'. Engler and Prantl, Die natiirlichen
Pfiantenjamilien, i. Teil (1893 onwards): Zopf, Die Pilte (Brcslau,
1800); De Bary, Comparative Morphology of Fungi, &c. (Oxford,
1M7); von Tafcl, Vergjcichende Morpholozie der Pilzc (Jena, 1892);
Brefeld, Unters. aus dem Gesamtgebiete der Mykologie, Heft i. 13
(1672-1005); Lotsy, Vortrdge tiher bolanische Stammetgeschichte
(Jena, 1907). Distribution. cVc: Cooke, Introduction to the Study
of Fungi (London, 1895;; Fciix in Zeilschr. d. dcutsch. geologisch.
Geseilsih. (1894-1896); Staub, Silzungsber. d. hot. Sec. d. Kgl.
ungarischen naturwiss. Geseltsch. zu Budapest (1897). Anatomy,
&c.: Bommcr, " Sclerotes ct cordons mycetiens," Mem. de I' Acad.
Roy. de Betg. (1894); Mangin, "Obscrv. sur la membrane des
mucorinees, Journ. de Bot. (1899); Zimmcrmann, Die Morph.
und Physiologic des Pfliinzenzellkernes (Jena, 1896); Wisselingh,
" Microchcm. Unters. ubcr die Zcllwandc d. Fungi." Pringsh.
Jakrb. B. 31, p. 619 (1898); IstvanlTvi. •' Unters. uber die pnys.
Anat. der Pilzc," Prings. Jakrb. (1896). Spore Distribution: Fulton,
" Dispersal of the Spore* of Fungi by Insects," Ann. Bot. (1889);
Falck, " Die Sporcnverbrcitung bei den Bjsidioraycctcn," Bcitr.
tut Biol. d. Pfianten, ix. (1904). Spores ami Spirophores: Zopf,
Die Ptlte; also the works of von Tafel and Brefeld. Classification:
van Tieghem, Jouru. do bot. p. 77 (1893), and the works of Brefeld,
Engler and Prantl, von Tafel, Saccardo and Lotsy already cited.
Oomycetes: Wager, "On the Fertilization of Peronospora para-
sitica" Ann. Bot. vol. xiv. (1900); Stevens, "The Compound
Oosphere of Albugo Bliti" Bel. Go*, vol. 28 (1899); " Gamcto-
Knesis and Fertilisation in Albugo" ibid. vol. 32 (1901);
iyake, " The Fertilization of Pytkium do Baryanum" Ann. of Bot.
vol. xv. (1901); Trow, "On Fertilization in the Saprolegnteae."
A nn. of Bot. vol. xviii. (1904) ; Thaxter, " New and Peculiar Aquatic
Fungi. 1 ' Bot. Gas. vol. 20 (1895); Lagcrheim, " Unters. Uber die
Monoblcpharideae." Bik. Svenska Vet. A had. Handlingar, 25.
Afd. uL (1900); Woronin, " Beitrag zur Kenntnis der Monoble-
pharideen," Mem. de I' Acad. Imp. d. Sc. de St- Piter sbourg, 8 sen
vol. 16 (1902). Zygomycetes: Harper, " Cell-division in Sporangia
Asct, Ann. Bot. vol. xiii. (1899); Klcbs, Die Bedingungen der
and
Fortpflantung, &c (Jena. 1896), and " Zur Physiologic der Fort-
pflanzung " Prings. Jahr. (1898 and 1899), Uber Sporodinh
Erandis,Bot. Zett. (1902); Falck, " Die Bedingungen der Zygotcn-
tldung bei Sporodinia grandis," Conn's Beitr. 1. Biol. d. Pfianten,
Bd. 8 (1902); Grubcr " Verhalten der Zcllkerne in den Zygosporen
von Sporodinia grandis" Ber. d. deutschen bot. Ges. Bd. 19 (1901);
Blakeslce, "Sexual Reproduction in the Mucorincae," Proc. Am.
Ustxicgineae { London. 1880); Masscc, British Fungi (Fhycomycetes
and Uitiiacincac) (London, 1891); Brefeld, Unters. aus dem
Gcsamtgcb. aer Mykoi. Heftc xi. and xti. ; and Falck, " Die Bluten-
infektion bei den Brandpilzcn," ibid. Heft xiii. 1905; Dangeard, " La
Reproduction sexucllc des Ustilaginces," C.R., Oct. 9, 1893;
Maire, " Rcchcrchcs cytologiquca ct taxonomiqucs sur les Ba&idio-
Dangeard, " Sur le Pyronema confiuens," Le Botaniste, 9 sene (1003)
(and numerous papers in same journal earlier and later); Ramlow,
" Zur Entwick. von Thelebolus stercoren" Bot. Zeit. (1906) ; Woronin,
*' Uber die Sclcrotienkrankheit der Vaccinccn Becrcn," Mem. de
VAcad. Imp. des Sciences de St-Petersbonrg, 7 scrie, 36 (1888);
Dittrich, "Zur Entwickelungsgeschichte der Ilclvellinvcn," Cohn's
Beilr. z. Biol. d. Pfianten (1892). Pyrenomycetes: Fisch, " Beitr.
z. EntwickelungSRc&chicnte cinigcr Ascomycetcn," Bot. Zeit.
(1882); Frank, Ubcr einigc ncue u. weniger bckannte Pflanz-
krankh.," Landv. Jahrb. Bd. 12 (1883); Ward, " Onygena
equina, a horn-destroying fungus," Phil. Trans. vo|. 191
(1899); Dawson, "On the Biology of Poroniapunctata," Ann. of
Bot. 14 (1900). Tuber ineac. Buchholtz, " Zur Morphologic u.
Systematic der Fungi hypogaci," Ann. Mycol. Bd. I (1903);
Fischer in Engler and Prantl, Die natiirlichen Pfianzenfamilien
(1896). Laboulbeniineac: Thaxter, " Monograph of the Laboul-
bcniaceac," Mem. Amer. Acad, of Arts and Sciences, vol. 12 (1895).
C'redincae: Eriksson and Hcnning, Die Getreidcroste (Stockholm,
1806;; Eriksson, Botan. Cat. vol. 25 (1896); "On the Vegetative
Life of some Urcdincae," Ann. of Bot. (1905); Klebahn, vie xcirt-
teechselnden Rosthilze (Berlin, 1904); Saptn-Trouffy, " Rcchcrches
histologiques sur la famille des Uredinics/ Le Botaniste (1896-1897) ;
Blackman, " On the Fertilization, Alternation of Generations and
General Cytology of the Urcdincae," Ann. of Bot. vol. 18 (1904);
Blackman and Fraser, " Further Studies on the Sexuality of Urc-
dineae," Ann. of Bot. vol. 20 (1906); Christman, "Sexual Repro-
duction of Rusts," Ann. of Bot. vol. 20 (1906): Ward, "The
Brooms and their Rust Fungus," Ann. of Bot. vol. 15 (1901).
Basidiomycetes: Dangeard, "La Rcprod. sexucllc des Basidio-
mycetes, Le Botaniste (1894 and 1900); Maire, " Recherche*
cytntagiques ct taxonomiqucs sur les BflsidiomycitM," Annexe du
Bull, de la Soc. Mycol. de France (1902); Molkr, " Protobasidio-
myecten," Schimper's Mitt, aus den Tropen, Heft 8 (Jena, 1895/;
Nichols, " The Nature and Origin of the Binucleatcd Cells in certain
Basidiomycetes," Trans. Wisconsin Acad, of Sciences, vol. 15
(1905): wager. "The Sexuality of the Funci," Ann. of Bot. 13
(1899): Woronin, " Exobasidium Vaccinii," Verb. Nalurf. Ges. tu
Freiburg, Bd.a (1867). ftrmcHla4\o*\\ta&Wx " ^i^\\w^v^*iYw*«*-
icllcn/Bul. Zeit. YW. \* V>*t*Y. N»atc\, Ctn\. V^^ ^^ *v\ V.v#>C\\
34&
Green
Paras
Pnc.
vol. a
Ward
Proc.
vol. I
Eryrij
Exper
Trans
within
of Be
Plant,
FUNJ— FUR
. 1899).
rasite,
Botany,
Plants/ 1
of Bol.
VioL d.
Zultural
" Phil.
rasitism
10 Ann.
er-Beer
ihrb. f.
lases of
. Univ.
LB.)
(1899]
was.
Gcrmi
Califo
FUNJ (FunniYeh, Fung, Fungha), a very mixed negroid
race, occupying parts of Sennar and the hilly country to the
south between the White and Blue Niks. They traditionally
come from west of the White Nile and are affiliated by some to
the Kordofan Nubas, by others, more justifiably, to the negro
Shilluks. These Funj, who became the dominant race in Sennar
in the 15th century, almost everywhere assimilated the speech,
religion and habits of the Arabs settled in that region. Until
the 19th century they were one off the most powerful of African
peoples in the eastern Sudan. About the end of the 1 5th century
they overthrew the kingdom of Aloa, between the two Niles,
and conquered the neighbouring peoples of the Sudan, Nubia
and even Kordofan. The Funj had mixed much with the Arabs
before their conquests, and had been converted to Islam. But
they were still in many ways savages, for James Bruce (who
traversed the district in 1772) says that their most famous
king, Malek-el-Gahman, preferred human liver to any other
food, and the Belgian traveller E. Pruyssenaere (1826-1864)
found them still performing pagan rites on their sacred Mount
Gula. Ernst Marno declared that as late as 1870 the most
southern branch of the race, the Boruns, a non-Arabic speaking
tribe, were cannibals. The Funj kings were content with
levying tribute on their neighbours, and in this loose way Shcndi,
Berber and Dongola were once tributary. The Arab viziers
gradually absorbed all power, the Funj sovereignty becoming
nominal; and in 1821 the Egyptians easily destroyed the Funj
domination. To-day the Funj are few, and represent no real
type. They are a bright, hospitable folk. Many of them are
skilful surgeons and go far afield in their work. The fcllahin,
indeed, call surgeons " Scnaari " (men of Sennar). Sec further
Sennar and Sudan (Anglo-Egyptian).
FUNKIA, in botany, a genus of rather handsome, hardy,
herbaceous plants belonging to the natural order Liliaceae,
and natives of China and Japan. They are tuberous, with
broadly ovate or heart-shaped leaves and racemes of white or
pale lilac, drooping, funnel-shaped flowers. They are useful
for the borders of a shrubbery, the lawn or rock-work, or may
be grown in pots for the greenhouse. The plants are propagated
by dividing the crowns in autumn or when growth begins in
spring.
FUNNEL (through an O. Fr. founil, found in Breton, from
Lat. injundibulum, that through which anything is poured,
ixom Jundcrc, to pour), a vessel shaped like a cone having a small
tube at the apex through which powder, liquid, &c, may be
easily passed into another vessel with a small opening. The
term is used in metal-casting of the hole through which the
metal is poured into a mould, and in anatomy and zoology of an
infundibulum or funnel-shaped organ. The word is thus used
generally of any shaft or passage to convey light, air or smoke,
as of the chimney of an engine or a steam-boat, or the flue of an
ordinary chimney. It is also used of a shaft or channel in rocks,
and in the decoying of wild-fowl is applied to the cone-shaped
passage leading from a pond and covered with a net, a " funnel-
net," into which the birds are decoyed.
FUR (connected with O. Fr. forre, a sheath or case; so " an
outer covering "). the name specially given to the covering of
the skin in certain animals which arc natives of the colder
climates, lying alongside of another and longer covering, called
the overhair. The fur differs from the overhair, in that it b
soft, silky, curly, downy and barbed lengthwise, while the
overhair -is straight, smooth and comparatively rigid. These
properties of fur constitute its essential value for felting purposes,
and mark its difference from wool and silk; the first, after some
slight preparation by the aid of hot water, readily unites its
fibres into a strong and compact mass; the others can best be
managed by spinning and weaving.
On the living animal the overhair keeps the fur filaments
apart, prevents their tendency to felt, and protects them from
injury — thus securing to the animal an immunity from cold and
storm; while, as a matter of fact, this very overhair, though of
an humbler name, is most generally the beauty and pride of the
pelt, and marks its chief value with the furrier. We arrive
thus at two distinct and opposite uses and values of fur. Re-
garded as useful for felt it is denominated staple fur, while with
respect to its use with and on. the pelt it is called fancy fur.
History. — The manufacture of fur into a felt is of comparatively
modern origin, while the use of fur pelts as a covering for the
body, for the couch, or for the tent is coeval with the earliest
history of all northern tribes and nations. Their use was not
simply a barbarous expedient to defend man from the rigours
of an arctic winter; woven wool alone cannot, in its most perfect
form, accomplish this. The pelt or skin is requisite to keep out
the piercing wind and driving storm, while the fur and overhair
ward off the cold; and " furs " are as much a necessity to-day
among more northern peoples as they ever were in the days of
barbarism. With them the providing of this necessary covering
became the first purpose of their toil; subsequently it grew
into an object of barter and traffic, at first among themselves,
and afterwards with their neighbours of more temperate climes;
and with the latter it naturally became an article of fashion,
of ornament and of luxury. This, in brief, has been the history
of its use in China, Tatary, Russia, Siberia and North America,
and at present the employment of fancy furs among civilised
nations has grown to be more extensive than at any former period.
The supply of this demand in earlier times led to such severe
competition as to terminate in tribal pillages and even national
wars; and in modern times it has led to commercial ventures
on the part of individuals and companies, the account of which,
told in its plainest form, reads like the pages of romance. Fuu
have constituted the price of redemption for royal captives
the gifts of emperors and kings, and the peculiar badge of stale
functionaries. At the present day they vie with precious gems
and gold as ornaments and garniture for wealth and fashion;
but by their abundance, and the cheapness of some varieties,
they have recently come within the reach of men of moderate
incomes. The history of furs can be read in Marco Polo, as
he grows eloquent with the description of the rich skins of the
khan of Tatary; in the early fathers of the church, who lament
their introduction into Rome and Byzantium as an evidence of
barbaric and debasing luxury; in the political history of Russia,
stretching out a powerful arm over Siberia to secure her rich
treasures; in the story of the French occupation of Canada,
and the ascent of the St Lawrence to Lake Superior, and the
subsequent contest to retain possession against England; in
the history of early settlements of New England, New York
and Virginia; in lrving's Astoria; in the records of the Hudson's
Bay Company; and in the annals of the fairs held at Nizhhfy
Novgorod and Leipzig. Here it may suffice to give some account
of the present condition of the trade in fancy furs. 11»e collection
of skins is now chiefly a matter of private enterprise. Few, if
any, monopolies exist.
Natural Supplies.— Vft are dependent upon the Cantfvora,
Rodentia, Ungulata and Marsupialia for our supplies of furs,
the first two classes being by far of the greatest importance. The
Carnivora include bears, wolverines, wolves, raccoons, foxes,
sables, martens, skunks, kolinskis, fitch, fishers, ermines, cats,
sea otters, fur seals, hair seals, lions, tigers, leopards, lynxes,
jackals, &c. The Rodentia include beavers, nutrias, musk-rats
or musquash, marmots, hamsters, chinchillas, hares, rabbits,
squirrels, &c. The Ungulata include Persian, Astrachan .Crimean,
FUR
347
Chinese and Tibet lambs, mouflon, guanaco, goats, pontes, &c.
The Marsupialia include opossums, wallabies and kangaroos.
These, of course, could be subdivided, but for general purposes
of the fur trade the above is deemed sufficient.
The question frequently arises, not only for those interested
in the production of fur apparel, but for those who derive so
much comfort and pleasure from its use, whether the supply of
fur-bearing animals is likely to be exhausted. Although it is
a fact that the demand is ever increasing, and that some of the
rarer animals are decreasing In numbers, yet on the other hand
some kinds of furs are occasionally neglected through vagaries of
fashion, which give nature an opportunity to replenish their
source. These respites are, however, becoming fewer every day,
and what were formerly the most neglected kinds of furs are
becoming more and more sought after. The supply of some of
the most valuable, such as sable, silver and natural black fox,
sea otter and ermine, which are all taken from animals of a more
or less shy nature, does very gradually decrease with persistent
hunting and the encroachment of man upon the districts where
they live, but the climate of these vast regions is so cold and
inhospitable that the probabilities of man ever permanently
inhabiting them in numbers sufficient to scare away or exter-
minate the fur-bearing wild animals is unlikely. Besides these
there are many useful, though commonplace, fur-bearing animals
like mink, musquash, skunk, raccoon, opossum, hamster, rabbit,
hares and moles, that thrive by depredations upon cultivated
land. Some of these are reared upon extensive wild farms.
In addition there are domestic fur-bearing animah, such as
Persian, Astrachan and Chinese lambs, and goats, easily bred
and available.
With regard to the rearing of the Persian lamb, there is a
prevalent idea that the skins of the unborn lamb are frequently
used; this, however, is a mistake. A few such skins have been
taken, but they are toodelicate to be of any service. The youngest,
known as " broadtails," are killed when a few days old, but for
the weil-developed curly fur, the lambs must be six or seven weeks
old. During these weeks their bodies arc covered with leather
so that the fur may develop in close, light and clean curls. The
experiment has been tried of rearing rare, wild, fur-bearing
animals in captivity, and although climatic conditions and food
have been precisely as in their natural environment, the fur has
been poor in quality and bad in colour, totally unlike that taken
from animals in the wild state. The sensation of fear or the re-
striction of movement and the obtaining of food without exertion
evidently prevent the normal development of the creature.
In mountainous districts in the more temperate zones some
good supplies are found. Chinchillas and nutrias are obtained
from South America, whence come also civet cats, jaguars,
ocelots and pumas. Opossums and wallabies, good useful furs,
come from Australia and New Zealand. The martens, foxes
and otters imported from southern Europe and southern Asia,
are very mixed in quality, and the majority are poor compared
with those of Canada and the north.
Certain characteristics in the skin reveal to the expert from
what section of territory they come, but in classifying them it
is considered sufficient to mention territories only.
Some of the poorer sorts of furs, such as hamster, marmot,
Chinese goals and lambs, Tatar ponies, weasels, knluga, various
monkeys, antelopes, foxes, otters, jackals and others from the
wanner zones, which until recently were neglected on account
of their inferior quality of colour, by the better class of the trade,
are now being deftly dressed or dyed in Europe and America,
and good effects are produced, although the lack of quality when
compared with the better furs from colder climates which possess
full top hair, close underwool and supple leathers, is readily
manifest. It is only the pressure of increasing demand that makes
marketable hard pelts with harsh brittle hair of nondescript
hue, and these would, naturally, be the last to attract the notice
of dealers.
As it is impossible that we shall ever discover any new fur-
bearing animals other than those we know, it behoves responsible
authorities to enforce close seasons and restrictions, as to the
sex and age, in the killing for the purpose of equalizing the
numbers of the catches. As evidence of indiscriminate slaughter
the case of the American buffaloes may be cited. At one time
thousands of buffalo skins were obtainable and provided material
for most useful coats and rugs for rough wear in cold regions,
but to-day only a herd or so of the animals remain, and in
captivity.
The majority of animals taken for their fur are trapped or
snared, the gun being avoided as much as possible in order that
the coat may be quite undamaged. Many weary hours are
spent in setting baits, traps and wires, and, frequently, when
the hunter retraces his steps to collect the quarry it is only to
find it gone, devoured by some large animal that has visited
his traps before him. After the skins have been carefully
removed— the sooner after death the better for the subsequent
condition of the fur — they are lightly tacked out, pelt outwards,
and, without being exposed to the sun or close contact with a
fire, allowed to dry in a hut or shady place where there is some
warmth or movement of air. With the exception of sealskins,
which are pickled in brine, all raw skins come to the various
trade markets simply dried like this.
Quality and Colour.— The best fur is obtained by killing
animals when the winter is at its height and the colder the season
the better its quality and colour. Fur skins taken out of season
are indifferent, and the hair is liable to shed itself freely; a
good furrier will, however, reject such faulty specimens in the
manufacturing. The finest furs are obtained from the Arctic
and northern regions, and the lower the latitude the less full and
silky the fur, till, at the torrid zone, fur gives place to harsh hair
without any underwool. The finest and closest wools are
possessed by the amphibious Carnivora and Rodentia, viz. seals,
otters, beavers, nutrias and musquash, the beauty of which is
not seen until after the stiff water or top hairs are pulled out
or otherwise removed. In this class of animal the underneath
wool of the belly is thicker than that of the back, while the
opposite is true of those found on the land. The sea otter, one
of the richest and rarest of furs, especially for men's wear, is an
exception to this unhairing process, which it does not require,
the hair being of the same length as the wool, silky and bright,
quite the reverse of the case of other aquatic animals.
Of sealskins there are two distinct classes, the fur seals and the
hair seals. The latter have no growth of fur under the stiff top
hair and arc killed, with few exceptions (generally of the marbled
seals), on account of the oil and leather they yield. The best
fur seals are found off the Alaska coast and down as far south
as San Francisco.
It is found that in densely wooded districts furs are darker in
colour than in exposed regions, and that the quality of wool and
hair is softer and more silky than those from bare tracts of country,
where nature exacts from its creatures greater efforts to secure
food, thereby developing stronger limbs and a consequently
coarser body covering.
As regards density of colour the skunk or black marten has
the blackest fur, and some cats of the domestic kind, specially
reared for their fur, are nearly black. Black bears have occasion-
ally very black coats, but the majority have a brownish under-
wool. The natural black fox is a member of the silver fox
family and is very rare, the skins bringing a high price. Most
silver foxes have dark necks and in some the dark shade runs a
quarter, half-way, or three-quarters, or even the whole length
of the skin, but it is rather of a brownish hue. Some Russian
sables arc of a very dense bluish brown almost a black, which is
the origin undoubtedly of the term " sables," while some, from
one district in particular, have a quantity of silver hairs, evenly
interspersed in the fur, a peculiarity which has nothing to do
with age. The best sea otters have very dark coats which are
highly esteemed, a few with silver hairs in parts; where these
are equally and evenly spread the skins are very valuable. Otters
and beavers that run dark in the hair or wool are more valuable
than the paler ones, the wools of which are frequently touched
with a chemical to produce a golden shade. This is also done
with nutrias after unhairing. The darker sorts of mink,
3+8
FUR
musquash, raccoon and wolverine axe more valuable than the
paler skins.
Collective Supplies and Sales. — There are ten large American
and Canadian companies with extensive systems for gathering
the annual hauls of skins from the far-scattered trappers. These
are the Hudson's Bay Co., Russian Fur Co., Alaska Commercial
Co., North American Commercial Co., Russian Sealskin Co.,
Harmony Fur Co., Royal Greenland Fur Co., American Fur Co.,
Missouri Co. and Pacific Co. Most of the raw skins are forwarded
to about half-a-dozen brokers in London, who roughly sort them
in convenient lots, issuing catalogues to the traders of the world,
and after due time for examination of the goods by intending
purchasers, the lots are sold by public auction. The principal
sales of general furs are held in London in January and March,
smaller offerings being made in June and October; while the
bulk of fur sealskins is sold separately in December. The
Hudson's Bay Co.'s sales take place before the others, and, as
no reserves are placed on any lot, the results are taken as exactly
indicating current values. While many buyers from America
and Russia arc personally in attendance at the sales, many more
are represented by London and Leipzig agents who buy for them
upon commission. In addition to the fur skins coming from
North America vast numbers from Russia, Siberia, China, Japan,
Australia and South America are offered during the same periods
at public auction. Fairs are also held in Siberia, Russia and
Germany for the distribution of fur skins as follows:—
January: Frankfort-on-the- Small collection of pro-
Oder vincial produce, such
as otter, fox, fitch and
marten.
February: frbit, Siberia • ♦ Genera) Russian furs.
Easter: Leipzig, Germany General furs.
August : Nuhniy Novgorod, Persian lamb and general
Russia furs.
August: Kiakhta. Siberia . Chinese furs and ermine.
December: Ishim, Siberia . Chiefly squirrels.
Of course there are many transactions, generally in the cheaper
and coarser kinds of furs, used only in central Europe, Russia
and Asia which in no way interest the London market, and there
are many direct consignments of skins from collectors in America
and Russia to London, New York and Leipzig merchants. But
the bulk of the fine furs of the world is sold at the large public
trade auction sales in London. The chief exceptions are the
Persian and Astrachan lambs, which are bought at the Russian
fairs, and are dressed and dyed in Leipzig, and the ermine and
Russian squirrels, which are dressed and manufactured into
finings either in Russia or Germany before offered for sale to the
wholesale merchants or manufacturers.
The annual collection of fur skins varies considerably in
quantity according to the demand arid to the good or bad climatic
conditions of the season; and it is impossible to give a complete
record, as many skins are used in the country of their origin or
exported direct to merchants. But a fairly exact statement of
the numbers sold in the great public trade auction sales in
London during the year 1905-1006 is herewith set out.
Year ending 3 1st of March 1906. Total Number
of Skins
Badger 28,634
Badger, Japanese 6,026
Bear 18,576
Beaver 80.514
Cat, Civet 157.015
Cat, House 126,703
,. Wild 31,253
Chinchilla (La Plata), known also as Bastard . 43.578
.„ Peruvian finest 5.603
Deer, Chinese 124.355
Ermine 40,641
Fisher ' 5.949
Fitch 77.578
Fox, Blue 1.893
„ Cross 10,276
.'. ?rey 59.561
„ Japanese 814*9
., Kit 4,023
„ Red 150,061
„ Silver 2,510
H White a?u6l
Goats, Chinese 261,190
Hares
Kangaroo
Kid, Chinese linings and skins equal to .
Kolinsky
Lamb, Mongolian linings and skins equal to
„ Slink
. ,. Tibet
Leopard .
Lyi
Ma
armot, linings and skins equal to
4M56
7."5
5.080,047
114.251
314.072
167.372
794.»30
88322
1,600.600
Marten, Baum 4.573
„ Japanese 16,46!
„ Stone 12,939
Mink. Canadian and American .... 299.254
„ Japanese 36C373
Mouflon . 23,594
Musk-rat or Musquash, Brown .... 5,126.339
Black . . . . 41.78*
Nutria . 82,474
Opossum, American 902,065
„ Australian 4,161.685
Otter, River 21,235
» Sea . 522
Raccoon 310,712
Sable, Canadian and American .... 97.282
„ Japanese 556
„ Russian 26,399
Seals, Fur 77,000
•• , Hair 31.943
Skunk 1,068,408
Squirrel 194.596
„ Linings each averaging 126 skins. 1,982,736
Tigei 392
Wallaby 60.956
Wolf. 56,642
Wolverine 1,726
Wombat 193.625
A brief account of the different qualities of the pelts, with
some general remarks as to their customary uses, follows. The
prices quoted are subject to constant fluctuation and represent
purely trade prices for bulk, and it should be explained that the
very great variations are due to different sizes, qualities and
colours, and moreover are only first cost, before skins are dressed
and prepared. These preparations are in some cases expensive,
and there is generally a considerable percentage of waste. The
prices cannot be taken as a guide to the wholesale price of a
single and finished skin, but simply as relative value.
The fullest and darkest skins of each kind are the most valu-
able, and, in cases of bluish grey or white, the fuller, clearer and
brighter are the more expensive. A few albinos are found in
every species, but whatever their value to a museum, they are of
little commercial importance. Some odd lots of skins arrive
designated simply as " sundries," so no classification is possible,
and this will account for the absence of a few names of skins of
which the imports are insignificant in quantity, or are received
direct by the wholesale merchants.
Names, Qualities and Uses of Pelts. 1
Lambs, below.
: 1 f t . America n sorts have coarse thick under.
or stone colour with a growth of longer black
t 4 in. long; a very durable but clumsy fur.
ported to France, Spain and Italy, and used far
ilitary purposes. Asiatic, including Japanese.
r. Russian and Prussian kinds are c o a r s e r aad
Etly for brush trade. Value 6d. to IQ*.
N.— Sec Wombat, below.
!ze 6X3 ft. Fine dark brown undcrwool with
ing top hair 4 in. long. Cubs arc nearly as lone
Mily about half the sice and not only softer ana
advantage of being very much lighter in pelt
1 North America, the best come from Canada,
are costly and are used for military caps, boas, muffs, trimmings,
carriage rugs and coachmen's capes, and the fur wears exceedingly
well. Value 17s. 6d. to 86s. Those from East India and warn
climates are harsh, poor and only fit for floor rugs.
Bear. Brown.— Size 6X3 ft. Similar in quality to the black,
but far more limited in number; the colours range from light yellow
to a rich dark brown. The best come from Hudson Bay territory
and are valuable. Use d for muffs, trimmings, boas, and carriage
1 The measurements given arc from nose to root of tail of average
large sixes after the dressing process, which has a shrinking tendency.
The depths of fur quoted are the greatest, but there are plenty dt
good useful skins possessing a ksser depth.
FUR
34-9
rugs. Inferior sorts, almost grizzly in effect and some very oak.
are found in Europe and Asia and are mostly used locally. In India
there is a species called Isabellinc bear, which was formerly imported
to Great Britain, but docs not now arrive in any quantity worth
mentioning. Value 10s. Gd. to 60s., Isabclline sort ios. 6d. to 78s.
Bear, Grizzly.— Size 8"Xa ft. Coarse hair, heavy pelt, mostly
dark yellowish and brown colours, only found in western parts of
United States. Russia and Siberia. Used as carnage rugs and Hoor
rugs, most durable for latter purpose and of fine effect. They are
about half the value of brown bear. Value 15s. to 54s.
Bear, Isabelline. — See Bear, Brawn, above
Bear, White.— Size 10X5 ft- The largest of all bears. Short
close hair except on flanks, colour white to vcllow An inhabitant
of the Arctic circle, best from Greenland Used for floor rugs, very
durable : and very white specimens arc valuable Value 20s. to 520s.
Beaver. Size 3X2 ft. The largest of rodents, it possesses a
close underwoul of bluish-brown hue, nearly an inch in depth, with
coarse, bright, black or reddish-brown top hair. 3 in long. Found
widely in North America. After being un haired the darkest wools
are the most valuable, although many people prefer the bright,
lighter brown tones. Used (or collars, cuffs, boas, muffs, trimmings,
coat linings and carriage aprons, and is of a most durable nature, in
addition to having a rich and good appearance. Value 10* to
39s. 6d.
Broadtail.— See Lambs, below.
Caracal.— A small lynx from India, the fur very poor, seldom
imported.
Caracul.— See Coats and Lambs, below.
Cat, Civet. — Size 9X4I in., short, thick and dark underwool
with silky black top hair with irregular and unique white markings.
It is similar to skunk, but is much lighter in weight, softer and less
full, without any disagreeable odour. Used for coat linings it is
very warm and durable. A few come from China, but the fur is
yellowish-grey, slightly spotted and worth little. Value is. id.
to is. 1 id.
Cat, House, &c— 18X9 in., mostly black and dark brown,
imported from Holland, Bavaria, America and Russia, where they
are reared for their coats- The best, from Holland, arc used for coat
linings Although in colour, weight and warmth they are excellent,
the Uir is apt to become loose and to fall off with friction of wear.
The black are known as genet, although the true genet is a spotted
wild cat. Wild sorts of the tabby order are coarser, and not so good
and silky in effect as when domestically reared. Value of the
black sons 2d. to 3s. Wild od. to 14s. Some small wild cats, very
poor flat fur of a pale fawn colour with yellow spots, are imported
from Australia and used for linings. Value $\<\. to is. id.
Chfetaii.— Size of a small leopard and similar in colour, but has
black spots in lieu of rings. Only a few arc now imported, which arc
used for mats. Value zs. 6d. to 18s.
Chinchilla. Peruvian and Bolivian.— Size 12X7 in., fur 1 to
1 J in. deep. Delicate blue -grey with black shadings, one of nature's
most beautiful productions, though not a durable one. Used for
ladies' coats, stoles, muffs, hats and trimmings. Yearly becoming
scarcer and most costly. Value 8s. Gd. to 56s. 8d.
Chinchilla, La Plata, incorrectly named and known in the trade
as " bastard chinchilla." size 9X4 in., in a similar species, but owing
to lower altitudes and warmer climatic conditions of habitation
is smaller, with shorter and less beautiful fur, the underwool colour
being darker and the top rolour less pure. Used exactly as the
better kind, and the picked skins arc most effective. As with the
best sort it is not serviceable for constant wear. Value 4s. zd to
27s. 6d.
Chinchillone.— Size 13 X8 in., obtained also from South America.
Fur is longer and weaker and poorer and yellower than chinchilla.
Probably a crossbred animal, very limited importation. Value
3s. 6d. to 1 6s. 8d.
Deer, Chinese and East Indian.— Small, light, pelted skins,
the majority of which are used for mats. Reindeer and other
varieties are of little interest for use other than trophy mats.
Thousands are taken for the leather trade. Value of Chinese is. 2d.
to is. 6d. each.
Doc. — The only dogs that arc used in the fur trade in civilized
countries arc those imported from China, which are heavy and
coarse, and only used in the cheaper trade, chiefly for rugs. Value
6d to is.
Dog Wolf— See Wolf, below.
Ermine.— Size i?Xz} in. Underwool short and even, with a shade
longer top hair. Pelt light and close in texture, and durable. In
the height of winter the colour is pure white with exception of the
tip of tail, which is quite black. Supplies are obtained from Siberia
and America. Best are from Ishim in Siberia. Used for cloak
finings, stoles, muffs and trimmings, also for embellishment of
British state, parliamentary and legal robes. When this fur is
symmetrically spotted with black lamb pieces it is styled miniver,
in which form it is used at the grand coronation functions of British
sovereigns. Value is 3d. to 8s. 6d.
Fishkr.— Size 30X12 in., tail 12 to 18 in. long, the largest of the
martens; has a dark shaded deep underwool with fine, glossy, dark
and strong top hair 2 in. or more long Best obtained from British
America. The tails are almost black and make up most handsomely
into trimmings, muffs, ftc. Tails worked separately in these forms are
as rich and fine and more durable than any other fur suitable for a
like purpose. The fur of the skin itself is something like a dark
silky raccoon, but is not as attractive as the tails. Value 12s. to 46s.
Fitch. — Size 12X3 in., of the marten species, also known as the
pole cat. Yellow underwool | in. deep, black top hair. 1 \ to 1 J in.
long, very fine and open in growth, and not close as in martens.
Largest skins come from Denmark, Holland and Germany. The
Russian are smaller, but more silky and, as now dyed, make a cheap
and fair substitute for sable. They are excellent for linings of
ladies' coats, being of light weight and fairly strong in the pelt.
English mayors' and civic officials' robes are frequently trimmed
with this fur in lieu of sable. Value of the German variety 2s. to
5s. 6d. and of the Russian 7d. to is. ad.
Fox. Blue.— Size 24X8 in. Underwool thick and long Top
hair fine and not so plentiful as in other foxes Found in Alaska,
Hudson Bay territory. Archangel and Greenland. Although called
blue, the colour is a slaty or drab tone. Those from Archangel are
more silky and of a smoky bluish colour and are the most valuable.
These are scarce and consequently dear. The white foxes that are
dyed smoke and celestial blue are brilliant and totally unlike the
browner shades of this fox. Value 34s. to 195s.
Fox, Common. — The variation of size and quality is considerable,
and the colour is anything from grey to red. In Great Britain the
animal is now only regarded for the sport it provides. On the
European continent, however, some hundreds of thousands of skins,
principally German, Russian and Norwegian, are sold annually,
lor home use, and for dveing and exportation, chiefly to the United
States. The qualities do not compare with those species found in
North America and the Arctic circle. The Asiatic, African and
South American varieties are. with the exception of those taken in
the mountains, poorly furred and usually brittle and therefore of no
great service. No commercial value can be quoted.
Fox, Cross. — Size 20x7 in., are about as large as the silver and
generally have a pale yellowish or orange lone with some silvery
points and a darkish cross marking on the shoulders. Some are very
similar to the pale red fox from the North-West of America and a
few are exceptionally targe. The darkest and best come from
Labrador and Hudson Bay, and the ordinary sorts from the north-
west of the United States and, as with silver and other kinds, the
quality is inferior when taken from warmer latitudes. Value 10s. od.
to 60s.
Fox. Grey.— Size 27X10 in. Has a close dark drab underwool
with yellowish grizzly, grey, regular and coarse top hair The
majority used for the trade come from Virginia and the southern
and western parts of the United States. Those from the west are
larger than the average, with more fur of a brighter tone The fur
is fairly serviceable for carriage rugs, the leather being stout, but its
harshness of quality and nondescript colour docs not contribute to
make it a favourite. Value od. to 4s. od.
Fox, Japanese —See Fox, Red. and Raccoon, below.
Fox, Kit — Size 20X6 in. The underwool i* short and soft, as
is also the top hair, which is of very pale gTey mixed with some
yellowish-white hair. It is the smallest of foxes, and is found in
Canada and the northern section of the United States. It is similar
in colour and quality to the prairie fox and to many kinds from the
warmer zones, such as from Turkey, eastern Asia and elsewhere.
Value is 3d. to $s 6d
Fox. Red. — Size 24X8 in., though a few kinds arc much larger.
The underwool is long and soft and the hair plentiful and strong.
It is found widely in the northern parts of America and in smaller
numbers south of the United States, also in China, Japan and
Australia. The colours vary from pale yellowish to a dark red,
some being very brilliant. Those of Kamchatka are rich and fine in
quality. Farther north, especially near the sea, the fur is coarse.
Where the best coloured skins are not used for carriage rugs they are
extensively dyed, and badger and other white hairs are inserted
to resemble silver fox. They are also dyed a sable colour. The
skins, being the strongest 01 foxes', both in the fur and pelt, are
serviceable. The preparations in imitation of the natural black and
silver sorts are very good and attractive. Value is. to 41s.
Fox, Silver. Size 30X10 in. Underwool close and fine. Top
tiair black to silvery, 3 in. long. The fur upon the necks usually
runs dark, almost black, and in some cases the fur is black halfway
down the length of the skin, in rarer cases three-quarters of the
length and. in the most exceptional instances, the whole length,
and when this is the case they arc known as " Natural Black Foxes
and fetch enormous prices. The even silvery sorts are highly
esteemed, and the fur is one of the most effective and precious.
The finest arc taken in Labrador. The farther south they are found,
the poorer and coarMT the fur. The brush has invariably a white
tip. Value £1 to £320
Fo\. White. — Size 20x7 in. Animals of this species are generally
small in size and inhabit the extreme northern sections of Hudson
Bay. Newfoundland. Greenland, Labrador and Siberia. The
Canadian are silky in nature and inclined to a creamy colour, while
the Siberian are more woolly and rather whiter Those taken in
central Asia near or in Chinese territory are poorer and yellowish.
The underwool in all sorts is generally 01 a bluish-grey tone, but the
top hair in the depth of winter is usually full enough in quantity to
35°
FUR
hide any such variation. Those skins In which the underwool Is
quite white are rare and much mure expensive. In summer speci-
mens of this species, as with other white furred animals, have slightly
discoloured coats. The skin* that are not perfectly white arc dyed
jet bl.ick. dark or light smoke, violet-blue, blue-grey, and also in
imitatiun of the drab shades of the natural blue, value i8s. to 66s.
CtNET. — Size 10X4 in. The genet proper is a small white spotted
cat found in Europe, but the quantity is too smalt to be of commercial
interest. The njme has been adopted for the black cats used so
much in the trade. (See Cats, above.) Value is. to 6s. 6d.
Goats.— Size varies greatly. The European, Arabian and East
Indian kinds arc seldom used for rugs, the skins are chiefly dressed
as leather for books and furniture, and the kids for boots and gloves,
and the finer wool and hair are woven into various materials. Many
from Russia are dyed black for floor and carriage rugs; the hair is
brittle, with poor underwool and not very durable; the cost, however,
is small. The Chinese export thousands of similar skins in black,
grey and while, usually ready dressed and made into rugs of two
skins each. A great many are dyed black and brown, in imitation
of bear, and are used largely in the western parts of the United
States and Canada for sleigh and carriage rugs. Many are used for
their leather. Thousands of the kids arc also dyed black and worked
into crobb-shaped pieces, in which shape they arc largely exported
to Germany, France, Great Britain and America, and sold by the
retail as caracal, kid or caracul. The grey ones arc in good demand
for motor coats. The word caracul has been adopted from the
Turkish and signifies black-cared. See also Lambs, caracul. Value
of Chinese white 3s. 6d. to 6s. 6d.; grey, 4s. to 6s. od.
The Angora from the heights of central Asia Minor has curly,
fleecy, silky, white wool, 4 to 7 in. long. The fur is not used in Great
Britain, as formerly, and the greater quantity, known as mohair,
is now imported for purposes of weaving. This species of goat was
some years since introduced into Cape Colony, but its wool is not
so good as the Asiatic breed. Good business, however, is done with
the product, but chiefly for leather. Value 4s. to lis. 6d.
The Mongolian goat has a very soft silk underwool. and after the
long top hair is removed it is dressed and imported and erroneously
named mouflon. The colour is a light fawn, but it is so pale that it
lends itself to be dyed any colour. It was popular some years since
in the cheaper trade, but it is not now much seen in England. Value
2s. to 6s.
The Tibet goat is similar to the Angora in the fineness of its wool,
and many are used in the making of cashmere shawls. The Tibet
lamb so largely imported and used for children's wear is often mis-
called Tibet goal. Value js. to 7s. 6d.
Guanaco.— Size 30 X 15 in. Is a species of goat found in Pata-
gonia and other parts of South America. It has a very long neck and
exceedingly soft woolly fur of a light reddish-fawn colour with very
white flankj. It is usually imported in small quantities, native
dressed, and ready made into rugs. The dressing is hard and
brittle. If the skins are dressed in Europe they afford a very com-
fo; table rug. though a very marked one in effect. They have a
similar wool to the vicuna, but coarser and redder; both are largely
used in South America. Value is. to 4s. 6d.
Hamster.— Size 8X3I in. A destructive rodent, is found in
great numbers in Russia and Germany. The fur b very flat and poor,
of a yellowish pale brown with a little marking ot black. Being
of a light weight it is used for linings. Value 3d. to is.
Hake.— Size 24X9 in. The common hare of Europe docs not
much interest the furrier, the fur being chiefly used by makers of
hatters' felt. The white hares, however, of Russu, Siberia and other
regions in the Arctic circle arc very largely used in the cheaper trade
of Europe, America and the British colonies. The fur is of the
whitest when killed in winter, and that upon the flanks of the animal
is very much longer t han that upon its back. The flanks are usually
cut off and made into muffs and stoics. The hair is, however, brittle
and is not at all durable. This fur is dyed jet black and various
shades of brown and grey, and manufactured into articles for the
small drapers and for exportation. The North American hares
are also dyed black and brown and used in the same way. Value
of white 2d. to 5d.
Jackal.— Size 2 to 3 ft. long. Is found in India and north and
south Africa. Indian are light brown and reddish, those from the
Cape arc dark grey and rather silvery. Few are imported. Fur
generally poor and L — L — '" — -■*-*-'- ' T »#_•—
is. to js. 6d.
' harsh, only suitable for carriage rugs. Value
Jaguar.— Size 7 to to ft. long. Is found in Mexico and British
Honduras. The markings arc 'an irregular ring formation with a
spot in the centre. Leopards have rings only and cheetahs solid
spots. Suitable only for hearthrugs. Supply very limited. Value
5s. to 45s.
Kaluga.— See Souslik, below.
Kangaroo. — The sizes vary considerably, some being huge,
others quite small. The larger varieties, viz. the red and the great,
do not usually interest furriers, the fur being harsh andpoor without
underwool. They are tanned for the leather trade. The sorts used
for carriage aprons, coat linings and the outside of motor coats
include: blue kangaroo, bush kangaroo, bridled kangaroo, wallaroo,
yellow kangaroo, rock wallaby, swamp wallaby and short-tailed
wallaby. Many of the swamp sort arc dyed to imitate skunk and
look well. Generally the colours are yellowish or brown. Some are
dark brown as in the swamp, which being strong are suitable for
motor coats. The rock wallabies arc soft and woolly and often of a
pretty bluish tone, and make moderately ureful carriage rugs and
perambulator aprons. The redder and browner sorts are also good
lor rugs as they are thick in the pelt. On the European continent
many of these are dyed. The best of the lighter weights are fre-
quently insufficiently strong in the hair to stand the friction of wear
in a coat lining. Value, kangaroo 9d. to 3s., wallaby 1 Jd. to 5s. 3d.,
wallaroo is. to 5s. 6d.
Kids.— See Coats, above.
Kolinsky.— Size 12X2I in. Is one of the marten tribe. The
underwool is short and rather weak, but regular, as is also the top
hair; the colour is usually yellow. They have been successfully
dyed and used as a substitute for sable. They arc found in Siberia,
Amoor, China and Japan, but the best arc from Siberia. They arc
light in weight and therefore suitable for linings of coats. The tails
are used for artists' " sable " brushes. The fur has often been
designated as red or Tatar sable. Value is. 6d. to 4s. 6d.
Lambs.— The sorts that primarily interest the fur trade in Europe
and America arc those from south Russia, Persia and Afghanistan,
which are included under the following wholesale or retail com-
mercial terms: Persian lamb, broadtail, astrachan, Shiraz, Bokharau
and caracul lamb. With the public the general term astrachan is an
old one, embracing all the above curly sorts; the flatter kinds, as broad-
tail and caracul lamb, have always been named separately. The
Persian lambs, size 18X9 in., are the finest and the best of them.
When dressed and dyed they should have regular, close and bright
curl, varying from a small to a very large one, and if of equal su*,
regularity, tightness and brightness, the value is comparatively a
matter of fancy. Those that are dull and loose, or very coarse and
flat in the curl, arc of far less market value.
All the above enumerated lambs arc naturally a rusty black or
brown, and with very few exceptions arc dyed a jet black. Lustre,
however, cannot be imparted unless the wool was originally of a
silky nature. Broadtails, size 10X5 in., are the very young of the
Persian sheep, and arc killed before the wool has time to develop
beyond the flat wavy state which can be best compared to a piece
of moire silk. They are naturally exceedingly light in weight, and
those that are of an even pattern, possessing a lustrous sheen, are
costly. There is, notwithstanding, a great demand for these from
the fashionable world, as not only are they very effective, but being
so flat in the wool the figure of the wearer can be shown as perfectly
as in a garment made of silk. It cannot be regarded as an economical
fur, as the pelt is too delicate to resist hard wear.
Persian Lamb price 12s. 6d. to 25s.
Broadtail „ 10s. „ 35s.
Astrachan, Shiraz and Bokharan Iambs, size 22 by 9 in., are of a
coarser, looser curl, and chiefly used for coat linings, while the
Persians are used for outside of garments, collars, cuffs, stoles, muff*,
hats and trimmings and gloves. The so-called caracul lambs, size
12X6 in., arc the very young of the astrachan sheep, and the pick
of them are almost as effective as broadtails, although less fine in the
texture. Sec also remarks as to caracul kid under Coats, Above.
Astrachan price is. to 5s. 6d.
Caracul Lamb „ as. 6d „ 10*. 6d.
Shiraz „ 4s. 6d „ 10s.
Bokharan „ is. 6d „ 3s. 6d.
Grey Iambs, size 24 X 10 in., arc obtained from the Crimea and known
in the trade as " crimmers." They arc of a similar nature to the
caracul lambs, but looser in curl, ranging from a very light to a
dark grey. The best arc the pale bluish greys, and arc chiefly used
for ladies' coats, stoles, muffs and hats. Price 2s. to 6s. Mongolian
lambs, size 24X 15 in., are of a short wavy loose curl, creamy white
colour, and arc usually exported from China dressed, the majority
being ready-made into cross-shaped coats or linings. They are used
principally for linings of good evening wraps for ladies. Price is.
to 2s. 6d. Slink Iambs come from South America and China. The
former are very small and generally those that arc stillborn. They
have a particularly thin pelt with very close wool of minute curl.
The China sorts arc much larger. The smallest are used for gkne
linings and the others for opera cloak linings. Price is. to 6s. 6d.
Leopard.— Size 3 to 6 ft. long. There arc several kinds, the chief
being the snow or ounce, Chinese, Bengal, Persian. East Indian asd
African. The first variety inhabit the Himalayas and arc beautifully
covered with a deep soft fur quite long compared to the flat hank
hair of the Bengal sort. The colours are pale orange and white with
very dark markings, a strong contrast making a tine effect. Most
artists prize these skins above all others. The Chinese are of s
medium orange brown colour, but full in fur. The East Indian are
less full and not so dark. The Bengal are dark and medium in colour,
short and hard hair, but useful for floor rugs, as they do not hold the
dust like the fuller and softer hair of the kinds previously named.
They arc also used for drummers' aprons and saddle cloths in the
Indian army. The African are small with pale lemon colour ground*
very doatrly marked with black spots on the skin, the strong con-
trast making a pleasing effect. Occasionally, where something very
marked is wanted, skating jackets and carriage aprons are nude
FUR
351
from the softest and flattest of skins, but usually they are made into
settee cover*, floor rugs and foot muffs. Value 2%. to 40s..
Lion.— Size 5 to 6 ft. long. These skins are found in Africa,
Arabia and part of India, and are every year becoming scarcer.
They are only used for floor rugs, and the males are more highly
esteemed on account of the set-off of the mane. Value, lions' £10
to £100; Ik
Lynx.— The undcrwool is thinner than fox, but
the top ha nd flowing, a in. long, of a pale grey,
slightly mo talcs and dark spots. The fur upon the
flanks is lo 'ith very pronounced markings of dark
spots, and kin is generally worked separately from
toe rest am for gown trimmings. Where the colour
is of a sane le the value is far less than where it is
of a bluish habit North America as far south as
California, Sweden. Those from the Hudson Ray
district ant best and are very simitar. Those taken
in Central Asia are mostly used locally. For attire the skins manu-
factured in Europe arc generally dyed black or brown, in which
state it has a similar appearance to dyed fox. but having less thick
underwool and finer hair flows freely. The finest skins when dyed
black are used very largely in America in place of the dyed black
fox so fashionable lor mourning wear in Great Britain and France.
The British Hussar busbies are made of the dark brown lynx, and it
is the free silky easy movement of the fur with the least disturbance
in the atmosphere that gives it such a pleasing effect. It is used
for rugs in its natural state and also in Turkey as trimmings for
garments. Value 13*. 6d. to 56s.
Lynx Cat or Bay Lynx. — Is about half the size and depth of fur
of a lynx proper, and inhabits the central United States. It is a
flat and reddish fur compared to the lynx and is suitable for cheap
carriage aprons. A few come from Canada and arc of better quality.
Value ss. to 15s.
Marmot.— Size 18 X 12 in. Is a rodent and is found inconsiderable
numbers in the south of Prussia. The fur is a yellowish brown and
rather harsh and brittle and has no undcrwool. Since, however.
the value of all good furs has advanced, dyers and manufacturers
have made very successful efforts with this fur. The Viennese have
been particularly successful, and their method has been to dye the
skins a good brown and then not put in the dark stripes, which
exist in sable ami mink, until the garment or article is finished, thus
obtaining as perfectly symmetrical effects as if the articles were
made of small skins instead of large ones. Mar.nots arc also found
in North America, Canada and China; the best, however, come from
Russia. It should always be a cheap fur, having so few good qualities
to recommend it. Value 9d. to 2s. Cd.
Marten, American.— See SaUc, below.
Marten, Baum.— Size 16X5 in. Is sometimes called the pane
marten, and is found in quantity in the wooded and mountainous
districts of Russia, Norway, Germany and Switzerland. It possesses
a thick underwool with strong top hair, and ranges from a pale to a
dark bluish brown. The best, from Norway, arc very durable and
of good appearance and an excellent substitute for American sable.
The tails when split into two or three, with small strips of narrow
tape so as to separate the otherwise dense fur, formerly made very
handsome sets of trimmings, tics and muffs, and the probabilities
are. as with other fashions, such use will have its period of revival.
Value 6s. to 85s.
Marten, Black.— See Skunk, below.
Marten, Japanese.— Size 16X5 in. Is of a woollv nature with
olour. It is dyed for
not an attractive fur
and fresh appearance,
except where economy
ar to the baum; the
vhitc and the top hair
;y and stony districts.
in their natural state
>loured skins are dyed
rk and valuable sables
that can be purchased
been worked, in the
arten, ns sets of trim-
are found in Russia,
* and France. The
The Asiatic sorts arc
fed. There are many
poor to interest the
•us class and is found
. lina and Japan. The
underwool is short, close and even, as is also the top hair, which is
very strong. The best skins are very dark and are obtained from
Nova Scotia. In the central states of America the colour is a good
brown, but in the north-west and south-west the fur is coarse and
generally pale. It is very durable for linings, and is an economical
substitute for sable for coats, capes, boas and trimmings. Values
have greatly increased, and the fur possessing good qualities as to
colour and durability will doubtless always be in good request-
The Russian species is dark hut flat and poor in quality, and the
Chinese and Japanese arc so pale that they are invariably dyed.
These, however, are of very inferior nature. Value of American
js. 3d. to 40s., Japanese 3d. to 2s. 3d.
Mole.— Size 3 J* 2 * in. Moles are plentiful in the British Isles
id owing to their lovely velvety coats of exquisite
to the dearness of other furs are much in demand.
is cheap in itself, the expense of dressing and working
skins is considerable, and they possess the unique
optional colour with little weight of pelt ; the quality
friction is, however, so slight as to make them cxpen-
rhe best are the dark blue from the Fen district of
in England. Value J<1. to 2d.
Lambs. — See Lambs, above.
Monkey, Black.— Size 18X10 in. Among the spedes of monkeys
only one interests to any extent the fur trade, and that is the black
monkey taken on the west coast of Africa (Cdobus salanas). The
hair is very long, very black ami bright with no underwool, and the
white pelt of the base of the hair, by reason of the great contrast of
colour, is very noticeable. The skins were in 1850 very fashionable
in England for stoics, muffs and trimmings, and in America also as
recently as 1890. They arc now mostly bought for Germany and
the continent. Value 6d. to is. 6d.
Moufi on.— Size 30X1$ in. Is a sheep found in Russia and
Corsica and now very little in demand, and but few arc imported
into Great Britain. Many Mongolian goats with the long hairs
pulled out arc sold as mouflon. Value 4s. to 10s. 6d.
Musk-Ox.— Size 6X3, ft. Those animals have a dense coat of
fine. long brown wool, with very long dark brown hair on the head,
flanks and tail, and, in the centre, a peculiar pafe oval marking.
There is no other fur that is so thick, and it is eminently suitable
for sleigliing rugs, for which purpose it is highly prized in Canada.
The musk-ox inhabits the north part of Greenland and part of
Canada, but in very limited numbers. Value 10s. to 130s.
M ~ t. Brown and Black Russian.— Size
12 X odent of the amphibious class obtained
from d States, similar in habit to the English
vole, ind even brown underwool and rather
stror lium density. It is a very useful fur for
men' iics' driving or motoring coats, being
warn heavy. If the colour were less motley
and skins could be made less noticeable, it
woul for stoles, ties and muffs. As it is, this
fur i: „ nailer articles for the cheaper trade. It
has, however, of later years been " unhaircd," the undcrwool clipped
very even and then dyed seal colour, in which way very useful and
attractive garments are supplied at less than half the cost of the
cheaper sealskins. They do not wear as well, however, as the pelt
and the wool are not of a strength comparable to those of sealskin.
With care, however, such a garment lasts sufficiently long to warrant
the present outlay. Value Sid. to is. od.
There is a so-called black variety found in Delaware and New
ierscy, but the number is very small compared to the brown species,
'hey are excellent for men's coat linings and the outside of ladies'
coats, for stoles, muffs, collars and cuffs. Value tod. to 3s. 7d.
The Russian musquash is very small. 7X4 in., and is limited in
numbers compared to the brown. Only a few thousands are im-
ported to London. It is of a very pretty silvery -blue shade of even
wool with very little silky top hair, having silvery-white sides and
altogether a very marked effect. The odour, however, even after
dressing is rather pungent of musk, which is generally an objection.
Value 4s. to 6s. 6d.
Nutria.— Size 20X12 in. Is a rodent known in natural history
as the coypu, about half the size of a beaver, and when unhaircd has
not more than half, generally less, the depth of fur, which is also
not so close. Formerly the fur was only used for hatters' felt, but
with the rise in prices of furs these skins have been more carefully
removed and— with improved dressing, unhairing and silvering
E recesses — the best provides a very effective and suitable fur for
idics' coats, capes, stoles, muffs, hats and gloves, while the lower
Jiualities make very useful, light- weighted and inexpensive linings
or men's also dyed sealskin colour,
but its w :tive than the more silky
musquash : northern part of South
America.
Ocelo nature of a leopard and
prettily n [>ols. Only a few arc now
imported ge aprons or mats. The
numbers 1 6. 6d.
Opossi Is a marsupial, a class
with this lurtralia. The underwool
is of a vc y white, with long bluish
grey mixc » only found in the central
sections c o in England it was dyed
dark biw fnuffs and trimmings, but
until rece >ntincnt. With, however,
recent ex| coloured dyes, it bids fair
to becorai s. 6d.
Orossu n. Is a totally different
nature of it has wool and top hair.
352
FUR
the latter is so sparse and fine that the coat may be considered as coats, the fur outside. The poorer qualities are extensively bought
one of close even wool. The colour varies according to the district — -' '~ — : :_ M *— * : - " — ' ^
of origin, from a blue grey to yellow with reddish tones. Those
from the neighbourhood of Sydney are light clear blue, while those
from Victoria are dark iron grey and stronger in the wool. These
animals are most prolific and evidently increasing in numbers.
Their fur is pretty, warm and as yet inexpensive, and is useful for
tugs, coat linings, stoles, muffs, trimmings and perambulator aprons.
The worst coloured ones arc frequently dyed black and brown.
The most pleasing natural grey come from Adelaide. The reddest
are the cheapest. Value 3 j(T to 3s. 6d.
Opossum, Rinct ailed.— Sixe 7 X4 in. Has a very short close and
dark grey wool, some being almost black. There are but a few
thousands imported, and being so flat they are only of use for coat
u'nings, but they are very warm and light in weight. Value 6d.
to tod.
Opossum. T asm a man (grey and black).— Size 20 X 10 in. Is of a
similar description, but darker and stronger in the wool and larger.
Besides these there are some very rich brown skins which were
formerly in such request in Europe, especially Russia, that undue
killing occurred until 1800, when the government stopped for a time
the taking of any of this class. They are excellent for carriage
aprons, being not only very light in weight and warm, but handsome.
Value 2s. 6tl. to 8s. 6d.
Otter, River.— The size varies considerably, as docs the under-
wool and the top hair, according to the country of origin. There
are few rivers in the world where they do not live. But it is in the
colder northern regions that they are found in the greatest numbers
and with the best fur or underwool. the top hair, which, with the
exception of the scarce and very rich dark brown specimens they
have in common with most aquatic animals, is pulled out before the
skins are manufactured. Most of the best river otter comes from
Canada and the United States and averages 36 X 18 in. in size. Skins
from Germany and China are smaller, and shorter in the wool. The
colours of the under wools of river otters vary, some being very
dark, others almost yellow. Both as a fur and as a pelt it is extremely
strong, but owing to its short and close wool rt is usually made up
for the linings, collars and cuffs of men's coats. A large number of
skins, after unhairing, is dyed seal colour and used in America.
Those from hut climates are very poor in quality. Value 28s. to 1 18s.
Otter, Sea. — Size 50X25 in. Possesses one of the most beautiful
of coats. Unlike other aquatic animals the skin undergoes no process
of unhairing, the fur being of a rich dense silky wool with the softest
and shortest of water hairs. The colours vary from pale grey brown
to a rich black, and many have even or uneven sprinkling of white
or silvery-white hairs. The blacker the wool and the more regular
the silver points, the more valuable the skin. Sea otters arc, un-
fortunately, decreasing in numbers, while the demand is increasing.
The fur is most highly esteemed in Russia and China: in the latter
Country it is used to trim mandarins' state robes.' In Europe and
America it is much used for collar, long facings and cuffs of a gentle-
man's coat; such a set may cost from £200 to £6oo, and in all prob-
ability will soon cost more. Taking into consideration the size,
it is not so costly as the natural black fox, or the darkest Russian
sable, which is now the most expensive of all. The smaller and young
sea otters of a grey or brown colour are of small value compared to
th Value £10 to £220. A single skin
ha
above.
One of the most singular of fur-
be >etwcen bird and beast. It has fur
sil >its, being web-footed with spurs of
The skins arc not obtained in any
er by travellers as curiosities and
s, &c, they are included here for
reL
Poxy or Tatar Foal.— Size 36X20 «"• These skins are of
comparatively recent importation to the civilized world. They arc
obtained from the youngof the numerous herds of wild horses that
roam over the plains of Turkestan. The coat is usually a "shade of
brown, sometimes greyish, fairly bright and with a suggestion of
waviness. Useful for motor coats. Value 3s. to 10s. 6d.
Puma.— Size t\ X3 ft. Is a native of South America, similar to
a lion in habits and colour of coat. The hair and pelt is, however, of
less strength, and only a few are now used for floor rugs. Value
5s. to 1 OS.
Raccoon. — Size 20X12 in. Is an animal varying considerably
in size and in quality and colour of fur, according to the part of
North America in which it is found. In common parlance, it may
be described as a species of wild dog with close affinity to the bear.
The undcrwool is 1 to 1) in. deep, pale brown, with tong top hairs
of a dark and silvery-grey mixture of a grizzly type, the best having
a bluish tone and the cheapest a yellowish or reddish-brown. A
limited number of very dark and black sorts exist and are highly
valued for trimmings. The very finest skins are chiefly used for
stoles and muffs, and the general run for coachmen's capes and
carriage rugs, which arc very handsome when the tails, which are
marked with ring* of dark and light fur alternately, are left on.
Raccoons are used In enormous quantities in Canada for men's
and made up in a similar way for Austria- Hungary and Germany.
These make excellent linings for coats or fooisacks for open driving
in very cold climates. The worst coloured skins are dyed black or
brown and are used for British military busbies, or caps, stoles,
boas, muffs and coachmen's capes. The best skins come from the
northern parts of the United States. A smaller and poorer species
inhabits Sooth America, and a very few arc found in the north of
India, but these do not interest the European trade. From Japan
a similar animal is obtained in smaller Quantities with vtry good
but longer fur, of yellowish motley fight-brown shades. It is more
often imported and sold as Japanese fox, but its resemblance to
the fur of the American raccoon is so marked as to surely identify
it. When dyed dark blue or skunk colour it is good-looking and is
sold widely in Europe. Raccoon skins arc also frequently unhaired,
and if the underwool is of good quality the effect is similar to beaver.
It to the most useful fur for use in America or Russia, having a full
quantity of fur which will retain heat. Value tod. to 26s.
Sable, American and Canadian. — Size 17x5 in. The skins are
sold in the trade sale as martens, but as there are many that are of a
very dark colour and the majority are almost as silky as the Russian
sable, the retail trade has for generations back applied the term of
sable to this fur. The prevailing colour is a medium brown, and
many are quite yellow. The dyeing of these very pale skins has
been for so long well executed that it has been possible to make
very good useful and effective articles of them at a moderate price
compared to Russian sable. The finest skins are found in the East
Main and the Esquimaux Bay, in the Hudson's Bay Company's
districts, and the poorest in Alaska. They are not found very far
south of the northern boundary of the United States. The best
skins are excellent in quality, colour and effect, and wear wed.
Value 27s. 3d. to 200s.
Sable. Chinese and Japanese.— Size 14X4! in. These are
similar to the Amur skins previously referred to, but of much poorer
quality and generally only suitable for linings. The very palest
skins are dyed and made by the Chinese into mandarins' coat*, ia
which form they are found in the London trade sales, but being
overdressed they are inclined to be loose in the hair and the colour
of the dye is not good. The Japanese kind are imported raw, but
arc few in numbers, very pale and require dyeing. Value 15s. to
1 50s.
Sable, Russian.— Size 15X5 in. These skins belong to a species
of marten, very similar to the European and American, but much
more silky in the nature of their fur. They have long been known
as " sables," doubtless owing to the density of colour to which
many of them attain, and they have always been held in the highest
esteem by connoisseurs as possessing a combination of rare qualities.
The underwool is close, fine and very soft, the top hair is regular,
fine, silky and flowing, varying from 1) to 2} in. in depth. In
colour they range from a pale stony or yellowish shade to a rich dark
brown, almost black with a bluish tone. The pelts are exceedingly
fine and close in texture and, although of little. weight, are very
durable, and articles made of them produce a sensation of warmth
immediately they are put upon the body.
The Yakutsk, Okhotsk and Kamschatka sorts are good, the last
being the largest and fullest furred, but of less density of colour than
the others. Many from other districts are pale or yellowish brown,
and those from Saghalicn are poor in quality. The most valuable
are the darkest from Yakutsk in Siberia. particularly those that have
silvery hairs evenly distributed over the skin. These however are
exceedingly scarce, and when a number arc required to match for
a large garment, considerable time may be necessary to collect them.
This class of skin is the most expensive fur in the world, reckoning
values by
The An
with mai
too is low
effective,
least appc
are now c
hair are s
from perfi
executed
rights of
respect to
addition
in Londof
provided price is not the first consideration. Value 25*. to 080s.
Seal, pur.— Sizes range from 24 X 15 in. to 55X25 in., the width
being taken at the widest part of the skin after preparation. The
centre of the skin between the fins is very narrow and the skins taper
at each end, particularly at the tail. The very small pups are of a
beautiful quality, but too tiny to make in ro garments, and, as the aim
of a good furrier is to avoid all lateral or cross seams, skins arc
selected that arc the length of the garment that is to be made. The
most useful skins for coats are the large pups 42 in. long, and the
quality is very good and uniform. The largest skins, known in the
trade as " wigs. ' which range up to 8 ft. in length, are uneven and
weak in the fur. and hunter* do not seek to obtain them. The supply
of the best sort Is chiefly from the North Pacific, via. PribiM
FUR
353
Islands. Akuka, north-
Aleutian group near to Kai
ist of America, Capper Island of the
an group near to Karaachatka. Kobbea bland and Japan.
Other kinds are taken from the South Pacific and South Atlantic
Oceans, around Cape Horn, the Falkland Islands up to Lobos
Islands at the entrance of the La Plata river, off the Cape of Good
Hope and Crozct Isles. With, however, the exception of the pick
of the Lobos Island seals the fur of the southern sea seals is very
poor and only suitable for the cheapest market. Formerly many
skins were obtained from New Zealand and Australia, but the
importation is now small and the quality not good. The preparation
of seal skin occupies a longer time than any other far skm, bat its
fine rich effect when finished and its many properties of warmth
and durability well repay it. Value los. to 232s.
Seal, Hair.— There are several varieties of these seals in the seas
stretching north from Scotland, around Newfoundland, Greenland
and the north-west coast of America, and they are far more numerous
than fur seals. Generally they have coarse rigid hair and none
possess any underwool. They are taken principally for the oil and
leather they yield. Some of the better haired sorts are dyed black
and brown and used for men's motor coats when quite a waterproof
garment is wanted, and they are used also for this quality in China.
The young of the Greenland seals are called whitccoats on account
of the early growth being of a yellowish white colour; the hair is
f to 1 in. long, and at this early stage of their life is soft compared to
that of the older seals. These fur skins are dyed black or dark brown
and are used for military caps and hearth-rugs. Valne is. to 15s.
There are fewer hair seals in the southern than in the northern seas.
Sheep. — Vary much in siae and in quality of wool. Many of the
domestic kind in central and northern Europe and Canada are used
for drivers' and peasants' coat linings. Ac In Great Britain many
coats of the home-reared sheep, having wools two and a half to five
inches long, are dyed various colours and used as floor rugs. Skins
with very short wool are dyed black and used for military saddlc-
ds. The * ' .-*■--
cloths.
i bulk, however, is used in the wool trade.
*%?
Hun-
garian peasants are very fond of their natural brown sheep coats,
the leather side of which is not lined, but embellished by a very close
fancy embroidery, worked upon the leather itself; these garments
are reversible, the fur being worn inside when the weather is cold.
Chinese sheep are largely used for cheap rugs. Value of English
sheep from 3s. to 10s.
Skunk or Black Marten.— Site 15X8 in. The underwool is
full and fairly close with glossy, flowing top hair about 2\ in. long.
The majority have two stripes of white hair, extending the whole
length of the skin, but these are cut out by the manufacturing
furrier and sold to the dealers in pieces for exportation. The animals
are found widely spread throughout North and South America.
The skins which are of the greatest interest to the European trade
are those from North America, the South American species being
small, coarse and generally brown. The best skins come from Ohio
and New York. If it were not for its disagreeable odour, skunk
would be worth much more than the usual market value, as it is
naturally the blackest fur, silky in appearance and most durable.
The improved dressing processes have to a large extent removed the
naturally pungent scent. The fui " "
collars, cuffs, muffs and trimmings.
The fur is excellent for stoles, boas,
mmings. Value is. 6d. to lis.
Souslik.— Size 7 in.X*t. Is a small rodent found in the south
of Russia and also in parts of America. It has very short hair and is
a poor fur even for the cheapest linings, which is the only use to
which the skin could be put. It is known as kaluga when imported
in ready-made linings from Russia where the skins are dressed and
worked in an inferior way. Value td. to 3d.
Squirrel.— Siae 10X5 "»• This measurement refers to the
Russian and Siberian sorts, which are the only kind imported for
the fur. The numerous other species are too poor in their coats
to attract notice from fur dealers. The back of the Russian squirrel
has an even close fur varying from a clear bluish-grey to a reddish-
brown,, the bellies in the former being of a flat quality and white,
in the latter yellowish. The backs are worked into linings separately,
as are the bellies or " locks." The pelts, although very light, are
tough and durable, hence their good reputation for linings for
ladies' walking or driving coats. The best skins also provide excellent
material for coats, capes, stoles, ties, collars, cuffs, gloves, muffs,
hoods and light-weight carriage aprons. The tails are dark and very
small, and when required for ends of boas three or four are made as
one. Value per skin from z}d. to is. id.
Tiarr Lain.— Size 27 X 13 in. These pretty animals have a long.
very fine, silky and curly fleece of a creamy white. The majority
are consigned to the trade auction sales in London ready dressed
and worked into cross-shaped coats, and the remainder, a fourth of
the total, come as dressed skins. They are excellent for trimmings
of evenJngrnantles and for children's ties, muffs and perambulator
aprons. The fur is too long and bulky for Hninrs. Value ner skin
* * « : J f .°° k"* and to 1 ** for Knings. Value per skin
from 4a. 6d. to 8u 6d.
Tiger.— Size varies considerably. largest about 10 ft. from nose
to root of tail. Tigers are found throughout India. Turkestan,
China, Mongolia and the East Indies. The coats of the Bengal kind
are short and of a dark orange brown with Wack stripes, those
from east or further India are similar in colour, but longer in the hair,
while those from north of the Himalayas and the mountains of China
are not only huge in size, but have a very long soft hair of delicate
orange brown with vfcry white Ranks, and marked generally with the
blackest of stripes. The last are of a noble appearance and exceed*
ingjy scarce. They all make handsome floor rugs.
Value of the Indian . . from £3 to £15.
** Chinrw „ £10 to £6$.
Vicuna is a species of long-necked sheep native to South America,
bearing tome resemblance to the guanaco. but the fur is shorter,
closer and much finer. The colour is a pale golden-brown and the
far is held in great repute in South America for carriage rogs. The
supply is evidently small as the prices are high. There is scarcely
a commercial quotation in London, few coming in except from
private sources. 23. 6d. to 5s. 6d. may be considered as the average
value.
Wallaby.— See Kangaroo, above.
Wallaroo.— See Kangaroo, above.
Wols-.— Siae 50X25 in. Is closely allied to the dog tribe and,
like the jackals, is found through a wide range of the world, — North
and South America, Europe and Asia. Good supplies are available
from North America and Siberia and a very few from China. The
best are the full furred ones of a very pale bluish-grey with fine
which are obtained from the Hudson Bay
the United States and Asia are harsher in
A few black American specimens come into
t the quality is poor compared to the lighter
iberian is smaller than the North American
aller. Besides the wolf properalarge number
from America and Asia are used for cheaper
less than half that of a large wolf and are of
Numbers of the Russian are retained for
home use. The finest wolves are very light weighted and most
suitable for carriage aprons, in fact, ideal for the purpose, though
lacking the strength of some other furs.
Wolves . value 2s. 6d. to 64s.
Dog wolves . „ is. to 2s. 6d.
' Wolverine.— Siae 16X18 in. Is native to America, Siberia,
Russia and Scandinavia and generally partakes of the nature of a
bear. The underwool is full and thick with strong and bright top
hair about 2} in. long. The colour is of two or three shades of brown
in one skin, the centre being an oval dark saddle, edged as it were
with quite a pale tone ancT merging to a darker one towards the
flanks. This peculiar character alone stamps it as a distinguished
fur, in addition to which it has the excellent advantage of being the
most durable fur for carriage aprons, as wed as the richest in colour.
It is not prolific, added to which it is very difficult to match a number
of skins in quality as well as colour. Hence it is an expensive fur,
but its excellent qualities make it valuable. The darkest of the
least coarse skins arc worth the most. Prices from 6s. to 37s.
Wombat. Koala or Australian Bear.— Size 20X12 in. Has
light grey or brown close thick wool half an inch deep without any top
hair, with a rather thick spongy pelt. It is quite inexpensive and
only suitable for cheap rough coats, carriage rugs, perambulator
aprons and linings for footings. The coats are largely used in
western America and Canada. Value 3d. to is. 8fd.
Preparing and Dressing. — A furrier or skin merchant must
possess a good eye for colour to be successful, the difference in
value on this subtle matter solely (in the rarer precious sorts,
especially sables, natural black, silver and blue fox, sea otters,
chinchillas, fine mink, ore) being so considerable that not only a
practised but an intuitive sense of colour is necessary to accur-
ately determine the exact merits of every skin. In addition to
this a knowledge is required of what the condition of a pelt
should be; a good judge knows by experience whether a skin
will turn out soft and strong, after dressing, and whether the
hair is in the best condition of strength and beauty. The dressing
of the pelt or skin that is to be preserved for fur is totally different
to the making of leather; in the latter tannic acid is used, but
never should be with a fur skin, as is so often done by natives of
districts where a regular fur trade is not carried on. The results
of applying tannic acid are to harden the pelt and discolour
and weaken the fur. The best methods for dressing fur skins
are those of a tawer or currier, the aim being to retain all the
natural oil in the pelt, in order to preserve the natural colour
of the fur, and to render the pelt as supple as possible. Generally
the skins are placed in an alkali bath, then by hand with a blunt
wooden instrument the moisture of the pelt is worked out and
it rs -drawn carefully to and fro over a straight, dull-edged knife
to remove any superfluous" flesh and unevenness. Special grease
is then rubbed in and the skin placed in a machine which softly
and continuously beats in the softening mixture, after which it
is put into a slowly revolving drum, fitted with wooden paddles,
partly filled with various kinds of fine hard sawdust according
to the nature of the furs dealt with. This process with a moderate
degree of heat thoroughly cleans it of external greasy ma.U.*x x
354
FUR
and til that b necessary before manufacturing b to gently up
the for upon a leather cushion stuffed with horsehair with smooth
canes of a flexibility suited to the strength of the fur. After
dressing most skins alter in shape and decrease in size.
With regard to the merits of European dressing! it may be
fairly taken that English, German and French dressers have
specialities of excellence. In England, for instance, the dressing
of sables, martens, foxes, otters, seals, bears, lions, tigers and
leopards is first rate; while with skunk, mink, musquash,
chinchillas, beavers, lambs and squirrels, the Germans show
better results, particularly in the last. The pelt after the German
dressing is dry, soft and while, which is due to a finishing process
where meal is used, thus they compare favourably with the
moister and consequently heavier English finish. In France they
do well with cheaper skins, such as musquash, rabbit and hare,
which they dye in addition to dressing. Russian dressing is
seldom reliable; not only is there an unpleasant odour, but in
damp weather the pelts often become clammy, which is due to
the saline matter in the dressing mixture. Chinese dressing is
white and supple, but contains much powder, which is disagree-
able and difficult to get rid of, and in many instances the skin
is rendered so thin that the roots of the fur arc weakened, which
means that it is liable to shed itself freely, when subject to
ordinary friction in handling or wearing. American and Canadian
dressing is gradually improving, but hitherto their results have
been inferior to the older European methods.
In the case of seal and beaver skins the process is a much more
difficult one, as the water or hard top hairs have to be removed
by hand after the pelt has been carefully rendered moist and
warm. With seal skins the process is longer than with any other
fur preparation and the series of processes engage many
specialists, each man being constantly kept upon one section of
the work. The skins arrive simply salted. After being purchased
at the auction sales they are washed, then stretched upon a
hoop, when all blubber and unnecessary flesh is removed, and
the pelt is reduced to an equal thickness, but not so thin as it is
finally rendered. Subsequently the hard top hairs are taken out
as in the case of otters and beavers and the whole thoroughly
cleaned in the revolving drums. The close underwool, which is
of a slightly wavy nature and mostly of a pale drab colour, is
then dyed by repeated applications of a rich dark brown colour,
one coat after another, each being allowed to thoroughly dry
before the next is put on, till the effect is almost a lustrous black
on the top. The whole is again put through the cleaning process
and evenly reduced in thickness by revolving emery wheels,
and eventually finished off in the palest buff colour.
The English dye for seals is to-day undoubtedly the best; its
constituents are more or less of a trade secret, but the principal in-
gredients comprise gall nuts, copper dust, camphor and antimony,
and it would appear after years of careful watching that the
atmosphere and particularly the water of London are partly
responsible for good and lasting results. The Paris dyers do
excellent work in this direction, but the colour is not so durable,
probably owing to a less pure water. In America of late, strides
have been made in seal dyeing, but preference is still given to
London work. In Paris, too, they obtain beautiful results in the
" topping " or colouring Russian sables and the Germans are
particularly successful in dyeing Persian lambs black and foxes
in all blue, grey, black and smoke colours and in the insertion of
white hairs in imitation of the real silver fox. Small quantities
of good beaver are dyed in Russia occasionally, and white hairs
put in so well that an effect similar to sea otter is obtained.
The process of inserting white hairs is called in the trade
" pointing," and is either done by stitching them in with a needle
or by adhesive caoutchouc.
The Viennese are successful in dyeing marmot well, and their
cleverness in colouring it with a series of stripes to represent the
natural markings of sable which has been done after the garments
have been made, so as to obtain symmetry of lines, has secured
for them a large trade among the dealers of cheap furs in England
and the continent.
Ma**/94*r$*f MOhtidi and Specialities.— In the olden times
the Skinners' Company of the city of London was an association
of furriers and skin dressers established under royal charter
granted by Edward III At that period the chief concern of
the body was to prevent buyers from being imposed upon by
sellers who were much given to offering old furs as new; a century
later the Skinners' Company received other charters empowering
them to inspect not only warehouses and open markets, but
workrooms. In 1667 they were given power to scrutinise the
preparing of rabbit or cony wool for the wool trade and the
registration of the then customary seven years' apprenticeship.
To-day all these privileges and powers are in abeyance, and the
interest that they took in the fur trade has been gradually
transferred to the leather-dressing craft.
The work done by English furriers was generally good, but
since about 1865 has considerably improved on account of the
influx of German workmen, who have long been celebrated
for excellent fur work, being in their own country obliged to
satisfy officially appointed experts and to obtain a certificate
of capacity before they can be there employed. The French
influence upon the trade has been, and still is, primarily one of
style and combination of colour, bad judgment in which will mar
the beauty of the most valuable furs. It* is a recognized law
among high-class furriers that furs should be simply arranged,
that is, that an article should consist of one fur or of two fun
of a suitable contrast, to which lace may be in some cases added
with advantage. As illustrative of this, it may be explained that
any brown tone of fur such as sable, marten, mink, black marten,
beaver, nutria, &c, will go well upon black or very dark-brown
furs, while those of a white or grey nature, such as ermine, white
lamb, chinchilla, blue fox, silver fox, opossum, grey squirrel, grey
lamb, will set well upon seal or black furs, as Persian lamb,
broadtail, aslrachan, caracul lamb, &c. White is also permissible
upon some light browns and greys, but brown motley colour*
and greys should never be in contrast. One neutralizes the other
and the effect is bad. The qualities, too have to be considered —
the fulness of one, the flatness of the other, or the coarseness or
fineness of the furs. The introduction of a third fur in the same
garment or indiscriminate selection of colours of silk linings,
braids, buttons, &c, often spoils an otherwise good article.
With regard to the natural colours of furs, the browns that
command the highest prices are those thai are of a bluish rather
than a reddish tendency. With greys it is those that are bluish,
not yellow, and with white those that are. purest, and with black
the most dense, that are most esteemed and that are the rarest.
Perhaps for ingenuity and the latest methods of manipulating
skins in the manufacturing of furs the Americans lead the way,
but as fur cutters are more or less of a roving and cosmopolitan
character the larger fur businesses in London, Berlin, Vienna,
St Petersburg, Paris and New York are guided by the same
thorough and comparatively advanced principles.
During the period just mentioned the tailors' methods of
scientific pattern cutting have been adopted by the leading
furriers in place of the old chance methods of fur cutters, so that
to-day a fur garment may be as accurately and gracefully fitted
as plush or velvet, and with all good houses a material pattern
is fitted and approved before the skins are cut.
Through the advent of German and American fur sewing-
machines since about 1800 fur work has been done better and
cheaper. There are, however, certain parts of a garment, such as
the putting in of sleeves and placing on of collars, 4c, that can
only be sewn by hand. For straight seams the machines are
excellent, making as neat a aeam as is found in glove work, unless,
of course, the pelts are especially heavy, such as bears and sheep
ruga.
A very great feature of German and Russian work is the fur
linings called rotondes, aacques or plates, which are made for
their home use and exportation chiefly to Great Britain, America
and France.
In Weissenfela, near Leipzig, the dressing of Russian grey
squirrel and the making it into linings is a gigantic industry, and
is the principal support of the place. After the dressing process
the backs of the squirrels are made up separately from the under
FUR 3SS
and thinner white and grey parts, the first being known as squirrel- Frauds and Imitations.— The opportunities for cheating in
back and the other as squirreMock linings. A few linings are the fur trade are very considerable, and moat serious frauds
made from entire skins and others are made from the quite white have been perpetrated in the selling of sables jhat have been
pieces, which in some instances are spotted with the black ear coloured or " topped "; that is, just the tips of the hairs stained
tips of the animals to resemble ermine. The smaller and uneven dark to represent more expensive skins. It is only by years of
pieces of heads and legs are made up into linings, so there is experience that some of these colourings can be detected. Where
absolutely no waste. Similar work is done in Russia on almost the skins are heavily dyed it is comparatively easy to see the
as extensive a scale, but neither the dressing nor the work is difference between a natural and a dyed colour, as the underwooi
so good as the German. and top hair become almost alike and the leather is also dark,
The majority of heads, gills or throats, sides or flanks, paws whereas in natural skins the base of the underwooi is much-
and pieces of skins cut up in the fur workshops of Great Britain, paler than the top, or of a different colour, and the leather is
America and France, weighing many tons, are chiefly exported white unless finished in a pale reddish tone aa is sometimes
to Leipzig, and made up in neighbouring countries and Greece, the case when mahogany sawdust is used in the final cleaning,
where labour can be obtained at an alarmingly low rate. Al- As has been explained, sable is a term applied for centuries past
though the sewing, which is necessarily done by hand, the sections to the darker sorts of the Russian Siberian martens, and for years
being of so unequal and tortuous a character, is rather roughly past the same term has been bestowed by the retail trade upon
executed, the matching of colours and qualities is excellent, the American and Canadian martens. The baum and stone
The enormous quantities of pieces admit of good selection and martens caught in France, the north of Turkey and Norway
where odd colours prevail in a lining it is dyed. Many squirrel- are of the same family, but coarser in underwooi and the top
lock linings are dyed blue and brown and used for the outside hair is less in quantity and not so silky. The kolinaki, or as it
of cheap garments. They are of little weight, warm and effective, is sometimes styled Tatar sable, is the animal, the tail of which
but not of great durability. supplies hair for artists' brushes. This is also of the marten
The principal linings are as follows: Sable sides, sable head's species and has been frequently offered, when dyed dark, aa have
and paws, sable gills, mink sides, beads and gills, marten sides, baum and atone martens, as Russian sables. Hares, too, are
heads and gills, Persian lamb pieces and paws, caracul lamb dyed a sable colour and advertised as sable. The fur, apart
pieces or paws, musquash sides and heads, nutria sides, genet from a clumsy appearance, is ap brittle, however, as to be of
pieces, raccoon sides or flanks, fox sides, kolinski whole skins, and scarcely any service whatever.
Small rodents aakaluga and hamster. The white stripes cut out Among the principal imitations of other furs is musquash,
of skunks are made into rugs. out of which the top hair has been pulled and the undergrowth
Another great source of inexpensive furs is China, and for of wool clipped and 4ycd exactly the same colour as is used for
many years past enormous quantities of dressed furs, many of seal, which is then offered as seal or red river seal Its durability,
which are made up in the form of linings and Chinese loose- however, is far less than that of seal. Rabbit is p rep ar ed and
shaped garments, have been imported by England, Germany dyed and frequently offered as " electric sealskin." . Nutria also
and France for the lower class of business; the garments are only is prepared to represent sealskin, and in its natural colour, after
regarded as so much fur and are reworked. With, however, the the long hairs are plucked out, it is sold as otter or beaver. The
exception of the best white Tibet lambs, the majority of Chinese wool is, however, poor compared to the otter and beaver, and the
furs can only be regarded as inferior material. While the work pelt thin and in no way comparable to them in strength. White
fe often cleverly done as to matching and manipulation of the bares are frequently sold as white fox, but the fur is weak, brittle
pelt which is very soft, there are great objections in the odour and exceedingly poor compared to fox and possesses no thick
and the brittleness or weakness of the fur. One of the most underwooi. Foxes, too, and badger are dyed a brownish black,
remarkable results of the European intervention in the Boxer and white hairs inserted to imitate silver fox, but the white hairs
rising in China (1900) was the absurd price paid for so-called arc too coarse and the colour too dense to mislead any one who
" loot " of furs, particularly in mandarins' coats of dyed and knows the real article. But if sold upon its own merits, pointed
natural fox skins and pieces, and natural ermine, poor in quality fox is a durable fur.
and yellowish in colour; from three to ten times their value Garments made of sealskin pieces and Persian lamb pieces
was paid for them when at the same time huge parcels of similar are frequently sold as if they were made of solid skins, the term
quality weir warehoused in the London docks, because purchasers " pieces " being simply suppressed. The London Chamber of
could not be found for them. Commerce have issued to the British trade a notice that any
With regard to Japanese furs, there is little to commend them, misleading term in advertising and all attempts at deception are
The best are a species of raccoon usually sold as fox, and, being illegal and offenders are liable under the Merchandise Marks
of close long quality of fur, they arc serviceable for boas, collars, Act 1887.
muffs and carriage aprons. The sables, martens, minks and The roost usual misnaming of manufactured furs is as follow:—
otters are poor in quality, and all of a very yellow colour and Musquash, pulled and dyed . Sold as seal,
they are generally dyed for the cheap trade. A small number Nutria, pulled and dyed . Sold as seal.
of very pretty guanaco and vicuna carriage rugs are imported Nutria, P" ,,ed 2 nd na J tural SoUl as beaver. #
into Europe, and many come through travellers and private R * bb,t - ***** and $«* g*} £ £^ or <lectnc BCal -
sources, but generally they are so badly dressed that they are ,' Sold as mink or sable,
quite brittle upon the leather side. Similar remarks are ap- ... Sold as sable,
plkable to opossum rugs made in Australia. From South • • • Sold as sable or French sable.
Africa a quantity of jackal, hyena, fox, leopard and sheep • ' fold 2 Sink c7aabk° r
karosses, t\*. a peculiarly shaped rug or covering used by native ' Sold as skunk,
chiefs, is privately brought over. The skins are invariably tanned . . '. Sold at ermine,
and beautifully sewn, the furs are generally flat fn quality and • • • Sold as chinchilla,
not very strong in the hair, and are retained more as curiosities natural ^Sher^uaV ownes?*
than for use as a warm covering. Goat, dyed Sold as bear, leopard, &c
Hatters' Furs and Cloths and Shawls.— The hat trade is largely Dyed manufactured articles of
interested in the fur piece trade, the best felt hats being made •" kinds. . m . . . . Sold as ° natural"
lL° m ^ Ver £ dm ^ U ^^^ ^ndaabie. T? '° ?T Sold as real or natural for* .
hare and rabbit wools. For weaving, the most valuable pieces Kids Sold as lamb or broadtaik.
are mobair taken from the angora and vicuna. They are limited American sable Sold as real Russian sable.
in quantity and costly, and the trade depends upon various Mink ....... Sold as sable.
sorts of other sheep and goat wools for the bulk of its productions. The Preservation of Furs.— Fat many ^ean tarn ^st a VfcVm
35*
FUR
FURAZANES— FURFURANE
357
Durability and Weight of Furs for Rugs and Fool-sacks. *
Point* of
Durability.
Weight
in 02. per
M). ft.
Wolverine
Bear (black or brown natural) .
Bear (tinted black) . . .
Beaver
Raccoon
Opossum
Wolf
Jackal
Australian Bear ....
Goat
too
U
es
77
61
50
27
16
It
6
;»
:»
J
6
41
Wolverine, the strongest fur suited for rugs and foot-sacks, is
taken as the standard.
For a rug about ao to 25 aq. ft. of fur are needed, for a foot sack
14J. (W. S. P.)
FURAZANES [Juro— *.a'— diatotes), organic compounds ob-
tained by beating the glyoxiraes (dioximes of ortho-dikctones)
with alkalis or ammonia. Dimethylfurazane is prepared by
heating dimethylglyoxime with excess of ammonia for six hours
at 165° C. (L. Wolff, Ber., 1895, 28, p. 70). It is a liquid (at
ordinary temperature) which boils at 156° C. (744 mm.).
Potassium permanganate oxidizes it first to methylfurazane-
carboxylic acid and then to furazanedicarboxylic acid. Mcthyl-
ethylfurazane and diphcnylfurazane are also known. By
warming oxyfurazane acetic acid with excess of potassium per-
manganate to 100 C. oxyfurazanccarboxylic add is obtained
(A. Hantzsch and J. Urbahn, Ber., 1895, 28, p. 764). It crys-
tallizes in prisms, which melt at 175° C. Furazanecarboxylic
acid is prepared by the action of a large excess of potassium
permanganate on a hot solution of furazanepropionic acid.
It melts at 107 C, and dissolves in caustic soda, with a deep
yellow colour and formation of nitrosocyanacclic acid (L. Wolff
and P. F. Ganz, Ber., 1801, 241 P- 1167). Furoxane is an oxide
of furazane, considered by H. Wicland to be identical with
glyoxime peroxide; Kekulc's dibromnitroacctonitrile is dibrom-
furoxane.
The formulae of the compounds above mentioned arc:
CH,.e:N >0 HO^N^ 5 C ~P>0.
Dimethvl. ,. Furazane-.. £0^
»
HC:N
Furazane. ,.
furazane. carboxylic acid.
FURETI&RE, ANTOINE (1610-1688), French scholar and
miscellaneous writer, was born in Paris on the 28th of December
1 610. He first studied law, and practised for a time as an
advocate, but eventual'y took orders and after various prefer-
ments became abne of Chalivoy in the diocese of Bourges in
1662. In his leisure moments he devoted himself to letters, and
in virtue of his satires— Noutetie AlUgorique, on kUtoire des
demurs troubles arrives au royaume d 'eloquence (1658) ; Voyage de
Mcrcurt (1653) — he was admitted a member of the French
Academy in 1662. That learned body had long promised a
complete dictionary of the French tongue; and when they
heard that Furetiere was on the point of issuing a work of a
similar nature, they interfered, alleging that he had purloined
from their stores, and that they possessed the exclusive privilege
of publishing such a book. After much bitter recrimination
on both sides the offender was expelled in 1685; but for this
act of injustice he took a severe revenge in his satire, Couches
de Vacadimie (Amsterdam, 1687). His Dictionnaire universd
was posthumously published in 1600 (Rotterdam, 2 vols.).
It was afterwards revised and improved by the Protestant
jurist, Henri Basnage de Bcauval (1656-1 7 10), who published bis
edition (3 vols.) In 1701; and it was only superseded by the
compilation known as the Diciionnaire de Trevoux (Paris, 3 vols.,
1704; 7th ed., 8 vols., 1771), which was in fact little more than a
reimpression of Basnage's edition. Furetiere is perhaps even
better known as the author of Le Roman bourgeois (1666). It
cast ridicule on the fashionable romances of Mile de Scudery
and of La Calsicaede, and is of interest as descriptive of the
everyday life of his times. There is no element of burlesque.
as in Scarron's Roman comique, but the author contents himself
with stringing together a number of episodes and portraits?
obviously drawn from life, without much attempt at sequence.
The book was edited in 1854 by Edward Fournier and Charles
Asselincau and by P. Jfannet.
The F ureter iana, which appeared in Paris eight years after
Furetiere"* death, which took place on the 14th of May 1688, is a
collection of but little value.
FURFOOZ, a village some 10 m. from Dinant in the Ardennes,
Belgium. Three caves containing prehistoric remains were here
excavated in 1872. Of these the Trou de Frontal is the most
famous. In il were found human skeletons with brachyccphalic
skulls, associated with animal bones, those of the reindeer being
particularly plentiful. Among the skeletons was discovered
an oval vase of pottery. The Furfooz type of mankind is believed
to date from the dose of the Quaternary age. G. de Mortilkt
dates the type in the Robcnhausen epoch of the Neolithic
period. His theory is that the bones are those of men of that;
period buried in what had been a cave-dwelling of the Madclenian
epoch.
FURFURANE, or Fuiane, C«H<0, a colourless liquid boiling
at 32 C, found in the distillation products of pine wood. It
was first synthetically prepared by H. Limpricht (Ann., 1873,
165, p. 281) by distilling barium mucatc with soda lime, pyro-
muck acid C 4 HjO-CO:H being formed, which, on further loss
of carbon dioxide, yielded furfurane, A. ITenniger (Ann. chim.
pfiys., 1886 [2], 7, p. 220), by distilling crthyrite with formic
acid, obtained a dihydrofurfurane
C4H«(OH)4+2H J CO,-C i H t O+CO+CQi+4HA
which, on treatment with phosphorus pcntachloride, yielded
furfurane. Furfurane is insoluble in water and possesses a
characteristic smell. It does not react with sodium or with
phcnylhydrazinc, but yields dye-stuffs with isatin and phenan-
threnequinonc. It reacts violently with hydrochloric acid,
producing a brown amorphous substance. Methyl and phenyl
derivatives have been prepared by C. Paal (Bcr., 1884, 17, p.
915). Paal prepared acetonyl acctophenonc by condensing
sodium acctoacetate with phcnacylbromide, and this substance
on dehydration yields aa'-phenylmclhylfurfurane, the acetonyl
acctophenonc probably reacting in the tautomeric " enolic "form,
CHrCO-CHNa-COOR+C*H k COCH.Br =
CH,COCH(CH a COCJI0-COOR.
This ester readily hydrolyses, and the acid formed yields acetonyl
acetophenone (by loss of carbon dioxide), which then on de-
hydration yields the furfurane derivative, thus
CH,.C<§„"Ho>C.C.H,-H a O+CH,.C<5!!^f! f >C^Hw
L. Knorr (Btr., 1880, 22, p. 158) obtained diacelosucdnic ester
by condensing sodium acctoacetate with iodine, and by de-
hydrating the ester he prepared oa'-dimtthylfurfurane ffif~
dicarboxylic acid (carbopyrotritaric acid), which on distillation
yields oa'-dimelhylfurfurane as a liquid boiling at 04 C. Paal
also obtained this compound by using monochloracetone in the
place of phcnacylbromide. By the distillation of mucic acid
or isosaccharic acid, furfurane-a-carboxylic acid (pyromucic
acid), C«HsO-COaU, is obtained; it crystallizes in needles or
leaflets, and melts at 134 C.
Furfurol (furol), C«HaO-CHO, is the aldehyde of pyromucic
acid, and is formed on distilling bran, sugar, wood and moat
carbohydrates with dilute sulphuric acid, or by distilling
the pentoses with hydrochloric acid. It is a colourless liquid
which boils at 162° C, and is moderately soluble in water;
it turns brown on exposure to air and has a characteristic
aromatic smelL It shows all the usual properties of an aldehyde,
forming a bisulphite compound, an oxime and a bydrazone;.
whilst it can be reduced to the corresponding furf uryl alcohol by
means of sodium amalgam, and oxidized to pyromucic add by
means of silver oxide. It also shows all the condensation ref-
actions of benzaldehyde (q.v.)\ condensing with aldehydes
and ketones in the presence of caustic soda to form more
complex aldehydes and ketones with unsaturated side chains.
358
FURIES— FURNACE
such as furfuracrolein, C«H 3 CH:CH CHO, and furfuracetone,
C<UsOCH:CHCOCH4. With alcoholic potassium cyanide
it changes to furoin, C«H,OCHOHCOC 4 H»0, which can be
oxidized to furil, C«H,0COCOC«HiO, whilst alcoholic potash
converts it into furfuryl alcohol. With fatty acids and acid
anhydrides it gives the " Perk in " reaction (see Cinnawc Acid).
Furfurol is shown to have its aldchydic group in the a position,
by conversion into furfurpropionic acid, C^HjOCHjCHj C0 3 H,
which on oxidation by bromine water and subsequent reduction
of the oxidized product is converted into n-pimelic acid,
HOjC(CHa)»COjH. Furfurol in minute quantities can be
detected by the red colour it forms with a solution of aniline
acetate.
Furfurane-aa'-dicarboxylic acid or dehydromucic acid,
C«HiO(CO|H)t, is formed when mucic acid is heated with hydro-
chloric acid at ioo° C. On being heated, it loses carbon dioxide
and gives pyromucic acid. By digesting acetoacelic ester with
sodium succinate and acetic anhydride, mcthronic acid. C»H a O»,
is obtained; for the constitution of this acid, see L. Knorr, Bcr.,
1889, 22, p. 152. and R. Fittig, Ann., 1869. 250, p. 166.
Di- and tetrahydrofurfurane compounds are also known (see
A. Lipp, Ber., 1889, 22. p. 1196; W. H. Pcrkin, junr. Journ. Ckem.
Soc., 1890, 57. P- 944; and S. Ruhemann, ibid., 1896, 69, p. 1383).
FURIES (Lat. Furiae, also called Dirae), in Roman mythology
an adaptation of the Greek Erinyes (q.v.), with whom they
are generally identical. A special aspect of them in Virgil is
that of agents employed by the higher gods to stir up mischief,
strife and hatred upon earth. Mention may here be made of
an old Italian deity Furina (or Fum'na), whose worship fell
early into disuse, and who was almost forgotten in the time of
Varro. By the mycologists of Cicero's time the name was
connected with the verb furere and the noun /aria, which in the
plural (not being used in the singular in this sense) was accepted
as the equivalent of the Greek Erinyes. But it is more probably
related to furxus, fuse us, and signifies one of the spirits of dark-
ness, who watched over men's lives and haunted their abodes.
This goddess had her own special priest, a grove across the Tiber
where Gaius Gracchus was slain, and a festival on the 25th of
July. Authorities differ as to the existence of more than one
goddess called Furina, and their identity with the Forinae
mentioned in two inscriptions found at Rome (C./.L. vi.
427 and 10,200).
FURLONG (from the O. Eng. furlong, i.e. " furrow-long "),
a measure of length, originally the length of a furrow in the
"common field" system. As the field in this system was
generally taken to be a square, 10 acres in extent, and as the
acre varied in different districts and at different limes, the
" furlong " also varied. The side of a square containing 10
statute acres is 220 yds. or 40 poles, which was the usually
accepted length of the furlong. This is also the length of |th of
the statute mile. " Furlong " was as early as the 9th century
used to translate the Latin stadium, Jth of the Roman mile.
FURNACE, a contrivance for the production and utilization
of heat by the combustion of fuel. The word is common to all
the Romance tongues, appearing in more or less modified forms
of the Latin Jornax. But in all those languages the word has a
more extended meaning than in English, as it covers every
variety of heating apparatus; while here, in addition to furnaces
proper, we distinguish other varieties as ovens, stoves and kilns.
The first of these, in the form Ojen , is used in German as a general
term like the French four; but in English it has been restricted
to those apparatus in which only a moderate temperature,
usually below a red heat, is produced in a close chamber. Our
bakers' ovens, hot-air ovens or stoves, annealing ovens for glass
or metal, &c, would all be called fours in French and Ofen in
German, in common with furnaces of all kinds. Stove, an
equivalent of oven, is from the German Stube, i.e. a heated room,
and is commonly so understood; but is also applied to open
fire-places, which appears to be somewhat of a departure from
the original signification.
Furnaces are constructed according to many different patterns
wft& varying degrees of complexity in arrangement; but all
may be considered as combining three essential ptrts, namely,
the fire-place in which the fuel is consumed, the heated chamber,
laboratory, hearth or working bed, as it is variously called,
where the heat is applied to the special work for which the furnace
is designed, and the apparatus for producing rapid combustion
by the supply of air under pressure to the fire. In the simplest
cases the functions of two or more of these parts may be combined
into one, as in the smith's forge, where the fire-place and healing
chamber are united, the iron being placed among the coals, only
the air for burning being supplied under pressure from a blowing
engine by a second special contrivance, the tuyere, luiroo,
twycr or blast-pipe; but in the more refined modern furnaces,
where great economy of fuel is an object, the different functions
are distributed over separate and distinct apparatus, the fuel
being converted into gas in one, dried in another, and heated
in a third, before arriving at the point of combustion in the
working chamber of the furnace proper.
Furnaces may be classified according as the products of com-
bustion are employed (i) only for heating purposes, or (2) both for
heating and bringing about some chemical change. The furnaces
employed for steam-raising or for heating buildings are invariably
of the first type (see Boiler and Heating), while those employed
in metallurgy are generally of the second. The essential difference
in construction is that in the first class the substances heated do
not come into contact with either the fuel or the furnace gases,
whereas in the second they do. Metallurgical furnaces of the first
class arc termed crucible, muffle or retort furnaces, and of the
second shaft and revcrbcratory furnaces. The following is a detailed
subdivision :—
(1) Fuel and substance in contact.
(a) Height of furnace greater than diameter* shaft furnaces.
(a) No blast *= kilns.
(/?) With blast *> blast furnaces.
(0) Height not much greater than diameter •> hearth furnaces.
(2) Substance heated by products of combustion — revcrbcratory
furnaces.
(a) Charge not melted - roasting or calcining furnaces.
(b) Charge melted » melting furnaces.
(3) Substance is not directly heated by the fuel or by the product*
of combustion,
(a) Heating chamber fixed and forming part 0/ furnace*
muffle furnaces.
[&) Crucible furnaces.
Retort furnaces.
Another classification may be based upon the nature of the heating
agent, according as it is coal (or some similar combustible) oil. ga»
or electricity. In this article the general principles of metallurgical
furnaces will be treated ; the subject of gas- ana oil-heated furnaces
is treated in the article Fuel, and of the electric furnace in the
article Electrometallurgy. For special furnaces reference should
he made to the articles on the industry concerned, e.g. Glass, Gas.
f Manufacture, &c
Shaft, Blast and Hearth Furnaces— The blast furnace in its
simplest form is among the oldest, if not the oldest, of metal-
lurgical contrivances. In the old copper-smelting district of
Arabia Petraea, clay blast -pipes dating back to the earlier
dynasties of ancient Egypt have been found buried in slag heaps;
and in India the native smiths and iron-workers continue to use
furnaces of similar types. These, when reduced to their most
simple expression, are mere basin-shaped hollows in the ground,
containing ignited charcoal and the substances to be heated,
the fire being urged by a blast of air blown in through one or
more nozzles from a bellows at or near the top. They are
essentially the same as the smith's forge. This class of furnace
is usually known as an open fire or hearth, and is represented in
a more advanced stage of development by the Catalan, German
and Walloon forges formerly used in the production of malleable
iron.
Fig. 1 represents a Catalan forge. The cavity in the ground »
represented by a pit of square or rectangular section lined with
brick or stone of a kind not readily acted on by heat, about ij or
2 ft. deep, usually somewhat larger above than below, with a tuyere
or blast-pipe of copper penetrating one of the walls near the top,
with a considerable downward inclination, so that the air meets
the fuel some way down. In iron-smelting the ore is laid in a heap
upon the fuel (charcoal) filling up the hearth, and is gradually brought
to the metallic state by the reducing action of the carbon monoxide
formed at the tuyere. The metal sinks through the ignited fuel,
forming, in the hearth, a spongy mass or ball, which is lifted out by
the smeUcrs at the end of each operation, and carried to the foqje
I mtmracT. To* earttvj **»**» ton* «. tuaible tfass or slag sick, sod
8'
FURNACE
359
collect at the lowest point of the hearth, whence they are
by opening a hole pierced through the front wall at the
The active portion of such a furnace is essentially that a
blast-pipe, the function of the lower part being merely the <
of the reduced metal; the fire may therefore be regarded ai
in an unconfined space, with the waste of a large amoti
heating power. By continuing the walls of the hearth a
tuyere, into a shaft or stt
of the same or some othe
we obtain a furnace of
capacity, but with oc
power of consuming fuel,
the material to be treati
heated up gradually by 1
into the stack, alternat
layers of fuel, the charge
ing regularly to the poin
bustion, and absorbing
portion of the beat of 1
that went to waste in
fire. This principle is a
very wide, extension, 1
Fig. i.— Elevation of Catalan
Forge.
furnace being mainly li
height by the strength th
of materials or " burden
height by the strengtl
of materials or " bur
resist crashing, under the weight due to the head adopted
power of the blowing engine to supply blast of sumcien
to overcome the resistance of the closely packed materia
free passage of the spent gases. The consuming powc
furnace or the rate at which it can burn the fuel supplied is i
by the number of tuyeres and their section.
The development of blast furnaces is practically the
merit of Iron-smelting. The profile has been very muc
at different times. The earliest examples were square
angular in horizontal section, but the general tendency o
practice is to substitute round sections, their construct!
facilitated by the use of specially moulded bricks wh
entirely superseded the sandstone blocks formerly us<
vertical section, on the other hand, is subject to con
variation according to the work to which the furnace is
Where the operation is simply one of fusion, as in I
founder's cupola, in which there is no very great change ii
in the materials on their descent to the tuyeres, the stack
or quite straight-sided; but when, as is the case with the
of iron ores with limestone flux, a large proportion of
matter has to be removed in the process, a wall of
inclination is used, so that the body of the furnace is f<
two dissimilar truncated cones, joined by their bases, t
one passing downwards into a short, nearly cyl
position. For further consideration of this subject s
and Steel.
Hearth furnaces are employed in certain metallurgies
tions, e.g. in the air-reduction process for smelting lc
The principle is essentially that of the Catalan forgi
furnaces are very wasteful, and have little to rccomme
(see Schnabel, Metallurgy, 1005, vol. i. p. 409).
Reverberatory Furnaces. — Blast furnaces are, from the
contact between the burden to be smelted and the fuel,
wasteful of heat; but their use supposes the possibility o
ing fuel of good quality and free from sulphur or other su
likely to deteriorate the metal produced. In all cases, t
where it is desired to do the work out of contact with
fuel, the operation of burning or heat-producing must
formed in a special fire-place or combustion chamber, t
of flame and heated gas being afterwards made to act 1
surface of the- material exposed in a broad thin layc
working bed or laboratory of the furnace by revcrbcrat
the low vaulted roof covering the bed. Such furnaces ai
by the general name of reverberatory or rcverbatory 1
also as air or wind furnaces, to distinguish them frc
worked with compressed air or blast.
Originally the term cupola was used for the rever
furnace, but in the course of time it has changed its 1
and is now given to a small blast furnace such as that
iron-founders — reverberatory smelting furnaces in tl
trade being called air furnaces.
Fig5. 2, 3 and 4 represent a reverberatory furnace such 1
for the fusion of copper ores for regulus, and may be taken
ally representing its class. The fire-place A is divided from the
working bed B by a low wall C known as die fire bridge, and at the
opposite end there is sometimes, though not invariably, a second
bridge of less height called the flue bridge D. A short diagonal flat
Fig. 2.— Longitudinat section of Reverberatory Furnace.
or up-take E conveys the current of spent flame to the chimney
F, which is of square section, diminishing by steps at two or three
different heights, and provided at the top with a covering plate or
Fie. 3.— Reverberatory Furnace (horizontal section),
damper G. which may be raised or lowered by a chain reaching to
the ground, and serves for regulating the speed of the exhaust gases,
and thereby the draught 01 air through the fire. Where several
Fig. 4. — Reverberatory Furnace (elevation at flue end).
furnaces are connected with the same chimney stack, the damper
takes the form of a sliding plate in the mouth of the connecting flue,
so that the draught in one may be modified without affecting the
others. The fire bridge is oartiaUy ocotecud aqsinai tbut utt&oa*.
36o
FURNACE
heat of the body of flame issuing through the fire arch by a passage
to which the air has free access. The material to be melted is
introduced into the furnace from the hoppers HH through the
charging holes in the roof When melted the products separate on
the bed (which is made of closely packed sand or other infusible
substances), according to their density ; the lighter earthy matters
forming an upper layer of slag are drawn out by the slag hole K at
the flue end into an iron wagon or bogie, while the metal subsides
to the bottom of the bed, and at the termination of the operation
is run out by the tap hole L into moulds or granulated into water.
The opposite opening M is the working door, through which the tool
for stirring the charge is introduced. It is covered by a elate
suspended to a lever, similar to that seen in the end elevation (fag. 4)
in front of the slag hole.
According to the purposes to which they are applied, rever-
beratory furnaces may be classed into two groups, namely, fusion
or melting furnaces, and calcining or wasting furnaces, also
called calciners. The former have a very extended application
in many branches of industry, being used by both founders and
smelters in the fusion of metals; in the concentration of poor
metallic compounds by fusion into regulus; in the reduction
of lead and tin ores; for refining copper and silver; and for
making malleable iron by the puddling processes and welding.
Calcining furnaces have a less extended application, being
chiefly employed in the conversion of metallic sulphides into
oxides by continued exposure to the action of air at a temperature
far below that of fusion, or into chlorides by roasting with common
salt. As some of these substances (for example, lead sulphide
and copper pyrites) are readily fusible when first heated, but
become more refractory as part of the sulphur is dissipated and
oxygen takes its place, it is important that the heat should be
very carefully regulated at first, otherwise the mass may become
clotted or fritted together, and the oxidizing effect of the air soon
ceases unless the fritted masses be broken small again. This is
generally done by making the bed of the furnace very long in
proportion to its breadth and to the fire-grate area, which may
be the more easily done as a not inconsiderable amount of heat
is given out during the oxidation of the ore — such increased
length being often obtained by placing two or even three working
beds one above the other, and allowing the flame to pass over them
in order from below upwards. Such calciners are used especially
in roasting zinc blende into zinc oxide, and in the conversion of
copper sulphides into chlorides in the wet extraction process. In
some processes of Icad-smcliing, where the minerals treated
contain sand, the long calciner is provided with a melting bottom
close to the fire-place, so that the desulphurized ore leaves the
furnace as a glassy slag or silicate, which is subsequently reduced
to the metallic state by fusion with fluxes in blast furnaces.
Revcrberatory furnaces play an important part in tho manu-
facture of sodium carbonate; descriptions and illustrations are
given hi the article Alkali Manufacture.
Muffle, Crucible and Retort Furnaces. — A third class of furnaces
is so arranged that the work is done by indirect heating; that
is, the material under treatment, whether subjected to calcina-
tion, fusion or any other process, is not brought in contact either
with fuel or flame, but is raised to the proper temperature by
exposure in a chamber heated externally by the products of
combustion. These arc known as muffle or chamber furnaces;
and by supposing the crucibles or retorts to represent similar
chambers of only temporary duration, the ordinary pot melting
air furnaces, and those for the reduction of zinc ores or the
manufacture of coal gas, may be included in the same category.
These are almost invariably air furnaces, though sometimes air
under pressure is used, as, for example, in the combustion of
small anthracitic coal, where a current of air from a fan-blower
is sometimes blown under the grate to promote combustion.
Types of muffle furnaces are figured in the article Annealing,
Hardening and Tempering.
Furnace Materials.— -The materials used in the construction
of furnaces are divisible into two classes, namely, ordinary and
refractory or fire-resisting. The former are used principally as
easing, walls, pillars or other supporting parts of the structure,
mnd includes ordinary red or yeUow bricks, clay-slate, granite
•ad most building stones; the Utter are reserved for the parts
immediately in contact with the fuel and flame, such as the
lining of the fire-place, the arches, roof and flues, the lower part
if not the whole of the chimney lining in revcrberatory furnaces,
and the whole of the internal walls of blast furnaces. Among
such substances are fireclay and firebricks, certain sandstones,
silica in the form of ganister, and Dinas stone and bricks, ferric
oxide and alumina, carbon (as coke and graphite), magnesia,
lime and chromium oxide— their relative importance being
indicated by their order, the last two or three indeed being only
of limited use.
The most essential point in good fireclays, or in the bricks
or other objects made from them, is the power of resisting
fusion at the highest heat to which they may be exposed. This
supposes them to be free from metallic oxides forming eaafly
fusible compounds with silica, such as lime or iron, the presence
of the former even in comparatively small proportion being very
detrimental. As clays they must be sufficiently plastic to be
readily moulded, but at the same time possess sufficient stiffness
not to contract too strongly in drying, whereby the objects
produced would be liable to be warped or cracked before firing.
In most cases, however, the latter tendency is guarded against,
in making up the paste for moulding, by adding to the fresh
clay a certain proportion of burnt material of the same kind,
such as old bricks or potsherds, ground to a coarse powder.
Coke dust or graphite is used for the same purpose in crucible
teEBRICK).
lighly valued fireclays are derived from the Coal
mong the chief localities are the neighbourhood of
n Worcestershire and Stannington near Sheffield,
most of the materials for crucibles used in steel and
and the pots for glass houses; Newcastle-on-Tyae
near Glasgow, where heavy blast furnace and other
retorts, &c, arc made in large quantities. Coarse*
ery strong firebricks are also made of the waste of
-ks.
the clay raised at Andenne is very largely used for
s for zinc furnaces. The principal French fireclays
>m the Tertiary strata in the south, and more nearly
resemble porcelain clays than those of the Coal Measures They
* « wares of remarkably fine texture and surface, combined with
;h refractory character.
,n Germany. Ips and Passau on the Danube, and Gross Almerode
in Hesse, are the best known localities producing fireclay goods, the
crucibles from the last-mentioned place, known as Hessian crucibles.
going all over the world. These, though not showing a great
ance to extreme heat, are very slightly affected by sudden alterna-
tions in heating, as they may be plunged cold into a strongly heated
furnace without cracking, a treatment to which French and Stour-
bridge pots cannot be subjected with safety.
Plumbago or graphite is largely used in the production of
crucibles, not in the pure state but in admixture with fireclay;
the proportion of the former varies with the quality from 15 to
nearly 50 %. These are the most enduring of all crucibles, the
best lasting out 70 or 80 meltings in brass foundries, about 50
with bronze, and 8 to 10 in steel-melting.
Silica is used in furnace-building in the forms of sand, ganister,
a finely ground sandstone from the Coal Measures of Yorkshire,
and the analogous substance known as Dinas clay, which is
really nearly pure silica, containing at most about a J % of bases.
Dinas clay is found at various places in the Vale of Neath in
South Wales, in the form of a loose disintegrated sandstone,
which is crushed between rollers, mixed with about 1 % of lime,
and moulded into bricks that are fired in kilns at a very high
temperature. These bricks arc specially used for the roof, fire
arches, and other parts subjected to intense heat in reverbera-
tory steel-melting furnaces, and, although infusible under
ordinary conditions, arc often fairly melted by the heat without
fluxing or corrosion after a certain amount of exposure. Ganister,
a slightly plastic siliceous sand, is similarly used for the lining
of Bessemer steel converters; it is found in the neighbourhood
of Sheffield.
Alumina as a refractory material is chiefly used in the form
of bauxite, but its applications arc somewhat special. It has
been found to stand well for the linings of rotatory puddling
furnaces, where, under long-continued heating, it changes into
n &\i\»uxicjt a* tax& ajul valusiblc. as natural emery. In the
FURNACE
361
Paris Exhibition of 1878 bricks very hard and dense in character,
said to be of pure alumina, were exhibited by MuUer & Co. of
Paris, as well as bricks of magnesia, the latter being specially
remarkable for their great weight. They are intended for use
at the extreme temperatures obtainable in steel furnaces, or
for the melting of platinum before the oxy-hydrogen blowpipe.
For the latter purpose, however, lime is generally used; but as
this substance has only small stability, it is usually bedded in a
casing of firebrick. Oxide of chromium and chrome iron ore
have been proposed as refractory crucible materials. The former
may be used as a bed for melting platinum in the same way as
lime or magnesia, without affecting the quality of the metal
Ferric oxide, though not strictly infusible, is largely used as a
protecting lining for furnaces in which malleable iron is made,
a portion of the ore being reduced and recovered in the process.
In an oxidizing atmosphere it is indifferent to silica, and therefore
siliceous bricks containing a considerable proportion of ferric
oxide, when used in flues of boilers, brewers' coppers, &c. and
similar situations, are perfectly fire-resisting so long as the heated
gas contains a large proportion of unconsumed air. The red
firebricks known as Windsor bricks, which are practically
similar in composition to soft red sandstone, are of this character.
The electric furnace has led to the discovery of several
important materials, which have been employed as furnace
linings. Carborundum (q.v.) was applied by Engels in 1809,
firebricks being washed with carborundum paste and then baked.
Siloxicon, a compound of carbon, silicon and oxygen, formed
from carbon and silica in the electric furnace, was patented by
E. G. Achcson in 1903. It is very refractory, and is applied by
mixing with water and some bond, such as sodium silicate or
gas-tar. An amorphous, soft silicon carbide, also formed in the
electric furnace, was patented by B. Talbot in 1800. For basic
linings, magnesia crystallized in the electric furnace is being
extensively used, replacing dolomite to some extent (sec E.
Kilburn Scott, " Refractory Materials for Furnace Linings,"
Faraday Soc, 1906, p. 280).
Furnace Construction. — In the construction of furnaces provision
has to be made for the unequal expansion of the different parts under
the effect of heat. This is especially necessary in the case of rever-
beratory furnaces, which are essentially weak structures, and
therefore require to be bound together by complicated systems of
tie rods and uprights or buck staves. The latter are very commonly
made of okl flat bottom rails, laid with the flat of the flange against
the wall. Puddling furnaces are usually entirely cased with iron
plates, and blast furnaces with hoops round each course of the stack,
or in those of thinner constructions the firebrick work is entirely
enclosed in a wrought iron casing or jacket. Such parts as may be
subjected to extreme heat and the fretting action of molten material,
as the tuyere and slag breasts of blast furnaces, and the fire bridges
and bed plates of reverbcratory furnaces, are often made in cast
iron with double walls, a current of water or air being kept circulating
through the intermediate space. In this way the metal, owing to
its high conductivity and low specific heat as compared to that of
water, is kept at a temperature far below its melting point if the
water is renewed quickly enough. It is of course nccestary in such
cases that the circulation thalloe perfectly free, in order to prevent
the accumulation of steam under pressure in the interior of the
casting. This method has received considerable extension, notably
in furnace-smelting of iron ores containing manganese, where the
entire hearth is often completely water-cased, and in some lead
furnaces where no firebrick lining is used, the lower part of the
furnace stack being a mere double iron box cooled by water suf-
ficiently to keep a coating of slag adhering to the inner shell which
prevents the metal from being acted upon.
Mechanical Furnaces.— -The introduction and withdrawal of the
charges in fusion furnaces is effected by gravitation, the holid 1
of raw ore, fuel and flux being thrown in at the top, and flowing
out of the furnace at the tapholc or slag run at the bottom. Vertical
kilns, such as tho«e u«cd for burning limestone, are worked in a
similar manner — the raw stone going in at the top, and the burnt
product falling through holes in the bottom when allowed to do so.
With revcrberatory calcincrs, however, where the work is done
upon a horizontal bed, a considerable amount of hand lal>our is
expended in raking out the charge when finished, and in drawing
slags from fusion furnaces: and more particularly in the puddling
process of refining iron the amount of manual exertion required is
very much greater. To diminish the item of expenditure on this
head, various kinds of mechanical furnaces have been adopted, all
of which can be classified under three heads of gravitating furnaces,
mechanical stirrers and revolving furnaces.
1. In rovitating furnaces the bed is laid at a slope just within the
angle of repose of the charge, which is introduced at the upper end,
and is pushed down the slope by fresh material, ^hm necessary,
in the contrary direction to the flame which enters 1! the lower end.
Gerstcnhofer s pyrites burner is a furnace of this class. It has a tall
vertical chamber beared from below, and traversed by numerous
narrow horizontal cross bam at different heights. The ore in fine
powder is fed in at the top, through a hopper, in a regular thin
stream, by a pair of rollers, and in falling lodges on the flats of the
bars, forming a talus upon each of the height corresponding to the
angle of rest of the material, which is* however* at short intervals
removed to lower levels by the arrival of fresh ore from above. In
this way a very large surface is exposed to the heat, and the ore, if
containing sufficient sulphur to maintain the combustion, is perfectly
burned when it arrives at the bottom ; if, however, it is impcrfcedy
sized or damp, or if it contains much earthy matter, the remit 1*
not very satisfactory. There are many other furnaces in which the
same principle is utilised.
2. Mechanical stirrers constitute a second division of mechanical
furnaces, in which the labour of rabbling or stirring the charges is
performed by combinations of levers and wheel-work taking motion
from a rotating shaft, and more or less perfectly imitating the action
of hand labour. They arc almost entirely confined to puddling
furnaces.
3. Rsoolving furnaus, the third and most important division of
mechanical furnaces, are of two kinds. The first of these resemble
an ordinary revcrberatory furnace by having a flat bed which,
however, has the form of a circular disk mounted on a central shaft,
and receives a slow movement of rotation from a water-wheel or
other motor, so that every part of the surface is brought successively
under the action of the fire, the charge bring stirred and ultimately
removed by passing under a series of fixed scraper arras placed above
the surface at various points. Brunton 'a calcine^ used in the " burn*
ing " of the pyritic minerals associated with tin ore, is a familiar
example of this type. The hearth may either rotate on an inclined
axis, so that the path of it* surface is oblique to that of the flame,
or the working part may be a hollow cylinder, between the fireplace
and flue, with its axis horizontal or nearly so, whose inner surface
represents the working bed, mounted upon friction rollers, and
receiving motion from a special steam-engine by means of a central
belt of spur gearing. Furnaces of the second kind were first used in
alkali works for the conversion of sulphate into carbonate of sodium
in the process known as black ash fusion, but have since been applied
to other processes. As calciners they are used in tin mines and for
the chlonnatioa- of silver ores. Mechanical furnaces are figured in
the article Alkali Manufacture.
Use of Healed Air. — The calorific intensity of fuel is found to be
very considerably enhanced, if the combustion be effected with air
previously heated to any temperature between that of boiling water
and a dull red heat, the same effect being observed both with solid
and gaseous fuel. The titter, especially when brought to the burning
point at a high temperature, produces a heat that can be resisted
by the most refractory substances only, such as silica, alumina and-
magnesia. This is attained in the regenerative furnace of Siemens,
detailed consideration of which belongs more properly to the subject
of iron.
Economy of Waste Ural. — In every system of artificial beating, the
amount 01 heat usefully applied is but a small proportion of that
developed by combustion. Even under the most advantageous
application, that of evaporation of water in a steam boiler where the
Eases of the fire have to travel through a great length of flues bourn led
y thin iron surfaces of great heat-absorbing capacity, the tern-'
perature of the current at the chimney is generally much above that
required to maintain an active draught in the fireplace: and other
tubes containing water, often in considerable numbers, forming the
so-called fuel economizers, may often be interpo5cd between the
boiler and the chimney with marked advantage as regards saving
of fuel. In reverbcratory and air furnaces used in the different
operations of iron manufacture, where an extremely high temperature
has to be maintained In spaces of comparatively small extent, such
as the beds of puddling, welding and steel- melting furnaces, the
temperature of the exhaust gases is exceedingly high, and if allowed
to pass directly into the chimney they appear as a great body of
flame at the top. It is now general to save a portion of this hear by
passing the flame through flues of steam boilers, air-heating appara-
tus, or both— «o that the steam required for the necessary operations
of the forge and heated blast for the furnace itself may be obtained
without further expenditure of fuel. The most perfect method of
utilizing the waste heat hitherto applied is that of the Siemens re-
generator, in which the spent gases are made to travel through
chambers, known as regenerators or recuperators of heat, containing
a quantity of thin firebricks piled into a cellular mass so as to offer
a very large heat-absorbing surface, whereby their temperature is
very considerably reduced, and they arrive at the chimney at a heat
not exceeding 300 or doo degrees. As soon as the bricks have become
red hot, the current is diverted to an adjacent chamber or pair of
chambers, and the acquired heat is removed by a current of cool
gas or air passing towards the furnace, where it arrives at a tem-
perature sufficiently high to ensure the greatest. v**vfckt feasant
effect in combustion.
362
FURNEAUX— FURNESS
In iron-smelting blast furnaces the waste gases are of considerable
fuel value, fhdtfiay render important services if properly applied.
Owing to the conditions of the work, which require the maintenance
of a sensibly reducing atmosphere, they contain a very notable
proportion of carbonic oxide, and are drawn off by large wrought iron
tubes near the top of the furnace and conveyed by branch pipes
to the different boilers and air-heating apparatus, whkh are now
entirely heated by the combustion of such gases, or mixed with air
and exploded in gas engines. Formerly they were allowed to burn
to waste at the mouth of a short chimney place above the furnace
top. forming a huge body of flame, which was one of the most
striking features of the Black Country landscape at night.
Laboratory and Portable Furnaces. — Small air-furnaces with hot
Elates or sand bath flues were formerly much employed in chemical
tboratories, as well as small blast furnaces for crucibles heated with
charcoal or coke. The use of such furnaces has very considerably
introduction of coal-gas for heating
has been rendered possible by the
in which the mixture of air and gas
most powerfully hearing flame is
effluent gas. These burners, or
o been applied to muffle furnaces,
a few assays have to be made — the
[I and soon brought to a working
> expensive to allow of their being
tie. Petroleum, or rather the heavy
aving an equal or superior heating
used in laboratories for producing
high temperatures. The oil is introduced in a thin stream upon a
series of inclined and channelled bars, where it is almost immediately
votatilixed and burnt by air flowing in through parallel orifices.
Furnaces of this kind may be used for melting* cast iron or bronze
in small quantities, and were employed by H. Sainte Gaire Deville
In experiments in the metallurgy of the platinum group of metals.
Seistrom's blast furnace, used in Sweden for the assay of iron ores,
is a convenient form of portable furnace applied to melting in
crucibles. It consists of a sheet-iron cylinder about 8 or o in. in
diameter, within which is fixed one of smaller size lined with fire-
clay. The space between I
distributor for the blast, wl
the bottom, and enters the
tuyeres arranged round the
and the crucibles stand upc
a large body of fuel is requ
an iron hoop which fits ovc
furnace is very similar in pr
furnace is formed of a sing!
closed below by a cast iron p
a hemispherical basin below
FURNEAUX, TOBIAS
born at Swilly near Plymouth on the 21st of August 1735. He
entered the royal navy, and was employed on the French and
African coasts and in the West Indies during the latter part of the
Seven Years' War ( 1 760- 1 763) . He served as second lieutenant
of the " Dolphin " under Captain Samuel Walks on the latter's
voyage round the globe (August 1766-May 1768); was made
a commander in November 1771; and commanded the " Ad-
venture " which accompanied Captain Cook (in the ** Resolu-
tion ") in Cook's second voyage. On this expedition Fumeaux
was twice separated from his leader (February 8-May 19, 1773;
October 22, 1773-July 14, 1774, the date of his return to
England). On the former occasion he explored a great part of
the south and east coasts of Tasmania, and made the earliest
British chart of the same. Most of his names here survive;
Cook, visiting this shore-line on his third voyage, confirmed
Furneaux's account and delineation of it (with certain minor
criticisms and emendations), and named after him the islands
in Banks Straits, opening into Bass's Straits, and the group now
known as the Low Archipelago. After the " Adventure " was
finally separated from the " Resolution " off New Zealand in
October 1773, Furneaux returned home alone, bringing with him
Omai of UUietea. This first South Sea Islander seen in the
British Isles returned to his home with Cook in 1 776-1777.
Furneaux was made a captain in 1775, and commanded the
M Syren " in the British attack of the 28th of June 1776 upon
Charleston, South Carolina. His successful efforts to introduce
domestic animals and potatoes into the South Sea Islands are
worthy of note. He died at Swilly on the 19th of September
See Hawkesworth'3 Narratioe of WaUis' Voyage; Captain Cook's
Mmiwr <f Jhs Srcond Voyage: a/so T. Furneaux's fife by Rev.
Henry Furneaux ia the Dictionary of National Biography,
FURJTES (Flem. Veurne), an old-fashioned little town amid
the dunes near the coast in West Flanders, Belgium, about
s6 m. S.W. of Bruges. Pop. (1904) 6009. It is the centre of a
considerable area extending to the French frontier, and its
market is an important one for the disposal of corn, stock, bops
and dairy produce. During the Norman raids Fumes was
destroyed, and the present town was built by Baldwin Bras de
Fer, first count of Flanders, about the year 870. At the height
of the prosperity of the Flemish communes in the 14th century
there were dependent on the barony of Fumes not fewer than
fifty-two rich villages, but these have all disappeared, partly
no doubt as (he consequence of repeated French invasions down
to the end of the 18th century, but chiefly through the encroach-
ment of the sea followed by the accumulation of sand along the
whole of this portion of the coast. Fumes contains many
curious old houses and the church of St Walburga, which b a
fine survival of the 13th century with some older portions. The
old church and buildings, grouped round the Grand Place, which
is the scene of the weekly market, present a quaint picture
which is perhaps not to be equalled in the country. Near Fumes
on the seashore is the fashionable bathing place called La Panne.
Fumes one day a year becomes a centre of attraction to all
the people of Flanders. This is the last Sunday in July, when the
fete of Calvary and the Crucifixion is celebrated. Of all popular
festivities in Belgium this is the nearest approach -to the old
Passion Play. The whole story of Christ is told with great
precision by means of succeeding groups which typify the different
phases of the subject. The people of Fumes pose as Roman
soldiers or Jewish priests, as the apostles or mere spectators,
while the women put on long black veils so that they may- figure
in the procession as the just women.
FURNESS, HORACE HOWARD (1833- „ American
Shakespearian scholar, was bom in Philadelphia on the and of
November 1833, being the son of William Henry Furness (t8o*>
1896) minister of the First Unitarian church in that city, a
powerful preacher and writer. He graduated at Harvard ia
1854, and was admitted to the bar in 1859, but soon devoted
himself to the study of Shakespeare. He accumulated a collection
of illustrative material of great richness and extent, and brought
out in 1 87 1 the first volume of a new Variorum edition, designed
to represent and summarize the conclusions of the best authorities
in all languages — textual, critical and annotative. The volumes
appeared as follows: Romeo and Juliet (1871); Macbeth (1873)
(revised edition, 1903); Hamlet (2 vols., 1S77); King htm
(1880); Othello (1886); The Merchant of Venice (188S); As Yon
Like It (1890); The Tempest (1892); A Midsummer Nighfs
Dream (1895); The Winter's Tale (1898); Much Ado about
Nothing (1899); Twelfth Night (1001}; Love's Labour's but
(1904). The edition has been generally accepted as a thorough
and scholarly piece of work; its chief fault is that, beginning
with Othello (1886), the editor used the First Folio text as his
basis, while in others he makes the text of the Cambridge (Globe)
editors his foundation. His wife, Helen Kate Furness (1837-
1883), compiled A Concordance to the Poems of S h ake s p e are (1873).
FURNESS, a district of Lancashire, England, separated from
the major portion of the county by Morecambe Bay. It is
bounded S.E. by this inlet of the Irish Sea, S.W. by the sea,
W. by the Duddon estuary and Cumberland, and N. and E. by
Westmorland. Its area is about 250sq.m. It forms the greater
part of the North Lonsdale parliamentary division of Lancashire,
and contains the parliamentary borough of Barrow-in-Furness.
The surface is almost entirely hiUy. The northern half is included
in the celebrated Lake District, and contains such eminence!
as the Old Man of Coniston and Wetherlam. Apart from the
Duddon, which forms part of the western boundary, the principal
rivers are the Leven and Crake, flowing 1 southward into a common
estuary in Morecambe Bay. The Leven drains Windermere
and the Crake Coniston Lake. The usage of the term " Lake
District," however, tends to limit the name of Furness in common
thought to the district south of the Lakes, where several of the
place-names arc suffixed with that of the district, as Barrow-io-
Funwftft, D%\XOft-ln-¥\xn**>, fcwaa>tAOrm-Furnes». Between
FURNISS— FURNITURE
363
the Duddon and Morecambe Bay lies Waloey Island, 8 m. in
length, and in the shallow strait between it and the mainland
are several smaller islands. That part of Furness which forms a
peninsula between the Leven estuary and Morecambe Bay, and
the Duddon estuary, is rich in hematite iron ore, which has been
worked from very early times. It was known and smelted by
British and Romans, and by the monks of Furness Abbey and
Conishead Priory, froth in the district. It was owing to the
existence of this oae that the town of Barrow grew up in the 10th
century; at first as a port from which the ore was exported to
South Wales, while later furnaces were es t ablished on the spot,
and acquired additional importance on the introduction of the
Bessemer process, which requires a non-phosphoric ore such as
is found here. The hematite is also worked at Ulverston, Askam,
Dalton and elsewhere, but the furnaces now depend in part
upon ore imported from Spain. The supposed extension of the
ore under the sands of the Duddon estuary led to the construction
of a sea wall to facilitate the working. The district is served
by the main line of the Furness railway, from Carnforth (junction
with the London & North- Western railway), passing the pleasant
watering-place of Grange, and approximately following the
coast by Ulverston, Dalton and Barrow, with branches to Lake
Side, Windermere, and to Coniston.
Apart from its industrial importance and scenic attractions,
Furness has an especial interest on account of its famous abbey
The ruins of this, beautifully situated in a wooded
valley, are extensive, and mainly of fine transitional
Norman and Early English date, acquiring additional
picturesqueness from the warm colour of the red sandstone
of which they are built. The abbey of Furness, otherwise
Furdenesia or the further nese (promontory), which was dedicated
to St Mary, was founded in 11 27 by a small body of monks
belonging to the Benedictine order of Savigny. In n 24 they
had settled at Tulketh, near Preston, but migrated in 1127 to
Furness under the auspices of Stephen, count of Boulogne,
afterwards king, at that time lord of the liberty of Furness.
In 1 148 the brotherhood joined the Cistercian order. Stephen
granted to the monks the lordship of Furness, and his charter
was confirmed by Henry I., Henry II. and subsequent kings.
The abbot's power throughout the lordship was almost absolute;
he had a market and fair at Dalton, was free from service to the
county and wapentake, and held a sheriff's tourn. By a succes-
sion of gifts the abbey became one of the richest in England
and was the largest Cistercian foundation in the kingdom. At
the Dissolution its revenues amounted to between £750 and
£800 a year, exclusive of meadows, pastures, fisheries, mines,
mills and salt works, and the wealth of the monks enabled them
to practise a regal hospitality. The abbot was one of the twenty
Cistercian abbots summoned to the parliament of 1264, but was
not cited after 1330, as he did not hold of the king in capile per
baroniam. The abbey founded several offshoot houses, one of
the most important being Rushen Abbey in the Isle of Man. In
1 SJ 5 the royal commissioners visited the abbey and reported
four of its inmates, including the abbot, for incontinence. In
1 536 the abbot was charged with complicity in the Pilgrimage
of Grace, and on the 7th of April 1537, under compulsion,
surrendered the abbey to the king. A few monks were granted
pensions, and the abbot was endowed with the profits of the
rectory of Dalton, valued at £33, 6s. 8d. per annum. In 1540
the estates and revenues were annexed by act of parliament to
the Duchy of Lancaster. About James I.'s reign the site and
territories were alienated to the Prcstons of Preston-Patrick,
from whom they descended to the dukes of Devonshire.
Conishead Priory, near Ulverston, an Augustinian foundation
of the reign of Henry II., has left no remains, but of the priory
of Cartmel (1 188) the fine church is still in use. It is a cruciform
structure of transitional Norman and later dates, its central
tower having the upper storey set diagonally upon the lower.
The chancel contains some superb Jacobean carved oak screens,
with stalls of earlier date.
PURJOtt. HARRY (1854- ), British caricaturist and
i, waa born at Wexford, Ireland, of English and Scottish
parents. He was educated in Dublin, and in his schooldays
edited a Schoolboy's Punch in dose imitation of the original.
He came to London when he was nineteen, and began to draw
for the illustrated papers, being for some years a regular contribu-
tor to the Illustrated London News. His first drawing in Punch
appeared.in 1880, and he joined its staff in 1884. He illustrated
Lucy's " Diary of Toby, M.P.," in Punch, where his political
caricatures became a popular feature. Among his other successes
were a series of "Puzzle Heads," and his annual "Royal
Academy guyVL" In Royal A cademy A ntics ( 1 800) he published
a volume of caricatures of the work of leading artists. He
resigned from the staff of Punch in 1804, produced for a short
time a weekly comic paper Lika Joko, and in 1808 began a
humorous monthly, Pair Game; but these were short-lived.
Among the numerous books he illustrated were James Payn's
Talk of the Town, Lewis Carroll's Sylvie and Bruno, Gilbert a
Beckett's Comic Blachstone, G. E. Farrow's WaMypug Booh,
and his own novel, Poverty Bay (1005). Our Joe, his great Fight
(1003), was a collection of original cartoons. His volume of
reminiscences, Confessions of a Caricaturist (ioox), was followed
by Harry Furniss at Home (1004). In 1005 he published How to
draw in Pen and Ink, and produced the first number of Harry
Furniss's Christmas Annual.
FURNITURE (from " furnish," Fr. fournir) f a general term
of obscure origin, used to describe the chattels and fittings re*
quired to adapt houses and other buildings for use. Wood,
ivory, precious stones, bronze, silver and gold have been used
from the most ancient times in the construction or for the
decoration of furniture. The kinds of objects required for
furniture have varied according to the changes of manners and
customs, as well as with reference to the materials at the com-
mand of the workman, in different climates and countries.
Of really ancient furniture there are very few surviving examples,
partly by reason of the perishable materials of which it was usually
constructed, and partly because, however great may have been
the splendour of Egypt, however consummate the taste of Greece,
however luxurious the life of Rome, the number of household
appliances was very limited. The chair, the couch, the- table,
the bed, were virtually the entire furniture of early peoples,
whatever the degree of their civilization, and so they remained
until the close of what are known in Eruopean history as the
middle ages. During the long empire-strewn centuries which
intervened between the lapse of Egypt and the obliteration of
Babylon, the extinction of Greece and the dismemberment of
Rome and the great awakening of the Renaissance, household
comfort developed but little. The Ptolemies were as well lodged
as the Plantagcnets, and peoples who spent their lives in the
open air, going to bed in the early hours of darkness, and rising
as soon as it was light, needed but little household furniture.
Indoor life and the growth of sedentary habits exercised a
powerful influence upon the development of furniture. From
being splendid, or at least massive, and exceedingly sparse and
costly, it gradually became light, plentiful and cheap. In the
ancient civilizations, as in the periods when our own was slowly
growing, household plenishings, save in the rudest and most
elementary forms, were the privilege of the great — no person
of mean degree could have obtained, or would have dared to
use if he could, what is now the commonest object in every
house, the chair (q.v.). Sparse examples of the furniture of
Egypt, Nineveh, Greece and Rome are to be found in museums;
but our chief sources of information are mural and sepulchral
paintings and sculptures. The Egyptians used wooden furniture
carved and gilded, covered with splendid textiles, and supported
upon the legs of wild animals; they employed chests and coffers
as receptacles for clothes, valuables and small objects generally.
Wild animals and beasts of the chase were carved upon the
furniture of Nineveh also; the lion, the bull and the ram were
especially characteristic. The Assyrians were magnificent in
their household appointments; their tables and couches woe
inlaid with ivory and precious metals Cedar and ebony were
much used by these great Eastern peoples, and it is probable that
they were familiar with rosewood, walnut and teak, ^fotaramtv
3&4
FURNITURE
bed was of cedar of Lebanon. Greek furniture was essentially
Oriental in form; the more sumptuous varieties were of bronze,
damascened with gold and silver. The Romans employed Greek
artists and workmen and absorbed or adapted many of their
tnobiliary fashions, especially in chairs and couches. The Roman
tables were of splendid marbles or rare woods. In the later
ages of the empire, in Rome and afterwards in Constantinople,
gold and silver were plentifully used in furniture; such indeed
was the abundance of these precious metals that even cooking
Utensils and common domestic vessels were made of them.
The architectural features so prominent in much of the
medieval furniture begin in these Byzantine and late Roman
thrones and other seats. These features became paramount as
Pointed architecture became general in Europe, and scarcely
less so during the Renaissance. Most of the medieval furniture,
chests, seats, trays, &c, of Italian make were richly gilt and
painted. In northern Europe carved oak was more generally
used. State scats in feudal halls were benches with ends carved
in tracery, backs panelled or hung with dolhs (called cloths of
estate), and canopies projecting above. Bedsteads were square
frames, the testers of panelled wood, resting on carved posts.
Chests of oak carved with panels of tracery, or of Italian cypress
(when they could be imported), ere used to hold and to carry
dothes, tapestries, &c., to distant castles and manor houses;
for house furniture, owing to its scarcity and cost, had to be
moved from place to place. Copes and other ecclesiastical
vestments were kept in chests with ornamental lock plates and
iron hinges. The splendour of most feudal houses depended
on pictorial tapestries which could be packed and carried from
place to place. Wardrobes were rooms fitted for the reception
of dresses, as well as for spices and other valuable stores. Ex-
cell en t carving in relief was executed on caskets, which were of
wood or of ivory, with painting and gilding, and decorated with
delicate hinge and lock metal-work. The general subjects of
sculpture were taken from legends of the saints or from metrical
romances. Renaissance art made a great change in architecture,
and this change was exemplified in furniture. Cabinets (q.v.) and
panelling took the outlines of palaces and temples. In Florence,
Rome, Venice, Milan and other capitals of Italy, sumptuous
cabinets, tables, chairs, chests, &c, were made to the orders
of the native princes. Vasari (Lives of Painters) speaks of
scientific diagrams and mathematical problems illustrated in
costly materials, by the best artists of the day, on furniture made
for the Medici family. The great extent of the rule of Charles V.
helped to give a uniform training to artists from various countries
resorting to Italy, so that cabinets, &c, which were made in
Vast numbers in Spain, Flanders and Germany, can hardly be
distinguished from those executed in Italy. Francis I. and
Henry VIII. encouraged the revived arts in their respective
dominions. Pietra dura, or inlay of hard pebbles, agate, lapis
lazuli, and other stones, ivory carved and inlaid, carved and gilt
wood, marquetry or veneering with thin woods, tortoiseshell,
brass, &c, were used in making sumptuous furniture during the
first period of the Renaissance. Subjects of carving or relief
were generally drawn from the theological and cardinal virtues,
from classical mythology, from the seasons, months, &c. Carved
allarpieces and woodwork in churches partook of the change in
style.
The great period of furniture in almost every country was,
however, unquestionably the 18th century. That century saw
many extravagances in this, as in other forms of art, but on the
whole it saw the richest floraison of taste, and the widest sense
of invention. This is the more remarkable since the furniture
of the 17th century has often been criticized as heavy and coarse.
The criticism is only partly justified. Throughout the first three-
quarters of the period between the accession of James I. and
that of Queen Anne, massiveness and solidity were the dis-
tinguishing characteristics of all work. Towards the reign of
James II., however, there came in one of the roost pleasing and
degant styles ever known in England. Nearly a generation
before then Boulle- was developing in France the splendid and
palatial method of inlay which, although be did not invent it,
is inseparably assodated with his name. We owe it perhaps to
the fact that France, as the neighbour of Italy, was touched
more immediately by the Renaissance than England that the
reign of heaviness came earlier to an end in that country than on
the other side of the Channd. But there is a heaviness which is
pleasing as well as one which is forbidding, and much of the
furniture made in England any time after the middle of the
17th century was highly attractive. If English furniture of
the Stuart period be not sought after to the same extent as that
of a hundred years later, it is yet highly prized and exceedingry
decorative. Angularity it often still possessed, but generally
speaking its degance of form and richness of upholstering lent
it an attraction which not long before had been entirely ^^»"g
Alike in France and in England, the most attractive achievements
of the cabinetmaker belong to the 18th century — English Queen
Anne and early Georgian work Is universally charming; the
regency and the reigns of Louis XV. and XVI formed a period
of the greatest artistic splendour. The inspiration of much of
the work of the great English school was derived from France,
although the gropings after the Chinese taste and the earlier
Gothic manner were mainly indigenous. The French styles of the
century, which began with excessive flamboyance, dosed before
the Revolution with a chaste perfection of detail which is perhaps
more delightful than anything that has ever been done in
furniture. In the achievements of Riesener, David RGntgea,
Gouthiere, Ocben and Rousseau dc la Rot ti ere we have the high-
water mark of craftsmanship. The marquetry of the period,
although not always beautiful in itself, was executed with
extraordinary smoothness and finish; the mounts of gilded
bronze, which were the leading characteristic of moat of the work
of the century, were finished with a minute delicacy of touch
which was until then unknown, and has never been rivalled since.
If the periods of Francis I. and Henry II., of Louis XIV. and
the regency produced much that was sumptuous and even degant,
that of Louis XVI., while men's minds were as yet undisturbed
by violent political convulsions, stands out as, on the whole,
the one consummate era in the annals of furniture. Times of
great achievement arc almost invariably followed directly by
those in which no tall thistles grow and in which every little
shrub is magnified to the dimensions of a forest tree; and the
so-called " empire style " which had begun even while the last
monarch of the ancien rigimt still reigned, lacked alike the grace-
ful conception and the superb execution of the preceding style.
Heavy and usually uninspired, it was nurtured in tragedy and
perished amid disaster. Yet it is a profoundly interesting style,
both by reason of the dassical roots from which it sprang and
the attempt, which it finally reflected, to establish new ideas in
every department of life. Founded upon the wreck of a lingering
feudalism it reached back to Rome and Greece, and even to
Egypt. If it is rarely charming, it is often impressive by its
severity. Mahogany, satinwood and other rich timbers were
characteristic of the style of the end of the 18th centsry;
rosewood was most commonly employed for the choker work
of the beginning of the 19th. Bronze mounts were in high
favour, although thdr artistic character varied materially.
Previously to the middle of the 18th century the only cabinet-
maker who gained sufficient personal distinction to have had
his name preserved was Andre* Charles Boulle; beginning with
that period France and England produced many men whose
renown is hardly less than that of artists in other media. With
Chippendale there arose a marvellously brilliant school of English
cabinetmakers, in which the roost outstanding names are those
of Sheraton, Heppdwhite, Shearer and the Adams. But if the
school was splendid it was lamentably short-lived, and the 19th
century produced no single name in the least worthy to be
placed beside these giants. Whether, in an age of machinery,
much room is left for fine individual execution nay be doubted,
and the manufacture of furniture now, to a great extent, takes
place in large factories both in England and on the con-
tinent. Owing to the necessary subdivision of labour in the*
establishments, each piece of furniture passes through yr—
distinct workshops. The master and a few artificers fonatny
FURNITURE
Plate I.
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FURNITURE
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FURNITURE
Plate III.
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Plate IV.
FURNITURE
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FURNITURE Plate V.
Carved Oak Sideboard. English, „>. Carved Oak Court Cupboard. English, early 17th'
1 7th century. Victoria and Albert century. Victoria and Albert Museum.
Museum.
Ebony Carved Cabinet. The interior decorated with inlaid ivory
and coloured wocxls; French or Dutch, middle v>( \-,vVv m«s\>o^ .
Victoria and .Albert Museum.
Plate VI.
FURNITURE
. Ebony Armoire. With tortoise-shell
panels inlaid with brass and other metals,
and ormolu mountings. Designed by
Be rain, and executed by Andr6 Boulle.
French, Louis XIV, period. Victoria and
Albert Museum.
6. Glass-Fronted Bookcase and Cabinet.
Of mahogany. In the style of Sheraton,
about 1700. Lent to the Bethnal Green
Exhibition by the late Vincent J. Rob-
inson, CLE.
4. Veneered Chest of Drawers. About
1690. Lent to BethnaY Utccw V.\Kvlii-
tion by Sir Spencer Ponsouby-Ytwafc^.C A,
FURNITURE punvn
i. Commode of Pine. With mar-
quetry of brass. ebony, tortoise-
shell, mother-of-pearl, ivory,
anil green -sta ined bone.
"Ifoullc"work with designs in
the style of J!£rain v trench,
late i>eriod of Louis XIV.
2. Commode. With panels of
Japanese lacquer and ormolu
mounting, in the style of
Caflieri. French, Louis XV.
jicriod.
3. Tabic of King and Tulip
Woods. With ormolu mount-
ings. Louis XV. period.
\. Escritoire h. Toilette. For-
merly belonging to Marie An-
toinette. Of tulip and sycamore
woods inlaid with other coloured
woods, ormolu mounts. Louis
XV. j>criod.
. Four-Post Bedstead. Of
oak inlaid with bog -oak
and holly, from the "Inlaid
Room" at Sizergh Cattle.
Westmorland. Litter half
of sixteenth century.
, Carved and Gilt Bedstead.
With blue silk damask
coverings and hangings.
French, late iSth century.
Louis XVI. period.
Iran \ht \Vcfca\a. axui Nft^>lba«>»&^- ,,| k* saiB ** m *
platlviii FURNITURE
Co.
The "Bureau du Roi," made for Louis XV M now in t\» Yanni*. lew ^^«ft^«i
FURNIVALL— FURSTENBERG
3^5
superintended each piece of work, which, therefore, was never
far removed from the designer's eye. Though accomplished
artists are retained by the manufacturers of London, Paris and
other capitals, there can no longer be the same relation between
the designer and his work. Many operations in these modern
factories are carried on by machinery. This, though an economy
of labour, entails loss of artistic effect. The chisel and the knife
are no longer in such cases guided and controlled by the sensitive
touch of the human hand.
A decided, if not always intelligent, effort to devise a new
style in furniture began during the last few years of the 19th
century, which gained the name of " I' art nouvcau" Its pioneers
professed to be free from all old traditions and to seek inspiration
from nature alone. Happily nature is less forbidding than many
of these interpretations of it, and much of the " new art " is a
remarkable exemplification of the impossibility of altogether
ignoring traditional forms. The style was not long in degenerat-
ing into extreme extravagance. Perhaps the most striking con-
sequence of this effort has been, especially in England, the
revival of the use of oak. Lightly polished, or waxed, the cheap
foreign oaks often produce very agreeable results, especially
when there is applied to them a simple inlay of boxwood and
stained bolly, or a modern form of pewter. The simplicity of
these English forms is in remarkable contrast to the tortured
and ungainly outlines of continental seekers after a conscious
and unpleasing " originality."
Until a very recent period the most famous collections of
historic furniture were to be found in such French museums as
the Louvre, Cluny and the Garde Meuble. Now, however, they
are rivalled, if not surpassed, by the magnificent collections of
the Victoria and Albert Museum at South Kensington, and the
Wallace collection at Hertford House, London. The latter, in
conjunction with the Jones bequest at South Kensington, forms
the finest of all gatherings of French furniture of the great
periods, notwithstanding that in the Bureau du Roi the Louvre
possesses the most magnificent individual example in existence.
In America there are a number of admirable collections repre-
sentative of the graceful and homely " colonial furniture "
made in England and the United Stales during the Queen Anne
and Georgian periods.
See also the separate articles in this work on particular forms of
furniture. The literature of the subject has become very extensive,
• and it is needless to multiply here the references to books. Perroc
and Chipiez. in their great lliitoire de I' art dans VantiquiU (1882
et seq.), deal with ancient times, and A. de Champeaux, in be Meuble
(1885). with the middle ages and later period; English furniture is
admirably treated by Percy Macquoid in his History of English
Furniture (1905); and Lady Dilkes French Furniture in the 18 Ik
Century (1901), and Luke Vincent Lock wood's Colonial Furniture in
America (1901), should also be consulted. (J. P.-B.)
FURNIVALL, FREDERICK JAHES (1825-1910), English
philologist and editor, was born at Eghant, Surrey, on the 4th
of .February 1825, the son of a surgeon. He was called to the bar
in 1849, but his attention was soon diverted to philological
studies and social problems. He gave Frederick Denison Maurice
valuable assistance in the Christian Socialist movement, and was
one of the founders of the Working Men's College. For half a
century he indefatigably promoted the study of early English
literature, partly by his own work as editor, and still more
efficaciously by the agency of the numerous learned societies
of which he was both founder and director, especially the Early
English Text Society (1864). which has been of inestimable
service in promoting the study of early and middle English.
He also established and conducted the Chaucer, Ballad, New
Shakespeare and Wyclif Societies, and at a later period societies
for the special study of Browning and Shelley. He edited texts
for the Early English Text Society, for the Roxburgh e Club
and the Rolls Series; but his most important labours were
devoted to Chaucer, whose study he as an editor greatly assisted
by his " Six-Text " edition of the Canterbury Talcs, and other
publications of the Chaucer Society* He was the honorary
secretary of the Philological Society, and was one of the original
promoters of the Oxford New English Dictionary. He co-operated
with its first editor, Herbert Coleridge, and after his death
was for some time principal editor during the preliminary period
of the collection of materiaL The completion of his half-century
of labour was acknowledged in 1000 by a handsome testimonial,
including the preparation by his friends of a volume of philo-
logical essays specially dedicated to him. An English Miscellany
(Oxford, 1901), and a considerable donation to the Early English
Text Society. Dr Furnivall was always an enthusiastic ftnwmyt,-
and till the end kept up his interest in rowing; with John
Beesley in 1845 he introduced the new type of narrow sculling
boat, and in 1 886 started races on the Thames for sculling fours
and sculling eights. He died on the 2nd of July 191a
FURSE, CHARLES WELLINGTON (1868-1904), English
painter, born at Staines, the son of the Rev. C. W. Furse, arch-
deacon of Westminster, was descended collaterally from Sir
Joshua Reynolds, and in his short span of life achieved such
rare excellence as a portrait and figure painter that he forms an
important link in the chain of British portraiture which extends
from the time when Van Dyck was called to the court of Charles L
to our own day. His talent was precocious; at the age of seven
he gave indications of it in a number of drawings illustrating
Scott's novels. He entered the Slade school in 1884, winning the
Slade scholarship in the following year, and completed his educa-
tion at Julian's atelier in Paris. Hard worker as he was, his
activity was frequently interrupted by spells of illness, for he had
developed signs of consumption when he was still attending the
Slade school. An important canvas called " Cain" was his first
contribution (1888) to the Royal Academy, to the associateship
of which he was elected in the year of his death. For some yean
before he had been a staunch supporter of the New English Art
Club, to the exhibitions of which he was a regular contributor.
He was married in October 1000 to Katherine, daughter of John
Addington Symonds. His fondness for sport and of an open-air
life found expression in his art and introduced a new, fresh and
vigorous note into portraiture. There is never a suggestion of
the studio or of the fatiguing pose in his portraits. The sitters
appear unconscious of being painted, and arc generally seen m
the pursuit of their favourite outdoor sport or pastime, in the
full enjoyment of life. Such are the " Diana of the Uplands,"
the " Lord Roberts " and " The Return from the Ride " at the
Tate Gallery; the four children in the " Cubbing with the York
and Ainsty," " The-Lilac Gown," " Mr and Mrs Oliver Fishing "
and the portrait of Lord Charles Beresford. Most of these
pictures, and indeed nearly all the work completed in the few
years of Furse's activity, show a pronounced decorative tendency.
His sense of space, composition and decorative design can best
be judged by his admirable mural decorations for Liverpool
town hall, executed between 1809 and 1002. A memorial exhibi*
tion of Furse's paintings and sketches was held at the Burlington
Fine Arts Club in 1006.
F0RST, JULIUS (1805-1673), German Orientalist, was bom
of Jewish parents at Zerkowo in Posen, on the x 2th of May 1805.
He studied philosophy and philology at Berlin, and oriental
literature at Posen, Breslau and Halle. In 1 857 he was appointed
to a lectureship at the university of Leipzig, and he was promoted
to a professorship in 1864, which be held until his death at Leip^g
on the oth of February 1873. Among his writings may be
mentioned LchrgcbHude der aramSiscken Idiome (Leipzig, 183s);
Librorum sacrorum Vcleris Tcstamcnti concordance Ucbraicae
atqu*Ckaldaicae(Leipzig, 1 837-1 840) ; HcbrUischcsundcholdtiischcs
Wortcrbuch (1851, English translation by S. Davidson 1867);
Kuliwr und LUeraturgeschichte der Juden in A sicn ( 1 849) . Furst
also edited a valuable Bibliotheca Judaic a (Leipzig, 1840-1863),
and was the author of some other works of minor importance.
From 1840 to 185 r he was editor of Der Orient, a journal devoted
to the language, literature, history and antiquities of the Jews.
FORSTENBERG, the name of two noble houses of Germany,
1. The more important is in possession of a mediatized princi-
pality in the district of the Black Forest and the Upper Danube,
which comprises the count ship of Heiligenberg, about 7 m. to
the N. of the Lake of Constance, the, ImAvw^^^* 25 ^*** 8 *
and Bau, aadti«\©*^v^ V^^^*^v«e&^
366
FURSTENBERG
and Moskirch or Messkirch. The territory is discontinuous;
and as it lies partly in Baden, partly in Wurttembcrg, and partly
in the Prussian province of Sigmaringcn, the head of the family
is an hereditary member of the first chamber of Baden and of
the chamber of peers in Wurttembcrg and in Prussia. The
relations of the principality with Baden are defined by the treaty
of May 1825, and its relations with Wurttembcrg by the royal
declaration of 1839. The Slammart or ancestral seat of the
family is Furstenberg in the Black Forest, about 13 re. N. of
Schaffhausen, but the principal residence of the present repre-
sentatives of the main line is at Donaueschingen.
The family of Furstenberg claims descent from a certain
Count Unruoch, a contemporary of Charlemagne, but their
authentic pedigree is only traceable to Egino II., count of
Urach, who died before 1136. In 1218 his successors inherited
the possessions of the house of Z&hringen in the Baar district
of the Black Forest, where they built the town and castle of
Furstenberg. Of the two sons of Egino V. of Urach, Conrad,
the elder, inherited the Breisgau and founded the line of the
counts of Freiburg, while the younger, Heinrich (1215-1284),
received the territories lying in the Kinaigthal and Baar, and
from 1250 onward styled himself first lord, then count, of
Furstenberg. His territories were subsequently divided among
several branches of his descendants, though temporarily re-
united under Count Fried rich III., whose wife, Anna, heiress
of the last count of Wardenbcrg, brought him the countship of
Hciligenberg and lordships of Jungnau and Trochtelfingen in
1534. On Friedrich's death (1559) his territories were divided
between bis two sons, Joachim and Christ of I. Of these the
former founded the line of Heiligcobexg, the latter that of
Kinaigthal. The Kinzigthal branch was again subdivided in
the 17th century between the two sons of Christ of II. (d. 1614),
the elder, Wratislaw II. (d. 1642), founding the line of MOsskirch,
the younger, Fried rich Rudolf (d. 1655), that of Stuhlingen.
The Hciligenberg branch received an accession of dignity by the
elevation of Count Hermann Egon (d. 1674) to the rank of prince
of the Empire in 1664, but his line became extinct with the
death of his son Prince Anton Egon, favourite of King Augustus
the Strong and regent of Saxony, in 17 16. The heads of both
the Mbsskirch and Stuhlingen lines were now raised to the
dignity of princes of the Empire (1716). The Mdsskirch branch
died out with Prince Karl Fricdrich (d. 1744); the territories
of the Stuhlingen branch had been divided on the death of
Count Prosper Ferdinand (1662-1704) between his two sons,
Joseph Wilhelm Ernst (1600-1762) and Ludwig August Egon
(1 705-1 7 59). The first of these was created prince of the Empire
on the 10th of December 17 16, and founded the princely line
of the Swabian FUrstenbcrgs; in 1772 he obtained from the
emperor Francis I. for all his legitimate sons and their descend-
ants the right to bear, instead of the style of landgrave, that of
prince, which had so far been confined to the reigning head of
the family. Ludwig, on the other hand, founded the family of
the landgraves of Furstenberg, who, since their territories lay
in Austria and Moravia, were known as the ''cadet line in
Austria." The princely line became extinct with the death
of Karl Joachim in 1804, and the inheritance passed to the
Bohemian branch of the Austrian cadet line in the person of
Karl Egon II. (see below). Two years later the principality
was mediatized.
In 1009 there were two branches of the princely house of
Furstenberg: (1) the main branch, that of FUrstenberg-Donaue-
schingen, the head of which was Prince Maximilian Egon (b.
1863), who succeeded his cousin Karl Egon III. in 1806; (2)
that of Furstenberg- Kdnigshof, in Bohemia, the head of which
was Prince Emil Egon (b. 1876), chamberlain and Secretary of
legation to the Austro-Hungarian embassy in London (1007).
The cadet line of the landgraves of Furstenberg is now extinct,
its last representative having been the landgrave Joseph Frie-
drich Ernst of FUrstenberg-Weitra (1860-1806), son of the
Uadgr&ve Ernst (1816-1889) by a morganatic marriage. He
wa* not recognized as ebenbmig by the family. The landgraves
or* Furstenberg were in 1909 represented only by the landgravine*
Theresa (b. 1839) and Gabrielle (b 1844), daughters of the
landgrave Johann Egon (1 802-1 870).
From the days of Heinrich of Urach, a relative and notable
supporter of Rudolph of Habsburg, the FUrstenbergs have
played a stirring part in German history as statesmen, ecclesi-
astics and notably soldiers. There was a popular saying that
" the emperor fights no great battle but a Furstenberg falls."
In the Heiligenberg line the following may be more particularly
noticed.
Franz Econ (1625-1682), bishop of Strassburg, was the elder
son of Egon VII., count of Furstenberg (1588-1635), who served
with distinction as a Bavarian general in the Thirty Years' War.
He began life as a soldier in the imperial service, but on the
elevation of his friend Maximilian Henry of Bavaria to the
electorate of Cologne in 1650, he went to his court and embraced
the ecclesiast ical career. He soon gained a complete ascendancy
over the weak-minded elector, and, with his brother William
Egon (see below), was mainly instrumental in making him the
tool of the aggressive policy of Louis XIV. of France. Ecclesi-
astical preferments were heaped upon him. As a child he had
been appointed to a canonry of Cologne; to these he added
others at Strassburg, Liege, Hildesheim and Spires; he became
also suffragan bishop and dean of Cologne and provost of Hildes-
heim, and in 1663 bishop of Strassburg. Later he was also
prince-abbot of LUders and Murbach and abbot of Stablo and
Malmedy. On the conclusion of a treaty between the emperor
and the elector of Cologne, on the nth of May 1674, Franz was
deprived of all his preferments in Germany, and was compelled
to take refuge in France. He was, however, amnestied with his
brother William by a special article of the treaty of Nijmwegen
(1679), whereupon he returned to Cologne. After the French
occupation of Strassburg (1681) he took up his residence there
and died on the 1st of April 1682.
His brother William Egon (1620-1704), bishop of Strassburg,
began his career as a soldier in the French service. He went to
the court of the elector of Cologne at the same time as Franz
Egon, whose zeal for the cause of Louis XIV. of France he shared.
In 1672 the intrigues of the two FUrstenbergs had resulted in a
treaty of offensive alliance between the French monarchy and
the electorate of Cologne, and, the brothers being regarded by
the Imperialists as the main cause of this disaster, William was
seized by imperial soldiers in the monastery of St Pantaleon at
Cologne, hurried off to Vienna and there tried for his life. He
was saved by the intervention of the papal nuncio, but was kept
in prison till the signature of the treaty of Nijmwegen (1679).
As a reward for his services Louis XIV. appointed him bishop
of Strassburg in succession to his brother in 1682, in 1686 obtained
for him from Pope Innocent XI. the cardinal's hat, and in 16SS
succeeded in obtaining his election as coadjutor-archbishop of
Cologne and successor to the elector Maximilian Henry. At the
instance of the emperor, however, the pope interposed his veto;
the canons followed the papal lead, and, the progress of the
Allies against Louis XIV. depriving him of all prospect of
success, William Egon retired to France. Here he took up bis
abode at his abbey of St Germain des Pres near Paris, where he
died on the 10th of April 1704.
In the Stuhlingen line the most notable was Kakl Ecom
(1706-1854), prince of Furstenberg, the son of Prince Karl
Alois of Furstenberg, a general in the Austrian service, who was
killed at the battle of Loptingen on the 25th of March 1709.
In 1804 he inherited the Swabian principality of FUrstenbenj
and all the possessions of the family except the Moravian estates.
He studied at Freiburg and WUrzburg, and in 1815 accompanied
Prince Schwarzenbcrg to Paris as staff-officer. In 1 Si 7 be came
of age, and in the following year married the princess AmaHe
of Baden. By the mediatization of his principality in 1806 the
greater part of his vast estates had fallen under the sovereignty
of the grand-duke of Baden, and Prince. Furstenberg took s
conspicuous part in the upper house of the grand-duchy, h
politics he distinguished himself by a liberalism rare In a gresl
German noble, carrying through by his personal influence vH*
\ bis peer*. \ta ttaft&at <& viviws, and feudal dues and staacty
FURSTENWALDE— FURZE
367
advocating the freedom of the press. He was not lest distin-
guished by his large charities: among other foundations he
established a hospital at Donaueschingen. For the industrial
development of the country, too, he did much, and proved himself
also a notable patron of the arts. His palace of Donaueschingen,
with its collections of paintings, engravings and coins, was a
centre of culture, where poets, painters and musicians met with
princely entertainment. He died on the 14th of September
1869, and was succeeded by his son Karl Egon II. (1820-1802),
with the death of whose son, Karl Egon III., in 1896, the tide
and estates passed to Prince Maximilian Egon, head of the cadet
line of FUntenberg-P&rglitz.
See Munch, Gesch. des Houses umd des Landes Firstenberg, 4 vols.
(Aix-la-Chapelle. 1829-1847); S. Ritzier, Gesch. des Jursilichem
Hauses Furstenberg bis ijoj (TQbingen, 1883); FOrstenbergisckes
Urkundenbuck, edited by S. Riezler and F. L. Baumann, vols, i.-vii.
(Tubingen, 1877-1891). continued *. til. Mitteilungen aus dent
furstlkh. F&rstenbergistkem Arch* by Baumann and G. Tarabult,
2 vol*. lib. 1899-1902} ; Stolcvis, Manuel d'h+stair* (Leiden, 1890-
1893) ; Almanack de Gotha; AUgemeine deutsch* Biographic
a. The second Furstenberg family has its possessions in
Westphalia and the country of the Rhine, and takes its name
from the castle of Furstenberg on the Ruhr. The two most
remarkable men whom it has produced are Franz Fried rich
Wilhelra, freiherr von Furstenberg, and Frana Egon, count von
Fiirstenberg-Stammheim. The former (1728-1810) became
ultimately vicar-general of the prince-bishop of MUnstcr, and
effected a great number of important reforms in the administra-
tion of the country, besides doing much for its educational
and industrial development. The latter (1 797-1 859) was an
enthusiastic patron of art, who zealously advocated the comple-
tion of the Cologne cathedral, and erected the beautiful church
of St Apollinaris near Rcraagen on the Rhine. He was a member
of the Prussian Upper House in 1849, collaborated in founding
the Preussisches WeckenMaU, and was an ardent defender of
Catholic interests. His son, Count Gisbcrt von Furstcnbcrg-
Stammbeim (b. 1836), was in 1009 head of the Rhenish line of
the house of Furstenberg.
FtlRSTEXWALDB, a town of Germany, in the Prussian
province of Brandenburg, on the right bank of the Spree, and
on the railway from Berlin to Frankiort-on-Oder, 28 m. E. of
the former city. Pop. (1005) 20,408. Its beautiful cathedral
church contains several old monuments. The industries are
important (including, besides brewing and malting, manufactures
of starch, vinegar, electric lamps and gas-fittings, stoves, &c,
iron-founding and wool-weaving. Furstcnwalde is one of the
oldest towns of Brandenburg. From 1385 it was the seat of
the bishop of Lebus, whose bishopric was incorporated with
the electorate of Brunswick in 159s.
FORTH, a manufacturing town of Germany, in the kingdom
of Bavaria, at the confluence of the Pegnitx with the Regnitz,
5 m. N.W. from Nuremberg by rail, at the junction of lines to
Hof and Wuraburg. Pop. (1885) 35,455; (1905) 60,638. It is
a modern town in appearance, with broad streets and palatial
business houses. Of its four Evangelical churches, the old St
Michaeliskirche is a handsome structure; but its chief edifices
are the new town hall, with a tower 175 ft. high and the
magnificent synagogue. The Jews have also a high school,
which enjoys a great reputation. There are besides a classical,
a wood-carving and an agricultural school and a library. FUrth
is the seat of several important industries; particularly, the
production of chromolithographs and picture-books, the manu-
facture of mirrors and mirror-frames, bronze and gold-leaf wares,
pencils, toys, haberdashery, optical instruments, silver work,
turnery, chicory, machinery, fancy boxes and cases, and an
extensive trade is carried on in these goods as also in hops,
metals, wool, groceries and coal. A large annual fair is held
at Michaelmas and lasts for eleven days. The earliest railway
in Germany was that between Nuremberg and Furth (opened
on the 7th of December 1835).
Fiirth was founded, according to tradition, by Charlemagne,
who erected a chapel there. It was for a time a Yogtci (advocate-
ship) under the burgraves of Nuremberg, but about 1314 it was
bequeathed to the see of Bamberg, and in 1806 It came into
the possession of Bavaria. In 1639 Gustavus Adolphus besieged
it in vain, and in 1634 it was pillaged and burnt by the Croats.
It owes its rise to prosperity to the tolerance it meted out to the
Jews, who found here an asylum from the oppression under
which they suffered in Nuremberg.
See FroamuUer, Ckranih der Stall Furth (1887).
FURTW&NQLER, ADOLF (1853-1007), German archaeologist,
was born at Freiburg im Breisgau, and was educated there,
at Leipzig and at Munich, where he was a pupil of H. Brunn,
whose comparative method in art-criticism he much developed.
He took part in the excavations at Olympia in 1878, became
an assistant in the Berlin Museum in 1880, and professor at
Berlin (1884) and later at Munich. His latest excavation work
was at Aegina. He was a prolific writer, with a prodigious
knowledge and memory, and a most ingenious and confident
critic; and his work not only dominated the field of archaeological
criticism but also raised its standing both at home and abroad.
Among his numerous publications the most important were a
volume on the bronzes found at Olympia, vast works on ancient
gems and Greek vases, and the invaluable Masterpieces 0)
Greek Sculpture (English translation by Eugenie Strong). He
died at Athens on the xoth of October 1007.
FURZE, GoasE or Whin; botanical name UUx (Ger.
Stecmginster, Fr. ajone), a genus of thorny papilionaceous
shrubs, of few species, confined to west and central Europe and
north-west Africa. Common furze, U. europaeus, is found on
heaths and commons in western Europe from Denmark to Italy
and Greece, and in the Canaries and Azores, and is abundant
in nearly all parts of the British Isles. It grows to a height
of 2-6 ft.; it has hairy stems, and the smaller branches end each
in a spine; the leaves, sometimes lanceolate on the lowermost
branches, are mostly represented by spines from 2 to 6 lines long,
and branching at their base; and the flowers, about three-quarters
of an inch in length, have a shaggy, yellowish-olive calyx, with two
small ovate bracts at its base, and appear in early spring and
late autumn. They are yellow and sweet-scented and visited by
bees. The pods are few-seeded; their crackling as they .burst
may often be heard in hot weather. This species comprises the
varieties vulgaris, or U. turopaeus proper, which has spreading
branches, and strong, many-ridged spines, and strictus (Irish
furze), with erect branches, and slender 4-edged spines. The
other British species of furze is U. nanus, dwarf furze, a native
of Belgium, Spain and the west of France; it is a procumbent
plant, less hairy than U. europaeus, with smaller and more
orange-coloured flowers, which spring from the primary spines,
and have a nearly smooth calyx, with minute basal bracts.
Furze, or gone, is sometimes employed for fences.
Notwithstanding its formidable spines, the young shoots
yield a palatable and nutritious winter forage for horses and
cattle. To fit it for this purpose it must be chopped and bruised
to destroy the spines. This is sometimes done in a primitive
and laborious way by laying the gone upon a block of wood and
beating it with a mallet, flat at one end and armed with crossed
knife-edges at the other, by the alternate use of which it is
bruised and chopped. There are now a variety of machines
by which this is done rapidly and efficiently, and which are in
use where this kind of forage is used to any extent. The agri-
cultural value of this plant has often been over-rated by theoreti-
cal writers. In the case of very poor, dry soils it does, however,
yield much valuable food at a season when green forage is not
otherwise to be had. It is on this account of importance to
dairymen; and to them it has this further recommendation,
that cows fed upon it give much rich milk, which is free from
any unpleasant flavour. To turn it to good account, ft
must be sown in drills, kept clean by hoeing, and treated
as a regular green crop. If sown in March, on land fitly pre-
pared and afterwards duly cared for, it is ready for use in the
autumn of the following year. A succession of cuttings of
proper age is obtained for several yean from the same field.
It is cut by a short stout scythe, and must be. btroas&A.
from the field daity; tat *V*&, V^ Va. u Yftax* '•to** Voa*
368
FUSARO— FUSEL OIL
chopped and bruised it heats rapidly. It is given to horses and
cows in combination with chopped hay or straw. An acre will
produce about 2000 faggots o! green two-year-old gone, weighing
90 lb each.
This plant is invaluable in mountain sheep-walks. The
rounded form of the furze bushes that are met with in such
situations shows how diligently the annual growth, as far as it
is accessible, is nibbled by the sheep. The food and shelter
afforded to them in snowstorms by clusters of such bushes is
of such importance that the wonder is our sheep formers do not
bestow more pains to have it in adequate quantity. Young
plants of whin are so kept down by the sheep that they can
seldom attain to a profitable sire unless protected by a fence
for a few years. In various parts of England it is cut for fuel
The ashes contain a large proportion of alkali, and are a good
manure, especially for peaty land.
FUSARO, LAGO, a lake of Campania, Italy, \ m. W. of Baia,
and 1 m. S. of the acropolis of Cumae. It is the ancient Aeherusta
paJus, separated from the sea on the W. by a line of sandhills.
It may have been the harbour of Cumae in early antiquity.
In the 1st century a.d. an artificial outlet was dug for it at its
S. end, with a tunnel, lined with opus reticulalum and brick,
under the hill of Torregaveta. This hill is covered with the
remains of a large villa, which is almost certainly that of Servilius
Vatia, described by Seneca (Epist. 55). There are remains of
other villas on the shores of the lake. Oyster cultivation is
carried on there.
See J. BeJoch, Campaniem (2nd cd., Breslau, 1890), 188. (T. As.)
FUSBLI, HENRY (1741-1825), English painter and writer on
art, of German-Swiss family, was born at Zurich in Switzerland
on the 7th of February 1741; he himself asserted in 1745, but
this appears to have been a mere whim. He was the second
child in a family of eighteen. His father was John Caspar
FUssli, of some note as a painter of portraits and landscapes,
and author of Lives of the Hcheiic Pointer*. This parent
destined his son for the church, and with this view sent him to
the Caroline college of his native town, where he received an
excellent classical education. One of his schoolmates there
was Lavater, with whom he formed an intimate friendship.
After taking orders in 1761 Fuseli was obliged to leave his
country for a while in consequence of having aided Lavater to
expose an unjust magistrate, whose family was still powerful
enough to make its vengeance felt. He first travelled through
Germany, and then, in 1 765, visited England, where he supported
himself for some time by miscellaneous writing: there was a
sort of project of promoting through his means a regular literary
communication between England and Germany. He became
in course of time acquainted with Sir Joshua Reynolds, to whom
he showed his drawings. By Sir Joshua's advice he then devoted
himself wholly to art. In 1770 he made an art •pilgrimage to
Italy, where he remained till 1778, changing his name from
FUssli to Fuseli, as more Italian-sounding. Early in 1779 he
returned to England, taking Zurich on his way. He found a
commission awaiting him from Alderman Boydcll, who was then
organizing his celebrated Shakespeare gallery. Fuseli painted
a number of pieces for this patron, and about this time published
an English edition of Lavatcr's work on physiognomy. He like-
wise gave Cowper some valuable assistance in preparing the
translation of Homer. In 1788 Fuseli married Miss Sophia
Rawlins (who it appears was originally one of his models, and who
proved an affectionate wife), and he soon after became an
associate of the Royal Academy. Two years later he was pro-
moted to the grade of Academician. In 1790 he exhibited a
series of paintings from subjects furnished by the works of
Milton, with a view to forming a Milton gallery corresponding
to BoydeU's Shakespeare gallery. The number of the Milton
paintings was forty-seven, many of them very large; they were
executed at intervals within nine years. This exhibition, which
closed in x8oo, proved a failure as regards profit. In 1799 also
he was appointed professor of painting to the Academy. Four
years afterwards he was chosen keeper, and resigned his pro-
fessorship; but be resumed it in i8ro, and continued to hold
both offices till his death. In 1805 he brought out an edition of
Pilkington's Lives of the Painters, which, however, did not add
much to his reputation. Canova, when on his visit to England,
was much taken with Fuseli 's works, and on returning to Rome
in 1817 caused him- to be elected a member of the first class in
the Academy of St Luke. Fuseli, after a life of uninterrupted
good health, died at Putney Hill on the x6th of April 1825,
at the advanced age of eighty-four, and was buried in the crypt
of St Paul's cathedral He was comparatively rich at his death,
though his professional gains had always appeared to be meagre.
As a painter, Fuseli had a daring invention, was original,
fertile in resource, and ever aspiring after the highest forms
of excellence. His mind was capable of grasping and realuir.jr
the loftiest conceptions, which, however, he often spoiled on the
canvas by exaggerating the due proportions of the parts, and
throwing his figures into attitudes of fantastic and over-strained
contortion. He delighted to select from the region of the super*
natural, and pitched everything upon an ideal scale, believing
a certain amount of exaggeration necessary in the higher branches
of historical painting. " Damn Naturel she always puts me
out," was his characteristic exclamation. In this theory he was
confirmed by the study of Michelangelo's works and the marble
statues of the Monte Cavallo, which, when at Rome, be used
often to contemplate in the evening, relieved against a murky
sky or illuminated by lightning. But this idea was by him
carried out to an excess, not only in the forma, but aho in the
attitudes of his figures; and the violent and intemperate actios
which he often displays destroys the grand effect which many
of his pieces would otherwise produce. A striking illustration
of this occurs in his famous picture of " Hamlet breaking from
his Attendants to follow the Ghost ": Hamlet, it has been said,
looks as though he would burst his clothes with convulsive
cramps in all his muscles. This intemperance is the grand defect
of nearly all Fuseli 's compositions. On the other hand, his
paintings are never cither languid or cold. His figures are fall
of life and earnestness, and seem to have an object in view
which they follow with rigid intensity. Like Rubens he excelled
in the art of setting his figures in motion. Though the lofty and
terrible was his proper sphere, Fuseli had a fine perception of the
ludicrous. The grotesque humour of his fairy scenes, especially
those taken from A Midsummer-Night's Dream, is in its way not
less remarkable than the poetic power of his more ambitious
works. As a cofeurist Fuseli has but small claims to distinction.
He scorned to set a palette as most artists do; he merely dashed
his tints recklessly over it. Not unfrequently be used his paints
in the form of a dry powder, which he rubbed up with his pencil
with oil, or turpentine, or gold size, regardless of the quantity,
and depending for accident on the general effect. This reckless-
ness may perhaps be explained by the fact that he did not paint
in oil till he was twenty-five years of age. Despite these draw-
backs he possessed the elements of a great painter.
Fuseli painted more than 200 pictures, but he exhibited only
a minority of them. His earliest painting represented " Joseph
interpreting the Dreams of the Baker and Butler"; the first
to excite particular attention was the " Nightmare," exhibited
in 1782. He produced only two portraits. His sketches or
designs numbered about 800; they have admirable qualities of
invention and design, and are frequently superior to his paintings.
His general powers of mind were large. He was a thorough
master of French, Italian, English and German, and could write
in all these tongues with equal facility and vigour, though be
preferred German as the vehicle of his thoughts. His writing
contain passages of the best art-criticism that English fileraturr
can show. The principal work is his series of Lectures in the
Royal Academy t twelve in number, commenced in i8ot.
Many interesting anecdotes of Fuseli, and hb relations to con-
temporary artists, arc given in his Life by John Knowles, who ilw
edited bis works in 3 vols. 8vo, London, 1831. (\V.M R.)
FUSEL OIL (from the Ger. Fusel, bad spirits), the name applied
to the volatile oily liquids, of a nauseous fiery taste and smdJ.
which are obtained in the rectification of spirituous liquors made
by the fermentation of grain, potatoes, the marc of grapes, and
FUSIBLE METAL— FUSION
369
other material, and which, as they are of higher boiling point
than ethyl alcohol, occur in largest quantity in the last portions
of the distillate. Besides ethyl or ordinary alcohol, and amyl
alcohol, which are present in them all, there have been found in
fusel oil several, other bodies of the CH ta+l -OH series, also
certain ethers, and members of the C.H^+i-COjH series of
fatty adds. Normal propyl alcohol is contained in the fusel
oil of the marc brandy of the south of France, and isoprimary
butyl alcohol in that of beet-root molasses. The chief constituent
of the fusel oil procured in the manufacture of alcohol from
potatoes and grain, usually known as fusel oil and potato-spirit,
is isoprimary amyl alcohol, or isobutylcarbinol. Ordinary fusel
oil yields also an isomeric amyl alcohol (active amyl alcohol)
boiling at about 128 . Variable quantities of fusel oil, less or
greater according to the stage of ripening, exist in commercial
spirits (see Spirits).
Fusel oil and its chief constituent, amyl alcohol, are direct
nerve poisons. In small doses it causes only thirst and headache,
with furled tongue and some excitement. In large doses it is
a convulsent poison. Impure beverages induce all the graver
neurotic and visceral disorders in alcoholism; and, like fusel
oil, furfural and the essence of absinthe, are convulsent poisons.
Pure ethyl ajcohol intoxication, indeed, is rarely seen, being
modified in the case of spirits by the higher alcohols contained
in fusel oil. According to Rabuteau the toxic properties of the
higher alcohols increase with their molecular weight and boiling
point. Richet considers that the fusel oil contained in spirits
constitutes the chief danger in the consumption of alcoholic
beverages. The expert can immediately detect the peculiarly
virulent characters of the mixed intoxication due to the consump-
tion of spirits containing a large percentage of fusel oil.
FUSIBLE METAL, a term applied to certain alloys, generally
composed of bismuth, lead and tin, which possess the property of
melting at comparatively low temperatures. Newton's fusible
metal (named after Sir Isaac Newton) contains 50 parts of
bismuth, 31-25 of lead and 18-75 of tin; that of Jean Darcet
(1 725-1801), 50 parts of bismuth with 25 each of lead and tin;
and that of Valentin Rose the elder, 50 of bismuth with 28-1 of
lead and 24-1 of tin. These melt between oi° and 95° C. The
addition of cadmium gives still greater fusibility; in Wood's
metal, for instance, which is Darcet 's metal with half the tin
replaced by cadmium, the melting point is lowered to 66°-7i° C;
while another described by Lipowitz and containing 15 parts of
bismuth, 8 of lead. 4 of tin and 3 of cadmium, softens at about
55° and is completely liquid a little above 6o°. By the addition
of mercury to Darcet 's metal the melting point may be reduced
so low as 45°. These fusible metals have the peculiarity of ex-
panding as they cool; Rose's metal, for instance, remains pasty
for a considerable range of temperature below its fusing point,
contracts somewhat rapidly from 8o° to 55 , expands from 55°
to 35 , and contracts again from 35 to o°. For this reason they
may be used for taking casts of anatomical specimens or making
cliches from wood-blocks, the expansion on cooling securing
sharp impressions. By suitable modification in the proportions
of the components, a series of alloys can be made which melt
at various temperatures above the boiling point of water; for
example, with 8 parts of bismuth, 8 of lead and 3 of tin the
melting point is 123 , and with 8 of bismuth, 30 of lead and 24 of
tin it is 1 7 2 . With tin and lead only in equal proportions it is
24>x°. Such alloys are used for making the fusible plugs inserted
in the furnace-crowns of steam boilers, as a safeguard in the event
of the water-level being allowed to fall too low. When this
happens the plug being no longer covered with water is heated
to such a temperature that it melts and allows the contents of
the boiler to escape into the furnace. In automatic fire-sprinklers
the orifices of the pipes are closed with fusible metal, which melts
and liberates the water when, owing to an outbreak of fire in
the room, the temperature rises above a predetermined limit
FUSILIER, originally (in French about 1670, in English about
1680) the name of a soldier armed with a light flintlock musket
called the fusil; now a regimental designation. Various forms
of flintlock small arms had been used in warfare since the middle
xi. 7
of the 1 6th century. At the time of the English civil war (1642-
1652) the term " firelock " was usually employed to distinguish
these weapons from the mora common matchlock musket. The
special value of the firelock in armies of the 17th century lay
in the fact that the artillery of the time used open powder barrels
for the service of the guns, making it unsafe to allow lighted
matches in the muskets of the escort. Further, a military escort
was required, not only for the protection, but also for the
surveillance of the artillerymen of those days. Companies of
" firelocks " were therefore organized for these duties, and out of
these companies grew the " fusiliers " who were employed in
the same way in the wars of Louis XIV. In the latter part of
the Thirty Years' War (1643) fusiliers were simply mounted
troops armed with the fusil, as carabiniers were with the carbine.
But the escort companies of artillery came to be known by the
name shortly afterwards, and the regiment of French Royal
Fusiliers, organized in 1671 by Vauban, was considered the model
for Europe. The general adoption of the flintlock musket and
the suppression of the pike in the armies of Europe put an end
to the original special duties of fusiliers, and they were subse-
quently employed to a large extent in light infantry work,
perhaps on account of the greater individual aptitude for
detached duties naturally shown by soldiers who had never been
restricted to a fixed and unchangeable place in the line of battle.
The senior fusilier regiment in the British service, the (7th)
Royal Fusiliers (City of London Regiment), was formed on the
French model in 1685; the 5th foot (now Northumberland
Fusiliers), senior to the 7th in the army, was not at that time
a fusilier regiment. The distinctive head-dress of fusiliers in the
British service is a fur cap, generally resembling, but smaller
than and different in details from, that of the Foot Guards.
In Germany the name " fusilier " is borne by certain infantry
regiments and by one battalion in each grenadier regiment.
FUSION, the term generally applied to the melting of a solid
substance, or the change of state of aggregation from the solid
to the liquid. The term " liquefaction " is frequently employed
in the same sense, but is often restricted to the condensation
of a gas or vapour. The converse process of freezing or solidifica-
tion, the change from the liquid to the solid state, is subject to
the same laws, and must be considered together with fusion.
The solution of a solid in a foreign liquid, and the deposition or
crystallization of a solid from a solution, are so closely related
to the fusion of a pure substance, that it will also be necessary
to consider some of the analogies which they present.
x. General Phenomena. — There are two chief varieties of the
process of fusion, namely, crystalline and amorphous, which are
in many ways distinct, although it is possible to find intermediate
cases which partake of the characteristics of both. The melting
of ice may be taken as a typical case of crystalline fusion. The
passage from rigid solid to mobile liquid occurs at a definite
surface without any intermediate stage or plastic condition.
The change takes place at a definite temperature, the fusing or
freezing point (abbreviated F.P.), and requires the addition
of a definite quantity of heat to the solid, which is called the
latent heat of fusion. There is also in general a considerable
change of volume during fusion, which amounts in the case of
ice to a contraction of 9 % . Typical cases of amorphous solidifica-
tion are those of silica, glass, plastic sulphur, pitch, alcohol and
many organic liquids. In this type the liquid gradually becomes
more and more viscous as the temperature falls, and ultimately
attains the rigidity characteristic of a solid, without any definite
freezing point or latent heat. The condition of the substance
remains uniform throughout, if its temperature is uniform;
there is no separation into the two distinct phases of solid
and liquid, and there is no sudden change of volume at any
temperature.
A change or transition from one crystalline form to another
may occur in the solid state with evolution or absorption of
heat at a definite temperature, and is analogous to the change
from solid to liquid, but usually takes place more slowly owing
to the small molecular mobility of the solid state. Thus
rhombic sulphur when heated passes slowly at 95-6° C. into the
la
37°
FUSION
monosymmetric form which melts at 120°, but if heated rapidly
the rhombic form melts at 114-5. The two forms, rhombic and
monosymmetric, can exist in equilibrium at 95-6°, the transition
point at which they have the same vapour pressure. Similarly
a solid solution of carbon in iron, when cooled slowly, passes
at about 700 C, with considerable evolution of heat, into the
form of " pcarlitc," which is soft when cold, but if rapidly chilled
the carbon remains in solution and the steel is very hard (see
also Alloys).
In the case of crystalline fusion it is necessary to distinguish
two cases, the homogeneous and the heterogeneous. In the first
case the composition of the solid and liquid phases are the same,
and the temperature remains constant during the whole process
of fusion. In the second case the solid and liquid phases differ
in composition; that of the liquid phase changes continuously,
and the temperature does not remain constant during the fusion.
The first case comprises the fusion of pure substances, and
that of eutectics, or cryohydrates; the second is the general
case of an alloy or a solution. These, have been very fully
studied and their phenomena greatly elucidated in recent
years.
There is also a sub- variety of amorphous fusion, which may
be styled colloid or gelatinous, and may be illustrated by the
behaviour of solutions of water in gelatin. Many of these jellies
melt at a fairly definite temperature on heating, and coagulate or
set at a definite temperature on cooling. But in some cases the
process is not reversible, and there is generally marked hysteresis,
the temperature of setting and other phenomena depending on
the rate of cooling. This case has not yet been fully worked out ;
but it appears probable that in many cases the jelly possesses
a spongy framework of solid, holding liquid in its meshes or
interstices. It might be regarded as a case of " heterogeneous "
amorphous fusion, in which the liquid separates into two phases
of different composition, one of which solidifies before the other.
The two phases cannot, as a rule, be distinguished optically,
but it is generally possible to squeeze out some of the liquid
phase when the jelly has set, which proves that the substance
is not really homogeneous. In very complicated mixtures, such
as acid lavas or slags containing a large proportion of silica,
amorphous and crystalline solidification may occur together.
In this case the crystals separate first during the process of
cooling, the mother liquor increases gradually in viscosity, and
finally sets as an amorphous ground-mass or matrix, in which
crystals of different kinds and sizes, formed at different stages
of the cooling, remain embedded. The formation of crystals
in an amorphous solid after it has set is also of frequent
occurrence. It is termed devitrification, but is a very slow
process unless the solid is in a plastic state.
2. Homogeneous Crystalline Fusion. — The fusion of a solid of
this type is characterized most clearly by the perfect constancy
of temperature during the process. In fact, the law of constant
temperature, which is generally stated as the first of the so-called
" laws of fusion," does not strictly apply except to this case.
The constancy of the F.P. of a pure substance is so characteristic
that change of the F.P. is often one of the most convenient tests
of the presence of foreign material. In the case of substances
like ice, which melt at a low temperature and are easily obtained
in large quantities in a state of purity, the point of fusion may
be very accurately determined by observing the temperature
of an intimate mixture of the solid and liquid while slowly
melting as it absorbs heat from surrounding bodies. But in the
majority of cases it is more convenient to observe the freezing
point as the liquid is cooled. By this method it is possible to
ensure perfect uniformity of temperature throughout the mass
by stirring the liquid continuously during the process of freezing,
whereas it is difficult to ensure uniformity of temperature in
melting a solid, however gradually the heat is supplied, unless
the solid can be mixed with the liquid. It is also possible to
observe the F.P. in other way's, as by noting the temperature
at the moment of the breaking of a wire, of the stoppage of a
stirrer, or of the maximum rate of change of volume, but these
methods are generally less certain in their indications than the
point of greatest constancy of temperature in the case of homo*
gencous crystalline solids.
Fusing Points of Common Metcls.
Mercury
. -38-8°
Potassium . .
. 62-5°
Sodium
. 95-6°
Tin. . . .
. 231-9°
Bismuth
„ 269-2°
Cadmium .
• 3207°
Lead
• 327-7°
Zinc . . .
. 419-0°
Antimony
. . 630*
Aluminium .
- • 655*
Silver
. . 06a
Gold . .
. . 1064
Copper .
. 1082'
Nickel . .
• 1427'
Palladium
• -535"
Platinum
. 1710*
The above table contains some of the most recent values of
fusing points of metals determined (except the first three and
the last three) with platinum thermometers. The last three
values are those obtained by extrapolation with platinum-
rhodium and platinum-indium couples. (See Harker, Proc.
Roy. Soc. A 76, p. 235, 1905.) Some doubt has recently been
raised with regard to the value for platinum, which is much
lower than that previously accepted, namely 1775°.
3. Supcrfusion, Supcrscturation. — It is generally possible to
cool a liquid several degrees below its normal freezing point
without a separation of crystals, especially if it is protected
from agitation, which would assist the molecules to rearrange
themselves. A liquid in this state is said to be " undcrcooled "
or " supervised." The phenomenon is even more familiar in
the case of solutions (e.g. sodium sulphate or acetate) which may
remain in the " mctastablc " condition for an indefinite lime
if protected from dust, &c. The introduction into the liquid
under this condition of the smallest fragment of the crystal,
with respect to which the solution is supersaturated, will pro-
duce immediate crystallization, which will continue until the
temperature is raised to the saturation point by the liberation
of the latent heat of fusion. The constancy of temperature at
the normal freezing point is due to the equilibrium of exchange
existing between the liquid and solid. Unless both solid and
liquid are present, there is no condition of equilibrium, and the
temperature is indeterminate.
It has been shown by H. A. Micrs (Jour. Chem. Soe., 1906, 89,
p. 413) that for a supersaturated solution in metastable equili-
brium there is an inferior limit of temperature, at which it passes
into the " labile " state, i.e. spontaneous crystallization occurs
throughout the mass in a fine shower. This seems to be analogous
to the fine misty condensation which occurs in a supersaturated
vapour in the absence of nuclei (see Vaporization) when the
supcrsaturation exceeds a certain limit.
4. Effect of Pressure on the F.P. — The effect of pressure on the
fusing-point depends on the change of volume during fusion. Sub-
stances which expand on freezing , like ice, have their freezing points
lowered by increase of pressure; substances which expand 00
fusing, like wax, have their melting points raised by pressure.
In each case the effect of pressure is to retard increase of volume.
This effect was first predicted by Tames-Thomson on the analogy
of the effect of pressure on the boiling point, and was numerically
verified by Lojd Kelvin in the case of jce, and later by Bunseo in
the case of paraffin and spermaceti. The equation by which the
change of the F.P. is calculated may be proved by a simple applica-
tion of the Car not cycle, exactly as in the case of vapour and liquid.
(See Thermodynamics.) If Z. be the latent heat of fusion in
mechanical units, xt the volume of unit mass of the solid, and c'
that of the liquid, the work done in an elementary Carnot eyefe of
range dd will be dp(v'—v'), if dp. is the increase of pressure required
to produce a change d6 in the F.P. Since the ratio of the worlc-
diflcrence or cycle-area to the heat-transferred L must be equal to
d$ /0, wc have the relation
<fe/dp««(p'-V)/£. (1)
The sign of d$, the change of the F.P., is the same as that of the
change of volume (v'—v'). Since the change of volume seldom
exceeds o-i c.c. per gramme, the change of the F.P. per atmosphere
is so small that it is not as a rule necessary to take account of varia-
tions of atmospheric pressure in observing a freezing point A
variation of I cm. in the height of the barometer would correspond
to a change of -cool ° C. only in the F.P. of ice. This is far beyond the
limits of accuracy of most observations. Although the effect of
pressure is so small, it produces, as is well known, remarkable
results in the motion of glaciers, the moulding and regelatkm cf
ice, and many other phenomena. It has also been employed to
explain the apparent inversion of the order of crystallization in
rocks like granite, in which the arrangement of the crystals indicates
that the quarts matrix solidified subsequently to the crystals of
FUSION
37»
felspar, mica or hornblende embedded in it, although the quarts
has a higher melting point. It is contended that under enormous
pressure the freezing points of the mpre fusible constituents might
be raised above that of the quartz, if the latter is less affected by
pressure. Thus Bunscn found the F.P. of .paraffin wax 1-4° C
below that of spermaceti at atmospheric pressure. At 100 atmo-
spheres the two melted at the same temperature. At higher pressures
the paraffin would solidify first. The effect of pressure on the
silicates, however, is much smaller, and it is not so easy to explain
a change of several hundred degrees in the F.P. It seems more
likely in this particular case that the order of crystallization depends
on the action of superheated water or steam at high temperatures
and pressures, which is well known to exert a highly solvent and
metamorphic action on silicates.
5. Variation of Latent Heat.-rC. C. Person in 1847 endeavoured to
show by the application of the first law of thermodynamics that
the increase of the latent heat per degree should be equal to the
difference (**—*') between the specific heats of the liquid and solid.
If, for instance, water at o° C. were first frozen and then cooled to
— I* C., the heat abstracted per gramme would be (L'+s't) calories.
But if the water were first cooled to — 1° C, and then frozen at — t* C,
by abstracting heat L', the heat abstracted would be L'+s't.
Assuming that the heat abstracted should be the same in the two
cases, we evidently obtain L'—L'** (s' — s')t. This theory has been
approximately verified by Pctterson, by observing the freezing of a
liquid cooled below its normal F.P. (Jour. Chan. Soc. 24, p. .151).
But his method does not represent the true variation of the latent
heat with temperature, since the freezing, in the case of a superfuscd
Fig. i.— F.P. or Solubility
Curve: simple case.
_ __ really enter into the experiment.
make the liquid freeze at a different temperature, it is necessary to
subject it to pressure, and the effect of the pressure on the latent
beat cannot be neglected. The entropy of a liquid 4' at its F.P.
reckoned from any convenient zero 4o in the solid state may be
represented by the expression
*'-+>= fs'dO!0+LIO. (2)
Since 6dt'ld$=s', we obtain by differentiation the relation
dL!dd=s'-s'+Lie, (3)
which is exactly similar to the equation for the specific heat of a
vapour maintained in the saturated condition. If we suppose that
the specific heats s* and s" of the solid and liquid at equilibrium
pressure are nearly the same as those ordinarily observed at con-
stant pressure, the relation (3) differs from that of Person only by
the addition of the term L\9. Since j' is greater than s* in all cases
hitherto investigated, and Lf$ is necessarily positive, it Is clear that
the lateut heat of fusion must increase with rise of temperature, or
diminish with fall of temperature. It is possible to imagine the F.P.
so lowered by pressure (positive or negative) that the latent heat
should vanish, in which case we should probably obtain a continuous
passage from the liquid to the solid state similar to that which
occurs in the case of amorphous substances. According to equation
(3), the rate of change of the latent heat of water is approximately
0-80 calorie per degree at o* C. (as compared with 0-50, Person),
if we assume j'^i, and s'»o-$. Putting (s'—s') =0-5 in equation
(2), we find Z.=»o at — 160* C. approximately, but no stress can be
laid on this estimate, as the variation of (s'—s') h so uncertain.
6. Freezing oj Solutions and Alloys. — The phenomena of
freezing of heterogeneous crystalline mixtures may be illustrated
by the case of aqueous solutions and of metallic solutions or
alloys, which have been most widely studied. The usual effect
of an impurity, such as salt or sugar in solution in water, is to
lower the freezing point, so that no crystallization occurs until
the temperature has fallen below the normal F.P. of the pure
solvent, the depression of F.P. being nearly proportional to the
concentration of the solution. When freezing begins, the solvent
generally separates out from the solution in the pure state. This
separation of the solvent involves an increase in the strength
of the remaining solution, so that the temperature does not
remain constant during the freezing, but continues to fall as
more of the solvent is separated. There is a perfectly definite
relation between temperature and concentration at each stage
of the process, which may be represented in the form of a curve
as AC in fig. 1, called the freezing point curve. The equilibrium
temperature, at the surface of contact between the solid and
liquid, depends only on the composition of the liquid phase and
not at all on the quantity of solid present. The abscissa of the
F.P. curve represents the composition of that portion of the
original solution which remains liquid at any temperature. If
instead of starting with a dilute solution we start with a strong
solution represented by a point N, and cool it as shown by the
vertical line ND, a point D is generally reached at which the
solution becomes "saturated." The dissolved substance or
" solute " then separates out as the solution is further cooled,
and the concentration diminishes with fall of temperature in
a definite relation, as indicated by the curve CB, which is called
the solubility curve. Though often called by different i
the two curves AC and CB are
essentially of a similar nature.
To take the case of an aqueous
solution of salt as an example,
along CB the solution is satur-
ated with respect to salt, along
AC the solution is saturated with
respect to ice. When the point
C is reached along either curve,
the solution is saturated with
respect to both salt and ice.
The concentration cannot vary
further, and the temperature
remains constant, while the salt
and ice crystallize out together,
maintaining the exact proportions
in which they exist in the solution. The resulting solid was
termed a cryohydrate by F. Guthrie, but it is really an intimate
mixture of two kinds of crystals, and not a chemical compound
or hydrate containing the constituents in chemically equivalent
proportions. The lowest temperature attainable by means of a
freezing mixture is the temperature of the F.P. of the corre-
sponding cryohydrate. In a mixture of salt and ice with the least
trace of water a saturated brine is quickly formed, which dissolves
the ice and falls rapidly in temperature, owing to the absorption
of the latent heat of fusion. So long as both ice and salt are
present, if the mixture is well stirred, the solution must necessarily
become saturated with respect to both ice and salt, and this can
only occur at the cryohydric temperature, at which the two
curves of solubility intersect.
The curves in fig. 1 also illustrate the simplest type of freezing
point curve in the case of alloys of two metals A and B which
do not form mixed crystals of chemical compounds. The alloy
corresponding to the cryohydrate, possessing the lowest melting
point, is called the cutectic alloy, as it is most easily cast and
worked. It generally possesses a very fine-grained structure,
and is not a chemical compound. (Sec Alloys.)
To obtain a complete F.P. curve even for a binary alloy is a
laborious and complicated process, but the information contained
in such a curve is often very valuable. It is necessary to operate
with a number of different -alloys of suitably chosen composition,
and to observe the freezing points of each separately. Each alloy
should also be analysed after the process if there is any risk of
its composition having been altered by oxidation or otherwise.
The freezing points are generally best
determined by observing the gradual
cooling of a considerable mass, which
is well stirred so long as it remains
liquid. The curve of cooling may most
conveniently be recorded, either photo-
graphically, using a thermocouple and
galvanometer, as in the method of Sir
W. Roberts- Austen, or with pen and
ink, if a platinum thermometer is avail-
able, according to the method put in
practice by C. T. Hey cock and F. H.
Neville. A typical set of curves obtained
in this manner is shown in fig. 2. When FlG 2 . —Cooling Curves
the pure metal A in cooling reaches its of Alloys: typical case.
F.P. the temperature suddenly becomes
stationary, and remains accurately constant for a considerable
period. Often it falls slightly below the F.P. owing to super-
fusion, but rises to the F.P. and remains constant as soon as
freezing begins. The second curve shows the cooling of A with
10% of another metal B added. The freezing begins at a lower
temperature with the separation of pure A. The temperaturt
372
FUSION
no longer remains constant during freezing, but falls more and
more rapidly as the proportion of B in the liquid increases.
When the eutectic temperature is reached there is a second
F.P. or arrest at which the whole of the remaining liquid solidifies.
With 20% of B the first F.P. is further lowered, and the tempera-
ture falls faster. The eutectic F.P. is of longer duration, but
still at the same temperature. For an alloy of the composition
of the eutectic itself there is no arrest until the eutectic tempera-
ture is reached, at which the whole solidifies without change of
temperature. There is a great advantage in recording these
curves automatically, as the primary arrest is often very slight,
and difficult to observe in any other way.
7. Change of Solubility with Temperature.— The lowering of the
F.P. of a solution with increase of concentration, as shown by the
F.P. or solubility curves, may be explained and calculated by
equation (1) in terms of the osmotic pressure of the dissolved sub-
stance by analogy with the effect of mechanical pressure. It is
possible in salt solutions to strain out the salt mechanically by a
suitable filter or " semi-permeable membrane," which permits the
water to pass, but retains the salt. To separate 1 gramme of
salt requires the performance of work PV against the osmotic
pressure P, where V is the corresponding diminution in the volume
of the solution. In dilute solutions, to which alone the following
calculation can be applied, the volume V is the reciprocal of the
concentration C of the solution in grammes per unit volume, and
the osmotic pressure P is equal to that of an equal number of mole-
cules of gas in the same space, and may be deduced from the usual
equation of a gas,
P-RB/VM-RBC/M, (4)
where M b the molecular weight of the salt in solution, $ the absolute
temperature, and R a constant which has the value 8:32 joules,
or nearly 2 calorics, per degree C. It is necessary to consider
two cases, corresponding to the curves CB and AB in fig. 1, in
which the solution is saturated with respect to salt and water
respectively.. To facilitate description we take the case of a salt
dissolved in water, but similar results apply to solutions in other
liquids and alloys of metals.
(a) If unit mass of salt is separated in the solid state from a satur-
ated solution of salt (curve CB) by forcing out through a semi-
permeable membrane against the osmotic pressure P the corre-
sponding volume of water V in which it is dissolved, the heat evolved
is the latent heat of saturated solution of the salt Q together with
the work done PV. Writing (Q+PV) for L, and V for (»'-»') in
equation (1), and substituting P for p, we obtain
Q+PV-VedP/d9, (5)
which is equivalent to equation (1), and may be established by
similar reasoning. Substituting for P and V in terms of C from
equation (4), if Q is measured in calories, /c-2, and we obtain
QC*>20*dCfd0. (6)
which may be integrated, assuming Q constant, with the result
2log.C'/C=Q/e'-Ql6', (7)
where C, C w are the concentrations of the saturated solution cor-
responding to the temperatures 0* and $'. This equation may be
employed to calculate the latent heat of solution Q from two ob-
servations of the solubility. It follows from these equations that
Q is of the same sign as dC/dd, that is to say, the solubility increases
with rise of temperature if heat is absorbed in the formation of the
saturated solution, which is the usual case. If, on the other hand,
heat is liberated on solution, as in the case of caustic potash or
sulphate of calcium, the solubility diminishes with rise of temperature.
(6) In the case of a solution saturated with respect to ice (curve
AC) , if one gramme of water having a volu me v is separated by freezing,
we obtain a precisely similar equation to (5), but with L the latent
heat of fusion of water instead of Q, and v instead of V. If the
solution is dilute, we may neglect the external work Pv in comparison
with L, and also the heat of dilution, and may write Pjt for dP/dB,
where t is the depression of the F.P. below that of the pure solvent.
Substituting for P in terms of V from equation (4), we obtain
t-2fivlLVM-2Pu>/LWM, (8)
where W is the weight of water and to that of salt in a given volume
of solution. If M grammes of salt are dissolved in 100 of water,
w-Af and W«*\oo. The depression of the F.P. in this case is
called by van f Hoff the " Molecular Depression of the F.P." and
is given by the simple formula
/-•02ff»/L. (9)
Equation (8) may be used to c
from observations of /, 6 and
sufficiently approximate to be <
rather liberal assumptions an
course of the reasoning. In ar
theoretical basis with which to
to estimate the order of error
may thus estimate the variatio
vmluc given by the gaseous eqi
<r the molecular dissociation chanees. The most un-
ponding phenomena of fusion; but the' consideration of
r phase may generally be omitted in dealing with the fusion
s where the vapour pressure of either constituent is smalL
trates. — The simple case of a freezing point curve,
1 in fig. 1, is generally modified by the occurrence
iinds of a character analogous to hydrates of soluble
which the dissolved substance combines with one or
ccules of the solvent. These hydrates may exist as
1 molecules in the solution, but their composition
demonstrated unless they can be separated in the solid
^responding to each crystalline hydrate there is gener-
tarate branch of the solubility curve along which the
f the hydrate are in equilibrium with the saturated
At any given temperature the hydrate possessing the
)ility is the most stable. If two are present in contact
same solution, the more soluble will dissolve, and the
le will be formed at its expense until the conversion
e. The two hydrates cannot be in equilibrium with the
itien except at the temperature at which their solu-
s equal, i.e. at the point where* the corresponding carves
ty intersect. This temperature is called the " Transi-
." In the case of ZnSO«, as shown in fig. 3, the hepta-
with seven molecules of water, is the least soluble
at ordinary tcm-
and is generally
from saturated
Above 39 C,
the hexahydrate,
molecules, is less
nd a rapid convcr-
he hepra- into the
ite occurs if the
heated above the F ig. 3.-Solubility Curves of
point. The solu- " Hydrates,
the hexahydrate is
tan that of the heptahydrate below 30°, but increases
R'ly with rise of temperature. At about 8o* C.
hydrate gives place to the monohydrate, which
in water with evolution of heat, and diminishes in
with rise of temperature. Intermediate hydrates
they are more soluble, and cannot be readily isolated
mono- and hexahydrates are capable of e*i st »ng in
m with saturated solutions at temperatures far below
isition points, provided that the less soluble hydrate
sent in the crystalline form. The solubility curves can
be traced, as in fig. 3, over an extended range of tcm-
The equilibrium of each hydrate with the solvent,
i separately, would present a diagram of two branches
fig. 1, but as a rule only a small portion of each curve
salized, and the complete solubility curve, as experi-
determined, is composed of a number of separate
•responding to the ranges of minimum solubility of
. hydxaXes. Failure to recognize this coupled with the
FUSSEN— FUST
373
fact that in strong and viscous solutions the state of equilibrium
is but slowly attained, is the probable explanation of the remark-
able discrepancies existing in many recorded data of solubility.
Transition Points of Hydrates.
Na,CrO«10H,O. . 199 - NaBr-2H,0 . . .y>-7'
NatSOrlOHtO . . 3*'4* MnCl,-4H,0 . ? .57-8°
Na,CO 8 10H,O . . 35*«* Na,PO«12H,0 e .734*
Na«S,0.-5HiO . . 480° Ba(OH)r8HiO «, .77 9
The transition points of the hydrates given in the above list
Richards, Proc. Amer. Acad., r8oo, 34, p. 277) afford well-
marked constant temperatures which can be utilized as fixed
points for experimental purposes.
9. Formation of Mixed Crystals. — An important exception
to the general type already described, in which the addition of a
dissolved substance lowers the F.P. of the solvent, is presented
by the formation of mixed crystals, or " soiid solutions," in
which the solvent and solute -occur mixed in varying proportions.
This isomorphous replacement of one substance by another, in
the same crystal with little or no change of form, has long been
known and studied in the case of minerals and salts, but the
relations between composition and melting-point have seldom
been investigated, and much still remains obscure. In this case
the process of freezing does not necessitate the performance of
work of separation of the constituents of the solution, the F.P.
is not necessarily depressed, and the effect cannot be calculated
by the usual formula for dilute solutions. One of the simplest
types of F.P. curve which may result from the occurrence of
mixed crystals is illustrated by the case of alloys of gold and
silver, or gold and platinum, in which the F.P. curve is nearly
a straight line joining the freezing-points of the constituents.
The equilibrium between the solid and liquid, in both of which
the two metals are capable of mixing in all proportions, bears in
this case an obvious and close analogy to the equilibrium between
a mixed liquid (e.g. alcohol and water) and its vapour. In the
latter case, as is well known, the vapour will contain a larger
proportion of the more volatile constituent. Similarly in the case
of the formation of mixed crystals, the liquid should contain
a larger proportion of the more fusible constituent than the solid
with which it is in equilibrium. The composition of the crystals
which are being deposited at any moment will, therefore,
necessarily change as solidification proceeds, following the
change in the composition of the liquid, and the temperature
will fall until the last portions of the liquid to solidify will consist
chiefly of the more fusible constituent, at the F.P. of which the
solidification will be complete. If, however, as seems to be
frequently the case, the composition of the solid and liquid phases
do not greatly differ from each other, the greater part of the
solidification will occur within a comparatively small range of
temperature, and the initial F.P. of the alloy will be well marked.
It is possible in this case to draw a second curve representing
the composition of the solid phase which is in equilibrium with
the liquid at any temperature. This curve will not represent the
average composition of the crystals, but that of the outer coating
only which is in equilibrium with the liquid at the moment.
H. W. B. Roozeboom (Zeit. Phys. Chem. xxx. p. 385) has
attempted to classify some of the possible cases which may
occur in the formation of mixed crystals on the basis of J. W.
Gibbs's thermodynamic potential, the general properties of which
may be qualitatively deduced from a consideration of observed
phenomena. But although this method may enable us to classify
different types, and even to predict results in a qualitative
manner, it does not admit" of numerical calculation similar to
equation (8), as the Gibbs's function itself is of a purely abstract
nature and its form is unknown. There is no doubt that the
formation of mixed crystals may explain many apparent
anomalies in the study of F.P. curves. The whole subject has
been most fruitful of results in recent years, and appears full of
promise for the future.
For further details in this particular branch the reader may consult
a report by Neville (BriL Assoc. Rep.. 1000). which contains numerous
references to original papers by Roberts-Austen, Le Chatelier,
Roozeboom and others. For the properties of solutions see Solu-
tion. (H* **• c «)
FUSSEN, a town of Germany, in the kingdom of Bavaria, at
the foot of the Alps (Tirol), on the Lech, 2500 ft. above the sea,
with a branch line to Oberdorf on the railway to Augsburg. Pop.
4000. It has six Roman Catholic churches, a Franciscan monas-
tery and a castle. Rope-making is an important industry.
The castle, lying on a rocky eminence, is remarkable for the
peace signed here on the 22nd of April 1745 between the elector
Maximilian III., Joseph of Bavaria and Maria Theresa. Two
miles to the S.E., immediately on the Austrian frontier, romanti-
cally situated on a rock overlooking the Schwanensee, is the
magnificent castle of Hohenschwangau, and a little to the north,
on the site of an old castle, that of Ncuschwanstein, built by
Louis II. of Bavaria.
See H. Feistlc, Fissen und Umgebung (1898).
FUST, JOHANN ( ?-i466), early German printer, belonged
to a rich and respectable burgher family of Mainz, which is known
to have flourished from 1423, and to have held many civil and
religious offices. The name was always written Fust, but in
1 506 Johann Schoffer, in dedicating the German translation of
Livy to the emperor Maximilian, called his grandfather Faust,
and thenceforward the family assumed this name, and the Faust s
of Aschaffenburg, an old and quite distinct family, placed
Johann Fust in their pedigree. Johann's brother Jacob, a
goldsmith, was one of the burgomasters in 1462, when Mains
was stormed and sacked by the troops of Count Adolf of Nassau,
on which occasion he seems to have perished (see a document,
dated May 8, 1463, published by Wyss in Quartalbl. des hist.
Vercins filr Hessen, 1879, p. 24). There is no evidence that, as
is commonly asserted, Johann Fust was a goldsmith, but he
appears to have been a money-lender or banker. On account of
his connexion with Gutenberg (q.v.), he has been represented
by some as the inventor of printing, and the instructor as well as
the partner of Gutenberg, by others as his patron and benefactor,
who saw the value of his discovery and supplied him with means
to carry it out, whereas others paint him as a greedy and
crafty speculator, who took advantage of Gutenberg's necessity
and robbed him of the fruits of his invention. However this may
be, the Helmasperger document of November 6, 1455, shows
that Fust advanced money to Gutenberg (apparently 800
guilders in 1450, and another 800 in 1452) for carrying on his
work, and that Fust, in 1455, brought a suit against Gutenberg
to recover the money he had lent, claiming 2020 (more correctly
2026) guilders for principal and interest. It appears that he had
not paid in the 300 guilders a year which he had undertaken to
furnish for expenses, wages, &c, and, according to Gutenberg,
had said that he had no intention of claiming interest. The suit
was apparently decided in Fust's favour, November 6, 1455,
in the refectory of the Barefooted Friars of Mainz, when Fust
made oath that he himself had borrowed 1550 guilders and
given them to Gutenberg. There is no evidence that Fust, as
is usually supposed, removed the portion of the printing materials
covered by his mortgage to his own house, and carried on printing
there with the aid of Peter Schdffer, of Gernsheim (who is known
to have been a scriptor at Paris in 1449), to whom, probably
about 1455, 1 he gave his only daughter Dyna or Christina in
marriage. Their first publication was the Psalter, August 14.
1457, a folio of 350 pages, the first printed book with a complete
date, and remarkable for the beauty of the large initials printed
each in two colours, red and blue, from types made in two
pieces.* The Psalter was reprinted with the same types, 1450
( August 29), 1490, 1502 (Schbffcr's last publication) and 1516.
Fust and SchSffer's other works arc given below.' In 1464 Adolf
1 This date is uncertain; some place the marriage in 1453 or soon
after, others about 1464. It is probable that Fust alluded to this
relationship when he spoke of Schdffer as pueri met in the colophons
of Cicero's De officiis of 1465 and 1466.
"This method was patented in England by Solomon Henry in
1780, and by Sir William Congreve in 1819.
• (3) Durandus, Rationale dinnorum officiorum (U59)» »olio. 100
leaves; (4) the Clementine Constitutions, with the gloss of Johannes
Andreae (1460). 51 leaves; (5) Biblia Sacra LaHna (1462), folio,
2 vols., 242 and 239 leaves. 48 lines to a full page; (6) the Sixth
Book of Decretals, with Andreae's gloss, 17th Dccetabec n£^\» K ~
141 leaves; {j) Cvcero, De oflvcm <OA<^V ^», *fc \r»n«*, ^
<rac«L
37+
FUSTEL DE COULANGES
of Nassauappointedforthe parish of St Quintin three Baumeistcrs
(master-builders) who were to choose twelve chief parishioners
as assistants for life. One of the first of these " Vervaren,"
who were named on May-day 1464, was Johannes Fust, and in
1467 Adam von Hochhcim was chosen instead of " the late "
(selig) Johannes Fust. Fust is said to have gone to Paris in 1466
and to have died of the plague, which raged there in August and
September. He certainly was in Paris on the 4th of July, when
he gave Louis de Lavernade of the province of Forez, then
chancellor of the duke of Bourbon and first president of the
parliament of Toulouse, a copy of his second edition of Cicero,
as appears from a note in Lavernade's own hand at the end of
the book, which is now in the library of Geneva. But nothing
further is known than that on the 30th of October, probably
in 147 1, an annual mass was instituted for him by Peter Schdffer,
Conrad Henlif (for Henekes, or Henckis, Schdffer's partner ?
who married Fust's widow about 1468 1 ) and Johann Fust (the
son), in the abbey-church of St Victor of Paris, where he was
buried; and that Peter Schftffcr founded a similar memorial
service for Fust in 1473 in the church of the Dominicans at
Mainz (Bockenheimer, Gesch. der Stadt Mains, iv. 15).
Fust was formerly often confused with the famous magician
Dr Johann Faust, who, though an historical figure, had nothing
to do with him (see Faust).
See further the articles Gutenberg and Typography. (J. H. H.)
FUSTEL DB COULANGES, NUMA DENIS (1830-1889), French
historian, was born in Paris on the 18th of March 1830, of Breton
descent. After studying at the £cole Normale Superieure he
was sent to the French school at Athens in 1853, directed some
excavations in Chios, and wrote an historical account of the
island. After his return he filled various educational offices,
and took his doctor's degree with two theses, Quid Vestae cultus
in institutis veterum privatis publicisque valuerit and Polybe,
ou la Greet conquise par les Romains (1858). In these works
his distinctive qualities were already revealed. His minute
knowledge of the language of the Greek and Roman institutions,
coupled with his low estimate of the conclusions of contemporary
scholars, led him to go direct to the original texts, which he read
without political or religious bias. When, however, he had
succeeded in extracting from the sources a general idea that
seemed to him clear and simple, he attached himself to it as if to
the truth itself, employing dialectic of the most penetrating,
subtle and even paradoxical character in his deduction of the
logical consequences. From i860 to 1870 he was professor of
history at the faculty of letters at Strassburg, where he had a
brilliant career as a teacher, but never yielded to the influence
exercised by the German universities in the field of classical and
Germanic antiquities.
It was at Strassburg that he published his remarkable volume
La CHI antique (1864), in which he showed forcibly the part
played by religion in the political and social evolution of Greece
and Rome. Although his making religion the sole factor of this
evolution was a perversion of the historical facts, the book was
so consistent throughout, so full of ingenious ideas, and written
in so striking a style, that it ranks as one of the masterpieces of
the French language in the 19th century. By this literary
merit Fustel set little store, but he clung tenaciously to his
edition of a Latin classic and the first book containing Greek char-
acters, while in the colophon Fust for the first time calls Schtiffcr
" puerum suum ": (8) the same, 4th February 1466; (9) Grammatica
rkytmica (1466), folio, 11 leaves. They also printed in 1461-1462
several papal bulls, proclamations of Adolf of Nassau, &c. Nothing
is known to have appeared for three years after the storming and
capture of Mainz in 1462.
'Some confusion in the history of the Fust family has arisen
since the publication of Bernard's Orie. de I'imprimeri* (1853).
On p. 262, vol. i. he gave an extract from the correspondence between
Oberlin and Bodmann (now preserved in the Paris Nat. Library),
from which it would appear that Peter Schfiffer was the son-in-law,
not of Johann Fust, but of a brother of his, Conrad Fust. Of the
latter, however, no other trace has been found, and he is no doubt
a fiction of F. J. Bodmann, who, partly basing himself on the
" Conrad " (Henlif, or Henckis) mentioned above, added the rest
to gratify Oberlin (see Wye* in QuartalbUxlUr des kisL Vereins fur
Me****, 1879, p. if).
theories. When he revised the book in 187s, his modifications
were very slight, and it is conceivable that, had he recast it,
as he often expressed the desire to do in the last years of his life,
he would not have abandoned any part of his fundamental
thesis. The work is now largely superseded.
Fustel de Coulanges was the most conscientious of men, the
most systematic and uncompromising of historians. Appointed
to a lectureship at the £cole Normale Superieure in February
1870, to a professorship at the Paris faculty of letters in 1875,
and to the chair of medieval history created for him at the
Sorbonne in 1878, he applied himself to the study of the political
institutions of ancient France. The invasion of France by
the German armies during the war of 1870-71 attracted his
attention to the Germanic invasions under the Roman Empire.
Pursuing the theory of J. B. Dubos, but singularly transforming
it, he maintained that those invasions were not marked by the
violent and destructive character usually attributed to them;
that the penetration of the German barbarians into Gaul was a
slow process; that the Germans submitted to the imperial
administration ; that the political institutions of the Merovingians
had their origins in the Roman laws at least as much as, if not
more than, in German usages; and, consequently, that there was
no conquest of Gaul by the Germans. This thesis he sustained,
brilliantly in his His to ire des institutions poiitiques de Vancieune
France, the first volume of which appeared in 1874. It was the
author's original intention to complete this work in four volumes,
but as the first volume was keenly attacked in Germany as well
as in France, Fustel was forced in self-defence to recast the book
entirely. With admirable conscientiousness he re-examined
all the texts and wrote a number of dissertations, of which,
though several (e.g. those on the Germanic mark and on the
allodium and beneficium) were models of learning and sagacity,
all were dominated by his general idea and characterized by a
total disregard for the results of such historical disciplines as
diplomatic. From this crucible issued an entirely new work,
less well arranged than the original, but richer in facts and
critical comments. The first volume was expanded into three
volumes, La Gaule romaine (1891), L' Invasion germaniqne et
la fin de l'empire(i$gi)And La Monarchic franqtu{i&8S) ,loUovrcd
by three other volumes, V Allen et le domaine rural pendant
I'tpoque merotingienne (1880), Les Origines du system* ftodah
le bdtUfice et le patronat . . . (1890) and Les Transformations de
la royauti pendant I'ipoque carolingienne (1892). Thus, in six
volumes, he had carried the work no farther than the Carolingian
period. The result of this enormous labour, albeit worthy of a
great historian, clearly showed that the author lacked all sense
of historical proportion. He was a diligent seeker after the truth,
and was perfectly sincere when he informed a critic of the exact
number of " truths " he had discovered, and when he remarked
to one of his pupils a few days before his death, " Rest assured
that what I have written in my book is the truth." Such superb
self-confidence can accomplish much, and it undoubtedly helped
to form Fustel's talent and to give to his style that admirable
concision which subjugates even when it fails to convince;
but a student instinctively distrusts an historian who settles the
most controverted problems with such impassioned assurance.
The dissertations not embodied in his great work were collected
by himself and (after his death) by his pupil, Camille Julhan,
and published as volumes of miscellanies: Recherckes sur
quelques problemes d'kisloire (1885), dealing with the Roman
colonate, the land system in Normandy, the Germanic mark, and
the judiciary organization in the kingdom of the Franks;
Noutelles recherckes sur quelques problemes aVkistoire (1891);
ind Questions historiques (1893), which contains his paper on
Chios and his thesis on Polybius.
His life was devoted almost entirely to his teaching and his
books. In 1875 he was elected member of the Academic des
Sciences Morales, and in 1880 reluctantly accepted the post
of director of the Ecole Normale. Without intervening personally
in French politics, he took a keen interest in the questions of
administration and social reorganization arising from the fall
ol iae unpeittWsx t^vmt. and the disasters of the war. He wished
FUSTIAN— FYNE
375
the institutions of the present to approximate more closely to
those of the past, and devised for the new French constitution a
body of reforms which reflected the opinions he had formed
upon the democracy at Rome and in ancient France. But these
were dreams which did not hold him long, and he would have
been scandalized had he known that his name was subsequently
used as the emblem of a political and religious party. He died
at Massy (Seine-et-Oise) on the i ath of September 1889. Through-
out his historical career — at the £cole Normalc and the Sot bonne
and in his lectures delivered to the empress Eugtnie — his sole
aim was to ascertain the truth, and in the defence of truth his
polemics against what he imagined to be the blindness and
insincerity of his critics sometimes assumed a character of harsh-
ness and injustice. But, in France at least, these critics were
the first to render justice to his learning, his talents and his
disinterestedness.
See Paul Guiraud, Fustel de Coulanges (1896) ; H. d'Arbois de
Jubainville, Deux Manieres d'icrire Vhistoire: critique de Bossuet,
d'AugusHn Thierry tl de FusUl de Coulanges (1896)} and Gabriel
Monod, Portraits et souvenirs (1897). (C. B.*)
FUSTIAN, a term which includes a variety of heavy woven
cotton fabrics, chiefly prepared for men's wear. It embraces
plain twilled cloth called jean, and cut fabrics similar to velvet,
known as velveteen, moleskin, corduroy, &c The term was
once applied to a coarse cloth made of cotton and flax; now,
fustians are usually of cotton and dyed various colours. In the
reign of Edward III. the name was given to a woollen fabric.
The name is said to be derived from El-Fustat,asuburbof Cairo,
where it was first made; and certainly a kind of cloth has long
been known under that name. In a petition to parliament,
temp. Philip and Mary, " fustian of Naples " is mentioned. In
the 13th and 14th centuries priests' robes and women's dresses
were made of fustian, but though dresses are still made from
some kinds the chief use is for labourers' clothes.
FUSTIC (Fr. fustoc, from Arab, fustuq, Gr. rurr6.icrj, pistachio)
Yellow Wood or Old Fustic, a dye-stuff consisting of the
wood of Chlorophora tinctoria, a large tree of the natural order
Moraceae, growing in the West Indies and tropical America.
Fustic occurs in commerce in blocks, which are brown without,
and of a brownish-yellow within. It is sometimes employed for
inlaid work. The dye-stuff termed young fustic or Zante fustic,
and also Venetian sumach, is the wood of Rhus cotinus (fustet,
or smoke tree), a southern European and Asiatic shrub of the
natural order Anacardiaceae, called by Gerarde " red sumach,"
and apparently the " coccygia " and " cotinus " of Pliny {Nat.
Hist. xiii. 41, xvi. 30). Its colouring matter is fisetin, CuHi O«,
which was synthesized by S. von Kostanecki (Ber., 1904, 37,
p. 384). (See Dyeing.)
FUTURES, a term used in the produce markets for purchases
or sales of commodities to be completed at a future date, as
opposed to cash or " spot " transactions, which are settled
immediately. See Market, and (for a detailed discussion of
the question as affecting cotton) Cotton: Marketing and Supply.
FUX, JOHANN JOSEPH (1660-1741), Austrian musician,
was born at Hirtenfeld (Styria) in 1660. Of his youth and
early training nothing is known. In 1 696 he was organist at one
of the principal churches of Vienna, and in 1698 was appointed
by the emperor Leopold I. as his " imperial court-composer,"
with a salary of about £6 a month. At the court of Leopold and
of his successors Joseph I. and Charles VI., Fux remained for
the rest of his life. To his various court dignities that of organist
at St Stephen's cathedral was added in 1704. He married the
daughter of the government secretary Schnitzbaum. As a
proof of the high favour in which he was held by the art-loving
Charles VI., it is told that at the coronation of that emperor
as king of Bohemia in 1723 an opera, La Constanta e la Forteaa,
especially composed by Fux for the occasion, was given at
Prague in an open-air theatre. Fux at the time was suffering
from gout, but the emperor had him carried in a litter all the
way from Vienna, and gave him a scat in the imperial box.
Fux died at Vienna on the 13th of February 1741. His life,
although passed in the great world, was eventless, and his only
troubles arose from the intrigues of his Italian rivals at court.
Of the numerous operas which Fux wrote it is unnecessary to
speak. They do not essentially differ from the style of the
Italian opera seria of the time. Of greater importance are his
sacred compositions, psalms, motets, oratorios and masses,
the celebrated Miss a Canonica amongst the latter. It is an all
but unparalleled tour de force of learned musicianship, being
written entirely in that most difficult of contrapuntal devices-*
the canon. As a contrapuntist and musical scholar generally,
Fux was unsurpassed by any of his contemporaries, and his
great theoretical work, the Gradus ad Parnassum, long
remained by far the most thorough treatment of counter-
point and its various developments. The title of the original
Latin edition is Gradus ad Parnassum sive manuductio ad
compositionem musicae regularem, methoda nova ac certa nondum
ante tarn exact* ordine in lucem edita, elaborata a Joanne Josepko
Fux (Vienna, 1715). It was translated into most European
languages during the 18th century, and is still studied by
musicians interested in the history of their art. The expenses
of the publication were defrayed by the emperor Charles VI.
Fux's biography was published by Ludwig von K&chel (Vienna,
1871). It is based oft minute original research and contains, amongst
other valuable materials, a complete catalogue of the composer's
numerous works.
FUZE or Fuse, an appliance for firing explosives in blasting
operations, military shells, &c. (see Blasting and Ammunition,
§ Shell). The spelling is not governed by authority, but modern
convenience has dictated the adoption of the " z " by military
engineers as a general rule, in order to distinguish this sense
from that of melting by heat (see below). The word, according
to the New English Dictionary, is one of the forms in which the
Lat. fusus, spindle, has been adapted through Romanic into
English, the ordinary fuze taking the shape of a spindle-like
tube. Similarly the term " fusee " (Fr. fuste, spindle full of tow,
Late L&t, fusota) is applied to a coned spindle sometimes used in
the wheel train of watches and spring clocks to equalize the action
of the mainspring (see Watch) ; and the application of the same
term to a special kind of match may also be due to its resemblance
to a spindle. Again, in heraldry, another form, " fusil," derived
through the French from a Late Lat. diminutive (fusillus or
fusellus) of this same fusus, is used of a bearing, an elongated
lozenge. According to other etymological authorities, however
(see Skeat, Etym. Diet., 1898), " fuze " or " fuse," and " fusee "
in the sense of match, are all forms derived through the Ft. fusil,
from Late Lut. focile, steel for striking fire from a flint, from Lat.
focus, hearth. The Fr. fusil and English " fusil " were thus
transferred to the " firelock," i.e. the light musket of the 17th
century (see Fusilier).
In electrical engineering a " fuse " (always so spelled) is a
safety device, commonly consisting of a strip or wire of easily
fusible metal, which melts and thus interrupts the circuit of
which it forms part, whenever that circuit, through some accident
or derangement, is caused to carry a current larger than that
for which it is intended. In this sense the word must be con-
nected with fusus, the past participle of Lat. fundere, to pour,
whence comes the verb " fuse," to melt by heat, often used
figuratively in the sense of blend, mix.
FYNE, LOCH, an inlet of the sea, Argyllshire, Scotland.
From the head, 6 m. above Inveraray, to the mouth on the Sound
of Bute, it has a south-westerly and then southerly trend and
is 44 m. long, its width varying from J m. to 6 m. It receives the
Fync, Shira, Aray and many other streams, and, on the western
side, gives off Lochs Shira, Gair, Gilp (with Ardrishaig, the
Crinan Canal and Lochgilphead) and East Tarbert (withTarbert
village). The glens debouching on the lake are Fync, Shira,
Aray, Kinglas and Hell's Glen. The coast generally is picturesque
and in many parts well wooded. All vessels using the Crinan
Canal navigate the loch to and from Ardrishaig, and there are
daily excursions during the season, as far up as Inveraray.
There are ferries at St Catherine's and Otter, and piers at Tarbert,
Ardrishaig, Kilmory, Crarae> Furnace, Iwtwxvi ,3>vt%&*». wA
elsewhere. Tntlntoa\x\«* c^mv^sfc v*^*^*^^^'*" 1 ***
376
FYRD— FYZABAD
and Crarae, distilling at Ardrishaig, gunpowder-making at
Furnace and Kilfinan, and, above all, fishing. Haddock, whiting
and codling are taken, and the famous " Loch Fyne herrings "
command the highest price in the market.
FYRD, the name given to the English army, or militia, during
the Anglo-Saxon period (see Army, 60). It is first mentioned
in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle under the date 605. The caldorman,
or sheriff, o! the shire was probably charged with the duty of
calling out and leading the fyrd, which appears always to have
retained a local character, as during the time of the Danish
invasions we read of the fyrd of Kent, of Somerset and of
Devon. As attendance at the fyrd was included in the trinoda
ncccssitas it was compulsory on all holders of land; but that
it was not confined to them is shown by the following extract
from the laws of Ine, king of the West Saxons, dated about
600, which prescribes the penalty for the serious offence of
neglecting the fyrd: " If a gesilhcund man owning land neglect
the fyrd, let him pay 120 shillings, and forfeit his land; one not
owning land 60 shillings; a ceorlish man 30 shillings a&fyrdvnte."
The fyrd was gradually superseded by the gathering of the
thegns and their retainers, but it was occasionally called out for
defensive purposes even after the Norman Conquest.
FYT, JOHANNES (1600-1661), Belgian animal painter, was
born at Antwerp and christened on the 19th of August 1609.
He was registered apprentice to Hans van den Berghe in 162 1.
Professionally van den Berghe was a restorer of old pictures
rather than a painter of new ones. At twenty Johannes Fyt
entered the gild of St Luke as a master, and from that time
till his death in 1661 he produced a vast number of pictures
in which the bold facility of .Snyders is united to the powerful
effects of Rembrandt, and harmonies of gorgeous tone arc not
less conspicuous than freedom of touch and a true semblance
of nature. There never was such a master of technical processes
as Fyt in the rendering of animal life in its most varied forms.
He may have been less correct in outline, less bold in action
than Snyders, but he was much more skilful and more true in
the reproduction of the coat of deer, dogs, greyhounds, hares
and monkeys, whilst in realizing the plumage of peacocks,
woodcocks, ducks, hawks, and cocks and hens, he had not his
equal, nor was any artist even of the Dutch school more effective
in relieving his compositions with accessories of tinted cloth,
porcelain ware, vases and fruit. He was not clever at figures,
and he sometimes trusted for these to the co-operation of Cor-
nelius Schut or Willeborts, whilst his architectural backgrounds
were sometimes executed by Quellyn. " Silenus amongst
Fruit and Flowers," in the Harrach collection at Vienna, " Diana
and her Nymphs with the Produce of the Chase," in theBelvedcrc
at Vienna, and " Dead Game and Fruit in front of a Triumphal
Arch," belonging to Baron von Rothschild at Vienna, are
specimens of the co-operation respectively of Schut, Willeborts
and Quellyn. They are also Fyt's masterpieces. The earliest
dated work of the master is a cat grabbing at a piece of dead
poultry near a hare and birds, belonging to Baron Cetto at
Munich, and executed in 1644. The latest is a " Dead Snipe
with Ducks," of 1660, sold with the Jager collection at Cologne
in 1 87 1. Great power is shown in the bear and boar hunts at
Munich and Ravensworth castle. A " Hunted Roedeer with
Dogs in the Water," in the Berlin Museum, has some of the life
and more of the roughness of Snyders, but lacks variety of tint
and finish. A splendid specimen is the Page and Parrot near a
table covered with game, guarded by a dog staring at a monkey,
in the Wallace collection. With the needle and the brush
Fyt was equally clever. He etched 16 plates, and those repre-
senting dogs are of their kind unique.
FYZABAD, or Faizabad, a city, district and division of
British India in the United Provinces. The city stands on the
left bank of the river Gogra, 78 m. by rail £. of Luc know. Pop.
(1901) 75,085. To the £. of Fyzabad, and now forming a
suburb, is the ancient site of Ajodhya (q.v.). Fyzabad was
founded about 1730 by Sa'adat Ali Khan, the first nawab
wazir of Oudh, who built a hunting-lodge here. It received its
present name in the reign of his successor; and Shuja-ud-daula,
the third nawab, laid out a large town and fortified it, and here
he was buried. It was afterwards the residence of the Begums
of Oudh, famous in connexion with the impeachment of Warren
Hastings. When the court of Oudh was removed to Lucknow
in 1775 all the leading merchants and bankers abandoned the
place. At the census of 1869 Fyzabad contained only 37,804
inhabitants; but it is now again advancing in prosperity and
population. On the outbreak of the Mutiny in 1857, the canton*
ment contained two regiments of infantry, a squadron of cavalry,
and a light field battery of artillery — all natives. Owing to
their threatening demeanour after the Mcerut massacre, many
of the European women and children were sheltered by one of
the great landholders of Oudh, and others were sent to less
disturbed parts of the country. The troops rose, as was antici-
pated, and although they at first permitted their officers to take
boats and proceed towards Dinapur, a message was afterwards
sent to a rebel force lower down the river to intercept the fugitives.
Of four boats, one, having passed the rebels unnoticed, succeeded
in reaching Dinapur safely. Of those in the other three boats,
one alone escaped. Fyzabad is now a station for European
as well as for native troops. It is the headquarters of a brigade
in the 8th division of the northern army. There is a government
college. Sugar-refining and trade in agricultural produce are
important.
The District or Fyzabad, lying between the two great rivers
Gogra and Gumti, has an area of 1740 sq. m. It is entirely
alluvial and well wooded, and has a good climate. Pop. (1001)
1,225,374, an increase of *7% in the decade. The district is
traversed throughout its length by the Oudh and Rohflkhand
railway from Lucknow to Benares, with a branch to Allahabad.
Tanda, with a population in 1901 of 19,853, has the largest
production of cotton goods in Oudh.
The Division of Fyzabad has an area of 12,113 *<!• m > A0 ^
comprises the six districts of Fyzabad, Gonda, Bahraich,
Sultanpur, Partabgarh and Bara Banki. Pop. (1001) 6,855,991,
an increase of 2 % in the decade.
G— GABBRO
377
GThe form of this letter which is familiar to us is an
invention of the Romans, who had previously converted
the third symbol of the alphabet into a representative
of a Jk-sound (see C) . Throughout the whole of Roman
history C remained as the symbol for G in the abbreviations
C and Cn. tor the proper names Gaius and Gnaeus. According
to Plutarch (Roman Questions, 54, 59) the symbol for G was
invented by Spurius Carvilius Ruga about 293 B.C. This pro-
bably means that he was the first person to spell his cognomen
RVGA instead of RVCA. G came to occupy the seventh place
in the Roman alphabet which had earlier been taken by Z,
because between 450 B.C. and 350 B.C. the 2-sounds of Latin
passed into r, names like Papisius and Fusius in that period
becoming Papirius and Furius (sec Z), so that the letters had
become superfluous. According to the late writer Marlianus
Capella % was removed from the alphabet by the censor Appius
Claudius Caecus in 3 1 2 B.C. To Claudius the insertion of G into
the alphabet is also sometimes ascribed.
In the earliest form the difference from C is very slight, the
lower lip of the crescent merely rising up in a straight line G>
but C and 6 are found also in republican times. In the earliest
Roman inscription which was found in the Forum in 1899 the
form is ^ written from right to left, but the hollow at the bottom
lip of the crescent is an accidental pit in the stone and not a
diacritical mark. The unvoiced sound in this inscription is
represented by K. The use of the new form was not firmly
established till after the middle of the 3rd century B.C.
In the Latin alphabet the sound was always the voiced stop
(as in gig) in classical times. Later, before e, g passed into a
sound like the English y, so that words begin indifferently with
g orj; hence from the Lat. generum (accusative) and Januarium
we have in Ital. genero and Gennajo, Fr. gendre and Janvier.
In the ancient Umbrian dialect g had made this change between
vowels before the Christian era, the inhabitant of Iguvium (the
modern Gubbio) being in the later form of his native speech
luvins, Lat. Jguvinus. In most cases in Mid. Eng. also g passed
into a y sound; hence the old prefix ge of the past participle
appears only as y in yclept and the like. But ng and gg
took a different course, the g becoming an affricate d? (dzh), as
in singe, ridge, sedge, which in English before 1500 were senge,
"{£*> *'££*> an <l in Scotch are still pronounced sing, rig, seg.
The affricate in words like gaol is of French origin (getile),
from a Late Lat. gabiola, out of caveola, a diminutive of the
Lat. catea.
The composite origin of English makes it impossible to lay
down rules for the pronunciation of English g; thus there are
in the language five words Gill, three of which have the g hard,
while two have it soft: viz. (1) gill of a fish, (2) gill, a ravine,
both of which are Norse, and (3) Gill, the surname, which is
mostly Gaelics White; and (4) gill a liquid measure, from
O. Fr. gelle, Late Lat. gella in the same sense, and (5) Gill, a
girl's name, shortened from Gillian, Juliana (see Skeat's Etymo-
logical Dictionary). No one of these words is of native origin;
otherwise the initial g would have changed to y, as in Eng.
yell from the O. Eng. gellan, giellan. (P. Gi.)
GABBRO, in petrology, a group of plutonic basic rocks,
holocrystalline and usually rather coarse-grained, consisting
essentially of a basic plagioclase felspar and one or more ferro-
magnesian minerals (such as augitc, hornblende, hypersthene
and olivine). The name was given originally in north Italy to
certain coarsely crystalline dark green rocks, some of which are
t rue gabbros, while others arc serpentines. The gabbros are the
plutonic or deep-seated representatives of the dolerites, basalts
and diabases (also of some varieties of andesitc) with which they
agree closely in mineral composition, but not in minute structure.
Of their minerals felspar is usually the most abundant, and is
principally labradorite and bytownite, though anorthite occurs
in some, while oligoclase and orthoclase have been found in others.
The felspar is sometimes very clear and fresh, its crystals being
for the most part short and broad, with rather irregular or
rounded outlines. Albite twinning is very frequent, but in these
rocks it is often accompanied by peri c line twinning by which the
broad or narrow albite plates are cut transversely by many thin,
bright and dark bars as seen in polarized light. Equally
characteristic of the gabbros is the alteration of the felspars to
cloudy, semi-opaque masses of saussuritc. These are compact,
tough, devoid of cleavage, and have a waxy lustre and usually a
greenish-white colour. When this substance can be resolved by
the microscope it proves to consist usually of zoisite or epidote,
with garnet and albite, but mixed with it are also chlorite,
amphibole, serpentine, prchnitc, sericite and other minerals.
The augite is usually brown, but greenish, violet and colourless
varieties may occur. Hypersthene, when present, is often strik-
ingly pleochroic in colours varying from pink to bright green.
It weathers readily to platy-pseudomorphs of bastite which are
soft and yield low polarization colours. The olivine is colourless
in itself, but in most cases is altered to green or yellow serpentine,
often with bands of dark magnetite granules along its cleavages
and cracks. Hornblende when primary is often brown, and may
surround augite or be perthitically intergrown with it; original
green hornblende probably occurs also, though it is more
frequently secondary. Dark-brown biotite, although by no
means an important constituent of these rocks, occurs in many
of them. Quartz is rare, but is occasionally seen intergrown
with felspar as micropegmatite. Among the accessory minerals
may be mentioned apatite, magnetite, ilmcnitc, picotite and
garnet.
A peculiar feature, repeated so constantly in many of the
minerals of these rocks as to be almost typical of them, is the
occurrence of small black or dark brown enclosures often regularly
arranged parallel to certain crystallographic planes. Reflection
of light from the surfaces of these minute enclosures produces a
shimmering or Schiller. In augite or hypersthene the effect is
that the surface of the mineral has a bronzy sub-metallic appear-
ance, and polished plates seen at a definite angle yield a bright
coppery-red reflection, but polished sections of the felspars may
exhibit a brilliant play of colours, as is well seen in the Labrador
spar, which is used as an ornamental or semi-precious stone.
In olivine the black enclosures are not thinlaminae, but branching
growths resembling pieces of moss. The phenomenon isknown as
" schillerization "; its origin has been much discussed, some
holding that it is secondary, while others regard these enclosures
as original
In many gabbros there is a tendency to a centric arrangement
of the minerals, the first crystallized forming nuclei around which
the others grow. Thus magnetite, apatite and picotite, with
olivine, may be enclosed in augitc, hornblende, and hypersthene,
sometimes with a later growth of biotite, while the felspars
occupy the interspaces between the clusters of ferromagnesian
minerals. In some cases there arc borders around olivine con-
sisting of fibrous hornblende or tremolite and rhombic pyroxene
(kelyphitic or ocellar structures); spinels and garnet may
occur in this zone, and as it is developed most frequently where
olivine is in contact with felspar it may be due to a chemical
resorption at a late stage in the solidification of the rock. In
some gabbros and norites reaction rims of fibrous hornblende
are found around both hypersthene and diallage where these
are in contact with felspar. Typical orbicular structure such
as characterizes some granites and diorites is rare in the
gabbros, though it has been observed in a few instances in
Norway, California, &c.
In a very large number of the rocks of this group the plagioclase
felspar has crystallized in large measure before the pyroxene, and is
enveloped by it in ophitic manner exactly as occurs in the diabases.
When these rocks Dccomc fine-grained they pass gradually into
ophitic diabase and dolerite; only v*rj tok\^ &ac* OCvsyca. *.™&s»*.
38o
GABINIUS— GABLER
Aclia A ugusta) and an aqueduct. After the 3rd century Gabii
practically disappears from history, though its bishops continue to
be mentioned in ecclesiastical documents till the close of the oth.
The primitive city occupied the eastern bank of the lake, the
citadel being now marked by the ruins of the medieval fortress of
Castiglione, while the Roman town extended farther to the south.
The most conspicuous relic of the latter is a ruined temple,
generally attributed to Juno, which had six columns in the front
and six on each side. The plan is interesting, but the style of
architecture was apparently mixed. To the east of the temple
lay the Forum, where excavations were made by Gavin Hamilton
in 1 792. All the objects found were placed in the Villa Borghese,
but many of them were carried off to Paris by Napoleon, and
still remain in the Louvre. The statues and busts are especially
numerous and interesting; besides the deities Venus, Diana,
Nemesis, &c, they comprise Agrippa, Tiberius, Germanicus,
Caligula, Claudius, Nero, Trajan and Plotina, Hadrian and
Sabjna, M. Aurelius, Septimius Severus, Geta, Gordianus Pius
and others. The inscriptions relate mainly tolocal and municipal
matters.
See E. Q. Visconti, Monumenti Gabini delta Villa Pinciana
(Rome, 1797, and Milan, 1835); T. Ashby in Papers of the British
School at Rome, i. 180 seq. ; G. Pinza in Bull. Com. (1903),
321 seq. . (T. As.)
GABINIUS, AULUS, Roman statesman and general, and
supporter of Pompey, a prominent figure in the later days of the
Roman republic. In 67 B.C., when tribune of the people, he
brought forward the famous law (Lex Gabinia) conferring upon
Pompey the command in the war against the Mediterranean
pirates, with extensive powers which gave him absolute control
over that sea and the coasts for 50 m. inland. By two other
measures of Gabini us loans of money to foreign ambassadors
in Rome were made non actionable (as a check on the corruption
of the senate) and the senate was ordered to give audience to
foreign envoys on certain fixed days (1st of Fcb.-ist of March).
In 61 Gabinius, then praetor, endeavoured to win the public
favour by providing games on a scale of unusual splendour,
and in 58 managed to secure the consulship, not without suspicion
of bribery. During his term of office he aided Publius Clodius
in bringing about the exile of Cicero. In 57 Gabinius went
as proconsul to Syria. On his arrival he reinstated Hyrcanus
in the high-priesthood at Jerusalem, suppressed revolts, intro-
duced important changes in the government of Judaea, and
rebailt several towns. During his absence in Egypt, whither he
had been sent by Pompey, without the consent of the senate,
to restore Ptolemy Auletcs to bis kingdom, Syria had been
devastated by robbers, and Alexander, son of Aristobulus, had
again taken up arms with the object of depriving Hyrcanus of the
high-priesthood. With some difficulty Gabinius restored order,
and in 54 handed over the province to his successor, M. Licinius
Crassus. The knights, who as farmers of the taxes had suffered
heavy losses during the disturbances in Syria, were greatly
embittered against Gabinius, and, when he appeared in the senate
to give an account of his governorship, he was brought to trial
on three counts, all involving a capital offence. On the charge
of majestas (high treason) incurred' by having left his province for
Egypt without the consent of the senate and in defiance of the
Sibylline books, he was acquitted; it is said that the judges were
bribed, and even Cicero, who had recently attacked Gabinius
with the utmost virulence, was persuaded by Pompey to say as
little as he could in bis evidence to damage his former enemy.
On the second charge, that of repetundae (extortion during the
administration of his province), with especial reference to the
10,000 talents paid by Ptolemy for his restoration, he was found
guilty, in spite of evidence offered on his behalf by Pompey and
witnesses from Alexandria and the eloquence of Cicero, who had
been induced to plead his cause. Nothing but Cicero's wish to
do a favour to Pompey could have induced him to take up what
must have been a distasteful task; indeed, it is hinted that the
half-hcartedness of the defence materially contributed to
Gabin jus's condemnation. The third charge, that of ambitus
(illegalities committed during his canvass for the consulship),
was consequently dropped; Gabinius went into exile, and his
property was confiscated. After the outbreak of the civil war,
he was recalled by Caesar in 49, and entered his service, but took
no active part against his old patron Pompey. After the battle
of Pharsalus, he was commissioned to transport some recently
levied troops to Illyricum. On his way (hither by land, he was
attacked by the Dalmatians and with difficulty made his way
to Salonae (Dalmatia). Here he bravely defended himself
against the attacks of the Pompeian commander, Marcus
Octavius, but in a few months died of illness (48 or the be-
xxvi. 23-36, xxxviii. 13. 30, mrix. 55-63;
;. 48; Josephus, Antiq. xiv. 4-6; Appian,
i- 24- 59; Cicero, ad Atl. vi. 9. ad Q. Fratren,
t senatu, 4-8, Pro lege Monilia, 17, 18, 19;
Bahr in Ersch and Gruber's AUgemeine
•nograph by G. Stocchi, Aulo Qabinio e i suoi
GABION (a French word derived through Ital. gabbume,
gabbia, from Lat. cavea, a cage), a cylindrical basket without
top or bottom, used in revetting fortifications and for numerous
other purposes of military engineering. The gabion is filled
with earth when in position. The ordinary brushwood gabion in
the British service has a diameter of 2 ft. and a height of 2 f t. 9m.
There arc several forms of gabion in use, the best known being
the Willesdcn paper band gabion and the Jones iron or steel
band gabion.
GABLE, in architecture, the upper portion of a wall from the
level of the eaves or gutter to the ridge of the roof. The word is
a southern English form of the Scottish gdvel, or of an O. Fr.
word gable or j able, both ultimately derived from O. Norwegian
gajl. In other Teutonic languages, similar words, such as
Ger. Gabel and Dutch gajfel, mean " fork," cf. Lat. gabalus,
gallows, which is Teutonic in origin; " gable " is represented
by such forms as Gcr. Giebel and Dutch gevel. According to the
New English Dictionary the primary meaning of all these words
is probably " top " or " head," cf . Gr. wtfxiX^, and refers to the
forking timbers at the end of a roof. The gable corresponds to
the pediment in classic buildings where the roof was of low pitch.
If the roof is carried across on the top of the wall so that the
purlins project beyond its face, they are masked or hidden by a
" barge board," but as a rule the roof butts up against the back of
the wall which is raised so as to form a parapet. In the middle
ages the gable end was invariably parallel to the roof and was
crowned by coping stones properly weathered on both sides to
throw off the rain. In the 16th century in England variety was
given to the outline of the gable by a scries of alternating semi-
circular and ogee curves. In Holland, Belgium and Scotland a
succession of steps was employed, which in the latter country are
known as crow gables or corbie steps. In Germany and the
Netherlands in the 17th and 18th centuries the step gables
assume very elaborate forms of an extremely rococo character,
and they are sometimes of immense size, with windows in two or
three storeys. Designs of a similar rococo character are found in
England, but only in crestings such as those which surmount the
towers of Wollaton and the gatehouse of Hard wick Hall.
Gabled Towers, in architecture, are those towers which are
finished with gables instead of parapets, as at Sompting, Sussex.
Many of the German Romanesque towers are gabled.
GABLER, GEORG ANDREAS (1 786-1853), German Hegelian
philosopher, son of J. P. Gabler (below), was born on the 30th
of July 1786, at Altdorf in Bavaria. In 1804 be accompanied
his father to Jena, where he completed his studies in philosophy
and law, and became an enthusiastic disciple of Hegel. After
holding various educational appointments, he was in lS;i-
appointed rector of the Bayrcuth gymnasium, and in 1830
general superintendent of schools. In 1835 he succeeded Hegel
in the Berlin chair. He died at Tcplitz on the 13th of September
1853. His works include Lehrbuch d. phtios. Propiidculik (1st
vol., Erlangcn, 1827), a popular exposition of the Hegelian
system; De verae philosopkiac crga religionem Christianatn pielctt
(Berlin, 1836), and Die HcgeVsche Pkilosophie (ib. t 1843), a
defence of the Hegelian philosophy against Trendelenburg,
n
GABLER— GACE BRULE
38i
OABLKH, JOHANH PHILIP? (1 753-1826), German Protestant
theologian of the school of J. J. Griesbach and J. G. Eichhorn,
was born at Frankfort-on-Main on the 4th of June 1753. 1°
177a he entered the university of Jena as a theological student.
In 1776 he was on the point of abandoning theological pursuits,
when the arrival of Griesbach inspired him with new ardour.
After having been successively Repdcnt in Gdttingen and teacher
in the public schools of Dortmund (Westphalia) and Altdorf
( Bavaria) , he was, in 1 7 8 5 ; appoi nted second professor of theology
in the university of Altdorf, whence he was translated to a chair
in Jena in 1804, where he succeeded Griesbach in 1812. Here he
died on the 1 7th of February 1826. At Altdorf Gabler published
(1791-1793) a new edition, with introduction and notes, of
Eichhorn 's Urgeschichte; this was followed, two years afterwards,
by a supplement entitled Ncucr Vet such Uber die mosaische
Schdpfungsgeschichte. He was also the author of many essays
which were characterized by much critical acumen, and which had
considerable influence on the course of German thought on
theological and Biblical questions. From 1798 to 1800 he was
editor of the Neuestes tkeologisches Journal, first conjointly with
H. K. A. Hanlein (1762-1829), C. F. von Ammon (1766-1850)
and H. E. G. Paulus, and afterwards unassisted; from 1801 to
1804 of the Journal fiir thcologische Lilteratur; and from 1805
to 181 1 of the Journal fur auscrlesene thcologische LiUcratur.
Some of his essays were published by his sons (2 vols., 1831) ; and
a memoir appeared iu 1827 by VV. Schroter.
OABLETS (diminutive of "gable"), in architecture, triangular
terminations to buttresses, much in use in the Early English
and Decorated periods, after which the buttresses generally
terminated in pinnacles. The Early English gablets are generally
plain, and very sharp in pitch. In the Decorated period they
are often enriched with panelling and crockets. They are
sometimes finished with small crosses, but oftener with finials.
GABLONZ (Czech, Jablonec), a town of Bohemia, Austria,
94 m. N. E. of Prague by rail. Pop. (1900) 21,086, mostly
German. It is the chief seat of the glass pearl and imitation
jewelry manufacture, and has also an important textile industry,
and produces large quantities of hardware, papier mache and
other paper goods.
OABORIAU, ftMILE (1833-1873), French novelist, was born
at Saujon (Charcnte Infericure) on the 9th of November 1833.
He became secretary to Paul Feval, and, after publishing some
novels and miscellaneous writings, found his real gift in V A f aire
Lcrouge (1866), a detective novel which was published in the
Pays and at once made his reputation. The story was produced
on the stage in 1872. A long series of novels dealing with the
annals of the police court followed, and proved very popular.
Among them are: Le Cyme d'Orcival (1867), Monsieur Lecoq
(1869), La Vie infemale (1870), Les Esdaves de Paris (1869),
V Argent des autres (1874). Gaboriau died in Paris on the 28th
of September 1873.
GABRIEL (Heb. V*-*?!, man of God), in the Bible, the
heavenly messenger (see Angel) sent to Daniel to explain the
vision of the ram and the he-goat, and to communicate the pre-
diction of the Seventy Weeks (Dan. viii. 16, ix. 21). He was also
employed to announce the birth of John the Baptist to Zacharias,
and that of the Messiah to the Virgin Mary (Luke i. 19, 26).
Because he stood in the divine presence (see Luke i. 19; Rev.
viii. 2; and cf. Tobit xii. 15), both Jewish and Christian writers
generally speak of him as an archangel. In the Book of Enoch
" thefour great archangels" are Michael, Uriel, Suriel or Raphael,
and Gabriel, who is set over " all the powers " and shares the
work of intercession. His name frequently occurs in the Jewish
literature of the later post-Biblical period. Thus, according to
the Targum Pscu do- Jonathan, he was the man who showed the
way to Joseph (Gen. xxxvii. 15); and in Deut. xxxiv. 6 it is
affirmed that he, along with Michael, Uriel, Jophiel, Jephephiah
and the Metatron, buried the body of Moses. In the Targum on
2 Chron. xxxii. 21 he is named as the angel who destroyed the
host of Sennacherib; and in similar writings of a still later period
he is spoken of as the spirit who presides over fire, thunder, the
ripening of the fruits of the earth tad similar processes. In the
Koran great prominence is given to his function as the medium
of divine revelation, and, according to the Mahommedan Inter-
preters, he it is who is referred to by the appellations " Holy
Spirit " and " Spirit of Truth." He is specially commemorated
in the calendars of the Greek, Coptic and Armenian churches!
GABRIEL HOUNDS, a spectral pack supposed in the North of
England to foretell death by their yelping at night. The legend
is that they are the souls of unbaptized children wandering
through the air till the day of judgment They are also some-
times called Gabriel or Gabble Ratchet. A very prosaic ex-
planation of this nocturnal noise is given t>y J. C. Atkinson in
his Cleveland Glossary (1868). " This," he writes, " is the name
for a yelping sound heard at night, more or less resembling
the cry of hounds or yelping of dogs, probably due to large
flocks of wild geese which chance to be flying by night."
See further Joseph Lucas, Studies in Nuiderdale (1882), pp.
156-157.
GABRIEU, GIOVANNI (1 557-1612?), Italian musical com-
poser, was born at Venice in 1557, and was a pupil of his uncle
Andrea, a distinguished musician of the contrapuntal school
and organist of St Mark's. He succeeded Claudio Mcrulo as
first organist of the same church in 1585, and died at Venice
cither in 1612 or 1613. He was remarkable. for his compositions
for several choirs, writing frequently for 12 or x6 voices, and is
important as an early experimenter in chromatic harmony.
It was probably for this reason that he made a special point of
combining voices with instruments, being thus one of the founders
of choral and orchestral composition. Among his pupils was
Heinrich Schtitz; and the church of St Mark, from the time of
the Gabrielis onwards down to that of Lotti, became one of the
most important musical schools in Europe.
Sec also Winterfcld, Johann Cabrieli una seine Zeit (1834).
GABUN, a district on the west coast of Africa, one of the
colonies forming French Congo {q.v.). It derives its designation
from the settlements on the Gabun river or Rio dc Gabao. The
Gabun, in reality an estuary of the sea, lies immediately north of
the equator. At the entrance, between Cape Joinviilc or Santa
Clara on the N. and Cape Pangara or Sandy Point on the S., it
has a width of about 10 m. It maintains a breadth of some 7 m.
for a distance of 40 m. inland, when it contracts into what is
known as the Rio Olambo, which is not more than 2 or 3 m.
from bank to bank. Several rivers, of which the Komo is
the chief, discharge their waters into the estuary. The Gabun
was discovered by Portuguese navigators towards the close of the
15th century, and was named from its fanciful resemblance to a
gabio or cabin. On the small island of K.onik6, which lies about
the centre of the estuary, scanty remains of a Portuguese fort have
been discovered. The three principal tribes in the Gabun are the
M pong we, the Fang and the Bakalai.
GACE BRULfi (d. c. 1220), French trouvere, was a native of
Champagne. It has generally been asserted that he taught
Thibaut of Champagne the art of verse, an assumption which is
based on a statement in the Cltroniques de Saint-Denis : " Si
fist entre lui [Thibaut] et Gacc Brule* les plus belles cha neons et
les plus delitables et melodieuses qui onque fussent oles." This
has been taken as evidence of collaboration between the two
poets. The passage will bear the interpretation that with those
of Gace the songs of Thibaut were the best hitherto known.
Paulin Paris, in the Histoire liltiraire de la France (vol. xxiii.),
quotes a number of facts that fix an earlier date for Gace's songs.
Gace is the author of the earliest known jcu parti. The inter-
locutors are Gace and a count of Brittany who is identified with
Geoffrey of Brittany, son of Henry II. of England. Gace appears
to have been banished from Champagne and to have found
refuge in Brittany. A deed dated 1212 attests a contract between
Gat ho Brusle (Gace Brul6) and the Templars for a piece of land
in Dreux. It seems most probable that Gace died befpre 1 2 20, at
the latest in 1225.
See Gedeon Busken Huet, Chansons de Gace Bruit, edited for the
Societe des ancient textes francais (1902), with an exhaustive intro-
duction. Dante quotes a song by Gace, Ire d'amor qui en mum cuer
repair*, which he attributes erroneously to Thibaut of Navarre
(De vul§ari eloquentia, p. 151, ed. P. R*VM* Flow**, \V*sV
38*
GACHARD— GADDI
GACHARD, LOUIS PROSPER (1800-1885), Belgian man of
letters, was born in Paris on the 12th of March 1800. He entered
the administration of the royal archives in 1826, and was ap-
pointed director-general, a post which he held for fifty-five years.
During this long period he reorganized the service, added to the
records by copies taken in other European collections, travelled
for purposes of study, and carried on a wide correspondence
with other keepers of records, and with historical scholars. He
also edited and published many valuable collections of state
papers; a full list of his various publications was printed in the
Annuaire de Vacadtmie royale de Belgique by Ch. Piot in 1S88,
pp. 220-236. It includes 246 entries. He was the author of
several historical writings, of which the best known arc Don
Carlos el Philippe II (1867), £tudcs el notices historiques con-
cernant I'histoirc des Pays-Bas (1863), Histoire de la Belgique
au commencement du X VIII 9 siecle (1880), Histoire politique el
diplomatique de P. P. Rubens (1877), all published at Brussels.
His chief editorial works are the Acles des Hals gtniraux des
Pays-Bas 1576-1585 (Brussels, 1861-1866), Collection de docu-
ments inidits concernant V histoire de la Belgique (Brussels, 1833-
1835), and the Relations des ambassadcurs Viniticns sur Charles
V ei Philippe II (Brussels, 1855). Gachard died in Brussels
on the 24th of December 1885.
GAD, in the Bible. 1. A prophet or rather a "seer" (cp.
1 Sam. ix 9), who was a companion of David from his early days.
He is first mentioned in 1 Sam. xxii. 5 as having warned David
to take refuge in Judah, and appears again in 2 Sam. xxiv. n scq.
to make known Yahwch's displeasure at the numbering of the
people. Together with Nathan he is represented in post-exilic
tradition as assisting to organize the musical service of the temple
(sChron.xxix. 25), and like Nathan and Samuel heissaid to have
written an account of David's deeds (1 Chron. xxix. 29); a
history of David in accordance with later tradition and upon the
lines of later prophetic ideas is far from improbable.
2. Son of Jacob, by Zilpah, Leah's maid; a tribe of Israel
(Gen. xxx. n). The name is that of the god of " luck " or
fortune, mentioned in Isa. lxv. 11 (R.V. mg.), and in several
names of places, e.g. Baal-Gad (Josh. xi. 17, xii. 7), and
possibly also in Dibon-Gad, Migdol-Gad and Nahal-Gad. 1
There is another etymology in Gen. xlix. 19, where the name
is played on : " Gad, a plundering troop (gWdrf jshall plunder him
(yegudennu), but he shall plunder at their heels." There arc no
traditions of the personal history of Gad. One of the earliest
references to the name, is the statement on the inscription of
Mesha, king of Moab (about 850 B.C.), that the " men of Gad "
had occupied Ataroth (E. of Dead Sea) from of old, and that the
king of Israel had fortified the city. This is in the district
ascribed to Reuben, with which tribe the fortunes of Gad were
very closely connected. In Numbers xxxii. 34 sqq. the cities
of Gad appear to lie chiefly to the south of Heshbon; in Joshua
xiii. 24-28 they lie almost wholly to the north; while other texts
present discrepancies which are not easily reconciled with either
passage. Possibly some cities were common to both Reuben and
Gad, and perhaps others more than once changed hands. That
Gad, at one time at least, held territory as far south as Pisgah
and Ncbo would follow from Deut. xxxiii. 21, if the rendering of
the Targums be accepted, " and he looked out the first part for
himself, because there was the portion of the buried law-giver."
It is certain, however, that, at a late period, this tribe was localized
chiefly in Gilcad, in the district which now goes by the name of
Jebel Jil'&d. The traditions encircling this district point, it
would seem, to the tribe having been of Aramaean origin (see the
story of Jacob) ; at all events its position was extremely exposed,
and its population at the best must have been a mixed one.
Its richness and fertility made it a prey to the marauding nomads
of the desert; but the allusion in the Blessing of Jaccib gives the
tribe a character for bravery, and David's men of Gad (1 Chron.
xii. 8) were famous in tradition. Although rarely mentioned by
name (the geographical term Gilead is usual), the history of Gad
enters into the lives of Jephlhah and Saul, and in the wars of
Ammon and Moab it must have played some part. It followed
l SeeC. B. Cray, Heb. Proper Names, pp. 134 seq., 145.
Jeroboam in the great revolt against the house of David, and its
later fortunes until 734 b.c. (z Chron. v. 26) would be those of
the northern kingdom.
See, for a critical discussion of the data, H. W. Hogg, Ency. Bib.
cob. 1579 sqq.; also Gilead; Manasseh; Reuben.
6ADA6, or Garac, a town of British India, in the Dharwar
district of Bombay, 43 m. £. of Dharwar town. Pop. (1001)
30,652. It is an important railway junction on the Southern
Mahratta system, with a growing trade in raw cotton, and also
in the weaving of cotton and silk. There are factories for
ginning and pressing cotton, and a spinning mill. The town
contains remains of a number of temples, some of which exhibit
fine carving, while inscriptions in them indicate the existence
of Gadag as early as the xoth century,
GADARA, an ancient town of the Syrian Decapolis, the capital
of Peraea, and the political centre of the small district of Gadaris.
It was a Greek city, probably entirely non-Syrian in origin.
The earliest recorded event in its history is its capture by
Antiochus III. of Syria in 218 B.C.; how long it may have
existed before this date is unknown. About twenty years later
it was besieged for ten months by Alexander Jannacus. It was
restored by Pompey, and in 30 B.C. was presented by Augustus
to Herod the Great; on Herod's death it was reunited to Syria.
The coins of the place bear Greek legends, and such inscriptions
as have been found on its site arc Greek. Its governing and
wealthy classes were probably Greek, the common people being
Hcllcnized and Judaizcd Aramaeans. The community was
Hellenist ically organized, and though dependent on Syria and
acknowledging the supremacy of Rome it was governed by a
democratic senate and managed its own internal affairs. In the
Jewish war it surrendered to Vespasian, but in the Byzantine
period it again flourished and was the seat of a bishop. It was
renowned for its hot sulphur baths; the springs still exist and
show the remains of bath-houses. . The temperature of the
springs is 1 io° F. This town was the birthplace of Melcager the
anthologist. There is a confusion in the narrative of the healing
of the demoniac between the very similar names Cadara, Genua
and Gcrgesa) but the probabilities, both textual and geographical,
are in favour of the reading of Mark (Gcrascnes, ch. v. 1, revised
version) ; and that the miracle has nothing to do with Gadari,
but took place at Kersa, on theeastern shore of the Sea of Galilee.
Gadara is now represented by Umm Kais, a group of ruins
about 6 m. S.E. of the Sea of Galilee, and 1194 ft. above the
sea-level. There are very fine tombs with carved sarcophagi in
the neighbourhood. There are the remains of two theatres and
(probably) a temple, and many heaps of carved stones, represent-
ing ancient buildings of various kinds. The walls are, or were,
traceable for a circuit of 2 m., and there are also the remains of
a street of columns. The natives are rapidly destroying the ruins
by quarrying building material out of them. (R.A.S.M.)
GADDI. Four painters of the early Florentine school — father,
son and two grandsons — bore this name.
1. Gaddo Gaddi was, according to Vasari, an intimate friend
of Cimabue, and afterwards of Giotto. The dates of birth and
death have been given as 1 239 and about 13 1 2 ; these are probably
too early; be may have been born towards 1260, and may have
died in or about 1333. He was a painter and mosaicist, is said
to have executed the great mosaic inside the portal of the
cathedral of Florence, representing the coronation of the Virgin,
and may with more certainty be credited with the mosaics inside
the portico of the basilica of S. Maria Maggiore, Rome, relating to
the legend of the foundation of that church ; their date is probably
1308. In the original cathedral of St Peter in Rome he also
executed the mosaics of the choir, and those of the front repre-
senting on a colossal scale God the Father, with many other
figures; likewise an altarpiece in the church of S. Maria Novella,
Florence; these works no longer exist. It is ordinarily held that
no picture (as distinct from mosaics) by Gaddo Gaddi is now
extant. Messrs Crowe & Cavalcaselle, however, consider that
the mosaics of S. Maria Maggiore bear so strong a resemblance
in style to four of the frescoes in the upper church of As&isi,
tepiesenting incidents in the life of St Francis (frescoes 1, 3, 4
GADE— GADSDEN, C
383
and especially 5, which shows Francis stripping himself, and
protected by the bishop), that those frescoes likewise may, with
considerable confidence, be ascribed to Gaddi. Some other extant
mosaics are attributed to him, but without full authentication.
This artist laid the foundation of a very large fortune, which
continued increasing, and placed his progeny in a highly distin-
guished worldly position.
2. Taddeo Gaddi (about 1300-1366, or later), son of Gaddo,
was born in Florence, and is usually said to have been one of
Giotto's most industrious assistants for a period of 24 years.
This can hardly be other than an exaggeration; it is probable
that he began painting on bis own account towards 1330, when
Giotto went to Naples. Taddeo also traded as a merchant, and
had a branch establishment in Venice. He was a painter,
mosaicist and architect. He executed in fresco, in the BaronceUi
(now Giugni) chapel, in the Florentine church of S. Croce, the
" Virgin and Child between Four Prophets," on the funeral
monument at the entrance, and on the walls various incidents in
the legend of the Virgin, from the expulsion of Joachim from the
Temple up to the Nativity. In the subject of the " Presentation
of the Virgin in the Temple " are the two heads traditionally
accepted as portraits of Gaddo Gaddi and Andrea Tan; they, at
any rate, are not likely to be portraits of those artists from the
life. On the ceiling of the same chapel are the " Eight Virtues."
In the museum of Berlin is an altarpiece by Taddeo, the " Virgin
and Child," and some other subjects, dated 1334; in the Naples
gallery, a triptych, dated 1336, of the " Virgin enthroned along
with Four Saints," the " Baptism of Jesus/' and his " Deposition
from the Cross "; in the sacristy of S. Pietro a Megognano, near
Poggibonsi, an altarpiece dated 1355, the " Virgin and Child
enthroned amid Angels." A scries of paintings, partly from the
life of St Francis, which Taddeo executed for the presses in S.
Croce, are now divided between the Florentine Academy and the
Berlin Museum; the compositions are taken from or founded
on Giotto, to whom, indeed, the Berlin authorities have ascribed
their examples. Taddeo also painted some frescoes still extant
in Pisa, besides many in S. Croce and other Florentine buildings,
which have perished. He deservedly ranks as one of the most
eminent successors of Giotto; it may be said that he continued
working up the material furnished by that great painter, with
comparatively feeble inspiration of his own. His figures are
vehement in action, long and slender in form; his execution
rapid and somewhat conventional. To Taddeo are generally
ascribed the celebrated frescoes — those of the ceiling and left
or western wall — in the Cappclla degli Spagnuoli, in the church
of S. Maria Novella, Florence; this is, however, open to con-
siderable doubt, although it may perhaps be conceded that the
designs for the ceiling were furnished by Taddeo. Dubious also
are the three pictures ascribed to him in the National Gallery,
London. In mosaic he has left some work in the baptistery of
Florence. As an architect he supplied in 1336 the plans for the
present Ponte Vecchio, and those for the original (not the present)
Ponte S. Trinita; in 1337 he was engaged on the church of
Or San Michele; and he carried on after Giotto's death the work
of the unrivalled Campanile.
3. A g nolo Gaddi, born in Florence, was the son of Taddeo;
the date of his birth has been given as 1326, but possibly J350
is nearer the mark. He was a painter and mosarcist, trained by
his father, and a merchant as well; in middle age he settled down
to commercial life in Venice, and he added greatly to the family
wealth. He died in Florence in October 1396. His paintings
show much early promise, hardly sustained as he advanced
in life. One of the earliest, at S. Jacopo tra' Fossi, Florence,
represents the " Resurrection of Lazarus." Another probably
youthful performance is the scries of frescoes of the Pieve di
Prato — legends of the Virgin and of her Sacred Girdle, bestowed
upon St Thomas, and brought to Prato in the nth century by
Michele dei Dagomari; the " Marriage of Mary " is one of the
best of this series, the later compositions in which have suffered
much by renewals. In S. Croce he painted, in eight frescoes,
the legend of the Cross, beginning with the archangel Michael
giving Seth a branch from the tree of knowledge, and ending
with the emperor Hcraclius carrying the Cross as he enters
Jerusalem; in this picture is a portrait of the painter himself.
Agnolo composed his subjects better than Taddeo; he had more
dignity and individuality in the figures, and was a clear and bold
colourist; the general effect is laudably decorative, but the
drawing is poor, and the works show best from a distance.
Various other productions of this master exist, and many have
perished. Cennino Cennini, the author of the celebrated treatise
on painting, was one of his pupils.
4. Giovanni Gaddi, brother of Agnolo, was also a painter of
promise. He died young in 1383.
Vasari, and Crowe and Cavelcaselle can be consulted as
to the Gaddi. Other notices appear here and there — such as
La CappcUa d*' Rinuccini in 5. Croce di Firenu, by G. Ajaui
(1845). (W.M.ROi
GADE, NIELS WILHELM (1817-1800), Danish composer,
was born at Copenhagen, on the 22nd of February 181 7, his father
being a musical instrument maker. He was intended for his
father's trade, but his passion for a musician's career, made
evident by the ease and skill with which he learnt to play upon
a number of instruments, was not to be denied. Though he
became proficient on the violin under Wexschall, and in the
elements of theory under Weyse and Berggrecn, he was to a great
extent self-taught. His opportunities of hearing and playing in
the great masterpieces were many, since he was a member of the
court band. In 1840 his Aladdin and his overture of Ossian
attracted attention, and in 1841 his Nachklange aus Ossian
overture gained the local musical society's prize, the judges
being Spohr and Schneider. This work also attracted the notice
of the king, who gave the composer a stipend which enabled him
to go to Leipzig and Italy. In 1844 Gade conducted the Gcwand-
haus concerts in Leipzig during Mendelssohn's absence, and on
the latter's death became chief conductor. In 1848, on the
outbreak of the Holstein War, he returned to Copenhagen, where
he was appointed organist and conductor of the Musik-Verein.
In 1852 he married a daughter of the composer J. P. E. Hartmann.
He became court conductor in 186 r, and was pensioned by the
government in 1876 — the year in which be visited Birmingham
to conduct his Crusaders. This work, and the Friihlingsfanlasie,
the Erik 6 nigs TockUr, FrUhlingsbotschaJt and Psyche (written for
Birmingham in 1882) have enjoyed a wide popularity. Indeed,
they represent the strength and the weakness of Gade'S musical
ability quite as well as any of his eight symphonies (the best of
which are the first and fourth, while the fifth has an obbligato
pianoforte part). Gade was distinctly a romanticist, but his
music is highly polished and beautifully finished, lyrical rather
than dramatic and effective. Much of the pianoforte music,
Aquarellen, Spring Flowers, for instance, enjoyed a considerable
vogue, as did the Novcllctten trio; but Cade's opera Mariotta
has not been heard outside the Copenhagen opera house. He
died at Copenhagen on the 21st of December 1890.
GADOLINIUM (symbol Gd., atomic weight 157-3), one of the.
rare earth metals (sec Erbium). The element was discovered
in 1880 in the mineral saraarskite by C. Marignac (Com pies
rendus, 1880, 90, p. 899; Ann. chim. phys., 1880 [5] 20, p. 535).
G. Urbain (Comptes rendus, 1005, 140, p. 583) separates the
metal by crystallizing the double nitrate of nickel and gadolinium.
The salts show absorption bands in the ultra-violet. The oxide
Gd 2 Oj is colourless (Lecoq de Boisbaudran).
GADSDEN, CHRISTOPHER (1724-1805), American patriot,
was born in Charleston, South Carolina, in 1724. His father,
Thomas Gadsden, was for a time the king's collector for the
port of Charleston. Christopher went to school near Bristol, in
England, returned to America in 1741, was afterwards employed
in a counting house in Philadelphia, and became a merchant and
planter at Charleston. In 1759 he was captain, of an artillery
company in an expedition against the Cherokees. He was a
member of the South Carolina legislature almost continuously
from 1760 to 1780, and represented his province in the Stamp
Act Congress of 1765 and in the Continental Congress in 1774-
1776. In February 1776 he was placed in command of all the
military forces ot SouvVi Crc&T&, *tA vcv <^\vfc*x sk >Sbr. wsr.
3»4
GADSDEN, J.— GAETA
year was commissioned a brigadier-general and was taken into
the Continental service; but on account of a dispute arising out
of a conflict between state and Federal authority resigned his
command in 1777. He was lieutenant-governor of his state in
x 780, when Charleston was surrendered to the British. For about
three months following this event he was held as a prisoner on
parole within the limits of Charleston; then, because of his
influence in deterring others from exchanging their paroles for
the privileges of British subjects, he was seized, taken to St
Augustine, Florida, and there, because he would not give another
parole to those who had violated the former agreement affecting
him, he was confined for forty-two weeks in a dungeon. In
1782 Gadsden was again elected a member of his state legislature;
he was also elected governor, but declined to serve on the ground
that he was too old and infirm; in 1788 he was a member of the
convention which ratified for South Carolina the Federal con-
stitution; and in 1700 he was a member of the convention which
framed the new state constitution. He died in Charleston on the
28th of August 1805. From the time that Governor Thomas
Boone, in 1762, pronounced his election to the legislature
improper, and dissolved the House in consequence, Gadsden was
hostile to the British administration. He was an ardent leader
of the opposition to the Stamp Act, advocating even then a
separation of the colonies from the mother country; and in
the Continental Congress of 1774 he discussed the situation on
the basis of inalienable rights and liberties, and urged an im-
mediate attack on General Thomas Gage, that he might be
defeated before receiving reinforcements.
GADSDEN, JAMES (1 788-1858), American soldier and diplo-
mat, was born at Charleston, S.C., on the 15th of May 1788; the
grandson of Christopher Gadsden. He graduated at Yale in 1806,
became a merchant in his native city, and in the war of 181 2
served in the regular U.S. Army as a lieutenant of engineers.
In 18 18 he served against the Seminoles, with the rank of captain,
as aide on the staff of Gen. Andrew Jackson. In October 182Q
he became inspector-general of the Southern Division, with the
rank of colonel, and as such assisted in the occupation and the
establishment of posts in Florida after its acquisition. From
August 1821 to March 1822 he was adjutant-general, but, his
appointment not being confirmed by the Senate, he left the army
and became a planter in Florida. He served in the Territorial
legislature, and as Federal commissioner superintended in 1823
the removal of the Seminole Indians to South Florida. In 1832
he negotiated with the Seminoles a treaty which provided for their
removal within three years to lands in what is now the state of
Oklahoma; but the Seminoles refused to move, hostilities again
broke out, and in the second Seminole War Gadsden was
quartermaster-general of the Florida Volunteers from February
to April 1836. Returning to South Carolina he became a rice
planter, and was president of the Southi Carolina railway.
In 1853 President Franklin Pierce appointed him minister to
Mexico, with which country he negotiated the so-called " Gadsden
treaty " (signed the 30th of December 1853), which gave to the
United States freedom of transit for mails, merchandise and
troops across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, and provided for a
readjustment of the boundary established by the treaty of
Guadalupe Hidalgo, the United States acquiring 45.535 sq. m.
of land, since known as the " Gadsden Purchase," in what is
now New Mexico and Arizona. In addition, Article XI. of the
treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, which bound the United States
to prevent incursions of Indians from the United States into
Mexico, and to restore Mexican prisoners captured by such
Indians, was abrogated, and for these considerations the United
States paid to Mexico the sum of $10,000,000. Ratifications of
the treaty, slightly modified by the Senate, were exchanged on the
30th of June 1854; before this, however, Gadsden had retired
from his post. The boundary line between Mexico and the
" Gadsden Purchase " was marked by joint commissions ap-
pointed in 1855 and 1801, the second commission publishing its
report in 1899. Gadsden died at Charleston, South Carolina, on
toe fjtA of December 1858.
Ad cider brother, Cbsjstophku Edwards Gadsden (178s-
1852), was Protestant Episcopal bishop of South Carolina in
1830-1852.
GADWALL, a word of obscure origin, 1 the common English
name of the duck, called by Linnaeus Anas, strepera, but con-
sidered by many modern ornithologists to require removal from
the genus Anas to that of Chaulclasmus or Ctenorkyndna, of
either of which it is almost the sole species. Its geographical
distribution is almost identical with that of the common wild duck
or mallard (see Duck), since it is found over the greater part of
the northern hemisphere; but, save in India, where it is one of
the most abundant species of duck during the cold weather, it is
hardly anywhere so numerous, and both in the eastern parts of
the United States and in the British Islands it is rather rare than
otherwise. Its habits also, so far as they have been observed,
greatly resemble those of the wild duck; but its appearance
on the water is very different, its small head, flat back, elongated
form and elevated stern rendering it recognizable by the fowler
even at such a distance as hinders him from seeing its very
distinct plumage. In coloration the two sexes appear almost
equally sombre; but on closer inspection the drake exhibits a
pencilled grey coloration and upper wing-coverts of a deep
chestnut, which are almost wanting in his soberly clad partner.
She closely resembles the female of the mallard in colour, but has,
like her own male, some of the secondary quills of a pure white,
presenting a patch of that colour which forms one of the most
readily perceived distinctive characters of the species. The
gadwall is a bird of some interest in England, since it is one of the
few that have been induced, by the protection afforded them in
certain localities, to resume the indigenous position they once
filled, but had, through the draining and reclaiming of marshy
lands, long since abandoned. In regard to the present species,
this fact was due to the efforts of Andrew Fountaine, on whose
property, in West Norfolk and its immediate neighbourhood,
the gadwall, from 1850, annually bred in increasing numbers.
It has been always esteemed one of the best of wild fowl for the
table. (A. N.)
GAEKWAR, or Guicowar, the family name of the Mahratta
rulers of Baroda (q.v.) in western India, which has been con-
verted by the English into a dynastic title. It is derived from the
vernacular word for the cow, but it is a mistake to suppose that
the family are of the cowherd caste ; they belong to the upper class
of Mahrattas proper, sometimes claiming a Rajput origin. The
dynasty was founded by a succession of three warriors, Daxnaji I.,
Pilaji and Damaji II., who established Mahratta supremacy
throughout Gujarat during the first half of the 1 8th century. The
present style of the ruler is Maharaja Gaekwar of Baroda.
GAETA (anc. Caittae Portus), a seaport and episcopal see of
Campania, Italy, in the province of Caserta, from which it is
S3 m. W.N.W. by rail via Sparanisc. Pop. (1901) 5528. It
occupies a lower projecting point of the promontory which forms
the S.W. extremity of the Bay of Gaeta. The tomb of Munatius
Plancus, on the summit of the promontory (see Catxtae Portus),
is now a naval signal station, and lies in the centre of the exten-
sive earthworks of the modern fortifications. The harbour is
well sheltered except on the E., but has little commercial im-
portance, being mainly a naval station. To the N.W. is the
suburb of Elena (formerly Borgo di Gaeta). Pop. (xooi) 10,360.
Above the town is a castle erected by the Angevin kings, and
strengthened at various periods. The cathedral of St Erasmus
(S. Elmo), consecrated in 1106, has a fine campanile begun in
GAETANI— GAETULIA
38S
860 and completed in 1279, and a nave and four aisles; the
interior has, however, been modernized. Opposite the door of
the cathedral is a candelabrum with interesting sculptures of the
end of the 13th century, consisting of 48 panels in bas-relief,
with 24 representations from the life of Christ, and 24 of the
life of St Erasmus (A. Venturi, Storia delV arte Italiana, iii.
Milan, 1004, 642 seq.). The cathedral possesses three fine
ExuUet rolls,, with miniatures dating from the nth to the begin-
ning of the 13th century. Behind the high altar is the banner sent
by Pope Pius V. to Don John of Austria, the victor of Lepanto.
The constable of Bourbon, who fell in the sack of Rome of 1527,
is buried here. The other churches are of minor interest; close
to that of La Trinita is the Montagna Spaccata, where a vertical
fissure from 6 to 15 ft. wide runs right down to the sea-level.
Over the chasm is a chapel dd Crocefisso, the mountain having
split, it is said, at the death of Christ.
During the break-up of the Roman empire, Gaeta, like Amalfi
and Naples, would seem to have established itself as a practically
independent port and to have carried on a thriving trade with
the Levant. Its history, however, is obscure until, in 823.. it
appears as a lordship ruled by hereditary kypati or consuls.
In 844 the town fell into the hands of the Arabs, but four years
later they were driven out with help supplied by Pope Leo IV.
In 875 the town was in the hands of Pope John VIII., who gave
it to the count of Capua as a fief of the Holy See, which had long
claimed jurisdiction over it. Ih 877, however, the hypatus John
(Ioannes) II. succeeded in recovering the lordship, which he
established as a duchy under the suzerainty of the East Roman
emperors. In the nth century the duchy fell into the hands of
the Norman counts of A versa, afterwards princes of Capua, and
in 1 135 it was definitively annexed to his kingdom by Roger of
Sicily. The town, however, had its own coinage as late as 1229.
In military history the town has played a conspicuous part.
Its fortifications were strengthened in the 15th century. On
the 30th of September 1707 it was stormed, after a three months'
siege, by the Austrians under Daun; and on the 6th of August
1734 it was taken, after a siege of four months, by French,
Spanish and Sardinian troops under the future King Charles
of Naples. The fortifications were again strengthened; and
in 1709 it was temporarily occupied by the French. On the 18th
of July 1806 it was captured, after an heroic defence, by the
French under Massena; and on the 18th of July 181 s it capitu-
lated, after a three months' siege, to the Austrians. In November
1848 Pope Pius IX., after his flight in disguise from Rome,
found a refuge at Gaeta, where he remained till the 4th of Sep-
tember 1849. Finally, in i860, it was the scene of the last stand
of Francis II. of Naples against the forces of United Italy. Shut
up in the fortress with 12,000 men, after Garibaldi's occupation
of Naples, the king, inspired by the heroic example of Queen
Maria, offered a stubborn resistance, and it was not till the 13th
of February 1861 that, the withdrawal of the French fleet having
made bombardment from the sea possible, he was forced to
capitulate.
See G. B. Fcderici, Detli antichi duchi, eonsoti ipati delta ciltd
di Gaeta (Naples, 1791); Onorato Gactani d' Aragona, Mem. slor.
delta ciUd di Gaeta (Milan, 1879); C. Ravizza, // Goljo di Gaeta
(Novara, 1876) (T. As.)
GAETANI, or Caktani, the name of the oldest of the Roman
princely families which played a great part in the history of the
city and of the papacy. The Gaetani are of Longobard origin,
and the founder of the house is said to be one Dominus Con-
stant in us Cagetanus, who flourished in the 10th century, but
the family had no great importance until the election of Benedetto
Gaetani to the papacy as Boniface VIII. in 1 294, when they at once
became the most notable in the city. The pope conferred
on them the fiefs of Scrmoneta, Bassiano, Ninfa and San Donato
( 1 297-1300) , and the marquisate of Ancona in 1300, while Charles
II. of Anjou created the pope's brother count of Caserta.
Giordano Loffredo Gactani by his marriage with Giovanna
dell' Aquila, heiress of the counts of Fondi and Traetto, in 1297
added the name of Aquila to his own, and his grandson Giacomo
acquired the lordships of Piedimonte and Gioia. Tbe_Gactani
proved brave warriors and formed a bodyguard to protect
Boniface VIII. from his many foes. During the 14th and 15th
centuries their feuds with the Colonna caused frequent disturb-
ances in Rome and the Campagna, sometimes amounting to
civil war. They also played an important rdle as Neapolitan
nobles. In 1500 Alexander VI., in his attempt to crush the great
Roman feudal nobility, confiscated the Gaetani fiefs and gave
them to his daughter Lucrezia Borgia (q.v.) ; but they afterwards
regained them.
At present there arc two lines of Gactani: (1) Gaetani, princes
of Teano and dukes of Sermoneta, founded by Giacobello
Gaetani, whose grandson, Guglielmo Gaetani, was granted
the duchy of Scrmoneta by Pius III. in 1503, the marquisate
of Cisterna being conferred on the family by Six t us V. in 1585.
In 1642, Francesco, the 7th duke of Sermoneta, acquired by
marriage the county of Caserta, which was exchanged for the
principality of Teano in 1750. The present head of the house,
Onorato Gactani, 14th duke of Sermoneta, 4th prince of Teano,
duke of San Marco, marquis of Cisterna, &c, is a senator of the
kingdom of Italy, and was minister for foreign affairs for a short
time. ( 2) Gaetani dell' Aquila d' Aragona, princes of Piedimonte,
and dukes of Laurenzana, founded by Onorato Gaetani dell'
Aquila, count of Fondi, Traetto, Alife and Morconc, lord of
Piedimonte and Gioia, in 1454. The additional surname of
Aragona was assumed after the marriage of Onorato Gaetani,
duke of Traetto (d. 1529), with Lucrezia of Aragon, natural
daughter of King Ferdinand I. of Naples. The duchy of Lauren-
zana, in the kingdom of Naples, was acquired by Alfonso Gaetani
by his marriage in 1606 with Giulia di Ruggiero, duchess of
Laurenzana. The lordship of Piedimonte was raised to a
principality in 171 5. The present (1008) head of the house is
Nicola Gaetani dell' Aquila d'Aragona (b. 1857), 7th prince of
Piedimonte and 12 th duke of Laurenzana.
See A. von Reumont, Geschichle der Stadt Rom (Berlin, 1868) ; F.
Gregorovius, Geschichte der Stadt Rom (Stuttgart, 1872); Almanack
de Gotha (1907 and 1908).
GAETULIA, an ancient district in northern Africa, which in
the usage of Roman writers comprised the wandering tribes of
the southern slopes of Mount Aures and the Atlas, as far as the
Atlantic, and the oases in the northern part of the Sahara.
They were always distinguished from the Negro people to the
south, and beyond doubt belonged to the same Berber race
which formed the basis of the population of Numidia and
Mauretania (q.v.). The tribes to be found there at the present
day are probably of the same race, and retain the same wandering
habits; and it is possible that they still bear in certain places
the name of their Gactulian ancestors (see Vivien St Martin,
Le Nord de t'A/rique, 1S63). A few only seem to have mingled
with the Negroes of the Sahara, if we may thus interpret
Ptolemy's allusion to Mclano-Gaetuli (4. 6. 5.). They were noted
for the rearing of horses, and according to Strabo had 100,000
foals in a single year. They were clad in skins, lived on flesh
and milk, and the only manufacture connected with their name
is that of the purple dye which became famous from the time of
Augustus onwards, and was made from the purple fish found on
the coast, apparently both in the Syrtes and on the Atlantic.
We first hear of this people in the Jugurthine War (m-106
B.C.), when, as Sail us t tells us, they did not even know the name
of Rome. They took part with Jugurtha against Rome; but
when we next hear of them they are in alliance with Caesar
against Juba I. (Bell. A/r. 32). In 25 B.C. Augustus seems to
have given a part of Gactulia to Juba II., together with his
kingdom of Mauretania, doubtless with the object of controlling
the turbulent tribes; but the Gaetulians rose and massacred
the Roman residents, and it was not till a severe defeat had been
inflicted on them by Lcntulus Cossus (who thus acquired the
surname Gactulicus) in a.d. 6 that they submitted to the king.
After Mauretania became a Roman province in a.d. 40, the
Roman governors made frequent expeditions into the Gactulian
territory to the south, and the official view seems to be expressed
by Pliny (v. 4. 30) when he says that all Gaetulla a&fat *&i.V«.
Niger and tias YA^tovu^w&V&x ^» ts&»k&. wj&ssxxn*^
386
GAGE— GAGERN
Empire. How far this represents the fact is not clear; but
inscriptions prove that Gaetulians served in the auxiliary troops
of the empire, and it may be assumed that the country passed
within the sphere of Roman influence, though hardly within the
pale of Roman civilization.
For bibliography see Africa, Roman.
GAGE, LYMAN JUDSON (1836- ), American financier,
was born at De Ruyter, Madison county, New York, on the 28th
of June 1836. He was educated at an academy at Rome, New
York, where at the age of seventeen he became a bank clerk.
In 1855 he removed to Chicago, served for three years as book-
keeper in a planing-mill, and in 1858 entered the banking house
of the Merchant's Loan and Trust Company, of which he was
cashier in 1861-1868. Afterwards he became successively
assistant cashier (1868), vice-president (1882), and president
( 1 891) of the First National Bank of Chicago, one of the strongest
financial institutions in the middle west. He was chosen in 1892
president of the board of directors of the World's Columbian
Exposition, the successful financing of which was due more to him
than to any other man. In politics he was originally a Re-
publican, and was a delegate to the national convention of the
party in x88o, and chairman of its finance committee. In 1884,
however, he supported Grover Cleveland for the presidency,
and came to be looked upon as a Democrat. In 1892 President
Cleveland, after his second election, offered Gage the post of
secretary of the treasury, but the offer was declined. In the
" free-silver " campaign of 1896 Gage laboured effectively for
the election of William McKirJey, and from March 1897 until
January 1902 he was secretary of the treasury in the cabinets
successively of Presidents McKinlcy and Roosevelt. From
April 1902 until 1906 he was president of the United States
Trust Company in New York City. His administration of the
treasury department, through a more than ordinarily trying
period, was marked by a conservative policy, looking toward
the strengthening of the gold standard, the securing of greater
flexibility in the currency, and a more perfect adjustment of the
relations between the government and the National banks.
GAGE, THOMAS (1 721-1787), British general and governor
of Massachusetts, second son of the first Viscount Gage, was born
in 1721. He entered the army in 1741 and saw service in Flanders
and in the campaign of Culloden, becoming lieutenant-colonel
in the 44th foot inMarch 1751. In 1754 he served in America,
and he took part in the following year in General Braddock's
disastrous expedition. In 1758 he became colonel of a new
regiment, and served in Amherst's operations against Montreal.
He was made governor of Montreal, and promoted major-general
in 1 76 1, and in 1763 succeeded Amherst in the command of the
British forces in America; in 1770 he was made a lieutenant-
general. In 1774 he was appointed governor of Massachusetts,
and in that capacity was entrusted with carrying into effect the
Boston Port Act. The difficulties which surrounded him in the
execution of his office at this time of the gravest unrest culmin-
ated in 1775, and the action of the 19th of April at Lexington
initiated the American War of Independence. After the battle
of Bunker Hill, Gage was superseded by General (Sir William)
Howe, and returned to England. He became general in 1782,
and died on the 2nd of April 1787.
GAGE, a pledge, something deposited as security for the
performance of an agreement, and liable to be forfeited on failure
to carry it out. The word also appears in " engage," and is
taken from the O. Fr., as are " wage," payment for services,
and " wager," bet, stake, from the collateral 0. Fr. waige . These
two words are from the Low Lat. wadiare, vadiare, to pledge,
vadium, classical Lat. vas, vadis, but may be from the old Teutonic
cognate base seen in Gothic wadi, a pledge (cf. Ger. wcttcn, to
wager); this Teutonic base is seen in Eng. " wed," to marry,
i.e. to engage by a pledge (cf. Goth, gawadjon, to betrothe).
A particular form of giving a " gage " or pledge was that of
throwing down a glove or gauntlet as a challenge to a judicial
combat, the glove being the " pledge " that the parties would
appear on the field; hence the common phrase " to throw down
the gage of defence "for any challenge (see Giov* and Waoe*V
GAGERN, HANS CHRISTOPH ERNST, Baron von (1766-
1852), German statesman and political writer, was born at
Kleinniedesheim, near Worms, on the 25th of January 1766.
After studying law at the universities of Leipzig and Gbttingcn,
he entered the service of the prince of Nassau-Weilburg, whom
in 1 791 he represented at the imperial diet. He was afterwards
appointed the prince's envoy at. Paris, where he remained till
the decree of Napoleon, forbidding all persons born on the left
side of the Rhine to serve any other state than France, compelled
him to resign his office (181 z). He then retired to Vienna, and
in 181 2 he took part in the attempt to excite a second insurrection
against Napoleon in Tirol. On the failure of this attempt he left
Austria and joined the headquarters of the Prussian army (1813),
and became a member of the board of administration for north
Germany. In 18 14 he was appointed administrator of the Orange
principalities; and, when the prince of Orange became king of
the Netherlands, Baron Gagern became his prime minister.
In 181 5 he represented him at the congress of Vienna, and suc-
ceeded in obtaining for the Netherlands a considerable augmenta-
tion of territory. From 1816 to 1818 he was Luxemburg envoy
at the German diet, but was recalled, at the instance of Metier-
nich, owing to his too independent advocacy of state constitutions.
In 1820 he retired with a pension to his estate at Hornau, near
Hochst, in Hesse-Darmstadt; but as a member of the first
chamber of the states of the grand-duchy he continued to take
an active share in the promotion of measures for the welfare of
his country. He retired from public life in 1848, and died at
Hornau on the 22nd of October 1852. Baron von Gagern wrote
a history of the German nation (Vienna, 1813; 2nd ed., 2 vols.,
Frankfort, 1825-1826), and several other books on subjects
connected with history and social and political science. Of
most permanent value, however, is his autobiography, Man
Anteil an der Politik, 5 vols. (Stuttgart and Leipzig, 1823-1845).
Of Hans Christoph von Gagern's sons three attained con-
siderable eminence: —
Friedrich Balduin, Freiherr von Gagern (1 794-1 848), the
eldest, was born at Weilburg on the 24th of October 1704. He
entered the university of Gdttingen, but soon left, and, taking
service in the Austrian army, took part in the Russian campaign
of 181 2, and fought in the following year at Dresden, Kulm and
Leipzig. He then entered the Dutch service, took part in the
campaigns of 181 5, and, after studying another year at Heidel-
berg, was member for Luxemburg of the military commission of
the German federal diet (1824, 1825). In 1830 and 1831 he took
part in the Dutch campaign in Belgium, and in 1844, after being
promoted to the rank of general, was sent on an important
mission to the Dutch East Indies to inquire into the state of
their military defences. In 1847 he was appointed governor at
the Hague, and commandant in South Holland. In the spring
of 1848 he was in Germany, and on the outbreak of the revolu-
tionary troubles he accepted the invitation of the government
of Baden to take the command against the insurgent " free
companies " (Freischaaren), At Kandcrn, on the 20th of April,
he made a vain effort to persuade the leaders to submit, and was
about to order his troops to attack when he was mortally wounded
by the bullets of the insurgents. His Life, in 3 vols. (Heidelberg
and Leipzig, 1856-1857), was written by his brother Hcinrich
von Gagern.
Heinrich Wilhelm August, Freiherr von Gagern (1790-
1880), the third son, was born at Bayrcuth on the 20th of August
1799, educated at the military academy at Munich, and, as an
officer in the service of the duke of Nassau, fought at Waterloo.
Leaving the service after the war, he studied jurisprudence at
Heidelberg, Gettingen and Jena, and in 1819 went for a while
to Geneva to complete his studies. In 1821 he began his official
career as a lawyer in the grand-duchy of Hesse, and in 1832
was elected to the second chamber. Already at the universities
he had proclaimed his Liberal sympathies as a member of the
Burschenschafl, and he now threw himself into open opposition
to the unconstitutional spirit of the Hessian government, an
attitude which led to his dismissal from the state service in 1833.
t HcTvctlottu ta Yi»«& Y& cata$m&N* TtCwemsn^ cultivating a
GAHANBAR— GAILLARD
3*7
farm rented by his father at Monsheim, and occasionally pub-
lishing criticisms of public affairs, until the February revolution
of 1848 and its echoes in Germany recalled him to active political
life. For a short while he was at the head of the new Hessian
administration; but his ambition was to share in the creation
of a united Germany. At the Heidelberg meeting and the
preliminary convention (Vorparlomcni) of Frankfort he deeply
impressed the assemblies with the breadth and moderation of
his views; with the result that when the German national
parliament met (May 18), he was elected its first president.
His influence was at first paramount, both with the Unionist
party and with the more moderate elements of the Left, and it was
he who was mainly instrumental in imposing the principle of a
united empire with a common parliament, and in carrying the
election of the Archduke John as regent. With the growing
split between the Great Germans (Grossdeutsckcn), who wished
the new empire to include the Austrian provinces, and the Little
Germans (Klcindeulscken), who realized that German unity could
only be attained by excluding them, his position was shaken.
On the 15th of December, when Schmerling and the Austrian
members had left the cabinet, Gagcrn became head of the
imperial ministry, and on the x8th he introduced a programme
(known as the Gagcrnschc Programm) according to which Austria
was to be excluded from the new federal state, but bound to it
by a treaty of union. After a severe struggle this proposal was
accepted; but the academic discussion on the constitution
continued for weary months, and on the 20th of May, realizing
the hopelessness of coming to terms with the ultra-democrats,
Gagcrn and his friends resigned. Later on he attempted to
influence the Prussian Northern Union in the direction of the
national policy, and he took part in the sessions of the Erfurt
parliament; but, soon realizing the hopelessness of any good
results from the vacillating policy of Prussia, be retired from
the contest, and, as a major in the service of the Schlcswig-
Hoistein government, took part in the Danish War of 1850.
After the war he retired into private life at Heidelberg. In 1862,
misled by the constitutional tendency of Austrian politics, he
publicly declared in favour of the Great German party. In 1864
he went as Hessian envoy to Vienna, retiring in 1872 when
the post was abolished. He died at Darmstadt on the 22nd
of May 1S80.
Maximilian, Freiherr von Gagcrn (1810-1889), the youngest
son, was born at Wcilburg on the 26th of March 18 10. Up to
1848 he was a government official in Nassau; in that year he
became a member of the German national parliament and under-
secretary of state for foreign affairs. Throughout the revolu-
tionary years he supported his brother's policy, became a member
of the Erfurt parliament, and, after the collapse of the national
movement, returned to the service of the duchy of Nassau. In
1855 he turned Roman Catholic and entered the Austrian service
as court and ministerial councillor in the department of foreign
affairs. In 1871 he retired, and in 1881 was nominated a life
member of the Upper Chamber {Herrenhaus). He died at
Vienna on the 17th of October 1889.
See Allgemeine deutscke Biographic, Band viii. p. 301, &c. (1878)
and Band xlix. p. 654 (1904).
GAHANBAR, festivals of the ancient Avesta calendar cele-
brated by the Parsccs at six seasons of the year which correspond
with the six periods of creation: (1) Maidhyozaremaya (mid
spring), (2) Maidhyoshcma (midsummer), (3) Paitishahya (season
of corn), (4) Ayathrema (season of flocks), (5) Maidhyarya (winter
solstice), (6) Hamas pathmaedha (festival of sacrifices).
GAIGNIERES, FRANCOIS ROGER DE (1642-1715), French
genealogist, antiquary and collector, was the son of Aimc de
Gaignieres, secretary to the governor of Burgundy, and was
born on the 30th of December 1642 He became ecuycr (esquire)
to Louis Joseph, duke of Guise, and afterwards to Louis Joseph's
aunt, Marie of Guise, by whom in 1679 he was appointed governor
of her principality of Joinville. At an early age he began to
make a collection of original materials for history generally, and,
in particular, for that of the French church and court. He
brought together a Urge collection of oridnal letters and other
documents, together with portraits and prints, and had copies
made of a great number of the most curious antiquarian objects,
such as seals, tombstones, stained glass, miniatures and tapestry.
In 1711 he presented the whole of his collections to the king.
The bulk of them is preserved in the Bibliothequc Nationale
at Paris, and a certain number in the Bodleian library at Oxford.
See G. Duplesats, Roger de Gaignieres (Paris, 1870) : L. Dclisle,
Cabinet des manuscrits, t. i. pp. 335-356; H. Bouchot, Us Portraits
aux crayon des XVI* el XV IF stales (Paris, 1884); Ch. de
Grand maison, Gaignieres, ses correspondants el us collections de
portraits (Niurt, 1892).
GAIL, JEAN BAPTISTS (1755-1820), French hellenist, was
born in Paris on the 4th of July 1755. In 179 1 he was appointed
deputy, and in 1792 titular professor at the College de France.
During the Revolution he quietly performed his professional
duties, taking no part in politics, although he possessed the
faculty of ingratiating himself with those in authority. In 1815
he was appointed by the king keeper of Greek MSS. in the royal
library over the heads of the candidates proposed by the other
conservators, an appointment which made him many enemies.
Gail imagined that there was an organized conspiracy to belittle
his learning and professional success, and there was a standing
quarrel between him and his literary opponents, the most dis-
tinguished of whom was P. L. Courier. He died on the 5th of
February 1829. Without being a great Greek scholar, Gail was
a man of unwearied industry, whose whole life was devoted to
his favourite studies, and he deserves every credit for having
rescued Greek from the neglect into which it had fallen during the
troublous times in which he lived. The list of Gail's published
works filled 500 quarto pages of the introduction to his edition of
Xenophon. The best of these is his edition of Theocritus (1828).
He also wrote a number of elementary educational works, based
on the principles of the school of Port Royal. His communica-
tions to the Acadcmie des Inscriptions being coldly received and
seldom accorded the honour of print, he inserted them in a vast
compilation in 24 volumes, which he called Lc Philologue, con*
taining a mass of ill-digested notes on Greek grammar, geography,
archaeology, and various authors.
Sec " Notice historique sur la vie et les ouvrages de J. B. G.," in
Menx. de VAcad. des Inscriptions, ix.; the articles in Biorrapki*
universale (by A. Pillon) and Ersch and G ruber's AUgemeine Encyclo-
pedic (by C. F. Bahr); a list of his works will be found in J. M.
Qucrard, La France litUraire (1829), including the contents of the
volumes of Le Philologue.
GAILLAC, a town of south-western France, capital of an
arrondisscment in the department of Tarn, on the right bank of
the Tarn, 15 m. W. of Albi on. the railway from that city to
Toulouse. Pop. (1906) town, 5388; commune, 7535. The
churches of St Michel and St Pierre, both dating from the 13th
and 14th centuries, have little architectural importance. There
are some interesting houses, one of which, the Maison Yversen,
of the Renaissance, is remarkable for the rich carving of its doors.
The public institutions include the sub-prefecture, a tribunal
of first instance, and a communal college. Its industries include
the manufacture of lime and wooden shoes, while dyeing, wood-
sawing and flour-milling arc also carried on; it has a consider-
able trade in grain, flour, vegetables, dried plums, anise, coriander,
&c, and in wine, the white and red wines of the arrondisscment
having a high reputation. Gaillac grew up round the Benedictine
abbey of St Michel, founded in the zoth century.
GAILLARD, GABRIEL HENRI (1726-1806), French historian,
was born at Ostcl, Picardy, in 1726. He was educated Jor the
bar, but after finishing his studies adopted a literary career,
ultimately devoting his chief attention to history. He was
already a member of the Academy of Inscriptions and Belles-
lettres (1760), when, after the publication of the three first
volumes of his Hisloirc de la rivaliU dc la France ct d f Angletcrrc,
he was elected to the French Academy (1771); and when
Napoleon created the Institute he was admitted into its third
class (Acadtmie framboise) in 1803. For forty years he was the
intimate friend of Malcsherbes, whose life (1805) he wrote. He
died at St Firmin, near Chantilly, on the 13th of February 1806.
Gaillard is painstaking and impartial in his statement of facts.
388
GAINESVILLE— GAINSBOROUGH, THOMAS
and his style is correct and elegant, but the unity of his narrative
is somewhat destroyed by digressions, and by his method of
treating war, politics, civil administration, and ecclesiastical
affairs under separate heads. His most important work is his
Hisloire de la rivalUi de la France et dt VAnglettrre (in n vols.,
1771-1777); and among his other works may be mentioned
Essai de rhilorique jrancaisc, a V usage des jeunes demoiselles
(1745)1 often reprinted, and in 1822 with a life of the author;
Histoire de Marie de Bourgogne (1757); Hisloire de Francois l~
(7 vols., 1776-1779); Histoire des grandes querelles entre CharlesV.
el Francois I" (2 vols., 1777); Hisloire de Charlemagne (2 vols.,
1782); Histoire de la rivalitt de la France et de Vllspagne (8 vols.,
1801); Dictionnaire historique (6 vols., 1 780-1804), making part
of the Encyclopedic mithodiquc; and Melanges liUtr aires, con-
taining eloges on Charles V., Henry IV., Descartes, Corneille,
La Fontaine, Malesherbes and others.
GAINESVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Alachua county,
Florida, U.S.A., about 70 m. S.W. of Jacksonville. Pop. (1800)
2700; (1900) 3633, of whom 1803 were negroes; (1905) 5413;
(1010) 6183. Gainesville is served by the Atlantic Coast Line,
the Seaboard Air Line, and the Tampa & Jacksonville railways,
and is an important railway junction. It iSsthc seat of the
University of the State of Florida, established at Lake City in
1005 and removed to Gainesville in 1906. The university in-
cludes a school of language and literature, a general scientific
school, a school of agriculture, a technological school, a school of
pedagogy, a normal school, and an agricultural experiment
station. In 1008 the university had 15 instructors and 103
students. The Florida Winter Bible Conference and Chautauqua
is held here. Gainesville is well known as a winter resort, and its
climate is especially beneficial to persons affected by pulmonary
troubles. In the neighbourhood are the Alachua Sink, Payne's
Prairie, Newman's Lake, the Devil's Mill Hopper and other
objects of interest. The surrounding country produces Sea
Island cotton) melons, citrus and other fruits, vegetables and
naval stores. About x 5 m. W. of the city there is a rich phosphate
mining district. The city has bottling works, and manufactures
fertilizers, lumber, coffins, ice, &c. The municipality owns and
operates the water-works; the water-supply comes from a spring
2 m. from the city, and the water closely resembles that of the
Poland Springs in Maine. Gainesville is in the midst of the
famous Seminole country. The first settlement was made here
about 1850; and Gainesville, named in honour of General E. P.
Gaines, was incorporated as a town in 1869, and was chartered
as a city in 1907.
GAINESVILLE, a city and the county-seat of Cooke county,
Texas, U.S.A., about 6 m. S. of the Red river, and about 60 m.
N. of Fort Worth. Pop. (1800) 6594; (1900) 7874 (1201 negroes
and 26Q foreign-born); (191 o) 7624. The city is served by
the Gulf, Colorado & Santa F6, and th'e Missouri, Kansas &
Texas railways, and by an interurban electric railway. Gaines-
ville is a trading centre and market for the surrounding country,
in which cotton, grains, garden truck, fruit and alfalfa are grown
and live-stock is raised; and a wholesale distributing point for
the neighbouring region in Texas and Oklahoma; The city
has cotton-compresses and cotton-gins, and among its manu-
factures are cotton-seed oil, flour, cement blocks, pressed bricks,
canned goods, foundry products, waggon-beds and creamery
products. Gainesville was settled about 1851, was incorporated
in 1873, and was chartered as a city in 1879; it was named in
honour "of General Edmund Pendleton Gaines (1777-1849),
who served with distinction in the War of 181 2, becoming a
brigadier-general in March 1814 and receiving the brevet of
major-general and the thanks of Congress for his defence of
Fort Eric in August 1814. Gaines took a prominent part in the
operations against the Scminotes in Florida in 181 7 (when he
was in command of the Southern Military District) and in 1836
and during the Mexican War commanded the department of the
South-Wcst, with headquarters at New Orleans.
GAINSBOROUGH. THOMAS (1727-1788), English painter,
one of the greatest masters of the English school in portraiture,
Mud only less so in landscape, was born at Sudbury, Suffolk, in
the spring of 1727. His father, who carried on the business ol a
woollen crape-maker in that town, was of a respectable character
and family, and was noted for his skill in fencing; his mother
excelled in flower-painting, and encouraged her son in the use
of the pencil. There were nine children of the marriage, two ol
the painter's brothers being of a very ingenious turn.
At ten years old, Gainsborough " had sketched every fine tree
and picturesque cottage near Sudbury," and at fourteen, having
filled his task-books with caricatures of his schoolmaster, and
sketched the portrait of a man whom he had detected on the
watch for robbing his father's orchard, he was allowed to follow
the bent of his genius in London, with some instruction in
etching from Gravelot, and under such advantages as Hayman,
the historical painter, and the academy in St Martin's Lane could
afford. Three years of study in the metropolis, where he did some
modelling and a few landscapes, were succeeded by two years in
the country. Here he fell in love with Margaret Burr, a young
lady of many charms, including an annuity of £200, married her
after painting her portrait, and a short courtship, and, at the age
of twenty, became a householder in Ipswich, his rent being
£6 a year. The annuity was reported to come from Margaret's
real (not her putative) father, who was one of the exiled Stuart
princes or else the duke of Bedford. She was sister of a young
man employed by Gainsborough's father as a traveller. At
Ipswich, Gainsborough tells us, he was " chiefly in the face-way ";
his sitters were not so numerous as to prevent him from often
rambling with his friend Joshua Kirby (president of the Society
of Artists) on the banks of the Orwell, from painting many
landscapes with an attention to details which his later works
never exhibited, or from joining a musical club and entertaining
himself and his fellow-townsmen by giving concerts. As be
advanced in years he became ambitious of advancing in reputa-
tion. Bath was then the general resort of wealth and fashion,
and to that dty, towards the close of the year 1759, he removed
with his wife and two daughters, the only issue of their marriage.
His studio in the circus was soon thronged with visitors; be
gradually raised his price for a half-length portrait from 5 to 40
guineas, and for a whole-length from 8 to 100 guineas; and he
rapidly developed beyond the comparatively plain and hum-
drum quality of his Ipswich paintings. Among his sitters at
this period were the authors Sterne and Richardson, and the
actors Quin, Henderson and Garrick. Meanwhile be contributed
both portraits and landscapes to the annual exhibitions in
London. He indulged his taste for music by learning to play the
yiol-di-gamba, the harp, the hautboy, the violoncello. His house
harboured Italian, German, French and English musicians.
He haunted the green-room of Palmer's theatre, and painted
gratuitously the portraits of many of the actors: he constantly
gave away his sketches and landscapes. In the summer of 1774,
having already attained a position of great prosperity, he took
his departure for London, and fixed his residence at Schomberg
House, Pall Mall, a noble mansion still standing, for a part of
which the artist paid £300 a year.
Gainsborough had not been many months in London ere he
received a summons to the palace, and to the end of his career he
divided with West the favour of the court, and with Reynolds
the favour of the town. Sheridan, Burke, Johnson, Franklin,
Canning, Lady Mary Wortlcy Montagu, Mrs Siddons, Give,
Blackstone, Hurd, were among the number of those who sat to
him. But in London as in Bath his landscapes were exhibited,
were commended, and were year after year returned to him,
" till they stood," says Sir William Beechey, " ranged in long
lines from his hall to his painting-room." Gainsborough was t
member of the Royal Academy, one of the original 36 elected in
1768; but in 1784, being dissatisfied with the position assigned
on the exhibition walls to his portrait of the three princesses,
he withdrew that and his other pictures, and he never afterwards
exhibited there. Even before this he had taken no part in the
business of the Institution. After seceding he got up an exhibi-
tion In his own house, not successfully. In February 1788, while
witnessing the trial of Warren Hastings, he felt an extraordinary
chill at the back of his neck; this was the beginning of a cancer
GAINSBOROUGH
389
(or, as some say, a malignant wen) which proved fatal on the
2nd of August of the same year. He lies buried at Kew.
Gainsborough was tall, fair and handsome, generous, impulsive
to the point of capriciousness, easily irritated, not of bookish
likings, a lively talker, good at repartee. He was a most thorough
embodiment of the artistic temperament; delighting in nature
and " the look of things," insatiable in working, fond of music
and the theatre hardly less than of painting — a warm, rich person-
ality, to whom severe principle was perhaps as foreign as de-
liberate wrong-doing. The property which he left at his death was
not large. One of his daughters, Mary, had married the musician
Fischer contrary to his wishes, and was subject to fits of mental
aberration. The other daughter, Margaret, died unmarried.
Mrs Gainsborough, an extremely sweet-tempered woman, sur-
vived her husband ten years. There is a pretty anecdote that
Gainsborough, if he ever had a tiff with her, would write a pacify-
ing note, confiding it to his dog Fox, who delivered it to the lady's
pet spaniel Tristram. The note was worded as in the person of
Fox to Tristram, and Mrs Gainsborough replied in the best of
humours, as from Tristram to Fox.
Gainsborough and Reynolds rank side by side as the greatest
portrait-painters of the English school. They were at variance;
but Gainsborough on his death-bed sought and obtained a re-
conciliation. It is difficult to say which stands the higher of
the two, although Reynolds may claim to have worked with a
nearer approach to even and demonstrable excellence. In grace,
spirit, and lightness of insight and of touch, Gainsborough is
peculiarly eminent. His handling was slight for the most part,
and somewhat arbitrary, but in a high degree masterly; and
his landscapes and rustic compositions are not less gifted than
his portraits. Among his finest works are portraits of " Lady
Ligonier/' " Georgiana, duchess of Devonshire," " Master
Buttall (the Blue Boy)," now in Grosvenor House, " Mrs Sheridan
and MrsTickell," " Orpin, the parish clerk " (National Gallery),
" the Hon. Mrs Graham " (Scottish National Gallery), his own
portrait (Royal Academy), " Mrs Siddons " (National Gallery);
also " the Cottage Door," •• the Market Cart," " the Return from
Harvest," " the Woodman and his Dog in a Storm " (destroyed
by fire), and " Waggon and Horses passing a Brook " (National
Gallery — this was a favourite with its painter). He made a vast
number of drawings and sketches.
A few observations may be added: (1) as to individual
works by Gainsborough, and (2) as to his general characteristics
as a painter.
Two of his first portraits, executed when he was settled at
Ipswich, were separate likenesses of Mr and Mrs Hingeston.
His first great hit was made at Bath with a portrait of Lord
Nugent. With a likeness of Mr Poyntz, 1762, we find a decided
advance in artistic type, and his style became fixed towards
1768. The date of the " Blue Boy " is somewhat uncertain:
most accounts name 1779, but perhaps 1770 is nearer the mark.
This point is not without interest for dilettanti; because it is
said that Gainsborough painted the picture with a view to confut-
ing a dictum of Reynolds, to the effect that blue was a colour
unsuitable for the main light of a work. But, if the picture was
produced before 1778, the date of Reynolds's dictum, this long-
cherished and often-repeated tradition must be given up. A
full-length of the duke of Norfolk was perhaps the latest work
to which Gainsborough set his hand. His portrait of Elizabeth,
duchess of Devonshire, famous for its long disappearance, has
aroused much controversy; whether this painting, produced not
long after Gainsborough had settled in London, and termed
" the Duchess of Devonshire," does really represent that lady,
is by no means certain. It was mysteriously stolen in 1876 in
London immediately after it had been purchased by Messrs
Agnew at the Wynn Ellis sale at a huge price, and a long time
elapsed before it was retraced. The picture was taken to New
York, and eventually to Chicago; and in April 1001, through
the agency of a man named Pat Shecdy, it was given up to the
American detectives working for Messrs Agnew; it was then sold
to Mr Pierpont Morgan.
Gainsborough's total output of paintings exceeded 300,
including 220 portraits: he also etched at least 18 plates, and
3 in aquatint. At the date of his death 56 paintings remained
on hand: these, along with 148 drawings, were then exhibited.
In his earlier days he made a practice of copying works by
Vandyck (the object of his more special admiration), Titian,
Rubens, Teniers, Hobbema, Claude and some others, but not
in a spirit of servile reproduction.
Gainsborough was pre-eminent in that very essential ele-
ment of portraiture — truthful likeness. In process of time .he
advanced in the rendering of immediate expression, while he
somewhat receded in general character. He always made his
sitters look pleasant, and, after a while, distinguished. Unity
of impression is one of the most marked qualities in his work;
he seems to have seen his subject as an integer, and he wrought
at the various parts of it together, every touch (and very wilful
some of his touches look) tending towards the foreseen result.
He painted with arrowy speed, more especially in his later
years. For portraits he used at times brushes upon sticks 6 ft.
long; there was but little light in his painting-room, and he
often worked in the evenings. He kept his landscape work
distinct from his portraiture, not ever adding to the latter a fully
realized landscape background; his views he never signed or
dated — his b'kenesses only once or twice. His skies are constantly
cloudy, the country represented is rough and broken; the
scenes are of a pastoral kind, with an effect generally of coming
rain, or else of calm sun-setting. The prevalent feeling of his
landscapes is somewhat sad, and to children, whether in subject-
groups or in portraits, he mostly lent an expression rather plain*
tive than mirthful. It should be acknowledged that, whether
in portraiture or in landscape, the painter's mannerisms of
execution increased in process of time — patchings of the brush,
tufty foliage, &c; some of his portraits are hurried and flimsy,
with a minimum of solid content, though not other than artistic
in feeling. Here are a few of his axioms: — " What makes the
difference between man and man is real performance, and not
genius or conception." "I don't think it would be more ridiculous
for a person to put his nose close to the canvas and say the colours
smelt offensive than to say how rough the paint lies, for one is
just as material as the other with regard to hurting the effect and
drawing of a picture." " The eye is the only perspective-master
needed by a landscape-painter."
Authorities. — In 1788 Philip Thicknesse, Lieutenant-Governor
of Landguard Fort, Ipswich, who had been active in promoting the
artist's fortunes at starting, published A Sketch of the Life and
Paintings of Thomas Gainsborough. He had quarrelled with the
painter at Bath, partly because the latter had undertaken to do a
portrait of him as a gift, and then neglected the work, and finally,
in a huff, bundled it off only half done. The crucial question here is
whether or not Gainsborough was reasonably pledged to perform
any such gratuitous work, and this point has been contested. Thick-
ncsse's book is in part adverse to Gainsborough, and more particu-
larly so to his wife. Reynolds's " Lecture " on Gainsborough,
replete with critical insight, should never be lost sight of as a leading
document. In 1856 a needfully compiled Life of Thomas Gains-
borough was brought out by T. W. Fulchcr. This was the first
substantial work about him subsequent to Allan Cunningham's
lively account (1829) in his Lives of the Painters. Of late years a
freat deal has been written, mainly but not by any means exclusively
rom the critical or technical point of view: — Sir Walter Armstrong
(two works, 1896 and 1898); Mrs Arthur Bell (1902); Sir W. M.
Conway, Artistic Development of Reynolds and Gainsborough (1886);
Lord Ronald Sutherland Gower (1903): G. M. Brock-Arnold (1881).
G. Pauli has brought out an illustrated work in Germany (1904)
under the title Gainsborough. (W. M. R.)
GAINSBOROUGH, a market town in the W. Lindsey or
Gainsborough parliamentary division of Lincolnshire, England;
on the right (E.) bank of the Trent. Pop. of urban district
(1901) 17,660. It is served by the Lincoln-Doncaster joint line
of the Great Northern and Great Eastern railways, by which it
is 16 m. N.W. of Lincoln, and by the Great Central railway.
The parish church of All Saints is classic of the 18th century,
excepting the Perpendicular tower. The two other parish
churches are modern. The Old Hall, of the 15th century, en-
larged in the x6th, is a picturesque building, forming three
sides of a quadrangle, partially timber-framed^ but haxtag**.
beautiful oriel irVnfara wA QfOaw v* 5 ** ^ *«*». Ttos«. v* ^a»
S9©
GAIRDNER— GAISFORD
a Tudor tower of brick. A literary and scientific institute occupy
part of the building. Gainsborough possesses a grammar school
(founded in 1580 by a charter of Queen Elizabeth) and other
schools, town-hall, county court-house, Albert Hall^and Church
of England Institute. There is a large carrying trade by water
on the Trent and neighbouring canals. Shipbuilding and iron-
founding are carried on, and there are manufactures of linseed
cake, and agricultural and other machinery.
Gainsborough (Gegnesburh) was probably inhabited by the
Saxons on account of the fishing in the Trent. The Saxon
Chronicle states that in 1013 the Danish king Sweyn landed
here and subjugated the inhabitants. Gainsborough, though not
a chartered borough, was probably one by prescription, for
mention is made of burghal tenure in 1280. The privilege of
the return of writs was conferred on the lord of the manor,
Aymer de Valence, earl of Pembroke, in 1323, and confirmed
to Ralph de Percy in 1383. Mention is made in 1204 of a
Wednesday market, but there is no extant grant before 1258,
when Henry III. granted a Tuesday market to William de
Valence, earl of Pembroke, who also obtained from Edward I.
in 1 291 licence for an annual fair on All Saints' Day, and the
seven preceding and eight following days. In 1243 Henry III.
granted to John Talbot licence for a yearly fair on the eve, day
and morrow of St James the Apostle. Queen Elizabeth in 1592
granted to Thomas Lord Burgh two fairs, to begin on Easter
Monday and on the 9th of October, each lasting three days.
Charles I. in 1635-1636 extended the duration of each to nine
days. The Tuesday market is still held, and the fair days are
Tuesday and Wednesday in Easter-week, and the Tuesday and
Wednesday after the 20th of October.
See Adam Stark, History and Antiquities of Gainsburgh (London,
1843).
GAIRDNER, JAMES (1828- ), English historian, son of
John Gairdner, M.D., was born in Edinburgh on the 22nd of
March 1828. Educated in his native city, he entered the Public
Record Office in London in 1846, becoming assistant keeper of
the public records (1850-1893). Gairdner's valuable and pains-
taking contributions to English history relate chiefly to the
reigns of Richard III., Henry VII. and Henry VIII. For the
" Roils Series " he edited Letters and Papers illustrative of the
Reigns of Richard III. and Henry VII. (London, 1861-1863), and
Memorials of .Henry VII. (London, 1858); and he succeeded
J. S. Brewer in editing the Letters and Papers, foreign and
domestic, of the reign of Henry VIH. (London, 1862-1905).
He brought out the best edition of the Paston Letters (London,
1872-1875, and again 1896), for which he wrote a valuable
introduction; and for the Camden Society he edited the Histori-
cal collections of a Citizen of London (London, 1876), and Three
l$th-ccntury Chronicles (London, 1880). His other works include
excellent monographs on Richard III. (London, 1878, new and
enlarged edition, Cambridge, 1898), and on Henry VII. (London,
1889, and subsequently); The Houses of Lancaster and York
(London, 2874, and other editions); The English Church in the
16& century (London, 1002) ; Lollardy and the Reformation in
England (1908); and contributions to the Encyclopaedia
Brilannica, the Dictionary of National Biography, the Cambridge
Modern History, and the English Historical Review. Gairdner
received the honorary^ degree of LL.D. from the university of
Edinburgh in 1897, and was made a C.B. in 1000.
GAIRLOCH (Gaelic gearr, short), a sea loch, village and
parish in the west of the county of Ross and Cromarty, Scotland.
Pop. of parish (1001) 3797. The parish covers a large district
on the coast, and stretches inland beyond the farther banks
of Loch Maree, the whole of which lies within its bounds. It
also includes the islands of Dry and Horisdale in the loch, and
Ewe in Loch Ewe, and occupies a total area of 200,646 acres.
The place and loch must not be confounded with Gareloch in
Dumbartonshire. Formerly an appanage of the earldom of Ross,
Gairloch has belonged to the Mackenzies since the end of the 15th
century. Flowerdale, an 18th-century house in the pretty little
glen of the same name, lying close to the village, is the chief
aeat of the Gairloch branch of the clan Mackenzie. William
Ross (1 762-1 700), the Gaelic poet, who was schoolmaster of
Gairloch, of which his mother was a native, was buried in the
old kirkyard, where a monument commemorates him.
GAISERIC, or Genseric (c. 390-477), king of the Vandals,
was a son of King Godegiscl (d. 406), and was born about 300.
Though lame and only of moderate stature, he won renown as a
warrior, and became king on the death of his brother Gondcric
in 428. In 428 or 429 he led a great host of Vandals from Spain
into Roman Africa, and took possession of Mauretania. This
step is said to have been taken at the instigation of Boniface,
the Roman general in Africa; if true, Boniface soon repented of
his action, and was found resisting the Vandals and defending
Hippo Regius against them. At the end of fourteen months
Gaiseric raised the siege of Hippo; but Boniface was forced
to fly to Italy, and the city afterwards fell into the hands of the
Vandals. Having pillaged and conquered almost the whole of
Roman Africa, the Vandal king concluded a treaty with the
emperor Valentinian III. in 435, by which be was allowed to
retain his conquests; this peace, however, did not last long,
and in October 439 he captured Carthage, which he made the
capital of his kingdom. According to some authorities Gaiseric
at this time first actually assumed the title of king. In religious
matters he was an Arian, and persecuted the members of the
orthodox church in Africa, although his religious policy varied with
his relations to the Roman empire. Turning his attention in
another direction he built a fleet, and the ravages of the Vandals
soon made them known and feared along the shores of the Medi-
terranean. " Let us make," said Gaiseric, " for the dwellings of
the men with whom God is angry," and he left the conduct of
his marauding ships to wind and wave. In 455, however, he
led an expedition to Rome, stormed the city, which for fourteen
days his troops were permitted to plunder, and then returned
to Africa laden with spoil. He also carried with him many
captives, including the empress Eudoxia, who is said to have
invited the Vandals into Italy. The Romans made two attempts
to avenge themselves, one by the Western emperor, Majorianus,
in 460, and the other by the Eastern emperor, Leo I., eight years
later; but both enterprises failed, owing principally to the genius
of Gaiseric. Continuing his course on the sea the king brought
Sicily, Sardinia, Corsica and the Balearic Islands under bis rule,
and even extended his conquests into Thrace, Egypt and Asia
Minor. Having made peace with the eastern emperor Zeno in
476, he died on the 25th of January 477. Gaiseric was a cruel
and cunning man, possessing great military talents and superior
mental gifts. Though the effect of his victories was afterwards
neutralized by the successes of Belisarius, his name long remained
the glory of the Vandals. The name Gaiseric is said to be
derived from gais, a javelin, andreiks, a king.
See Vandals; also T. Hodgkin, Italy and her Invaders, vol 3.
(London, 1892); E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire
(cd. J. B. Bury, 1896-1900); L. Schmidt, Geschichie dtr Vandaln
(Leipzig, 1901); and F. Martroye, Genseric; La Conquits vamdde
en Afrtque (Paris, 1907).
GAISFORD, THOMAS (1 779-1855), English classical scholar,
was born at Iford, Wiltshire, on the 22nd of December 1779.
Proceeding to Oxford in 1797, he became successively student
and tutor of Christ Church, and was in 181 1 appointed regius
professor of Greek in the university. Taking orders, he held
(181 5-1847) the college living of Westwell, in Oxfordshire, and
other ecclesiastical preferments simultaneously with his professor-
ship. From 1831 until his death on the 2nd of June 1855, he
was dean of Christ Church. As curator of the Bodleian and
principal delegate of the University Press he was instrumental
in securing the co-operation of distinguished European scholars
as collators, notably Bekkcr and Dindorf . Among his numerous
contributions to Greek literature may be mentioned, Hephaes-
tion's Eneheiridion (1810) ; Poilat Graeci minores (1814-1820);
Stobaeus' PlorUegium (1822); Herodotus, with variorum notes
(1824); Suidas' Lexicon (1834); Etymclogicon magnum (1848);
Eusebius's Praeparatio (1843) and DemonsiroHo emngdica
(1852). In 1856 the Gaisford prizes, for Greek composition, were
founded at Oxford to perpetuate his memory.
GAIUS— GALAGO
39«
GAIUS, a celebrated Roman jurist. Of his personal history
very little is known. It is impossible to discover even his full
name, Gaius or Caius being merely the personal name(praenomen)
so common in Rome. From internal evidence in his works it may
be gathered that be flourished in the reigns of the emperors
Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius and Commodus.
His works were thus composed between the years 130 and 180,
at the time when the Roman empire was most prosperous, and
its government the best. Most probably Gaius lived in some
provincial town, and hence we find no contemporary notices of
his life or works. After his death, however, his writings were
recognized as of great authority, and the emperor Valentinian
named him, along with Papinian, Ulpian, Modestinus and
Paulus, as one of the five jurists whose opinions were to be followed
by judicial officers in deciding cases. The works of these jurists
accordingly became most important sources of Roman law.
Besides the Institutes, which are a complete exposition of the
elements of Roman law, Gaius was the author of a treatise on the
Edicts of the Magistrates, of Commentaries on the Twelve Tables,
and on the important Lex Papia Poppaca, and several other
works. His interest in the antiquities of Roman law is apparent,
and for this reason his work is most valuable to the historian of
early institutions. In the disputes between the two schools of
Roman jurists he generally attached himself to that of the
Sabinians, who were said to be followers of Ateius Capito, of
whose life we have some account in the Annals of Tacitus, and to
advocate a strict adherence as far as possible to ancient rules,
and to resist innovation. Many quotations from the works of
Gaius occur in the Digest of Justinian, and so acquired a
permanent place in the system of Roman law; while a com-
parison of the Institutes of Justinian with those of Gaius shows
that the whole method and arrangement of the later work were
copied from that of the earlier, and very numerous passages are
word for word the same. Probably, for the greater part of the
period of three centuries which elapsed between Gaius and
Justinian, the Institutes of the former had been the familiar text-
book of all students of Roman law.
Unfortunately the work was lost to modern scholars, until, in
1816, a manuscript was discovered by B. G. Niebuhr in the
chapter library of Verona, in which certain of the works of St
Jerome were written over some earlier writings, which proved
to be the lost work of Gaius. The greater part of the palimpsest
has, however, been deciphered and the text is now fairly complete.
This discovery has thrown a flood of light on portions of the
history of Roman law which had previously been most obscure.
Much of the historical information given by Gaius is wanting in
the compilations of Justinian, and, in particular, the account of
the ancient forms of procedure in actions. In these forms can be
traced " survivals " from the most primitive times, which
provide the science of comparative law with valuable illustrations,
which may explain the strange forms of legal procedure found in
other early systems. Another circumstance which renders the
work of Gaius more interesting to the historical student than that
of Justinian, is that Gaius lived at a time when actions were
tried by the system of formulae, or formal directions given by the
praetor before whom the case first came, to the judex to whom he
referred it. Without a knowledge of the terms of these formulae
it is impossible to solve the most interesting question in the his-
tory of Roman law, and show how the rigid rules peculiar to the
ancient law of Rome were modified by what has been called the
equitable jurisdiction of the praetors, and made applicable to new
conditions, and brought into harmony with the* notions and the
needs of a more developed society. It is clear from evidence of
Gaius that this result was obtained, not by an independent set of
courts administering, as in England previous to the Judicature
Acts, a system different from that of the ordinary courts, but by
the manipulation of the formulae. In the time of Justinian the
work was complete, and the formulary system had disappeared.
The Inslitutes of Gaius arc divided into four books — the first
treating of persons and the differences of the status they may
occupy in the eye of the law; the second of things, and the
modes in which rights over them may be acquired, including the
emperor from 37-41, youngest son of Germanicus and Agrippina
the elder, was born on the 31st of August a.d. 13. He was
brought up in his father's camp on the Rhine among the soldiers,
and received the name Caligula from the caligae, or foot-soldiers'
boots, which he used to wear. He also accompanied his father to
Syria, and after his death returned to Rome. In 33 he was
summoned by Tiberius to Capreae, and by skilful flattery managed
to escape the fate of his relatives. After the murder of Tiberius
by Naevius Sertorius Macro, the prefect of the praetorian guards,
which was probably due to his instigation, Caligula ascended the
throne amidst the rejoicings of the people. The senate conferred
the imperial power upon him alone, although Tiberius Gemellus,
the grandson of the preceding emperor, had been designated as
his co-heir. He entered on his first consulship in July 37. For
the first eight months of his reign he did not disappoint the
popular expectation; but after his recovery from a severe illness
his true character showed itself. His extravagance, cruelty and
profligacy can hardly be explained except on the assumption that
he was out of his mind. According to Pelham, much of his
conduct was due to the atmosphere in which he was brought up,
and the ideas of sovereignty instilled into him, which led him to
pose as a monarch of the Graeco-oridntal type. To fill his ex-
hausted treasury he put to death his wealthy subjects and
confiscated their property; even the poor fell victims to his
thirst for blood. He bestowed the priesthood and a consulship
upon' his horse Incitatus, and demanded that sacrifice should be
offered to himself. He openly declared that he wished the whole
Roman people had only one head, that he might cut it off at a
single stroke. In 39 he set out with an army to Gaul, nominally
to punish the Germans for having invaded Roman territory, but in
reality to get money by plunder and confiscation. Before leaving,
he led his troops to the coast opposite Britain, and ordered them
to pick up shells on the seashore, to be dedicated to the gods at
Rome as the spoils of ocean. On his return he entered Rome
with an ovation (a minor form of triumph), temples were built,
statues erected in his honour, and a special priesthood instituted
to attend to his worship. The people were ground down by new
forms of taxation and every kind of extortion, but on the whole
Rome was free from internal disturbances during his reign;
some insignificant conspiracies were discovered and rendered
abortive. A personal insult to Cassius Chaerea, tribune of a
praetorian cohort, led to Caligula's assassination on the 24th of
January 41.
See Suetonius, Caligula ; Tacitus, A nnals, vi. 20 ff. ; Dio Cassius
lix.; see also S. Baring Gould, The Tragedy of the Caesars (3rd ed. t
1892); H. F. Pelham in Quarterly Review (April, 1905); H. Willrich,
Beitrdge *ur alten Geschichte (1903); H. Schiller, Geschichie der
rdmischen Kaiserxeit, i. pt. 1; J. B. Bury, Student's Hist, of the
Roman Empire (1893); Men vale, History of the Romans under th$
Empire, ch. 48; H. Furneaux's Annals of Tacitus, ii. (introduction).
Mention may also be made of the famous pamphlet by L. Quidde,
Caligula. Eine Studio Uber rdmischen Cdsarenwahnsinn and an
anonymous supplement, 1st Caligula mit unserer Zeit vergleichbar t
(both 1894); and a reply, Fin-de-Siick-Geschichtsschrctbung, by
G. SommerfeJdt (1895).
GALAGO, the Senegal name of the long-tailed African repre-
sentatives of the lemur-like Primates, which has been adopted as
their technical designation. Till recently the galagos have
been included in the family Lcmuridae; but this is restricted to
the lemurs of Madagascar, and they are now classed with the
loriscs and pottos in the family Nycticebidae, of which they form
the section Galaginae, characterized by the great elongation of the
upper portion of the feet (tarsus) and the power of folding the
large ears. Throughout the greater part of Africa south of the
392
GALANGAL— GALAPAGOS ISLANDS
Sahara galagos are widely distributed in the wooded districts,
from Senegambia in the west to Abyssinia in the east, and as far
south as Natal. They pass the day in sleep, but are very active at
night, feeding on fruits, insects and small birds. When they
descend to the ground they sit upright, and move about by
jumping with their hind-legs like jerboas. They are pretty little
animals, varying from the size of a small cat to less than that of a
rat, with large eyes and ears, soft woolly fur and long tails.
There are several species, of which G. crasskaudatus from
Mozambique is the largest; together with G. garnetti of Natal,
C. agisymbanus of Zanzibar, and G. monteiroi of Angola, this
represents the subgenus Otalcmur. The typical group includes
G. senegalensis (or galago) of Senegal, G. allcni of West and
Central Africa, and G. moholi of South Africa; while G. dcmidqffi
of West and Central Africa and G. anomurus of French Congoland
represent the subgenus Hcmigalogo. (R. L.*)
GALANGAL, formerly written " galingale," and sometimes
*' garingal," rhizoma galangae (Arab. Kiwlinjan ;' Ger. Galgant-
vmrxcl; Fr. Racine de Gaianga), a drug, now obsolete, with an
aromatic taste like that of mingled ginger and pepper. Lesser
galangal root, radix galangae minor is, the ordinary galangal of
commerce, is the dried rhizome of Alpinia officinarum, a plant of
the natural order Zingiberaccac, growing inthe Chinese island of
Hainan, where it is cultivated, and probably also in the woods of
the southern provinces of China. The plant is closely allied to
Alpinia cakorala, the rhizome of which is sold in the bazaars of
some parts of India as a sort of galangal. Its stems attain a
length of about 4 ft., and its leaves arc slender, lanceolate and
light-green, and have a hot taste; the flowers arc white with
red veins, and in simple racemes; the roots form dense masses,
sometimes more than a foot in diameter; and the rhizomes grow
horizontally, and are $ in. or less in thickness. Galangal seems to
have been unknown to the ancient Greeks and Romans, and to
have been first introduced into Europe by Arabian physicians.
It is mentioned in the writings of Ibn Khurd&dbah, an Arabian
geographer who flourished in the latter half of the 9th century,
and " gallengar " (gallingalc or galangal) is one of the ingredients
in an Anglo-Saxon receipt for a " wen salve " (see O. Cockayne,
Saxon Lecchdoms, vol. iii. p. 13). In the middle ages, as at present
in Livonia, Est honia and central Russia, galangal was in esteem
in Europe both as a medicine and a spice, and in China it is still
employed as a therapeutic agent. Its chief consumption is in
Russia, where it is used as a cattle-medicine, and as a flavouring
(or liqueurs.
GALAPAGOS ISLANDS, an archipelago of five larger and ten
smaller islands in the Pacific Ocean, exactly under the equator.
The nearest island to the South American coast lies 580 m. W. of
Ecuador, to which country they belong. The name is derived
from galdpagOy a tortoise, on account of the giant species, the
characteristic feature of the fauna. The islands were discovered
early in the 16th century by Spaniards, who gave them their
present name. They were then uninhabited. The English names
of the individual islands were probably given by buccaneers, for
whom the group formed a convenient retreat.
The larger members of the group, several of which attain an
elevation of 2000 to 2500 ft., arc Albemarle or Isabela (100 m.
long, 28 m. in extreme breadth, with an area of 1650 sq. m. and
an extreme elevation of 5000 ft.), Narborough or Fcrnandina,
Indefatigable or Santa Cruz, Chatham or San Cristobal, James
or San Salvador, and Charles or Santa Maria. The total land
area is estimated at about 2870 sq. m. (about that of the West
Riding of Yorkshire). The extraordinary number of craters,
a few of which are reported still to be active, gives evidence
that the archipelago is the result of volcanic action. The
number of main craters may be about twenty-five, but there
are very many small eruptive cones on the flanks of the old
volcanoes. There is a convict settlement on Chatham with
'Apparently derived from the Chinese Kau-liang-Kiang, i.e.
Kau-liang ginger, the term applied by the Chinese to galangal, after
the prefecture Kau-chau fu in Canton province, formerly called Kau-
liang (see F. Porter Smith. Contrib. to the Materia Medica . . ,af
China, p. 9. i*7l)*
some 300 inhabitants living in low thatched or iron-roofed
huts, under the supervision of a police commissioner and other
officials of Ecuador, by which country the group was annexed in
1832, when General VUlamil founded Floreana on Charles Island,
naming it in honour of Juan Jose Floras, president of Ecuador.
A governor has been appointed since 1885, some importance
being foreseen for the islands in connexion with the cutting of the
Panama canal, as the group lies on the route to Australia opened
up by that scheme. Charles Island, the most valuable of the
group, is cultivated by a small colony. On many of the islets
numerous tropical fruits are found growing wild, but they are no
doubt escapes from cultivation, just as the large herds of wild
cattle, horses, donkeys, pigs, goats and dogs — the last large and
fierce — which occur abundantly on most of the islands have
escaped from domestication.
The shores of the larger islands are fringed in some parts with a
dense barrier of mangroves, backed by an often impenetrable
thicket of tropical undergrowth, which, as the ridges are ascended,
give place to taller trees and deep green bushes which are covered
with orchids and trailing moss (orchitla), and from which creepers
hang down interlacing the vegetation. But generally the low
grounds are parched and rocky, presenting only a few thickets of
Peruvian cactus and stunted shrubs, and a most uninviting shore.
The contrast between this low zone and the upper zone of rich
vegetation (above about 800 ft.) is curiously marked. From July
to November the clouds hang low on the mountains, and give
moisture to the upper zone, while the climate of the lower is dry.
Rain in the lower zone is scanty, and from May to January does
not occur. The porous soil absorbs the moisture, and fresh water
is scarce. Though the islands are under the equator, the climate
is not intensely hot, as it is tempered by cold currents from the
Antarctic sea, which, having followed the coast of Peru as far as
Cape Blanco, bear off to the N.W. towards and through the
Galapagos. The mean temperature of the lower zone is about
71 F., that of the upper from 66° to 62 .
The Galapagos Islands are of some commercial importance to
Ecuador, on account of the guano and the orchilla moss found
on them and exported to Europe. Except on Charles Island,
where settlement has existed longest, little or no influence of
the presence of man is evident in the group; still, the running
wild of dogs and cats, and, as regards the vegetation, especially
goats, must in a comparatively short period greatly modify the
biological conditions of the islands.
The origin and development of these conditions, in islands so
distinctly oceanic as the Galapagos, have given its chief import-
ance to this archipelago since it was visited by Darwin in
the " Beagle." The Galapagos archipelago possesses a rare ad-
vantage from its isolated situation, and from the fact that its
history has never been interfered with by any aborigines of the
human race. Of the seven species of giant tortoises known to
science (although at the discovery of the islands there were
probably fifteen) all arc indigenous, and each is confined to its
own islet. There also occurs a peculiar genus of lizards with two
species, the one marine, the other terrestrial. The majority of the
birds are of endemic species peculiar to different islets, while
more than half belong to peculiar genera. More than half of the
flora is unknown elsewhere.
Since i860 several visits have been naid to the group by scientific
investigators — by Dr Habel in 1868; Messrs Baur and Adams, and
lists of the " Albatross," between 1888 and 1891 ; and in
by Mr Charles Harris, whose journey was specially under-
lie instance of the Hon. Waiter Rothschild. Very com-
:tions have therefore, as a result of these expeditions.
:ht together; but their examination does not materially
facts upon which the conclusions arrived at by Darwin,
vidence of the birds and plants, were based ; though he
would have paid more attention to [the evidence afforded
>rtoises], if he had been in possession of facts with which
we are acquainted now " (Gunther). His conclusions were that the
group " has never been nearer the mainland than it is now, nor have
its members been at any time closer together "; and that the char-
acter of the flora and fauna is the result of species straggling over
from America, at long intervals of time, to the different islets, where
in their isolation they have gradually varied in different degrees
and ways from their ancestors. Equally indecisive is the further
GALASHIELS— GALATIA
393
exploration as to evidence for the opinion held by other naturalists
that the endemic species of the different islands have resulted from
subsidences, through volcanic actic
island mass into a number of islet
became differentiated during their
giant reptiles on the group is th
land connexion with the continen
" Nearly all authorities agree that
crossed the wide sea between the Ga
continent, although, while they a
swim, they can float on the wat<
carried out to sea once or twice by ;
the Galapagos Islands " (Wallace),
on the continent " (Rothschild am
course no living species, of these to
existed on the mainland. Roths
more natural to assume the disappe
the remains of which have survive
appearance in comparatively recen
or later) of enormous land masses.
ever (and doubtless equally great i
South America since the Eocene, a
areas of land have subsided in the Indian Ocean has long been based
on a somewhat similar distribution of giant tortoises in the Mascarcne
region.
Authorities. — Darwin, Voyage of the " Beagle "; O. Salvin, " Oh
the Avifauna of the Galapagos Archipelago," Trans. Zool. Soc.
part ix. (1876); Sclater and Salvin, " Characters of New Species
collected by Dr Habel in the Galapagos Islands," Proc. Zool. Soc.
London, 1870, pp. 322-327; A. R. Wallace, Geographical Dis-
tribution of Animals (New York, 1876): Theodor Wolf, Ein Be such
Archipelago," Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. vol. xix. pp. 459-670 (1897);
Baur, " New Observations on the Origin of the Galapagos Islands,"
A met. Nat. (1897), pp. 661-680, 864-896; A. Agassis, " The Galapagos
tortoises^ ; Rothschild and faartert, ^'Review of the Ornithology
of the Galapagos Islands," Novitates toologicae, vi. pp. 85-205;
B. L. Robinson, " Flora of the Galapagos Islands," Proc. Amer.
Acad, of Arts and Sciences, xxxviii. (1902).
GALASHIELS, a municipal and police burgh of Selkirkshire,
Scotland. Pop. (1891) i7,3 6 7J (1901) X3» 6 '5- It is situated on
Gala Water, within a short distance of its junction with the
Tweed, 33} m. S.S.E. of Edinburgh by the North British railway.
The town stretches for more than 2 m. along both banks of the
river, the mills and factories occupying the valley by the stream,
the villas and better-class houses the high-lying ground on either
side. The principal structures include the municipal buildings,
corn exchange, library, public hall, and the market cross. The
town is under the control of a provost, baihes and council, and,
along with Hawick and Selkirk, forms the Hawick (or Border)
group of parliamentary burghs. The woollen manufactures,
dating from the close of the 16th century, are the most
important in Scotland, though now mainly confined to the weav-
ing of tweeds. Other leading industries are hosiery, tanning
(with the largest yards in Scotland), dyeing, iron and brass found-
ing, engineering and boot-making. Originally a village built for
the accommodation of pilgrims to Melrose Abbey (4 m. E. by S.),
it became, early in the 15th century, an occasional residence of the
Douglases, who were then keepers of Ettrick Forest, and whose
peel-tower was not demolished till 1814. Galashiels was created
into a burgh of barony in 1509. The Catrail or Picts' Work
begins near the town and passes immediately to the west. Cloven-
fords, 3 \ m. W., is noted for the Tweed vineries, which are heated
by 5 m. of water-pipes, and supply the London market throughout
the winter. Two miles farther W. by S. is Ashestiel, where Sir
Walter Scott resided from 1804 to 181 2, where he wrote his most
famous poems and began WaverUy, and which he left for Abbots-
ford.
GALATIA. I. In the strict sense (Galatia Proper, Roman
GaUograccia) this is the name applied by Greek-speaking peoples
to a large inland district of Asia Minor since its occupation by
Gaulish tribes in the 3rd century B.C. Bounded on the N. by
Bilhynia and Paphlagonia, W. by Phrygia, S. by Lycaonia and
Cappadoda, E. by Pontus, it included the greater part of the
modern vilayet of Angora, stretching from Pessinus eastwards to
um and from the Paphlagonian hills N. of Ancyra southwards
e N. end of the salt lake Tatta (but probably including the
is W. of the lake during the greater part of its history), — a
h oblong about 200 m. long and 100 (to 130) broad,
datia is part of the great central plateau of Asia Minor, here
ing from 2000 to 3000 ft. above sea-level, and falls geographic-
into two parts separated by the Halys (Kizil Irmak), — *
I eastern district lying chiefly in the basin of the Delije
k, the principal affluent of the Halys, and a large western
n drained almost entirely by the Sangarius (Sakaria) and its
taries. On the N. side Galatia consists of a series of plains
fairly fertile soil, lying between bare hills. But the greater
is a dreary stretch of barren, undulating uplands, intersected
ny streams and passing gradually into the vast level waste of
ess (anc Axylon) plain that runs S. to Lycaonia; these
nds are little cultivated and only afford extensive pasturage
irge flocks of sheep and goats. Cities are few and far apart,
he climate is one of extremes of heat and cold. The general
ition and aspect of the country was much the same in ancient
modern times.
le Gaulish invaders appeared in Asia Minor in 278-277 B.C.
r numbered 20,000, of which only one-half were fighting men,
est being doubtless women and children; and not long after
arrival we find them divided into three tribes, Trocmi,
tobogii and Tectosages, each of which claimed a separate
re of operations. They had split off from the army which
led Greece under Brennus in 279 B.C., and, marching into
ce under Leonnorius and Lutarius, crossed over to Asia at
nvitation of Nicomedes I. of Bithynia, who required help in
niggle against his brother. For about 46 years they were the
■ge of the western half of Asia Minor, ravaging the country,
ies of one or other of the warring princes, without any serious
c, until Attalus I., king of Pergamum (241-197), inflicted
•al severe defeats upon them, and about 232 B.C. forced
i to settle permanently in the region to which they gave their
'. Probably they already occupied parts of Galatia, but
ite limits were now fixed and their right to the district was
ally recognized. The tribes were settled where they after-
s remained, the Tectosages round Ancyra, the TolistobogH
A Pessinus, and the Trocmi round Tavium. The constitution
le Galatian state is described by Strabo: conformably to
ish custom, each tribe was divided into four cantons (Gr.
PXlai), each governed by a chief ("tetrarch") of its own
a judge under him, whose powers were unlimited except in
1 of murder, which were tried before a council of 300 drawn
the twelve cantons and meeting at a holy place called
kemeton. But the power of the Gauls was not yet broken.
- proved a formidable foe to the Romans in their wars with
xhus, and after Attalus' death their raids into W. Asia
>r forced Rome in 189 B.C. to send an expedition against them
r Cn. Manlius Vulso, who taught them a severe lesson,
reforward their military power declined and they fell at times
r Pontic ascendancy, from which they were finally freed by
Hithradatic wars, in which they heartily supported Rome,
le settlement of 64 B.C. Galatia became a client-state of
empire, the old constitution disappeared, and three chiefs
ngly styled " tetrarchs ") were appointed, one for each tribe.
this arrangement soon gave way before the ambition of one
lese tetrarchs, Deiotarus, the contemporary of Cicero and
ar, who made himself master of the other two tetrarchies and
inally recognized by the Romans as king of Galatia. On the
3 of the third king Amyntas in 25 B.C., Galatia was incorpor-
by Augustus in the Roman empire, and few of the provinces
more enthusiastically loyal.
ic population of Galatia was not entirely Gallic. Before the
al of the Gauls, western Galatia up to the Halys was in*
led by Phrygians, and eastern Galatia by Cappadocians
other native races. This native population remained, and
ituted the majority of the inhabitants of the rural parts
ilmost the sole inhabitants of the towns. They were left in
ssion of two-thirds of the land (cf. Caesar, B.G. i. 31) on
ition of paying part of the produce to their new lords, who
394 GALATIANS, EPISTLE TO THE
took the other third, and agriculture and commerce with all the
arts and crafts of peaceful life remained entirely in their hands.
They were henceforth ranked as " Galatians " by the outside
world equally with their overlords, and it was from their numbers
that the " Galatian " slaves who figure in the markets of the
ancient world were drawn. The conquerors, who were few in
number, formed a small military aristocracy, living not in the
towns, but in fortified villages, where the chiefs in their castles
kept up a barbaric state, surrounded by their tribesmen. With the
decline of their warlike vigour they began gradually to mix with
the natives and to adopt at least their religion: the amalgamation
was accelerated under Roman influence and ultimately became
as complete as that of the Normans with the Saxons in England,
but they gave to the mixed race a distinctive tone and spirit, and
long retained their national characteristics and social customs,
as well as their language (which continued in use, side by side
with Greek, in the 4th century after Christ). In the 1 1st century,
when St Paul made his missionary journeys, even the towns
Ancyra, Pcssinus and Tavium (where Gauls were few) were not
Hellcnized, though Greek, the language of government and trade,
was spoken there; while the rural population was unaffected
by Greek civilization. Hellenic ways and modes of thought
begin to appear in the towns only in the later 2nd century.
In the rustic parts a knowledge of Greek begins to spread in the
3rd century; but only in the 4th and 5th centuries, after the
transference of the centre of government first to Nico media and
then to Constantinople placed Galatia on the highway of imperial
communication, was Hellenism in its Christian form gradually
diffused over the country. (See also Ancyra; Pessinus;
Gordium.)
II. The Roman province of Galatia, constituted 25 B.C.,
included the greater part of the country ruled by Amyntas, viz.
Galatia Proper, part of Phrygia towards Pisidia (Apollonia,
Antioch and Icon i urn), Pisidia, part of Lycaonia (including
Lystra and Dcrbe) and Isauria. For nearly 100 years it was the
frontier province, and the changes in its boundaries are an
epitome of the stages of Roman advance to the Euphrates, one
client-state after another being annexed: Paphlagonia in 6-5
B.C.; Sebastopolis, 3-2 B.C.; Amasia, a.d. 1-2; Comana, a.d.
34-3 S» — together forming Pont us Gala ticus, — the Pontic kingdom
of Polemon, a.d. 64, under the name Pont us Polcmoniacus. In
A.D. 70 Cappadocia (a procuratorial province since a.d. 17) with
Armenia Minor became the centre of the forward movement and
Galatia lost its importance, being merged with Cappadocia in a
vast double governorship until a.d. 114 (probably), when Trajan
separated the two parts, making Galatia an inferior province of
diminished size, while Cappadocia with Armenia Minor and
Pontus became a great consular military province, charged with
the defence of the frontier. Under Diocletian's reorganization
Galatia was divided, about 295, into two parts and the name
retained for the northern (now nearly identical with the Galatia
of Deiotarus); and about 300 this province, amplified by the
addition of a few towns in the west, was divided into Galatia
Prima and Secunda or Salutaris, the division indicating the
renewed importance of Galatia in the Byzantine empire. After
suffering from Persian and Arabic raids, Galatia was conquered
by the Seljuk Turks in the nth century and passed to the
Ottoman Turks in the middle of the 14th.
The question whether the " Churches of Galatia/' to which St
Paul addressed his Epistle, were situated in the northern or
southern part of the province has been much discussed, and in
England Prof. Sir W. M. Ramsay has been the principal advocate
of the adoption of the South-Galatian theory, which maintains
that they were the churches planted in Derbe, Lystra, Iconium and
Antioch (see Galatians). In the present writer's opinion this a
supported by the study of the historical and geographical facts. 1
Authorities.— Van Geldcr, De Gattis in Graecia d Asia (1888) ;
Stachclin, Gesck. d\ kleinasiat. Galatcr (1897); Pcrrot, De Galatia
1 In the unsettled state of this controversy, weight naturally
attaches to the opinion of experts on cither side; and the above
statement, while opposed to the view taken in the following article
on the epistle, must be. taken on its merit*. — Ed. E.B.
^s
GALATIANS, EPISTLE TO THE
395
but the Galatian churches owed their origin to a mission of Paul
undertaken some time before he crossed from Asia to Europe.
When he composed this letter, he had visited the churches twice.
On the former of these visits (iv. 13 to rpbrtpov), though
broken down by illness (2 Cor. xii. 7-9?) he had been enthusi-
astically welcomed, and the immediate result of his mission was
an outburst of religious fervour (iii. 1-5, iv. 14 f.). The local
Christians made a most promising start (v. 7). But they failed to
maintain their ardour. On his second visit (iv. 13, i. 7, v. 21) the
apostle found in many of them a disheartening slackness, due to
discord and incipient legalism. His plain-speaking gave offence
in some quarters (iv. 16), though it was not wholly ineffective.
Otherwise, this second visit is left in the shadow. 1 So far as it
was accompanied by warnings, these were evidently general
rather than elicited by any definite and imminent peril to the
churches. Not long afterwards, however, some judaizing
opponents of the apostle (note the contemptuous anonymity of
the rtpct in i. 7, as in Col. ii. 4 f.), headed by one prominent and
influential individual (v. 10), made their appearance among the
Galalians, promulgating a " gospel " which meant fidelity to, not
freedom from, the Law (i. 6-10). Arguing from the Old Testa-
ment, they represented Paul's gospel as an imperfect creed which
required to be supplemented by legal exactitude, 2 including
ritual observance (iv. 10) and even circumcision,* while at the
same time they sought to undermine his authority 4 by pointing
out that it was derived from the apostles at Jerusalem and
therefore that his teaching must be open to the checks and tests
of that orthodox primitive standard which they themselves
claimed to embody. The sole valid charter to Messianic privileges
was observance of the Mosaic law, which remained obligatory
upon pagan converts (iii. 6-9, 16).
When the news of this relapse reached Paul, matters had
evidently not yet gone too far. Only a few had been circum-
cised. It was not too late to arrest the Galalians on their down-
ward plane, and the apostle, unable or unwilling to re-visit them,
despatched this epistle. How or when the information came to
him, we do not know. But the gravity of the situation renders
it unlikely that he would delay for any length of time in writing
to counteract the intrigues of his opponents; to judge from
allusions like those in i. 6 (raxkas and pcranfarfc — the lapse
still in progress), we may conclude that the interval between the
reception of the news and the composition of the letter must have
been comparatively brief.
After a short introduction * (i. 1-5), instead of giving his usual
word of commendation, he plunges into a personal and historical
vindication* of his apostolic independence, which, developed
negatively and positively, forms the first of the three main
1 It is not quite clear whether traces of the Judaistic agitation
were already lound by Paul on this visit (so especially Holstcn,
Lipsius. Siencrt, Pflcidercr, Weiss and Weizsackcr) or whether they
are to be dated subsequent to his departure (so Philippi, Renan and
Hofmann. among others). The tone of surprise which marks the
opening of the epistle tells in favour of the latter theory. Paul
•"■----' -•---•- i~- -•-- --» ws f tne Galatians'
keep the Galatians in
oc obeyed (v. 3).
. Zahn's excursus and
I throws a slight doubt
hat the agitators had
iction of the rite,
itch -word ol faiouvm
s of their talk cap be
ham's seed " (iii. 16),
which is our mother "
I of " seeking to please
(v. 11).
of Galatia " unusually
cither because he was
ty, he desired to con-
ion. Yet the $M«t of
Y-
(iii. pp. 181-199). with
nds before us like an
mutinous legions, and
■hows them the scars of the wounds that proclaim him not unworthy
to be called Imperator."
sections in the epistle (i. 6— ii. 21). In the closing passage be
drifts over from an account of this interview with Peter into a
sort of monologue upon the incompatibility of the Mosaic .law
with the Christian gospel (ii. 15-21),' and this starts him afresh
upon a trenchant expostulation and appeal (iii. j-v. 12) regarding
the alternatives of law and spirit. Faith dominates this section;
faith in its historical career and as the vantage-ground of
Christianity. The much-vaunted law is shown to be merely a
provisional episode* culminating in the gospel (iii. 7-28) as a
message of filial confidence and freedom (iii. 29-iv. xi). The
genuine "sons of Abraham" are not legalistic Jewish Christians
but those who simply possess faith in Jesus Christ. A passionate
outburst then follows (iv. 1 2 1.)\ and, harping still on Abraham, the
apostle essays, with fresh rabbinic dialectic, to establish Christi-
anity over legalism as the free and final religion for men, applying
this to the moral situation of the Galatians themselves (v. 112).
This conception of freedom then leads him to define the moral
responsibilities of the faith (v. 13-vi. 10), in order to prevent
misconception and to enforce the claims of the gospel upon the
individual and social life of the Galatians. The epilogue (vi.
11-21) reiterates, in a handful of abrupt, emphatic sentences,
the main points of the epistle.
The allusion in vi. 1 1 (Zfere miklxoa Vfiiv yp&nnaaa> eypa+a
v$ *M0 X«pO »s to the large bold size • of the letters in Paul's
handwriting, but the object and scope of the reference are
matters of dispute. It is "a sensational heading" (Findlay),
but it may either refer 10 to the whole epistle (so Augustine,
Chrysostom, &c, followed by Zahn) or, as most hold (with
Jerome) to the postscript (vi. 1 1-18). Paul commonly dictated his
letters. His use of the autograph here may have been to prevent
any suspicion of a forgery or to mark the personal emphasis of his
message. In any case it is assumed that the Galalians knew his
handwriting. It is unlikely that he inserted this postscript from a
feeling of ironical playfulness, to make the Galatians realize that,
after the sternness of the early chapters, he was now treating
them like children, " playfully hinting that surely the large
letters will touch their hearts" (so Dcissmann; BibU-Sludies
(J90O, 346 f.)«
The earliest allusion to the epistle 11 is the notice of its inclusion
in Marcion's canon, but almost verbal echoes of iii. 10-13 are to be
heard in Justin Martyr's Dial, xciv.-xcv.; it was certainly known
to Polycarp, and as the 2nd century advances the evidence of
its popularity multiplies on all sides, from Ptolemaeus and the
Ophites to Irenaeus and the Muratorian canon (cf. Gregory's
Canon and Text of N.T., 1007, pp. 201-203). It » n <> longer
necessary for serious criticism to refute the objections to its
authenticity raised during the 19th century in certain quarters; 1 *
as Macaulay said of the authenticity of Caesar's commentaries,
" to doubt on that subject is the mere rage of scepticism."
7 Cf. T. H. Green's Works, iii. 186 f. Verses 15-17 are the indirect
abstract of the speech's argument, but in verses 18-21 the apostle,
carried away by the thought and barrier of the moment as he dic-
tates to his amanuensis, forgets the original situation.
• Thus Paul reverses the ordinary rabbinic doctrine which taught
(cf. Kiddushim, 30, b) that the law was gjven as the divine remedy
for the evil yezer of man. So far from being a remedy, he argues, it
is an aggravation.
•According to Plutarch, Cato the elder wrote histories for the
use of his son, IbUf. x«pl *«l p«7i*o«* ypamiacaf (cf. Field's Notes
on Translation of the New Testament, p. 191). If the point of
Gal. vi. 1 1 lies in the size of the letters, Paul cannot have contem-
plated copies of the epistle being made. He must have assumed
that the autograph would reach all the local churches (cf. 2 Thess.
iii. 17, with E. A. Abbott, Johannine Grammar, pp. 530-532).
10 For l-ypa^a, the epistolary aorist. at the close of a letter, cf.
Xen. A nab. i. 9. 25, Thuc. i. 129. 3, Ezra iv. 14 (LXX) and Lucian,
Dial. Merctr. x.
11 Hermann Schulze's attempt to bring out the filiation of the
later N.T. literature to Galatians {Die UrspriinglichkcU des Galater-
briefes. Leipzig, 1903) involves repeated exaggerations of the literary
evidence.
" Cf. especially T. Gloe's Die jungste Kriiik des GalaUrbriefes
(Leipzig, 1890) and Baljon's reply to Steck and Loman (Exeg.-
kritische verhandeling over den Brtefvan P.aande Gal., 1889). The
English reader may consult Schmiedel's article (already referred
to) and Dr R. J. Knowling's The Testimony $ Si Paul to Christ
(1905), 28 f.
396
GALATINAr— GALAXY
Even the problems of its integrity are quite secondary. Marcion
(cf. Tert. Adv. Marc. 2-4) removed what he judged to be some
interpolations, but van Manen's attempt to prove that Marcion 's
text is more original than the canonical (Thcofog. Tijdsckrift,
1887, 400 f. 451 f.) has won no support (cf. C. Clemen's refutation
in Die Einheitlichkeil der pauiin. Brief e, 1804, pp. 100 f. and
Zahn'a Gesckichle d. N. T. lichen Kanons, ii. 409 f.), and little or no
weight attaches to the attempts made (e.g. by J. A. Cramer) to
disentangle a Pauline nucleus from later accretions. Even
D. Vdlter, who applies this method to the other Pauline epistles,
admits that Galatians, whether authentic or not, is substantially a
literary unity (Paulus und seine Briefe, 1905, pp. 220-285). The
frequent roughnesses of the traditional text suggest, however,that
here and there marginal glosses may have crept in. Thus iv. 25a
(to yap Ziva opot hart* kv rg Apafiia) probably represents
the explanatory and prosaic gloss of a later editor, as many
scholars have seen from Bentley (Opuscule pkilologico, 1781, pp.
533 f.) to H. A. Schott, J. A. Cramer, J. M. S. Baljon and C.
Holstcn. The general style of the epistle is vigorous and unpre-
meditated, " one continuous rush, a veritable torrent of genuine
and inimitable Paulinism, like a mountain stream in full flood,
such as may often have been seen by his Galatians " (J.
Macgregor). But there is a certain rhythmical balance, especially
in the first chapter (cf. J. Weiss, BeitrSge zur pauiin. Rhetorik,
1807, 8 f.); here as elsewhere the rush and flow of feeling carry
with them some care for rhetorical form, in the shape of
antitheses, such as a pupil of the schools might more or less
unconsciously retain. 1 All through, the letter shows the breaks
and pauses of a mind in direct contact with some personal crisis.
Hurried, unconnected sentences, rather than sustained argument,
are its most characteristic features.* The trenchant re-
monstrances and fiery outbursts make it indeed " read like a
dithyramb from beginning to end."
1 Compare the minute analysts of the whole epistle in F. Blase,
Die Rkythmen der asiani<ehen und r&mischen Kunstprosa (1905),
pp. 43-53, 204-216, whore, however, this feature is exaggerated into
unreality. The comic trimeter in Philipp. Hi. 1 (iftot ykp owe Uvupbv,
btup *' la+a\h) may well be, like that in 1 Cor. xv. 33, a reminiscence
of Menander.
■ This affects even the vocabulary which has also " etnen gewisscn
vuljraren Zug " (Nfigcli, Der .Wortschalz des Apostels Paulus, 1905.
pp. 78-79).
GALBA— GALE, THEOPHILUS
397
transferred sense, to describe a gathering of brilliant or distin-
guished persons or objects.
GALBA, SERVIUS SULPICIUS, Roman general and orator.
He served under Lucius Aemilius Paulus in the third Macedonian
War. As praetor in 151 B.C. in farther Spain he made himself
infamous by the treacherous murder of a number of Lusitanians,
with their wives and children, after inducing them to surrender
by the promise of grants of land. For this in 149 he was brought
to trial, but secured an acquittal by bribery and by holding up his
little children before the people to gain their sympathy. He was
consul in 144, and must have been alive in 138. He was an
eloquent speaker, noted for his violent gesticulations, and, in
Cicero's opinion, was the first of the Roman orators. His
speeches, however, were almost forgotten in Cicero's time.
Livy xlv. 35; Appian, Hisp. 58-60; Cicero, De oral. i. 53, iii. 7;
Brutus 2i.
GALBA, SERVIUS SULPICIUS, Roman emperor (June ad.
68 to January 69), born near Terracina, on the 24th of December
5 B.C. He came of a noble family and was a man of great wealth,
but unconnected cither by birth or by adoption with, the first six
Caesars. In his early years he was regarded as a youth of
remarkable abilities, and it is said that both Augustus and
Tiberius prophesied his future eminence (Tacitus, Annals, vL 20;
Suetonius, Galba, 4). Praetor in 20, and consul in 33, he acquired
a well-merited reputation in the provinces of Gaul, Germany,
Africa and Spain by his military capability, strictness and
impartiality. On the death of Caligula, he refused the invitation
of his friends to make a bid for empire, and loyally served
Claudius. For the first half of Nero's reign he lived in retire-
ment, till, in 61, the emperor bestowed on him the province of
Hispanla Tarraconensis. In the spring of 68 Galba was informed
of Nero's intention to put him to death, and of the insurrection of
Julius Vindex in Gaul. . He was at first inclined to follow the
example of Vindex, but the defeat and suicide of the latter
renewed his hesitation. The news that Nymphidius Sabinus,
the praefect of the praetorians, had declared in his favour revived
Galba's spirits. Hitherto, he had only dared to call himself the
legate of the senate and Roman people; after the murder of
Nero, be assumed the title of Caesar, and marched straight for
Rome. At first he was welcomed by the senate and the party of
order, but he was never popular with the soldiers or the people.
He incurred the hatred of the praetorians by scornfully refusing
to pay them the reward promised in his name, and disgusted the
mob by his meanness and dislike of pomp and display. His
advanced age had destroyed his energy, and he was entirely in
the bands of favourites. An outbreak amongst the legions ot
Germany, who demanded that the senate should choose another
emperor, first made him aware of his own unpopularity and the
general discontent. In order to check the rising storm, he
adopted as his coadjutor and successor L. Calpurnius Piso Frugi
Licinianus, a man in every way worthy of the honour. His
choice was wise and patriotic; but the populace regarded it as a
sign of fear, and the praetorians were indignant, because the
usual donative was not forthcoming. M. Salvius Otho, formerly
governor of Lusitania, and one of Galba's earliest supporters,
disappointed at not being chosen instead of Piso, entered into
communication with the discontented praetorians, and was
adopted by them as their emperor. Galba, who at once set out to
meet the rebels — he was so feeble that he had to be carried in a
litter— was met by a troop of cavalry and butchered near the
Lacus Curtius. During the later period of his provincial ad-
ministration he was indolent and apathetic, but this was due
either to a desire not to attract the notice of Nero or to the
growing infirmities of age. Tacitus rightly says that all would
have pronounced him worthy of empire if he had never been
emperor (" omnium consensu capax imperii nisi imperasset ").
See his life by Plutarch and Suetouius; Tacitus, Histories, i. 7-49;
Dio Cassius lxiii. 23-lxiv. 6; B. W. Henderson, Civil War and
Rebellion in the Roman Empire, A.D. 6g-jo (1908) ;W. A. Spooner,
On the Characters of Galba, Otho and Vitetltus in In trod, to his edition
(1 891) of the Histories of Tacitus.
GALBANUM (Heb. Helben&h; Gr. xaX/3di^) , a gum-resin, the
product of Ferula galba ni ft ua, indigenous to Persia, and perhaps
also of other umbelliferous plants. It occurs usually in hard or
soft, irregular, more or less translucent and shining lumps, or
occasionally in separate tears, of a light-brown, yellowish or
greenish-yellow colour, and has a disagreeable, bitter taste, a
peculiar, somewhat musky odour, and a specific gravity of 1*212.
It contains about 8% of terpene; about 65% of a resin which
contains sulphur; about 20% of gum; and a very small
quantity of the colourless crystalline substance umbclliferone,
C»H«Oj. Galbanum is one of the oldest of drugs. In Exodus
xxx. 34 it is mentioned as a sweet spice, to be used in the making
of a perfume for the tabernacle. Hippocrates employed it in
medicine, and Pliny (Nat. Hist, xxiv, 13) ascribes to it extra-
ordinary curative powers, concluding his account of it with the
assertion that " the very touch of it mixed with oil of spondylium
is sufficient to kill a serpent." The drug is occasionally given
in modern medicine, in doses of from five to fifteen grains. It
has the actions common to substances containing a resin and a
volatile oil. Its use in medicine is, however, obsolescent.
GALCHAS, the name given to the highland tribes' of Ferghana,
Kohistan and Wakhan. These Aryans of the Pamir and Hindu
Kush, kinsmen of the Tajiks, are identified with the Calcienses
populi of thf lay Jesuit Benedict Goes, who crossed the Pamir
in 1603 anordescribed them as " of light hair and beard like the
Belgians." The word " Galcha," which has been explained as
meaning "the hungry raven who has withdrawn to the
mountains," in allusion to the retreat of this branch of the Tajik
family to the mountains to escape the Tatar hordes, is probably
simply the Persian galcha, " clown " or " rustic," in reference to
their uncouth manners. The Galchas conform physically to
what has been called the " Alpine or Celtic European race," so
much so that French anthropologists have termed them " those
belated Savoyards of Kohistan." D'Ujfalvy describes them as
tall, brown or bronzed and even white, with ruddy cheeks, black,
chestnut, sometimes red hair, brown, blue or grey eyes, never
oblique, well-shaped, slightly curved nose, thin lips, oval face and
round head. Thus it seems reasonable to hold that the Galchas
represent the most eastern extension of the Alpine race through
Armenia and the Bakhtiari uplands into central Asia. The
Galchas for the most part profess Sunnite Mahommedanism.
See Robert Shaw, " On the Galtchah Languages," in Journ. As.
Sot. Bengal, xlv. (1876), and xlvi. (1877); Major J. Biddulph, Tribes
of the Htndoo-Koosh (Calcutta, 1880) ; Hon. Mountstuart Elphin-
stone, An Account of the Kingdom of Caubul (1815); Bull, de la
„ .1879),
Races of Europe (New York, 1899).
GALE, THEOPHILUS (1628-1678), English nonconformist
divine, was born in 1628 at Kingsteignton, in Devonshire, where
his father was vicar. In 1647 he was entered at Magdalen College,
Oxford, where he took his B.A. degree in 1649, and M.A. in 1652.
In 1650 he was made fellow and tutor of his college. He remained
some years at Oxford, discharging actively the duties of tutor,
and was in 1657 appointed as preacher in Winchester cathedral.
In 1662 he refused to submit to the Act of Uniformity, and was
ejected. He became tutor to the sons of Lord Wharton, whom he
accompanied to the Protestant college of Caen, in Normandy,
returning to England in 1665. The latter portion of his life he
passed in London as assistant to John Rowe, an Independent
minister who had charge of an important church in Holborn;
Gale succeeded Rowe in 1677, and died in the following year.
His principal work, The Court of the Gentiles, which appeared in
parts in 1669, 1671 and 1676, is a strange storehouse of miscel-
laneous philosophical learning. It resembles the Intellectual
System of Ralph Cudworth, though much inferior to that work
both in general construction and in fundamental idea. Gale's
endeavour (based on a hint of Grotius in De verilote, i. 16) is to
prove that the whole philosophy of the Gentiles is a distorted or
mangled reproduction of Biblical truths. Just as Cudworth
referred the Democritean doctrine of atoms to Moses as the
original author, so Gale tries to show that the various systems of
Greek thought may be traced back to Biblical sources. Like so
many of the learned works of the 17th century, the Court of the
39»
GALE, THOMAS— GALEN
GeniiUs is chaotic and unsystematic, while its erudition is
rendered almost valueless by the complete absence of any critical
discrimination.
His other writings are: A True Idea of Jansenism (1669): Theo-
pkil, or a Discourse of the Saint's Amitie with God in Christ (1671) ;
Anatomie of Infidelitie (167a); Idea tkeologiae (1673); Philosophta
lateralis (1676).
GALE, THOMAS (? 1636-1702), English classical scholar and
antiquarian, was born at Scruton, Yorkshire. He was educated
at Westminster school and Trinity College, Cambridge, of which
he became a fellow. In 1666 he was appointed regius professor
of Greek at Cambridge, in 1672 high master of St Paul's school,
in 1676 prebendary of St Paul's, in 1677 a fellow of the Royal
Society, and in 1697 dean of York. He died at York on the 7 th
(or 8th) of April 1702. He published a collection, Opuscula
mythologica, ethica, cl pkysica, and editions of several Greek and
Latin authors, but his fame rests chiefly on his collection of old
works bearing on Early English history, entitled Historiae
Anglkanae scriptorcs and Historiae Britannicae, Saxonicae,
Angio-Dankat scriptorcs X V. He was the author of the inscrip-
tion on the London Monument in which the Roman Catholics
were accused of having originated the great fire.
See J. E. B. Mayor, Cambridge in the Time of Queen Anne, 448-450.
GALE. x. (A word of obscure origin; possibly derived from
Dan. gal, mad or furious, sometimes applied to wind, in the sense
of boisterous) a wind of considerable power, considerably
stronger than a breeze, but not severe enough to be called a storm.
In nautical language it is usually combined with some qualifying
word, as " half a gale," a " stiff gale." In poetical and figurative
language " gale " is often used in a pleasant sense, as in " favour-
ing gale " ; in America, it is used in a slang sense for boisterous or
excited behaviour.
2. The payment of rent, customs or duty at regular intervals;
a " hanging gale " is an arrear of rent left over after each suc-
cessive " gale " or rent day. The term survives in the Forest of
Dean, for leases granted to the " free miners " of the forest,
granted by the " gavcller " or agent of the crown, and the term is
also applied to the royalty paid to the crown, and to the area
mined. The word is a contracted form of the O. Eng. gafol,
which survives in " gavel," in gavelkind iq.v.), and in the name of
the office mentioned above. The root from which these words
derive is that of " give." Through Latinized forms it appears in
gabelle (?.*.)•
3. The popular name of a plant, also known as the sweet gale or
gaul, sweet willow, bog or Dutch myrtle. The Old English form of
the word is gagel. It is a small, twiggy, resinous fragrant shrub
found on bogs and moors in the British Islands, and widely
distributed in the north temperate zone. It has narrow, short-
stalked leaves and inconspicuous, apetalous, unisexual flowers
borne in short spikes. The small drupe-like fruit is attached to the
persistent bracts. The leaves are used as tea and as a country
medicine. John Gerard (Herball, p. 1228) describes it as sweet
willow or gaule, and refers to its use in beer or ale. The genus
iiyrica is the type of a small, but widely distributed order,
Myrkaceae, which is placed among the apetalous families of
Dicotyledons, and is perhaps most nearly allied to the willow
family. Iiyrica cerifera is the candleberry, wax-myrtle or wax-
tree {g.v.).
GALEN, CHRISTOPH BERNHARD, Fretherr von (1606-
1678), prince bishop of MUnster, belonged to a noble West-
phalian family, and was born on the 12th of October 1606.
Reduced to poverty through the loss of his paternal inheritance,
he took holy orders; but this did not prevent him from fighting
on the side of the emperor Ferdinand III. during the concluding
stages of the Thirty Years' War. In 1 650 he succeeded Ferdinand
of Bavaria, archbishop of Cologne, as bishop of MUnster. After
restoring some degree of peace and prosperity in his principality,
Galen had to contend with a formidable insurrection on the part of
the citizens of MUnster; but at length this was crushed, and the
bellicose bishop, who maintained a strong army, became an
important personage in Europe. In 1664 he was chosen one of
the directors of the imperial army raised to fight the Turk;
and after the peace which followed the Christian victory at St
Gotthard in August 1664, he aided the English king Charles II.
in his war with the Dutch, until the intervention of Louis XIV.
and Frederick William I. of Brandenburg compelled him to
make a disadvantageous peace in 1666. When Galen again
attacked Holland six years later he was in alliance with Louis, but
he soon deserted his new friend, and fought for the emperor
Leopold I. against France. Afterwards in conjunction with
Brandenburg and Denmark he attacked Charles XI. of Sweden,
and conquered the duchy of Bremen. He died at Ahaus on the
19th of September 1678. Galen showed himself anxious to reform
the church, but his chief energies were directed to increasing his
power and prestige.
See K. Tacking, Gesckichte des Stifts Minster unler C. B. von
Galen (MUnster, 1865); P. Corstiens, Bernard van Galen, Vorst-
Bisschop van Munster (Rotterdam, 1872): A. Hilsing, Furlibistkof
C. B. von Galen (MQnster, 1887); and C. Brinkmann in the EngluM
Historical Review, vol. xxi. (1906). There is in the British Museum
a poem printed in 1666. entitled Letter to the bishop of Munster
containing a Panegyrich of his heroick achievements in herotch verse,
GALEN (or Galenus), CLAUDIUS, called Gallien by Chaucer
and other writers of the middle ages, the most celebrated of
ancient medical writers, was born at Pcrgamus, in Mysia, about
A.D. 130. His father Nicon, from whom he received his early
education, is described as remarkable both for excellence of
natural disposition and for mental culture; his mother, on the
other hand, appears to have been a second Xanthippe. In 146
Galen began the study of medicine, and in about his twentieth
year he left Pergamus for Smyrna, in order to place himself
under the instruction of the anatomist and physician Pelops, and
of the peripatetic philosopher Albinus. He subsequently visited
other cities, and in 158 returned from Alexandria to Pergamus.
A few years later he went for the first time to Rome. There he
healed Eudemus, a celebrated peripatetic philosopher, and other
persons of distinction; and ere long, by his learning and un-
paralleled success as a physician, earned for himself the titles of
" Paradoxologus," the wonder-speaker, and " Paradoxopoeus,"
the wonder-worker, thereby incurring the jealousy and envy of
his fellow-practitioners. Leaving Rome in 168, he repaired to
his native city, whence he was soon sent for to Aquileia, in
Venetia, by the emperors Lucius Verus and Marcus Aurelius. Id
170 he returned to Rome with the latter, who, on departing
thence to conduct the war on the Danube, having with difficulty
been persuaded to dispense with his personal attendance,
appointed him medical guardian of his son Commodus. In
Rome Galen remained for some years, greatly extending his
reputation as a physician, and writing some of his most important
treatises. It would appear that he eventually betook himself to
Pergamus, after spending some time at the island of Lemnos,
where he learned the method of preparing a certain popular
medicine, the " terra lemnia " or " sigUlata." Whether he ever
revisited Rome is uncertain, as also are the time and place of his
death. According to Suidas, he died at the age of seventy, or in
the year 200, in the reign of Septimius Severus. If, however,
we are to trust the testimony of Abul-faraj, his decease took
place in Sicily, when he was in his eightieth year. Galen was one
of the most versatile and accomplished writers of his age. He
composed, it is said, nearly 500 treatises on various subjects,
including logic, ethics and grammar. Of the published works
attributed to him, 83 are recognized as genuine, 19 are of doubtful
authenticity, 45 are confessedly spurious, 19 are fragments, and
15 are notes on the writings of Hippocrates.
Galen, who in his youth was carefully trained in the Stoic
philosophy, was an unusually prolific writer on logic Of the
numerous commentaries and original treatises, a catalogue of
which is given in his work De propriis libris, one only has come
down to us, the treatise on Fallacies in dictione (Etcpi rum cot*
vfjy Xt(t? co4ncna.Toir). Many points of logical theory, however,
are discussed in his medical and scientific writings. His name is
perhaps best known in the history of logic in connexion with the
fourth syllogistic figure, the first distinct statement of which was
ascribed to him by Averroes. There is no evidence from Galen's
own works that he did make this addition to the doctrines of
GALENA
399
syllogism, and the remarkable passage quoted by Minoides
Minas from a Greek commentator on the Analytics, referring the
fourth figure to Galen, clearly shows that the addition did not,
as generally supposed, rest on a new principle, but was merely an
amplification or alteration of the indirect moods of the first
figure already noted by Theophrastus and the earlier Peripatetics.
In 1844 Minas published a work, avowedly from a MS. with the
superscription Galenus, entitled roXnuov dcaywyff SiaKurucfi.
Of this work, which contains no direct intimation of a fourth
figure, and which in general exhibits an astonishing mixture of
the Aristotelian and Stoic logic, Prantl speaks with the bitterest
contempt. He shows demonstratively that it cannot be regarded
as a writing of Galen's, and ascribes it to some one or other of the
later Greek logicians. A full summary of its contents will be
found in the xst vol. of the GsschichU der Logik (pp. 591-610), and
a notice of the logical theories of the true Galen in the same work,
PP- 559-577-
There have been numerous issues of the whole or parts of Galen's
works, among the editors or illustrators of which may be mentioned
Jo. Bapt. Opizo, N. Leonicenus, L. Fuchs, A. Lacuna, Ant. Musa
Brassavolus, Aug. Gadaldinus, Conrad Gesner, Sylvius, Cornarius,
Joannes Montanus, Joannes Caius, Thomas Linacre, Theodore
Goulston, Caspar Hoffman, Rene Chartier, Haller and Kiihn. Of
Latin translations Choulant mentions one in the 15th and twenty-
two in the following century. The Greek text was edited at Venice,
in 1525, 5 vols, fol.; at Basel, in 1538, 5 vols, fol.; at Paris, with
Latin version by Rene Chartier, in 1639, and in 1679, \% vols, fol.;
and at Leipzig, M11821-1833. by C. G. KUhn, considered to be the best,
20 vols. 8vo. An epitome in English of the works of Hippocrates
and Galen, by J. R. Coxe, was published at Philadelphia in 1846.
' " ' ' " ' by J. Marquardt, Iwan
tnree volumes at Leipzig
xount
idinth
BD1CINI
i work"
' Galie
Works
V Curat
natonr
vi., il
\nces dt
erne ntrveux (These pour
; J. R. Gasquet, "The
" The British and Foreign
p. 472-488; and libera,
"Die Schriften des Claudius Galcnos," Rhtmischts Museum fur
Pkilohfic, 1889, 1892 and 1896.
GALBN A, a city and the county-seat of Jo Daviess county,
Illinois, U.S.A., in the N.W. part of the state, on the Galena
(formerly the Fever) river, near its junction with the Mississippi,
about 165 m. W.N.W. of Chicago. Pop. (1000) 5005, of whom
918 were foreign-born ; (1910) 4835. It is served by the Chicago,
Burlington & Quincy, the Chicago & North-Western and the
Illinois Central railways; the Galena river has been made
navigable by government locks at the mouth of the river, but the
river traffic is unimportant. The city is built on rocky limestone
bluffs, which rise rather abruptly on each side of the river, and a
number of the parallel streets, of different levels, are connected
by flights of steps. In Grant Park there is a statue of General
U. S. Grant, who was a resident of Galena at the outbreak of Ihe
Civil War. In the vicinity there are the most important deposits of
zinc and lead in the state, and the city derives its name from the
deposits of sulphide of lead (galena), which were the first worked
about here; below the galena is a zone of zinc carbonate (or
smithsonite) ores, which was the main zone worked between i860
and 1800; still lower is a zone of blende, or zinc sulphide, now
the principal source of the mineral wealth of the region. The
production of zinc is increasing, but that of lead is unimportant.
The principal manufactures are mining pumps and machinery,
flour, woollen goods, lumber and furniture. Water power is
afforded by the river. Galena was originally a trading post,
called by the French " La Pointe " and by the English " Fever
River, M the river having been named after le Fevre, a French
trader who settled near its mouth. In 1826 Galena was laid out
as a town and received its present name; it was incorporated in
1835 and was reincorporated in 1882. In 1838 a theatre was
J
opened, one of whose proprietors was Joseph Jefferson, the father
of the celebrated actor of that name.
GALENA, a city of Cherokee county, Kansas, U.S.A., in the
extreme S.E. part of the state, on Short Creek and near Spring
river. Pop. (1800) 2406; (1000) 10,155, of whom 580 were
negroes and 251 were foreign-born; (1005) 6449; (1910) 6006,
It is situated at the intersection of the Missouri, Kansas & Texas,
and the Kansas City, Fort Scott & Memphis (" Frisco System ")
railways, in the midst of a lead and zinc region, extremely
valuable deposits of these metals having been discovered in 1877.
Smelters and foundries are its principal manufacturing establish-
ments. Water power in abundance is furnished by the Spring
river. After the discovery of the ore deposits two rival companies
founded Galena and Empire City (pop. in 1005, 082), the former
S. of Short Creek and the latter N. of it. Galena was incorporated
in 1877, and in 1007 Empire City was annexed to it.
GALENA, an important ore of lead, consisting of lead sulphide
(PbS). The mineral was mentioned by Pliny under this name,
and it is sometimes now known as lead-glance (Ger. Blciglom).
It crystallizes in the cubic system, and well-developed crystals
are of common occurrence; the usual form is the cube or the
cubo-octahedron (fig.). An important
character, and one by which the mineral
may always be recognized, is the perfect
cubical cleavage, on which the lustre is
brilliant and metallic. The colour of the
mineral and of its streak is lead-grey; I
it is opaque; the hardness is 2} and
the specific gravity 7«5. Twinned
crystals are not common, but the
presence of polysynthetic twinning is sometimes shown by fine
st nations running diagonally or obliquely across the cleavage
surfaces. Large masses with a coarse or fine granular structure
are of common occurrence; the fractured surfaces of such
masses present a spangled appearance owing to the numerous
bright cleavages.
The formula PbS corresponds with lead 86-6 and sulphur
i3'4%- The mineral nearly always contains a small amount of
silver, and sometimes antimony, arsenic, copper, gold, selenium,
&c. Argentiferous galena is an important source of silver; this
metal is present in amounts rarely exceeding 1 %, and often less
than 0-03% (equivalent to iof ounces per ton). Since argentite
(AgtS) is isomorphous with galena, it is probable that the silver
isomorphously replaces lead, but it is to be noted that native
silver has been detected as an enclosure in galena.
Galena is of wide distribution, and occurs usually in metal-
liferous veins traversing crystalline rocks, clay-slates and lime-
stones, and also as pockets in limestones. It is often associated
with blende and pyrites, and with calcite, fluorspar, quartz,
barytes, chalybite and pearlspar as gangue minerals; in the
upper oxidized parts of the deposits, cerussite and anglesite
occur as alteration products. The mineral has occasionally been
observed as a recent formation replacing organic matter, such
as wood; and it is sometimes found in beds of coal. As small
concretionary nodules, it occurs disseminated through sand-
stone at Kommern in the Eifcl. In the lead-mining districts of
Derbyshire and the north of England the ore occurs as veins and
flats in the Carboniferous Limestone series, whilst in Cornwall
the veins traverse clay-slates. In the Upper Mississippi lead
region of Missouri, Illinois, Iowa and Wisconsin the ore fills
large cavities or chambers in limestone.
Galena is met with at all places where lead is mined; of
localities which have yielded finely crystallized specimens the
following may be selected for mention: Derbyshire, Alston in
Cumberland, Laxey in the Isle of Man (where crystals measuring
almost a foot across have been found), Neudorf in the Harz,
Rossie in New York and Jopljn in Missouri. Good crystals have
also been obtained as a furnace product.
Coarsely grained galena is used for glazing pottery, and is then
known as " potters' ore " or alquifoux.
The galena group includes several other cubic minerals, such as
argentite (?.».). Mention may also be made here of clausthalite
4-oo
GALEOPITHECUS— GALESBURG
(lead selenide, PbSc) and altaltc (lead telluride, PbTc), which,
with their lead-grey colour and perfect cubic cleavage, closely
resemble galena in appearance; these species are named after
the localities at which they were originally found, namely,
Klausthal in the Harz and the Altai mountains in Asiatic Russia.
Altaite is of interest as being one of the tellurides found associated
with gold. (L. J. S.)
GALEOPITHECUS, the scientific designation of the Colugo
($.?.) or Cobego, commonly known as the flying-lemur, and alone
representing the family Galeopithecidae. Much uncertainty has
prevailed among naturalists as to the systematic position of this
animal, or rather these animals (for there are two species) ; and
while some have referred it to the lemurs, others have placed it
with the bats, and others again among the Insectivora, as the
representative of a special subordinal group, the DermopUra.
Dr H. C. Chapman, who has made a special study of the creature,
writes, however, as follows: " It appears, at least in the judg-
ment of the author, that Galeopithecus cannot be regarded as
being either a lemur, or insectivore, or bat, but that it stands
alone, the sole representative of an ancient group, Galtopithecidae,
aa Hyrax does of Hyracoidea. While Galeopithecus is but re-
motely related to the Lcmuroidea and Insectivora, it is so closely
related to Chiroptera, more particularly in regard to the structure
of its patagium, brain, alimentary canal, genito-urinal apparatus,
Feet of Philippine Colugo, or Flying-Lemur {Galeopithecus
philippinensis).
&c, that there can be but little doubt that the Chiroptera are the
descendants of Galeopithecus, or, more probably, that both are the
descendants of a GaUopithecus-hke ancestor." Without going
quite so far as this, it may be definitely admitted that the colugo
is entitled to represent an order by itself, the characters of which
will be as follows: Herbivorous, climbing, unguiculate mammals,
provided with a very extensive flying-membrane, and having the
dental formula i. $,c. f , p. §, m. $, total 34. The lower incisors
are directed forwards and have a comb-like structure of their
crowns, while the outermost of these teeth and the canines arc
double-rooted, being in these respects, taken together, quite
unlike those of all other mammals; the cheek-teeth have
numerous sharp cusps; and there is the normal replacement of
milk-molars by premolars. In the skull the orbit is surrounded
by bone, and the tympanic has a bulla and an ossified external
meatus. The ulna and fibula are to some extent inclined back-
wards; the carpus has a scapho-lunar; and the feet are five-
toed. The hemispheres of the brain are short and but slightly
convoluted; the stomach is simple; there is a large caecum;
the testes are received into inguinal pouches; the uterus is
two-horned; the placenta is discoidal; and there are two
pairs of pectoral teats. A single offspring is produced at a
birth.
It will be obvious that if other representatives of ihtDermoptera
were discovered, some of these features might apply only to the
family Galeopithecidae.
There are two species, Galeopithecus vofans, ranging from
Burma, Siam and the Malay Peninsula to Borneo, Sumatra and
Java, and G. philippinensis of the Philippine group. The former,
which is nearly 2 ft. in total length, is distinguished by its
larger upper incisors, shorter ears and smaller skull. In both
species not only are the long and slender limbs connected by a
broad integumentary expansion extending outwards from the
sides of the neck and body, but there is also a web between the
fingers and toes as far as the. base of the claws (fig.); and the
hind-limbs are further connected by a similar expansion passing
outwards along the back of the feet to the base of the claws, and,
inwardly, involving the long tail to the tip, forming a true
interfcmoral membrane, as in bats. Besides differing from bats
altogether in the form of the anterior limbs and of the double-
rooted outer incisors and canines, Galeopithecus contrasts strongly
with that order in the presence of a large sacculated caecum, and
in the great length of the colon, which is so remarkably short in
Chiroptera. From the lemurs, on the other band, the form of
the brain, the character of the teeth, the structure of the skull,
and the deciduate discoidal placenta at once separate the
group. (R. L.*)
OALERIUS [Galerius Valerius Maxuciaitos], Roman
emperor from a.d. 305 to 311, was born near Sardica in Thrace.
He originally followed his father's occupation, that of a herds-
man, whence his surname of Armentarius (Lat. amentum, herd).
He served with distinction as a soldier under Aurelian and
Probus, and in 293 was designated Caesar along with Constant ius
Chlorus, receiving in marriage Diocletian's daughter Valeria, and
at the same time being entrusted with the care of the Ulyrian
provinces. In 206, at the beginning of the Persian War, he was
removed from the Danube to the Euphrates; his first campaign
ended in a crushing defeat, near Callinicum, but in 297, advancing
through the mountains of Armenia, he gained a decisive victory
over Narses (q.v.) and compelled him to make peace. In 305, on
the abdication of Diocletian and Maximianus, he at once assumed
the title of Augustus, with Constaiitius his former colleague, and
having procured the promotion to the rank of Caesar of Flavhis
Valerius Severus, a faithful servant, and Daia (Maximums), his
nephew, he hoped on the death of Constantius to become sole
master of the Roman world. This scheme, however, was defeated
by the sudden elevation of Constantine at Eboracum (York) on
the death of his father, and by the action of Maximianus and
Maxentius in Italy. After an unsuccessful invasion of Italy in
307 he elevated his friend Licinius to the rank of Augustus, and,
moderating his ambition, devoted the few Remaining years of his
life " to the enjoyment of pleasure and to the execution of some
works of public utility." It was at the instance of Galerius that
the first of the celebrated edicts of persecution against the
Christians was published, on the 24th of February 303, and this
policy of repression was maintained by him until the appearance
of the general edict of toleration (311), issued in his own name and
in those of Licinius and Constantine. He died in May 311 a.d.
See Zosimus ii. 8-1 1; Zonaras xii. 31-34; Eutroptus ix. 24,
x. 1.
GALESBURG, a city and the county-seat of Knox county,
Illinois, U.S.A., in the N.W. part of the state, 163 m. S.W. of
Chicago. Pop. (1800) 15,264; (1000) 18,607; of whom 3602
were foreign-born; (census, igio) 22,089. It is served by the
Atchison, Topeka & Santa F6, and the Chicago, Burlington k
Quincy railways. Knox College (non-sectarian and coeduca-
tional), which was chartered here in 1837 as the " Knox Manual
Labor College " (the present name was adopted in 1857), was
opened in 1841, and had in 1907-1908, 31 instructors and 628
students, of whom more than half were in the Conservatory of
Music, a department of the college, and 79 were in the Academy.
Lombard College (coeducational; Universalis!), which was
chartered as the " Illinois Liberal Institute " in 1851, was known
as Lombard University (in honour of Benjamin Lombard, a
benefactor) from 1855 to 1899; it includes a College of Liberal
Arts, the Ryder Divinity School (1881), and departments of
music and domestic science, and in 1907- 1908 had 18 instructors
and 117 students. Here also are Corpus Christi College (Roman
Catholic), St Joseph's Academy (Roman Catholic) and Brown's
Business College (1874). There is a public library, founded in
1874. The industries consist mainly of the construction and
repairing of steam railway cars (in the shops of the Chicago, Bur-
lington & Quincy railway) and the manufacture of foundry and
machine-shop products, vitrified brick, agricultural implements
GALGACUS— GALICIA
401
and machinery. The total value of the factory product in x 90s
was $2,217,772, being 52*9% more than in 1900. Galesburg
was named in honour of the Rev. George Washington Gale (1 780-
1862), a prominent Presbyterian preacher, who in 1827-1834 had
founded the Oneida Manual Labor Institute at Whiteslown,
Oneida county, New York. Desiring to establish a college in the
Mississippi Valley to supply " an evangelical and able ministry "
to " spread the Gospel throughout the world," and also wishing to
counteract the influence of pro-slavery men in Illinois, he
interested a number of people in the project, formed a society for
colonization, and in 1836 led the first settlers to Galesburg, the
" Mesopotamia in the West." Knox College was founded to
fulfil his educational purpose. Galesburg was an important
" station " of the Underground Railroad, one of the conditions of
membership in the " Presbyterian Church of Galesburg " (the
name of Mr Gale's society) being opposition to slavery; and in
1855 this caused the church to withdraw from the Presbytery.
Galesburg was chartered as a city in 1857. On the 7th of October
1858 one of the famous Lincoln-Douglas debates was held in the
grounds of Knox College.
GALGACUS, or perhaps rather CalgAcus, a Caledonian chief
who led the tribes of North Britain agaidst the invading Roman
army under Cn. Julius Agricola about aj>. 85 and was defeated
at the battle of Mons Graupius (Tac. Agric. 29). The name
recurs much later, in Adamnan's Life of Columba, in the name
of a wood near Londonderry, Daire-Calgaich or Roboretum
Calgachi, " the wood of Calgacus ": it may be Celtic and denote
" the man with the sword."
eALIAJfl, FERDINANDO (1728-1787), Italian economist, was
born at Chieti on the 2nd of December 1728. He was carefully
educated by his uncle Monsignor C. Galiani at Naples and Rome
with a view to entering the Church. Galiani gave early promise
of distinction as an economist, and even more as a wit At the
age of twenty-two, after he had taken orders, he had produced
two works by which his name became widely known far beyond
the bounds of his own Naples. The one, his TraUato deUa
moneta, in whicji he shows himself a strong supporter of the
mercantile school, deals with many aspects of the question of
exchange, but always with a special reference to the state of
confusion then presented by the whole monetary system of the
Neapolitan government. The other, RaccoUa in Marie del Boia,
established his fame as a humorist, and was highly popular in
Italian literary circles at the end of the x8th century. In this
volume Galiani parodied with exquisite felicity, in a series of
discourses on the death of the public hangman, the styles of the
most pompous and pedantic Neapolitan writers of the day.
Galiani's political knowledge and social qualities now pointed him
out to the discriminating eye of King Charles, afterwards Charles
III. of Spain, and his liberal minister Tanucci, and he was
appointed in 1759 secretary to the Neapolitan embassy at Paris.
This post he held for ten years, when he returned to Naples and
was made a councillor of the tribunal of commerce, and in 1777,
minister of the royal domains. His economic reputation was
made by a book written in French and published in Paris,
namely, his Dialogues sur It commerce des bUs. This work, by its
light and pleasing style, and the vivacious wit with which it
abounded, delighted Voltaire, who spoke of it as a book in the pro-
duction of which Plato and Moliere might have been combined I
The author, says Pecchio, treated his arid subject as Fontenelle
did the vortices of Descartes, or Algarotti the Newtonian system
of the world . The question at issue was that of the freedom of the
corn trade, then much agitated, and, in particular, the policy of
the royal edict of 1764, which permitted the exportation of grain
so long as the price had not arrived at a certain height. The
general principle he maintains is that the best system in regard to
this trade is to have no system — countries differently circum-
stanced requiring, according to him, different modes of treatment.
He fell, however, into some of the most serious errors of the
mercantilists — holding, as indeed did also Voltaire and even
Verri, that one country cannot gain without another losing, and
in his earlier treatise going so far as to defend the action of govern-
ments in debasing the currency. Until his death at Naples on the
xi 7*
30th of October 1 787, Galiani kept up with his old Parisian friends
a correspondence, which was published in 1818.
See V Abate Galiani, by Alberto Marghieri (1878), and his corre-
spondence with Tanucci in Viesseux's L'Archivio storico (Florence.
1878).
GALICIA (Ger. Galizien; Pol. Halia), a crownland of Austria,
bounded £. and N. by Russia, S. by Bukovina and Hungary, and
W. by Austrian and Prussian Silesia. It has an area of 30,209
sq. m., and is the largest Austrian province. It comprises the old
kingdoms of Galicia and Lodomeria, the duchies of Auschwitz and
Zator, and the grand duchy of Cracow.
Galicia lies on the northern slopes of the Carpathians, which
with their offshoots cover about a third of the whole area of
the country. The surface gradually sinks down by undulating
terraces to the valleys of the Vistula and Dniester. To the N. and
E. of these rivers Galicia forms a continuation of the great plains
of Russia, intersected only by a few hills, which descend from the
plateaus of Poland and Podolia, and which attain in some places
an altitude of 1300 to 1500 ft. The Carpathians, which, extend-
ing in the form of an arc, form the boundary between Galicia and
Hungary, are divided into the West and the East Beskides,
which are separated by the northern ramifications of the massif
of the Tatra. The highest peaks are the Babia G6ra (5650 ft.),
the Wolowiec (6773 ft.) and the Cscrna G6ra (6505 ft.). The
principal passes are those of Zdjar over the Tatra, and of
Dukla, Vereczke Kfirosmezd or Delatyn in the East Beskides.
The river Vistula, which becomes navigable at Cracow,
and forms afterwards the north-western frontier of Galicia,
receives the Sola, the £kawa, the Raba, the Dunajec with
its affluents the Poprad and the Biala, the Wisloka, the San
and the Bug. The Dniester, which rises in the Carpathians,
within the territory of Galicia, becomes navigable at Sambor,
and receives on the right the Stryj, the Swica, the Lomnica and
the Bystrzyca, and on the left the Lipa, the Strypa, the Sereth
and the Zbrucz, the boundary river towards Russia. The
Pruth, which also rises in the Carpathians, within the territory of
Galicia, traverses its south-eastern corner and receives the
Czeremosz, the boundary river towards Bukovina. There are few
lakes in the country except mountain tarns; but considerable
morasses exist about the Upper Dneister, the Vistula and the
San, while the ponds or dams in the Podolian valleys are estimated
to cover an area of over 200 sq. m. The most frequented mineral
springs are the alkaline springs at Szczawnica and Krynica, the
sulphur springs at Krzesowice, Szklo and Lubian, and the
iodine springs at Iwonicz.
Exposed to the cold northern and north-eastern winds, and
shut out by the Carpathians from the warm southerly winds,
Galicia has the severest climate in Austria. It has long winters,
with an abundant snowfall, short and wet springs, hot summers
and long and steady autumns. The mean annual temperature at
Lemberg is 46*2° F., and at Tarnopol only 43° F.
Of the total area 48*45% « occupied by arable land, xx»x6<&
by meadows, 9-19% by pastures', 1-39% by gardens and 25-76%
by forests. The soil is generally fertile, but agriculture is still
backward. The principal products are barley, oats, rye, wheat,
maize and leguminous plants. Galicia has the largest area under
potatoes and legumes in the whole of Austria, and hemp, flax,
tobacco and hops are of considerable importance. The principal
mineral products are salt, coal and petroleum. Salt is extracted
at Wieliczka, Bochnia, Bolechow, Dolina, Kalusz and Kosow.
Coals are found in the Cracow district at Jaworzno, at Siersza
near Trzebinia and at Dabrowa. Some of the richest petroleum
fields in Europe are spread in the region of the Carpathians, and
are worked at Boryslaw and Schodnica near Drohobycz, Bobrka
and Potok near Krosno, Sloboda-Rungurska near Kolomea, &c.
Great quantities of ozocerite are also extracted in the petroli-
ferous region of the Carpathians. Other mineral products are
zinc, extracted at Trzebionka and Wodna in the Cracow region,
amounting to 40% of the total zinc production in Austria, iron
ore, marble and various stones for construction. The sulphur
mines of Swoszowice near Cracow, which had been worked since
1598, were abandoned in 1884.
4-02
GALICIA
The manufacturing industries of Galicia are not highly
developed. The first place is occupied by the distilleries, whose
output amounts to nearly 40% of the total production of
spirits in Austria. Then follow the petroleum refineries and
kindred industries, saw-mills and the fabrication of various
wood articles, paper and milling. The sugar factory at Tlumacz
and the tobacco factory at Winniki are amongst the largest
establishments of their kind in Austria. Cloth manufacture is
concentrated at Biala, while the weaving of linen and of woollens
is pursued as a household industry, the former in the Carpathian
region, the latter in eastern Galida. The commerce, which is
mainly in the hands of the Jews, is very active, and the transit
trade to Russia and to the East is also of considerable importance.
Galicia had in 1000 a population of 7,295,538, which is
equivalent to 241 inhabitants per sq. m. The two principal
nationalities are the Poles (45%) and the Ruthenians (42%),
the former predominating in the west and in the big towns, and
the latter in the east. The Poles who inhabit the Carpathians are
distinguished as Goralians (from g6ry, mountain), and those of
the lower regions as Mazures and Cracoviaks. The Ruthenian
highlanders bear the name of Huzulians. The Poles are mostly
Roman Catholics, the Ruthenians are Greek Catholics, and there
are over 770,000 Jews, and about 2500 Armenians, who are
Catholics and stand under the jurisdiction of an Armenian
archbishop at Lemberg.
The Roman Catholic Church has an archbishop, at Lemberg,
and three bishops, at Cracow, at Przemysl and at Tarnow, and the
Greek Catholic Church is represented by an archbishop, at
Lemberg, and two bishops, at Przemysl and at Stanislau. At the
head of the educational institutions stand the two universities of
Lemberg and Cracow, and the Polish academy of science at
Cracow.
The local Diet is composed of 151 members, including the 3
archbishops, the 5 bishops, and the 2 rectors of the universities,
and Galida sends 78 deputies to the Reichsrat at Vienna. For
administrative purposes, the province is divided into 78 districts
and 2 autonomous municipalities — Lemberg (pop. 159,618), the
capital, and Cracow (91,3x0). Other principal towns are:
Przemysl (46,439), Kolomea (34,188), Tarn6w (31,548), Tarnopol
(30*368)1 Stanislau (29,628), Stryj (23,673), Jaroslau (22,614),
Drohobycz (19,146), Podg6rze (18,142), Brody (17,360), Sambor
(17,027), Neusandec (i5,724),Rzesz6w(i4,7i4),Zloczow(i2, 209),
Grodek (11,845), Horodenka (11,615), Buczacz (11,504), Sniatyn
(11,408), Brzezany (11,244), Kuty (11,127), Boryslaw (10,671),
Chrzan6w (10,170), Jaworow (10,090), Bochnia (10,049) and
Biala (8265).
Galicia (or Halicz) took its rise, along with the neighbouring
principality of Lodomeria (or Vladimir), in the course of the 12th
century— the seat of the ruling dynasty being Halicz or Halitch.
Disputes between the Galidan and Lodomerian houses led to the
interference of the king of Hungary, Bela III., who in x 100
assumed the title of king, and appointed his son Andreas
lieutenant of the kingdom. Polish assistance, however, enabled
Vladimir, the former possessor, to expel Andreas, and in 1x98
Roman, prince of Lodomeria, made himself master of Galicia also.
On his death in 1205 the struggle between Poland and Hungary
for supremacy in the country was resumed; but in 121 5 it was
arranged that Daniel (1205-1264), son of Roman, should be
invested with Lodomeria, and Coloman, son of the Hungarian
king, with Galicia. Coloman, however, was expelled by Mstislav
of Novgorod; and in his turn Andreas, Mstislav's nominee, was
expelled by Daniel of Lodomeria, a powerful prince, who by a
flexible policy succeeded in maintaining his position. Though in
1235 he had recognized the overlordship of Hungary, yet, when
he found himself hard pressed by the Mongolian general Batu, he
called in the assistance of Innocent IV., and accepted the crown
of Galicia from the hands of a papal legate; and again, when
Innocent disappointed his expectation, he returned to his former
connexion with the Greek Church. On the extinction of his line
in- 1340 Casimir III. of Poland incorporated Galida and Lemberg;
on Casimir's death in 1370 Louis the Great of Hungary, in accord-
ance with previous treaties, became king of Poland, Galicia and
Lodomeria; and in 1382, by the marriage of Louis's daughter
with Ladislaus II., Galicia, which be had regarded as part of his
Hungarian rather than of his Polish possessions, became de-
finitively assigned to Poland. On the first partition of Poland, in
1772, the kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria came to Austria,
and to this was added the district of New or West Galicia in 1 795 ;
but at the peace of Vienna in 1809 West Galicia and Cracow were
surrendered to the grand-duchy of Warsaw, and in i&xo part of
East Galicia, including Tarnopol, was made over to Russia. This
latter portion was recovered by Austria at the peace of Paris
(1814). and the former came back on the suppression of the
independent republic of Cracow in 1846. After the introduction
of the constitution of February 1861, Galicia gained a larger
degree of autonomy than any other province in the Austrian
empire.
See Die dsterreickisck-ungarische Monarch** in Wort und Biid,
vol.
aee Die dsterretcktsch-ungartscMe Monarckte t* Wort und Biid,
I. 19 (Wien, 1885-1902, 24 vols.); Die L&nder Osicrreick-Unfarns
Wort und Biid, vol. 10 (Wien, 1881-1886, 15 vols.). Remarkable
sketches of Galician life are to be found in the works of the German
novelist Sacher-Masoch (1835-1895).
GALICIA (the andent Gallaecia or Catloecia, KaXXaufa or
KaXauda), a captaincy-general, and formerly a kingdom, count-
ship and province, in the north-western angle of Spain; bounded
on the N. by the Bay of Biscay, E. by Leon and Asturias, S, by
Portugal, and W. by the Atlantic Ocean. Pop. (xooo) 1,980,515;
area, 11,254 sq. m. In 1833 Galida was divided for adminis-
trative purposes into the provinces of Corunna, Lugo, Orense and
Pontevcdra.
Galicia is traversed by mountain ranges, sometimes regarded
as a continuation of the Cantabrian chain; and its surface is
further broken in the east by the westernmost ridges of that
system, which, running in a south-westerly direction, rise above
the basin of the Miflo. The high land north of the headwaters of
the Mifio forms the sole connecting link between the Csntahrians
properly so-called and the mountains of central and western
Galida. The average elevation of the province is considerable,
and the maximum height (6593 ft.) is reached in the Pens
Trevinca on the eastern border of Orense.
The principal river is the Mifio (Portuguese Minho\ Lat
Minius; so named, it is said, from the minium or vermilion
found in its bed). Rising near Mondonedo, within 25 m. of the
northern coast, the Mifio enters the Atlantic near the port el
Guardia, after a course of 170 m. S. and S.W. Its lower reaches
are navigable by small vessels. Of its numerous affluents the
most important is the Sil, which rises among the lofty mountains
between Leon and Asturias. Among other rivers having a'
westerly direction may be mentioned the Tambre, the Ulla and
the Lerez or Leiy which falls into the Atlantic by estuaries or riot
called respectively Ria de Muros y Noya, Ria de Arosa and Ria
de Pontevcdra, The rivers of the northern versant, such as the
Nera, are, like those of Asturias, for the most part short, rapid
and subject to violent floods.
The coast-line of Galicia, extending to about 240 m., is every-
where bold and deeply indented, presenting a large number of
secure harbours, and in this respect forming a marked contrast to
the neighbouring province. The Eo, which bounds Gahaa 00
the east, has a deep estuary, the Rivadeo or Ribadeo, which
offers a safe and commodious anchorage. Vivero Bay and the
Ria del Barquero y Vares are of a similar character; while the
harbour of Ferrol ranks among the best in Europe, and is the chief
naval station on the northern coast of Spain. On the opposite
side of Betanzos Bay (the pkyas Xi^r or Porlus Magnus of the
ancients) is the great port of Corunna or Corufia. The principal
port on the western coast is that formed by the deep and sheltered
bay of Vigo, but there are also good roadsteads at Corcubton
under Cape Finisterre, at Marin and at Carril.
The climate of the Galician coast is mild and equable, but the
interior, owing to the great elevation (the town of Lugo is 1 500 ft
above sea-level) , has a wide range of temperature. The rainfall is
exceptionally large, and snow lies on some of the loftier elevations
for a considerable portion of the year. The soil is on the whole
fertile, and the produce very varied. A considerable quantity of
GALIGNANI— GALILEE
4<>3
timber is grown on the high lands, and the rich valley pastures
support large herds of cattle, while the abundance of oaks and
chestnuts favours the rearing of swine. In the lowland districts
good crops of maize, wheat, barley, oats and rye, as well as of
turnips and potatoes, are obtained. The fruit also is of excellent
quality and in great variety, although the culture of the vine is
limited to some of the warmer valleys in the southern districts.
The dekesas or moorlands abound in game, and fish are plentiful
in all the streams. The mineral resources of the province, which
are considerable, were known to some extent to the ancients.
Strabo (c.63 b.c.-a.d. 21) speaks of its gold and tin, and Pliny
(a.d. 23-70) mentions the gemma Gallaica, a precious stone.
Galicia is also remarkable for the number of its sulphur and other
warm springs, the most important of which are those at Lugo,
and those from which Orense is said to take its name (Aquae
urentes).
Ethnologically the Galidans (Galtegos) are allied to the
Portuguese, whom they resemble in dialect, in appearance and in
habits more than the other inhabitants of the peninsula. The
men are well known all over Spain and Portugal as hardy,
honest and industrious, but for the most part somewhat unskilled,
labourers; indeed the word Gallego has come to be almost a
synonym in Madrid for a " hewer of wood and drawer of water."
It is also used as a term of abuse, meaning " boor." Agriculture
engages the greater part of the resident population, both male and
female; other industries, except the fisheries, are little developed.
The largest town in Galicia is Corunna (pop. 1900, 43,97*);
Santiago de Compostela is the ancient capital and an archi-
episcopal see; Lugo, Tuy, Mondofiedo and Orense are bishoprics.
Gattaeeia, the country of the Galacd, Colloid or Gattaiei,
seems to have been very imperfectly known to the earlier
geographers. According to Eratosthenes (276-106 B.C.) the
entire population of the peninsula were at one time called Galatae.
The region properly called by their name, bounded on the south
by the Douro and on the east by the Navia, was first entered by
the Roman legions under Decius Junius Brutus in 137-136 B.C.
(Livy lv., lvi., Epit.) ; but the final subjugation cannot be placed
earlier than the time of Augustus (31 B.C.-A.D. 14). On the
partition of Spain, which followed the successful invasions of the
Suevi, Alans and Vandals, Gallaeda fell to the. lot of the first
named (a.d. 411). After an independent subsistence of nearly
200 years, the Suevian kingdom was annexed to the Visigothic
dominions under Leovigild in 585. In 734 it was occupied by the
Moors, who in turn were driven out by AJphonso I. of Asturias,
in 739. During the 9th and 10th centuries it was the subject of
dispute between more than one count of Galicia and the
suzerain, and its coasts were repeatedly ravaged by the Normans.
When Ferdinand I. divided his kingdom among his sons in 1063,
Galicia was the portion allotted to Garcia, the youngest of the
three. In 1072 it was forcibly reannezed by Garcia 's brother
Alphonso VI. of Castile and thenceforward it remained an
integral part of the kingdom of Castile or of Leon. The honorary
title of count of Galicia has frequently been borne by younger
sons of the Spanish sovereign.
See Annette B. Meakin, Galicia, the SvritMerland of Spain (London,
1009).
GALIGNANI, GIOVANNI ANTONIO (1752-1821), newspaper
publisher, was born at Brescia, Italy, in 1 752. After living some
time in London, he went to Paris, where he started in 1800 an
English library, and in 1808 a monthly publication, the Repertory
of English Literature. In 1814 he began to publish, in Paris,
GalignanVs Messenger, a daily paper printed in English. At his
death in 182 1 the paper was carried on by his two sons, Jean-
Antoine (1 796-1873) and GuOlaume (1 798-1882). Under their
management it enjoyed a high reputation. Its policy? was to
promote good feeling between England and France. The brothers
established and endowed hospitals at Corbeil and at Neuilly-
sur- Seine. In recognition of their generosity the city of Corbeil
erected a monument in their honour In 1884 the Galignani
family disposed of their interest in GalignanVs Messenger, and
from that date until 1904, when it was discontinued, the paper
appeared under the title of the Daily Messenger.
GALILBB (Hcb. Vfy "border " or " ring," Gr. rWuXolo), a
Roman province of Palestine north of Samaria, bounded S. by
Samaria and the Carmel range, E. by the Jordan, N. by the
Leontes (LiULni), and W. by the Mediterranean and part of
Phoenicia. Its maximum extent was about 60 m. north to south
and 30 east to west. The name in the Hebrew Scriptures hardly
had a definite territorial significance. It literally means a ring or
circuit, and, like analogous words in English, could be applied to
various districts. Thus Joshua (xiii. 2) and Joel (Ui. 4) refer to
the GelUotk (" borders, coast ") of the Philistines or of Palestine;
Joshua again (xxiL xo, ix) and Ezekiel (xlvii. 8) mention the
Jordan valley plain as the " Geliloth of Jordan " in " the Eastern
Gelilah." In its more restricted connotation, denoting the
district to which it is usually applied or a part thereof, it is found
in Joshua xx. 7, xxi. 32, x Chr. vi. 76, as the place where was
situated the town of Kadesh; and in x Kings ix. x x, the district of
" worthless " cities given by Solomon to Hiram. In Isa. ix. x we
find the full name of the district, Galil ha-Goyim, literally " the
ring, circuit or border of the foreigners" — referring to the
Phoenicians, Syrians and Aramaeans, by whose country the
province was on three sides surrounded. In x Kings xv. 29 it it
specified as one of the districts whose population was deported by
Tiglath-Pileser. Throughout the Old Testament history, how-
ever, Galilee as a whole cannot be said to have a history; the
unit of territorial subdivision was tribal rather than provincial,
and though such important events as those associated with the
names of Barak, Gideon, Gilboa, Armageddon, took place within
its borders, yet these belong rather to the histories of Issachar,
Zebulon, Asher or Naphtali, whose territories together almost
correspond with Galilee, than to the province itself.
After the Jewish return from exile the population confined
itself to Judaea, and Galilee was left in the possession of the mixed
multitude of successors established there by the Assyrians.'
When it once more came into Israelite hands is uncertain; it is
generally supposed that its reconquest was due to John Hyrcanus.
Before very long it developed a nationalism and patriotism as
intense as that of Judaea itself, notwithstanding the contempt
with which the metropolitans of Jerusalem looked down upon the
Galilean provincials. Stock proverbial sayings such, as " Out of
Galilee cometh no prophet " (though Deborah, Jonah, Elisha,
and probably Hosea, were Galileans) were apparently common^
Provincialism of speech (Matt. xxvi. 73) distinguished the
Galileans; it appears that they confused the gutturals in
pronunciation.
Under the Roman domination Galilee was made a tetrarchate
governed by members of the Herod family. Herod the Great was
tetrarch of Galilee in 47 B.C. ; in 4 B.C. he was succeeded by hisson
Antipas. Galilee was the land of Christ's boyhood and the chief
centre of His active work, and in His various ministries here
some of His chief discourses were uttered (as the Sermon on
the Mount, Matt, v.) and some of His chief miracles performed.
After the destruction of Jerusalem the Judaean Rabbinic
schools took refuge in the Galilee they had heretofore despised.
No ancient remains of Jewish synagogues exist except those that
have been identified in some of the ancient Galilean towns, such
as Tell Hum (Talfeum), Kerazeh, Refr Bir'Im, and elsewhere.
One of the chief centres of Rabbinism was §afed, still a sacred
city of the Jews and largely inhabited by members of that faith.
Near here is MeirQn, a place much revered by the Jews as
containing the tombs of Hillel, Shammai and Simon ben Yohai;
a yearly festival in honour of these rabbis is here celebrated. At
Tiberias also are the tombs of distinguished Jewish teachers,
including Maimonides.
The province was subdivided into two parts, Upper and Lower
Galilee, the two being divided by a ridge running west to east, which
prolonged would cut the Jordan about midway between Huleh and
the Sea of Galilee. Lower Galilee includes the plains of Buttauf
and Esdraelon.
The whole of Galilee presents country more or less disturbed by
volcanic action. In the lower division the hills are all tilted up
towards the east, and broad streams of lava have flowed Lwr
over the plateau above the sea of Galilee. I n this district pqutm
the highest hills are only about 1800 ft. above the sea. The
ridge of Nazareth rises north of the great plain of Esdraelon, and
404
north of this again is the fertile basin o
the sea-coast plains by low hills. Eai
basaltic plateau called Sahel cl AhmJ
rising 1700 ft. above the Sea of Galilei
confused hill country, the spurs falling
lies at the foot of the mountains of
valley, running westwards to the coast
of Zebulun— the valley of Jiphthah-e!
plain of Esdraelon is 01 triangular fori .
east and by the ridge which runs to Carmel on the west. It is 14 m.
long from Jenin to the Nazareth hills, and its southern border is
about 20 m. long. It rises 200 ft. above the sea, the hills on both
aides being some 1500 ft. higher. The whole drainage is collected
by the Kishon, which runs through a narrow gorge at the north-west
corner of the plain, descending beside the ridge of Carmel to the sea.
The broad valley of Jezreel on the cast, descending towards the
Jordan valley, forms the gate by which Palestine is entered from
beyond Jordan. Mount Tabor stands isolated in the plain at the
north-east corner, and rather farther south the conical hill called
Net* Duhi rises between Tabor and Gilboa. The whole of Lower
GALILEE— GALILEE, SEA OF
Tbe'mountains are tilted up towards the Sea of Galilee, and the
drainage of the district is towards the north-west. On the south the
V. rocky range of Jebel Jarmuk rises to nearly 4000 ft. above
fl ffw^ the sea; on the cast a narrow ridge 2800 ft. high forms
the watershed, with steep eastern slopes falling towards
Jordan. Immediately west of the watershed are two small plateaus
covered with basaltic debris, near el-Jish and Kades. On the west
are rugged mountains with deep intricate valleys. The main drains
of the country are — first, Widi el 'Ayfln, rising north of Jebcl
Jarmukvand running north-west as an open valley; and secondly,
Widi el Ahj&r, a rugged precipitous gorge running north to join the
Leontes. The district is well provided with springs throughout,
and the valleys arc full of water in the spring-time. Though rocky
and difficult. Upper Galilee is not barren, the soil of the plateaus is
rich, and the vine flourishes in the higher hills, especially in the
neighbourhood of Kefr Birlm. The principal town is Safed, perched
on a white mountain 2700 ft. above the sea. It has a population of
about 9000, including Jews, Christians and Moslems.
Josephus gives a good description of the Galilee of his time in
Wars, iii. 3. 2 : " The Galileans are inured to war from their
infancy, and have been always very numerous; nor hath the
country been ever destitute of men of courage or wanted a
numerous set of them; for their soil is universally rich and fruit-
ful, and full of plantations of trees of all sorts, insomuch that it
invites the most slothful to take pains in its cultivation. . . .
Moreover, the cities lie here very thick, and the very many villages
there are here are everywhere full of people." Though the
population is diminished and the cities ruinous, the country
is still remarkable for fertility, thanks to the copiousness of its
water-supply draining from the Lebanon mountains.
The principal products of the country are corn, wine, oil and
soap (from the olives) , with every species of pulse and gourd.
The antiquities of Galilee include dolmens and rude stone
monuments, rock-cut tombs, and wine-presses, with numerous
remains of Byzantine monasteries and fine churches of the time of
the crusades. There are also remains of Greek architecture in
various places; but the most interesting buildings are the ancient
synagogues, of which some eleven examples are now known.
They are rectangular, with the door to the south, and two rows of
columns forming aisles east and west. The architecture is a
peculiar and debased imitation of classic style, attributed by
architects to the 2nd century aj>. In Kefr Birlm there were
remains of two synagogues, but early in the 20th century one of
them was completely destroyed by a local stone-mason. At
Ir bid, above Tiberias, is another synagogue of rather different
character. Traces of synagogues have also been found on
Carmel, and at Tireh, west of Nazareth. It is curious to find
the representation of various animals in relief on the lintels
of these buildings. Hebrew inscriptions also occur, and the
carved work of the cornices and capitals is rich though debased.
In the 12th century Galilee was the outpost of the Christian
kingdom of Jerusalem, and its borders were strongly protected
by fortresses, the magnificent remains of which still crown the
most important strategical points. Toron (mod. Tibnim\ was
built in 1104, the first fortress erected by the crusaders, and
standing on the summit of the mountains of Upper Galilee.
Beau voir (Kaukab el-Hawa, built in 1182) stood on a precipice
above Jordan south-west of the Sea of Galilee, and guarded the
advance by the valley of Jezreel; and about the same time
Chateau Neuf (Hunln) was erected above the Hulch lake. Belfort
(esh Shukif), on the north bank of the Leontes, the finest and
most important, dates somewhat earlier; and Mont fort (Kalat d
Kurn) stood on a narrow spur north-east of Acre, completing the
chain of frontier fortresses.' The town of Banias, with its castle,
formed also a strong outpost against Damascus, and was the
scene, in common with the other strongholds, of many desperate
encounters between Moslems and Christians. Lower Galilee was
the last remaining portion of the Holy Land held by the Chris-
tians. In 1 2 50 the knights of the Teutonic order owned lands ex-
tending round Acre as far east as the Sea of Galilee, and including
§afed. These possessions were lost in 1291, on the fall of Acre.
The population of Galilee is mixed. In Lower Galilee the
peasants are principally Moslem, with a sprinkling of Greek
Christians round Nazareth, which is a Christian town. In Upper
Galilee, however, there is a mixture of Jews and Maronites,
Druses and Moslems (natives or Algerine settlers), while the
slopes above the Jordan are inhabited by wandering Arabs. The
Jews are engaged in trade, and the Christians, Druses and Mos-
lems in agriculture; and the Arabs are an entirely pastoral
people. (C. R. C. ; R. A. S. M.)
GALILEE, an architectural term sometimes given to a porch or
chapel which formed the entrance to a church. This is the case
at Durham and Ely cathedrals, and in Lincoln cathedral the name
is sometimes given to the south-west porch. The name is said
to be derived from the scriptural expression " Galilee of the
Gentiles " (Matt. iv. 15). Galilees are supposed to have been
used sometimes as courts of law, but they probably served chiefly
for penitents not yet admitted to the body of the church. The
Galilee would also appear to have been the vestibule of an abbey
church where women were allowed to see the monks to whom they
were related, or from which they could hear divine service. The
foundation of what is considered to have been a Galilee exists at
the west end of Fountains Abbey. Sometimes also corpses were
placed there before interment.
GALILEE, SEA OF, a lake in Palestine consisting of ao
expansion of the Jordan, on the latitude of Mt. Carmel. It is
13 m. long, 8 m. broad, 64 sq. m. in area, 680 ft. below the level of
the Mediterranean, and, according to Merrill and Barrois (who
have corrected the excessive depth said to have been found by
Lortet at the northern end), 150 ft. in maximum depth. It is
pear-shaped, the narrow end pointing southward. In the Hebrew
Scriptures it is called the Sea of Chinnereth or Chinneroth (prob-
ably derived from a town of the same name mentioned in
Joshua xi. 2 and elsewhere; the etymology that connects it with
'to, " a harp," is very doubtful.) In Josephus and the book of
GALILEE, SEA OF
495
Maccabees it is named Gennesar; while in the Gospels it is
usually called Sea of Galilee, though once it is called Lake of
Gennesaret (Luke v. i) and twice Sea of Tiberias (John vi. i,
xxi. i). The modern Arabic name is Bakr Tubariya, which is
often rendered " Lake of Tiberias." Pliny refers to it as the
Lake of Taricheae.
Like the Dead Sea it is a " rift " lake, being part of the great
fault that formed the Jordan -Araba depression. Deposits show
that originally it formed part of the great inland sea that filled
this depression in Pleistocene times. The district on each side of
the lake has a number of hot springs, at least one of which is
beneath the sea itself, and has always shown indications of
volcanic and other subterranean disturbances. It is especially
liable to earthquakes. The water of the sea, though slightly
brackish and not very clear, is generally used for drinking. The
shores are for the greater part formed of fine gravel; some yards
from the shore the bed is uniformly covered with fine greyish
mud. The temperature in summer is tropical, but after noon
falls about io° F. owing to strong north-west winds. This range
of temperature affects the water to a depth of about 49 ft.;
below that depth the water is uniformly about 59° F. The sea is
set deep in hills which rise on the east side to a height of about
3000 ft. Sudden and violent storms (such as arc described in
Matt. viii. 23, xiv. 22, and the parallel passages) are often pro-
duced by the changes of temperature in the air resulting from
these great differences of level.
The Sea of Galilee is best seen from the top of the western preci-
pices. It presents a desolate appearance. On the north the hills
rise gradually from the shore, which is fringed with oleander bushes
and indented with small bays. The ground is here covered with
black basalt. On the west the plateau known as Sahcl d-Ahroa
terminates in precipices 1700 ft. above the lake, and over these the
black rocky tops called " the Horns of liattin " arc conspicuous
objects. On the south is a broad valley through which the Jordan
flows. On the cast arc furrowed and rugged slopes, rising to the
ifreat plateau of the Jaulan (Gaulonitis). The Jordan enters the
ake through a narrow gorge between lower hills. A marshy plain,
2\ m. long and 1 J broad, called cl-Batihah, exists immediately east
of the Jordan inlet. There is also on the west side of the lake a small
flain called cl-Ghuweir, formed by the junction of three large valleys,
t measures 3I m. along the shore, and is 1 m. wide. This plain,
naturally fertile, but now almost uncultivated, is supposed to be
the plain of Gcnnesareth, described by Joseph us (B. J.iii. to, 8). On
the cast the hills approach in one place within 40 ft. of the water,
but there is gener
the beach. On the
average width of
western shores, ai
on the south-east
springs, the larges
springs a distinct
Tiberias and $afc
of Gennesaret h, wi
basin. North of
largest of which \
reservoir by 'AH,
aqueduct 52 ft. i
abundant, arc wai
'Ain et-Tinth ("
with a good strear
spring ), which i
the others. One
wera (" the round
plain and half a n
well 32 ft. in diar
of 73° F. The be
by Josephus (B.J.
was the first expl
presence suggested the identification of the " round spring " with
the fountain of Capharnaum, which, according to Josephus, watered
the plain of Gcnnesareth. There is, however, a difficulty in this
identification; there are no ruins at 'Ain el-Madawwcra.
Fauna and Flora. — For half the year the hillsides are bare and
steppe-like, but in spring are clothed with a subtropical vegetation.
Oleanders flourish round the lake, and the large papyrus grows 'at
"Ain et-Tin as well as at the mouth of the Jordan. The lake swarms
with fish, which arc caught with nets by a gild of fishermen, whose
boats arc the only representatives of the many ships and boats
which plied on the lake as late as the 10th century. Fishing was a
lucrative industry at an early date, and the Jews ascribed the laws
regulating it to Joshua. The fish, which were classed as clean and
unclean, the good and bad of the parable (Matt. xiii. 47, 48), belong
to the genera Chromis,. Bar bus, Capocta, Ditcoinaihus, Ncmachiiw,
Blennius and Ctarias; and there is a great affinity between them
and the fish of the East African lakes and streams. There arc eight
species of Chromis, most of which hatch their eggs and raise their
young in the buccal cavities of the males. The Chromis simonis is
popularly supposed to be the fish from which Peter took the piece
of money (Matt. xvii. 27). Claries macracanthus (Arab. Bur bur) is
the coracinus of Josephus. It was found by Lortet in the springs
of 'Ain cl-Madawwcra,'Ain et-Tinchand'Ainct-Tabighah.onthclafce
shore where muddy, and in Lake Huleh. It is a scalclcss, snake-like
fish, often nearly 5 ft. long, which resembles the C. anguillaris of
Egypt. From the absence of scales it was held by the Jews to be
unclean, and some commentators suppose it to be the serpent of
Matt. vii. 10 and Luke xi. II. Large numbers of grebes — great
crested, eared, and little, — gulls and pelicans frequent the Take.
On its shores arc tortoises, mud-turtles, crayfish and innumerable
sand-hoppers; and at varying depths in the lake several species of
Melania, Mclanoptis, Nenlina, Corbicnla and Unio have been found.
Antiquities. — The principal sites of interest round the lake may
be enumerated from north to west and from south to east.
Kerazeh, the undoubted site of Chorazin, stands on a rocky spur
900 ft. above the lake, 2 m. north of the shore. Foundations and
scattered stones cover the slopes and the flat valley below. On
the west is a rugged gorge. In the middle of the ruins arc the
scattered remains of a synagogue of richly ornamental style built
of black basalt. A small spring occurs on the north. Tell IJum
(as the name is generally spelt, though Talhim would probably be
preferable for several reasons) is an important ruin on the shore,
south of the last -mentioned site. The remains consist of founda-
tions and piles of stones (in spring concealed by gigantic thistles)
extending about half a mile along the shore. The foundations of
a fine synagogue, measuring 75 ft. by 57, and built in white
limestone, have been excavated. A conspicuous building has
been erected close to the water, from the fragments of the Tell
Hum synagogue. Since the 4th century Tell tfum has been
pointed out by all the Christian writers of importance as the
site of Capernaum. Some modern geographers question this
identification, but without sufficient reason (see Capernaum).
Minych is a rurhed site at the north end of the plain of Gcn-
nesareth, 2! m. from the last, and close to the shore. There
arc extensive ruins on flat ground, consisting of mounds and
foundations. Masonry of wcll-drcsscd stones has also been here
discovered in course of cxpavat ion. Near the ruins arc remains of
an old khan, which appears to have been built in the middle ages.
This is another suggested identification for Capernaum; but all
the remains belong to the Arab period. Between Tell rjum and
Minych is Tell 'Oreimeh, the site of a forgotten Amorite city.
South of the supposed plain of Gcnnesareth is Mcjdel, commonly
supposed to represent the New Testament town of Magdala.
A few lotus trees and some rock-cut tombs arc here found beside
a miserable mud hamlet on the hill slope, with a modern tomb-
house (kubbch). Passing beneath rugged cliffs a recess in the hills
is next reached, whore stands Tubariya, the ancient Tiberias or
Rakkath, containing 3000 inhabitants, more than half of whom are
Jews. The walls, flanked with round towers, but partly destroyed
by the earthquake of 1837, were built by Dhahr el- Amir, as was
the court-house. The two mosques, now partly ruinous, were
erected by his sons. There are remains of a Crusaders' church,
and the tomb of the celebrated Maimonides is shown in the town,
while Rabbi Aqlba and Rabbi Meir lie buried outside. The
ruins of the ancient city, including granite columns and traces of
a sea-wall with towers, stretch southwards a mile beyond the
modern town. An aqueduct in the cliff once brought water a
distance of 9 m. from the south.
Kerak, at the south end of the lake, is an important site on a
peninsula surrounded by the water of the lake, by the Jordan,
and by a broad water ditch, while on the north-west a narrow
neck of land remains. The plateau thus enclosed is partly
artificial, and banked up 50 or 60 ft. above the water. A ruined
citadel remains on the north-west, and on the east was a bridge
over the Jordan; broken pottery and fragments of sculptured
stone strew the site. The ruin of Kerak answers to the descrip-
tion given by Josephus of the city of Taricheae, which lay 30
stadia from Tiberias, the hot baths being between the two cities.
Taricheae was situated, as is Kerak, on the shore below the
cliffs, and partly surrounded by water, while before the city was a
406
GALILEO
plain (the Ghor). Pliny further informs us that Taricheae was at
the south end of the Sea of Galilee. Sinn cn-Nabrch, a ruin on a
spur of the hills dose to the last -mentioned site, represents the
ancient Scnnabris, where Vespasian (Josephus, B.J. iii. 9, 7)
fixed his camp, advancing from Scythopolis (Beisen) on Taricheae
and Tiberias. Scnnabris was 30 stadia from Tiberias, or about
the distance of the ruin now existing.
The eastern shores of the Sea of Galilee have been less fully
explored than the western, and the sites are not so perfectly
recovered. The site of Hippos, one of the cities of Dccapolis, is
fixed by Clermont -Ganncau at Khurbct Susich. Kalat el-Hosrr
(" castle of the stronghold ") is a ruin on a rocky spur opposite
Tiberias. Two large ruined buildings remain, with traces of an
old street and fallen columns and capitals. A strong wall once
surrounded the town; a narrow neck of land exists on the cast
where the rock has been scarped. Rugged valleys enclose the
site on the north and south; broken sarcophagi and rock-cut
tombs are found beneath the ruin. This site is not identified ; the
suggestion that it is Gamala is doubtful, and not borne out by
Josephus (War, iv. 1, 1), who says Gamala was over against
Taricheae. Kcrsa, an insignificant ruin north of the last, is
thought to represent the Gcrasa or Gergesa of the 4th century,
situated east of the lake; and the projecting spur of hill south of
this ruin is conjectured to be the place where the swine " ran
violently down a steep place" (Matt. viii. 32).
(C. R. C.; C. W. W.; R. A. S. M.)
GALILEO GALILEI (1564-1642), Italian astronomer and
experimental philosopher, was born at Pisa on the 15th of
February 1564. His father, Vincenzio, was an impoverished
descendant of a noble Florentine house, which had exchanged
the surname of Bonajuti for that of Galilei, on the election, in
1343, of one of its members, Tommasode'Bonajuti, to the college
of the twelve Buonuomini. The family, which was nineteen
times represented in the signoria, and in 1445 gave a gonfalonier
to Florence, flourished with the republic and declined with its fall.
Vincenzio Galilei was a man of better parts than fortune. He was
a competent mathematician, wrote with considerable ability on
the theory and practice of music, and was especially distinguished
amongst his contemporaries for the grace and skill of his perform-
ance upon the lute. By his wife, Giulia Ammannati of Peseta, he
had three sons and four daughters.
From his earliest childhood Galileo, the eldest of the family,
was remarkable for intellectual aptitude as well as for mechanical
invention. His favourite pastime was the construction of original
and ingenious toy-machines; but his application to literary
studies was equally conspicuous. In the monastery of Vallom-
brosa, near. Florence, where his education was principally con-
ducted, he not only made himself acquainted with the best
Latin authors, but acquired a fair command of the Greek tongue,
thus laying the foundation of his brilliant and elegant style.
From one of the monks he also received instruction in logic; but
the subtleties of the scholastic science were thoroughly distasteful
to him. A document published by F. Sclmi in 1864 proves that
he was at this time so far attracted towards a religious life as to
have joined the novitiate; but his father, who had other designs
for him, seized the opportunity of an attack of ophthalmia to
withdraw him permanently from the care of the monks. Having
had personal experience of the unrcmuncrativc character both of
music and of mathematics, he desired that his son should apply
himself to the cultivation of medicine, and, not without some
straining of his slender resources, placed him, before he had
completed his eighteenth year, at the university of Pisa. He
accordingly matriculated there on the 5th of November 1581, and
immediately entered upon attendance at the lectures of the
celebrated physician and botanist, Andrea Ccsalpino.
The natural gifts of the young student seemed at this time
equally ready to develop in any direction towards which choice
or hazard might incline them. In musical skill and invention he
already vied with the best professors of the art in Italy; his
personal taste would have led him to choose painting as his
profession, and one of the most eminent artists of his day,
Lodovico Cigoli, owned that to his judgment and counsel he N»as
mainly indebted for the success of his works. In 1581, while
watching a lamp set swinging in the cathedral of Pisa, he observed
that, whatever the range of its oscillations, they were invariably
executed in equal times. The experimental verification of this
fact led him to the important discovery of the isochronism of the
pendulum. He at first applied the; new principle to pulse-
measurement, and more than fifty years later turned it to account
in the construction of an astronomical clock. Up to this time he
was entirely ignorant of mathematics, his father having carefully
held him aloof from a study which he rightly apprehended would
lead to his total alienation from that of medicine. Accident,
however, frustrated this purpose. A lesson in geometry, given by
Ostilio Ricci to the pages of the grand-ducal court, chanced,
tradition avers, to have Galileo for an unseen listener; his
attention was riveted, his dormant genius was roused, and he
threw all his energies into the new pursuit thus unexpectedly
presented to him. With Ricci's assistance, he rapidly mastered
the elements of the science, and eventually extorted his father's
reluctant permission to exchange Hippocrates and Galen for
Euclid and Archimedes. In 1585 he was withdrawn from the
university, through lack of means, before he had taken a degree,
and returned to Florence, where his family habitually resided.
We next hear of him as lecturing before the Florentine Academy
on the site and dimensions of Dante's Inferno; and he shortly
afterwards published an essay descriptive of his invention of the
hydrostatic balance, which rapidly made his name known
throughout Italy. His first patron was the Marchese Guidubaldo
del Monte of Pcsaro, a man equally eminent in science, and
influential through family connexions. At the Marchese's
request he wrote, in 1588, a treatise on the centre of gravity in
solids, which obtained for him, together with the title of " the
Archimedes of his time," the honourable though not lucrative
post of mathematical lecturer at the Pisan university. During
the ensuing two years (1589-1591) he carried on that remarkable
scries of experiments by which he established the first principles
of dynamics and earned the undying hostility of bigoted Aristo-
telians. From the leaning tower of Pisa he afforded to all the
professors and students of the university ocular demonstration
of the falsehood of the Peripatetic dictum that heavy bodies fall
with velocities proportional to their weights, and with unanswer-
able logic demolished all the time-honoured maxims of the schools
regarding the motion of projectiles, and elemental weight or
levity.' But while he convinced, he failed to conciliate his
adversaries. The keen sarcasm of his polished rhetoric was not
calculated to soothe the susceptibilities of men already smarting
u ndcr the deprivation of their most cherished illusions. He seems,
in addition, to have compromised his position with the grand-
ducal family by the imprudent candour with which he condemned
a machine for clearing the port of Leghorn, invented by Giovanni
de' Medici, an illegitimate son of Cosmo I. Princely favour
being withdrawn, private rancour was free to show itself. He
was publicly hissed at his lecture, and found it prudent to resign
his professorship and withdraw to Florence in 1501. Through
the death of his father in July of that year family cares and
responsibilities devolved upon him, and thus his nomination to
the chair of mathematics at the university of Padua, secured by
the influence of the Marchese Guidubaldo with the Venetian
senate, was welcome both as affording a relief from pecuniary
embarrassment and as opening a field for scientific distinction.
His residence at Padua, which extended over a period of
eighteen years, from 1592 to 1610, was a course of uninterrupted
prosperity. His appointment was three times renewed, on each'
occasion with the expressions of the highest esteem on the part of
the governing body, and his yearly salary was progressively raised
from 180 to 1000 florins. His lectures were attended by persons
of the highest distinction from all parts of Europe, and such was
the charm of his demonstrations that a hall capable of containing
2000 people had eventually to be assigned for the accommodation
of the overflowing audiences which they attracted. His invention
of the proportional compass or sector — an implement still used in
geometrical drawing — dates from 1597; and about the sane
\ time ta ootaXxm£\s& vY& fex&v. \tannametcr, consisting of a bulb
GALILEO
407
and tube filled with air and water, and terminating in a vessel of
water. In this instrument the results of varying atmospheric
pressure were not distinguishable from the expansive and con-
tractive effects of heat and cold, and it became an efficient
measure of temperature only when Rinieri, in 1646, introduced
the improvement of hermetically sealing the liquid in glass. The
substitution, in 1670, of mercury for water completed the modern
thermometer.
Galileo seems, at an early period of his life, to have adopted the
Copernican theory of the solar system, and was deterred from
avowing his opinions — as is proved by his letter to Kepler of
August 4, 1597 — by the fear of ridicule rather than of persecu-
tion. The appearance, in September 1604, of a new star in the
constellation Serpen tarius afforded him indeed an opportunity,
of which he eagerly availed himself, for making an onslaught upon
the Aristotelian axiom of the incorruptibility of the heavens;
but he continued to conform his public teachings in the main to
Ptolemaic principles, until the discovery of a novel and potent
implement of research in the shape of the telescope (q.v.) placed
at his command startling and hitherto unsuspected evidence as
to the constitution and mutual relations of the heavenly bodies.
Galileo was not the original inventor of the telescope. 1 That
honour must be assigned to Johannes Lippershey, an obscure
optician of Middleburg, who, on the 2nd of October 1608,
petitioned the states-general of the Low Countries for exclusive
rights in the manufacture of an instrument for increasing the
apparent size of remote objects. A rumour of the new invention,
which reached Venice in June 1609, sufficed to set Galileo on the
track; and after one night's profound meditation on the principles
of refraction, he succeeded in producing a telescope of threefold
magnifying power. Upon this first attempt he rapidly improved,
until he attained to a power of thirty-two, and his instruments, of
which be manufactured hundreds with his own hands, were soon
in request in every part of Europe. Two lenses only — a plano-
convex and a plano-concave — were needed for, the composition of
each, and this simple principle is that still employed in the con-
struction of opera-glasses. Galileo's direction of his new instru-
ment to the heavens formed an era in the history of astronomy.
Discoveries followed upon it with astounding rapidity and in
bewildering variety. The Sidercus N Unci us, published at Venice
early in 1610, contained the first-fruits of the new mode of
investigation, which were sufficient to excite learned amazement
on both sides of the Alps. The mountainous configuration of
the moon's surface was there first described, and the so-called
" phosphorescence " of the dark portion of our satellite attributed
to its true cause — namely, illumination by sunlight reflected
from the earth. 3 All the time-worn fables and conjectures
regarding the composition of the Milky Way were at once dis-
sipated by the simple statement that to the eye, reinforced by
the telescope, it appeared as a congeries of lesser stars, while the
great nebulae were equally declared to be resolvable into similar
elements. But the discovery which was at once perceived to be
most important in itself, and most revolutionary in its effects,
was that of Jupiter's satellites, first seen by Galileo on the 7th of
January 16 10, and by him named Sidcra Mcdicca, in honour of the
grand-duke of Tuscany, Cosmo II., who had been his pupil, and
was about to become his employer. An illustration is, with the
general run of mankind, more powerful to convince than an
argument; and the cogency of the visible plea for the Coper-
nican theory offered by the miniature system, then first disclosed
to view, was recognizable in the triumph of its advocates as well
as in the increased acrimony of its opponents.
In September 1610 Galileo finally abandoned Padua for
Florence. His researches with the telescope had been rewarded
1 The word telescope, from rrj\t, far, oKtnrti*, to view, was invented
by Dcmtscianus, an eminent Greek scholar, at the request of Prince
Cesi, president of the Lyncean Academy. It was used by Galileo as
carinas 1612, but was not introduced into England until much later.
In 1655 the word telescope was inserted and explained in Bagwell's
Mysteries of Astronomy, trunk or cylinder being the terms untd then
ordinarily employed.
2 Leonardo da Vina, more than a hundred years earlier, had come
to the same conclusion.
by the Venetian senate with the appointment for life to his
professorship, at an unprcccdcntcdly high salary. His discovery
of the " Mcdicean Stars " was acknowledged by his nomination
(July 12, 1610) as philosopher and mathematician extraordinary
to the grand-duke of Tuscany. The emoluments of this office,
which involved no duties save that of continuing his scientific
labours, were fixed at 1000 scudi; and it was the desire of
increased leisure, rather than the promptings of local patriotism,
which induced him to accept an offer the original suggestion of
which had indeed come from himself. Before the close of 1610
the memorable cycle of discoveries begun in the previous year
was completed by the observation of the an sated or, as it
appeared to Galileo, triple form of Saturn (the ring-formation was
first recognized by Christiaan Huygcns in 1655), of the phases of
Venus, and of the spots upon the sun. As regards sun-spots,
however, Johann Fabricius of Ostecl in Fricsland can claim
priority of publication, if not of actual detection. In the spring
of 161 1 Galileo visited Rome, and exhibited in the gardens of the
Quirinal Palace the telescopic wonders of the heavens to the most
eminent personages at the pontifical court. Encouraged by the
flattering reception accorded to him, he ventured, in his Letters
on the Solar Spots, printed at Rome in 1613, to take up a more
decided position towards that doctrine on the establishment of
which, as he avowed in a letter to Belisario Vinta, secretary to the
grand-duke, " all his life and being henceforward depended."
Even in the time of Copernicus some well-meaning persons,
especially those of the reformed persuasion, had suspected a
discrepancy between the new view of the solar system and certain
passages of Scripture — a suspicion strengthened by the anti-
Christian inferences drawn from it by Giordano Bruno; but the
question was never formally debated until Galileo's brilliant
disclosures, enhanced by his formidable dialectic and enthusiastic
zeal, irresistibly challenged for it the attention of the authorities.
Although he had no desire to raise the theological issue, it must be
admitted that, the discussion once set on foot, he threw himself
into it with characteristic impetuosity, and thus helped to
precipitate a decision which it was his interest to avert. In
December 16*^ a Benedictine monk named Benedetto Castclli,
at that time professor of mathematics at the university of Pisa,
wrote to inform Galileo of a recent discussion at the grand-
ducal table, in which he had been called upon to defend the
Copernican doctrine against theological objections. This task
Castclli, who was a steady friend and disciple of the Tuscan
astronomer, seems to have discharged with moderation
and success. Galileo's answer, written, as he said himself,
currente calamo, was an exposition of a formal theory as to the
relations of physical science to Holy Writ, still further developed
in an elaborate apology addressed by him in the following year
(1614) to Christina of Lorraine, dowager grand-duchess of
Tuscany. Not satisfied with explaining adverse texts, he met
his opponents with unwise audacity on their own ground, and
endeavoured to produce scriptural confirmation of a system
which seemed to the ignorant many an incredible paradox, and to
the scientific few a beautiful but daring innovation. The rising
agitation on the subject, fomented for their own purposes by the
rabid Aristotelians of the schools, was heightened rather than
allayed by these manifestoes, and on the fourth Sunday of the
following Advent found a voice in the pulpit of Santa Maria
Novella. Padre* Caccini's denunciation of the new astronomy
was indeed disavowed and strongly condemned by his superiors;
nevertheless, on the 5th of February 1615, another Dominican
monk named Lorini laid Galileo's letter to Castclli before the
Inquisition.
Cardinal Robert Bcllarmin was at that time by far the most
influential member of the Sacred College. He was a man of vast
learning and upright piety, but, although pcrsdnally friendly to
Galileo, there is no doubt that he saw in his scientific teachings a
danger to religion. The year 1615 seems to have been a period of
suspense. Galileo received, as the result of a conference between
Cardinals Bcllarmin and Del Monte, a semi-official warning to
avoid theology, and limit himself to physical reasoning. " Write
freely," he was told by Maratynat Xivt^" V*\\. Vsa.^ «&»&&>!&*.
408
GALILEO
sacristy." Unfortunately, he had already committed himself to
dangerous ground. In December he repaired personally to Rome,
full of confidence that the weight of his arguments and the vivacity
of his eloquence could not fail to convert the entire pontifical
court to his views. He was cordially received, and eagerly
listened to, but his imprudent ardour served but to injure his
cause. On the 24th of February 1616 the consulting theologians
of the Holy Office characterized the two propositions — that the
sun is immovable in the centre of the world, and that the earth has
a diurnal motion of rotation — the first as " absurd in philosophy,
and formally heretical, because expressly contrary to Holy
Scripture," and the second as " open to the same censure in
philosophy, and at least erroneous as to faith." Two days later
Galileo was, by command of the pope (Paul V.), summoned
to the palace of Cardinal Bcllarmin, and there officially ad-
monished not thenceforward to " hold, teach or defend " the
condemned doctrine. This injunction he promised to obey.
On the 5th of March the Congregation of the Index issued a decree
reiterating, with the omission of the word " heretical," the censure
of the theologians, suspending, usque corrigatur, the great work of
Copernicus, Dc rcvolutionibus orbium cocUstium, and absolutely
prohibiting a treatise by a Carmelite monk named Foscarini,
which treated the same subject from a theological point of view.
At the same time it was given to be understood that the new
theory of the solar system might be held ex hypothesis and the
trivial verbal alterations introduced into the Polish astonomer's
book in 1 620, when the work of revision was completed by Cardinal
Gaetani, confirmed this interpretation. This edict, it is essential
to observe, the responsibility for which rests with a disciplinary
congregation in no sense representing the church, was never
confirmed by the pope, and was virtually repealed in 1757 under
Benedict XIV.
Galileo returned to Florence three months later, not ill-pleased,
as his letters testify, with the result of his visit to Rome. He
brought with him, for the refutation of calumnious reports
circulated by his enemies, a written certificate from Cardinal
Bcllarmin, to the effect that no abjuration had been required of or
penance imposed upon him. During a prolonged audience he had
received from the pope assurances of private esteem and personal
protection; and he trusted to his dialectical ingenuity to find the
means of presenting his scientific convictions under the trans-
parent veil of an hypothesis. Although a sincere Catholic, he
seems to have laid but little stress on the secret admonition of the
Holy Office, which his sanguine temperament encouraged him
gradually to dismiss from his mind. He preserved no written
memorandum of its terms, and it was represented to him, accord-
ing to his own deposition in 1633, solely by Cardinal Bellarmin's
certificate, in which, for obvious reasons, it was glossed over rather
than expressly recorded. For seven years, nevertheless, during
which he led a life of studious retirement in the Villa Segni at
Bcllosguardo, near Florence, he maintained an almost unbroken
silence. At the end of that time he appeared in public with his
Saggiatore, a polemical treatise written in reply to the Libra
aslronomica of Padre Grassi (under the pseudonym of Lotario
Sarsi), the Jesuit astronomer of the Collegio Romano. The
subject in debate was the nature of .comets, the conspicuous
appearance of three of which bodies in the year 1618 furnished
the occasion of the controversy. Galileo's views, although
erroneous, since he held comets to be mere atmospheric emana-
tions reflecting sunlight after the evanescent fashion 6f a halo
or a rainbow, were expressed with such triumphant vigour, and
embellished with such telling sarcasms, that his opponent did not
venture upon a reply. The Saggiatore was printed at Rome in
October 1623 by the Academy of the Lincci, of which Galileo was
a member, with a dedication to the new pope, Urban VIII., and
notwithstanding some passages containing a covert defence of
Copernican opinions, was received with acclamation by ecclesi-
astical, no less than by scientific authorities.
Everything seemed now to promise a close of unbroken
prosperity to Galileo's career. Maffco Barbcrini, his warmest
friend and admirer in the Sacred College, was, by the election of
the 8th of August 1623, seated oil the pontifical throne; and the
marked distinction with which he was received on his visit of
congratulation to Rome in 1624 encouraged him to hope for the
realization of his utmost wishes. He received every mark of
private favour. The pope admitted him to six long audiences in
the course of two months, wrote an enthusiastic letter to the
grand-duke praising the great astronomer, not only lor his
distinguished learning, but also for his exemplary piety, and
granted a pension to his son Vincenzio, which was afterwards
transferred to himself, and paid, with some irregularities, to the
end of his life. But on the subject of the decree of x6i6, the
revocation of which Galileo had hoped to obtain through his
personal influence, he found him inexorable. Yet there seemed
reason to expect that it would at least be interpreted in a liberal
spirit, and Galileo's friends encouraged his imprudent confidence
by eagerly retailing to him every papal utterance which it was
possible to construe in a favourable sense. To Cardinal Hohen-
zollcrn, Urban was reported to have said that the theory of the
earth's motion had not been and could not be condemned as
heretical, but only as rash; and in 1630 the brilliant Dominican
monk Tommaso Campanella wrote to Galileo that the pope had
expressed to him in conversation his disapproval of the prohi-
bitory decree. Thus, in the full anticipation of added renown,
and without any misgiving as to ulterior consequences, Galileo
set himself, on his return to Florence, to complete his famous
but ill-starred work, the Dialogo dci due massimi sistemi del
mondo. Finished in 1630, it was not until January 1632 that it
emerged from the presses of Landini at Florence. The book
was originally intended to appear in Rome, but unexpected
obstacles interposed. The Lincean Academy collapsed with the
death of Prince Federigo Cesi, its founder and president; an
outbreak of plague impeded communication between the various
Italian cities; and the imprimatur was finally extorted, rather
than accorded, under the pressure of private friendship and
powerful interest. A tumult of applause from every part of
Europe followed its publication; and it would be difficult to find
in any language a book in which animation and elegance of style
arc so happily combined with strength and clearness of scientific
exposition. Three interlocutors, named respectively Salviati,
Sagredo, and Simplicio, take part in the four dialogues of which
the work is composed. The first-named expounds the views of
the author; the second is an eager and intelligent listener; the
third represents a well-meaning but dbtuse Peripatetic, whom the
others treat at times with undisguised contempt. Salviati and
Sagredo took their names from two of Galileo's early friends, the
former a learned Florentine, the latter a distinguished Venetian
gentleman; Simplicio ostensibly derived his from the Cilician
commentator of Aristotle, but the choice was doubtless instigated
by a sarcastic regard to the double meaning of the word. There
were not wanting those who insinuated that Galileo intended to
depict the pope himself in the guise of the simpleton of the party;
and the charge, though preposterous in itself, was supported by
certain imprudences of expression, which Urban was not per-
mitted to ignore.
It was at once evident that the whole tenor of this remarkable
work was in flagrant contradiction with the edict passed sixteen
years before its publication, as well as with the author's personal
pledge of conformity to it. The ironical submission with which it
opened, and the assumed indetermination with which it closed,
were hardly intended to mask the vigorous assertion of Coper-
nican principles which formed its substance. It is a singular
circumstance, however, that the argument upon which Galileo
mainly relied as furnishing a physical demonstration of the truth
of the new theory rested on a misconception. The ebb and flow
of the tides were, he asserted, a visible proof of the terrestrial
double movement, since they resulted from inequalities in the
absolute velocities through space of the various parts of the
earth's surface, due to its rotation. To this notion, which took
its rise in a confusion of thought, he attached capital importance,
and he treated with scorn Kepler's suggestion that a certain
occult attraction of the moon was in some way concerned in the
phenomenon. The theological censures which the book did not
fail to incur were not slow in making themselves felt. Towards
GALILEO
409
the end of August the sale was prohibited; on the 1st of October
the author was cited to Rome by the Inquisition. He pleaded his
age, now close upon seventy years, his infirm health, and the
obstacles to travel, caused by quarantine regulations; but the
pope was sternly indignant at what he held to be his ingratitude
and insubordination, and no excuse was admitted. At length,
on the 13th of February 1633, he arrived at the residence of
Niccolini, the Tuscan ambassador to the pontifical court, and
there abode in retirement for two months. From the x 2th to the
30th of April he was detained in. the palace of the Inquisition,
where he occupied the best apartments and was treated with
unexampled indulgence. On the 30th he was restored to the
hospitality of Niccolini, his warm partisan. The accusation
against him was that he had written in contravention of the
decree of 1616, and in defiance of the command of the Holy Office
communicated to him by Cardinal Bellarmin; and his defence
consisted mainly in a disavowal of his opinions, and an appeal to
his good intentions. On the 2 1st of June he was finally examined
under menace of torture; but he continued to maintain his
assertion that after its condemnation by the Congregation of the
Index, he had never held the Copernican theory. Since the
publication of the documents relating to this memorable trial,
there can no longer be any doubt, not only that the threat of
torture was not carried into execution, but that it was never
intended that it should be. On the 22nd of June, in the church of
Santa Maria sopra Minerva, Galileo read his recantation, and
received his sentence. He was condemned, as " vehemently
suspected of heresy," to incarceration at the pleasure of the
tribunal, and by way of penance was enjoined to recite once a
week for three years the seven penitential psalms. This sentence
was signed by seven cardinals, but did not receive the customary
papal ratification. The legend according to which Galileo,
rising from his knees after repeating the formula of abjuration,
stamped on the ground, and exclaimed, " Eppur H muovct" is,
as may readily be supposed, entirely apocryphal. Its earliest
ascertained appearance is in the Abbe Irailh's Qutrcllcs lilttraires
(vol. iit. p. 40, 1 761).
Galileo remained in the custody of the Inquisition from the
2 1 $t to the 24th of June, on which day he was relegated to the
Villa Medici on the Trinita dc' Monti. Thence, on the 6th of July,
he was permitted to depart for Siena, where he spent several
months in the house of the archbishop, Ascanio Piccolomini, one
of his numerous and trusty friends. It was not until December
that his earnest desire of returning to Florence was realized, and
the remaining eight years of his life were spent in his villa at
Arcetri called " 11 Giojello," in the strict seclusion which was the
prescribed condition of his comparative freedom. Domestic
afflictions combined with numerous and painful infirmities to
embitter his old age. His sister-in-law and her whole family,
who came to live with him on bis return from Rome, perished
shortly afterwards of the plague; and on the 2nd of April 1634
died, to the inexpressible grief of her father, his eldest and best-
beloved daughter, a nun in the convent of San Matteo at Arcetri.
Galileo was never married; but by a Venetian woman named
Marina Gamba he had three children — a son who married and
left descendants, and two daughters who took the veil at an early
age. His prodigious mental activity continued undiminished to
the last. In 1636 he completed his Dialoglii delU ntwte scienzc,
in which he recapitulated the results of his early experiments and
mature meditations on the principles of mechanics. This in
many respects his most valuable work was printed by the
Elzevirs at Leiden in 1638, and excited admiration equally uni-
versal and more lasting than that accorded to his astronomical
treatises. His last telescopic discovery — that of the moon's
diurnal and monthly librations — was made in 1637, only a few
months before his eyes were for ever dosed in hopeless blindness.
It was in this condition that Milton found him when he visited
him at Arcetri in 1638. But the fire of his genius was not even yet
extinct. He continued his scientific correspondence with
unbroken interest and undiminished logical acumen; he thought
out the application of the pendulum to the regulation of clock-
work, which Huygens successfully realized fifteen years later;
and he was engaged in dictating to his disciples, Viviani and
Torricelli, his latest ideas on the theory of impact when he waa
seized with the slow fever which in two months brought him to
the grave. On the 8th of January 1642 he closed his long life of
triumph and humiliation, which just spanned the interval
between the death of Michelangelo and the birth of Isaac Newton.
The direct services which Galileo rendered to astronomy are
virtually summed up in his telescopic discoveries. To the theo-
retical perfection of the science he contributed little or nothing.
He pointed out indeed that the so-called " third motion," intro-
duced by Copernicus to account for the constant parallelism of
the earth's axis, was a superfluous complication. But he substi-
tuted the equally unnecessary hypothesis of a magnetic attrac-
tion, and failed to perceive that the phenomenon to be explained
was, in relation to absolute space, not a movement but the absence
of movement. The circumstance, however, which most seriously
detracts from his scientific reputation is his neglect of the
discoveries made during his lifetime by the greatest of his
contemporaries. Kepler's first and second laws were published
in 1600, and his third ten years later. By these momentous
inductions the geometrical theory of the solar system was
perfected, and a hitherto unimagined symmetry was perceived to
regulate the mutual relations of its members. But by Galileo
they were passed over in silence. In his DuUogo dci massimi
sistemi, printed not less than thirteen years after the last of the
three laws had been given to the world, the epicycles by which
Copernicus, adhering to the ancient postulate of uniform circular
motion, had endeavoured to reduce to theory the irregularities of
the planetary movements, were neither expressly adopted nor
expressly rejected; and the conclusion seems inevitable that this
grave defection from the cause of progress was due to his perhaps
unconscious reluctance to accept discoveries which he had not
originated. His name is nevertheless justly associated with that
vast extension of the bounds of the visible universe which has
rendered modern astronomy the most sublime of sciences, and his
telescopic observations are a standing monument to his sagacity
and acumen.
With the sure instinct of genius, he seized the characteristic
features of the phenomena presented to his attention, and his
inferences, except when distorted by polemical exigencies, have
been strikingly confirmed by modern investigations. Of his two
capital errors, regarding respectively the theory of the tides and
the nature of comets, the first was insidiously recommended to
him by his passionate desire to find a physical confirmation of the
earth's double motion; the second was adopted for the purpose
of rebutting an anti-Copernican argument founded on the planetary
analogies of those erratic subjects of the sun. Within two years of
their first discovery, he had constructed approximately accurate
tables of the revolutions of Jupiter's satellites, and he proposed
their frequent eclipses as a means of determining longitudes, not
only on land, but at sea. This method, on which he laid great
stress, and for the facilitation of which he invented a binocular
glass, and devised some skilful mechanical contrivances, was
offered by him in 1616 to the Spanish government, and afterwards
to that of Tuscany, but in each case unsuccessfully; and the
close of his life was occupied with prolonged but fruitless negotia-
tions on the same subject with the states-general of Holland.
The idea, though ingenious, has been found of little practical
utility at sea.
A series of careful observations made him acquainted with the
principal appearances revealed by modern instruments in the
solar spots. He pointed out that they were limited to a certain
defined zone on the sun's surface; he noted the faculae with
which they are associated, the penumbra by which they are
bordered, their slight proper motions and their rapid changes of
form. He inferred from the regularity of their general movements
the rotation of the sun on its axis in a period of little less than a
month; and he grounded on the varying nature of the paths
seemingly traversed by them a plausible, though inconclusive,
argument in favour of the earth's annual revolution. Twice in
the year, he observed, they seem to travel across the solar disk in
straight lines; at other times, in curves. These appearances he
4IO
GALILEO
referred with great acutenesstothe slight inclination of the sun's
axis of rotation to the plane of the ecliptic. Thus, when the
earth finds herself in the plane of the sun's equator, which occurs
at two opposite points of her orbit, the spots, travelling in circles
parallel with that plane, necessarily appear to describe right lines;
but when the earth is above or below the equatorial level, the
paths of the spots open out into curves turned downwards or
upwards, according to the direction in which they are seen. But
the explanation of this phenomenon is equally consistent with the
geocentric as with the heliocentric theory of the solar system.
The idea of a universal force of gravitation seems to have hovered
on the borders of this great man's mind, without ever fully
entering it. He perceived the analogy between the power which
holds the moon in the neighbourhood of the earth, and compels
Jupiter's satellites to circulate round their primary, and the
attraction exercised by the earth on bodies at its surface; ' but
he failed to conceive the combination of central force with
tangential velocity, and was disposed to connect the revolutions
of the planets with the axial rotation of the sun. This notion, it
is plain, tended rather towards Dcscartes's theory of vortices
than towards Newton's theory of gravitation. More valid
instances of the anticipation of modern discoveries may be found
in his prevision that a small annual parallax would eventually be
found for some of the fixed stars, and that extra-Sat urnian planets
would at some future time be ascertained to exist, and in his
conviction that light travels with a measurable, although, in
relation. to terrestrial distances, infinite velocity.
The invention of the microscope, attributed to Galileo by his
first biographer, Vincenzio Viviani, does not in truth belong to
him. Such an instrument was made as early as 1 500 by Zacharias
Jansen of Middleburg; and although Galileo discovered, in 1610,
a means of adapting his telescope to the examination of minute
objects, he did not become acquainted with the compound
microscope until 1624 when he saw one of Drcbbel's instru-
ments in Rome, and, with characteristic ingenuity, immedi-
ately introduced some material improvements into its
construction.
The most substantial, if not the most brilliant part of his work
consisted undoubtedly in his contributions towards the establish-
ment of mechanics as a science. Some valuable but isolated facts
and theorems bad been previously discovered and proved, but
it was he who first clearly grasped the idea of force as a mechanical
agent, and extended to the external world the conception of the
invariability of the relation between cause and effect. From the
time of Archimedes there had existed a science of equilibrium, but
the science of motion began with Galileo. It is not too much to
say that the final triumph of the Copernican system was due in
larger measure to his labours in this department than to his
direct arguments in its favour. The problem of the heavens is
essentially a mechanical one; and without the mechanical
conceptions of the dependence of motion upon force which
Galileo familiarized to men's minds, that problem might have
remained a sealed book even to the intelligence of Newton. The
interdependence of motion and force was not indeed formulated
into definite laws by Galileo, but his writings on dynamics are
everywhere suggestive of those laws, and his solutions of
dynamical problems involve their recognition. The extra-
ordinary advances made by him in this branch of knowledge
were owing to hi» happy method of applying mathematical
analysis to physical problems. As a pure mathematician he was,
it is true, surpassed in profundity by more than one among his
pupils and contemporaries; and in the wider imaginative grasp
of abstract geometrical principles he cannot be compared with
Fermat, Descartes or Pascal, to say nothing of Newton or
Leibnitz. Still, even in the region of pure mathematics, his
1 The passage is sufficiently remarkable to deserve quotation in the
original: — " Lc parti dclla Terra hanno tal propensione al centro di
essa, che quando clla cangiassc luogo, le dctte parti, benche lontane
dal globo ncl tempo dcllc mutazioni di csso, lo scguirebbcro per tutto ;
esempio di rid sia il scguito pcrpctuo delle Medicec, ancorchi separate
continuamente da Giove. L'istesso si deve dire della Luna, obbligata
m aegvlr la Terra." — Dialogo dci massimi sisttmi, Giomata terra,
p. j&i ofAlteri'i edition.
powerful and original mind left notable traces of its working.
He studied the properties of the cycloid, and attempted the
problem of its quadrature; and in the " infinitesimals," which he
was one of the first to introduce into geometrical demonstrations,
was contained the fruitful germ of the differential calculus.
But the method which was peculiarly his, and which still forms
the open road to discoveries in natural science, consisted in the
combination of experiment with calculation — in the transforma-
tion of the concrete into the abstract, and the assiduous com-
parison of results. The first-fruits of the new system of investiga-
tion was his determination of the laws of falling bodies. Conceiv-
ing that the simplest principle is the most likely to be true, he
assumed as a postulate that bodies falling freely towards the earth
descend with a uniformly accelerated motion, and deduced thence
that the velocities acquired are in the direct, and the spaces
traversed in the duplicate ratio of the times, counted from the
beginning of motion; finally, he proved, by observing the times
of descent of bodies falling down inclined planes, that the postu-
lated law was the true law. Even here, he was obliged to take for
granted that the velocities acquired in descending from the same
height along planes of every inclination are equal; and it was not
until shortly before his death that he found the mathematical
demonstration of this not very obvious principle.
The first law of motion — that which expresses the principle
of inertia — is virtually contained in the idea of uniformly
accelerated velocity. The recognition of the second — that of the
independence of different motions — must be added to form the
true theory of projectiles. This was due to Galileo. Up to his
time it was universally held in the schools that the motion of a
body should cease with the impulse communicated to it, but
for the '* reaction of the medium " helping it forward. Galileo
showed, on the contrary, that the nature of motion once impressed
is to continue indefinitely in a uniform direction, and that the
effect of the medium is a retarding, not an impelling one. Another
commonly received axiom was that no body could be affected by
more than one movement at one time, and it was thus supposed
that a cannon ball, or other projectile, moves forward in a right
line until its first impulse is exhausted, when it falls vertically to
the ground. In the fourth of Galileo's dialogues on mechanics,
he demonstrated that the path described by a projectile, being the
result of the combination of a uniform transverse motion with a
uniformly accelerated vertical motion, must, apart from the
resistance of the air, be a parabola. The establishment of the
principle of the composition of motions formed a conclusive
answer to the most formidable of the arguments used against the
rotation of the earth, and we find it accordingly triumphantly
brought forward by Galileo in the second of his dialogues on the
systems of the world. It was urged by anti-Copernicans that a
body flung upward or cast downward would, if the earth were in
motion, be left behind by the rapid translation of the point from
which it started; Galileo proved on the contrary that the
reception of a fresh impulse in no way interfered with the move-
ment already impressed, and that the rotation of the earth was
insensible, because shared equally by all bodies at its surface.
His theory of the inclined plane, combined with his satisfactory
definition of " momentum," led him towards the third law of
motion. Wc find Newton's theorem, that " action and reaction
are equal and opposite," stated with approximate precision in his
treatise Delia sciatza mcuanico, which contains the substance of
lectures delivered during his professorship at Padua; and the
same principle is involved in the axiom enunciated in the third
of his mechanical dialogues, that " the propensity of a body to
fall is equal to the least resistance which suffices to support it."
The problems of percussion, however, received no definitive
solution until after his death.
His services were as conspicuous in the statical as in the
kinctical division of mechanics. He gave the first satisfactory
demonstration of equilibrium on an inclined plane, reducing it to
the level by a sound and ingenious train of reasoning; while, by
establishing the theory of " virtual velocities," he laid down the
fundamental principle which, in the opinion of Lagrange, con-
tains the general expression of the laws of equilibrium. He
GALION— GALL 41 *
studied with attention the still obscure subject of moleculai
cohesion, and little has been added to what he ascertained on the
question of transverse strains and the strength of beams, first
brought by him within the scope of mechanical theory. In his
Discorso iniorno atte cose eke stanno su I'acqua, published in i6ia,
he used the principle of virtual velocities to demonstrate the more
important theorems of hydrostatics, deducing from it the
equilibrium of fluid in a siphon, and proved against the Aristo-
telians that the floating of solid bodies in a liquid depends not
upon their form, but upon their specific gravities relative to such
liquid.
In order to form an adequate estimate of the stride made by
Galileo in natural philosophy, it would be necessary to enumerate
the confused and erroneous opinions prevailing on all such
subjects in his time. His best culogium, it has been truly said,
consists in the fallacies which he exposed. The scholastic
distinctions between corruptible and incorruptible substances,
between absolute gravity and absolute levity, between natural
and violent motions, if they did not wholly disappear from
scientific phraseology, ceased thenceforward to hold the place
of honour in the controversies of the learned, Discarding these
obscure and misleading notions, Galileo taught that gravity and
levity are relative terms, and that all bodies are heavy, even
those which, like the air, are invisible; that motion is the result
of force, instantaneous or continuous; that weight is a continuous
force, attracting towards the centre of the earth; that, in a
vacuum, all bodies would fall with equal velocities; that the
" inertia of matter " implies the continuance of motion, as well
as the permanence of rest; and that the substance of the
heavenly bodies is equally " corruptible " with that of the earth.
These simple elementary ideas were eminently capable of
development and investigation, and were not only true but the
prelude to further truth; while those they superseded defied
inquiry by their vagueness and obscurity. Galileo was a man
born in due time. He was superior to his contemporaries, but not
isolated amongst them. He represented and intensified a growing
tendency of the age in which he lived. It was beginning to be
suspected that from Aristotle an appeal lay to nature, and some
were found who no longer treated the ipse dixit of the Stagirite
as the final authority in matters of science. A vigorous but
ineffectual warfare had already been waged against the blind
traditions of the schools by Ramus and Telesius, by Patricius and
Campanella, and the revolution which Galileo completed had been
prepared by his predecessors. Nevertheless, the task which he so
effectually accomplished demanded the highest and rarest quality
of genius. He struck out for himself the happy middle path
between the a priori and the empirical systems, and exemplified
with brilliant success the method by which experimental science
has wrested from nature so many of her secrets. His mind was
eminently practical. He concerned himself above all with what
fell within the range of exact inquiry, and left to others the
larger but less fruitful speculations which can never be brought to
the direct test of experiment. Thus, while far-reaching but hasty
generalizations have had their day and been forgotten, his work
has proved permanent, because he made sure of its foundations.
His keen intuition of truth, his vigour and yet sobriety of argu-
ment, his fertility of illustration and acuteness of sarcasm, made
him irresistible to his antagonists; and the evanescent triumphs
of scornful controversy have given place to the sedate applause of
a long-lived posterity.
The first complete edition of Galileo's writings was published at
Florence (1842- 1856), in 16 8vo vols., under the supervision of
Signor Eugenio Albert. Besides the works already enumerated, ft
contained the Sermones de motu travium composed at Pisa between
1589 and 1591 ; his letters to his friends, with many of their replies,
as well as several of the essays of his scientific opponents; his
laudatory comments on the Orlando Futioso, and depreciatory
notes on the CerusaUmme Liberate, some stanzas and sonnets of no
great merit, together with the sketch of a comedy; finally, a reprint
of Viviani's Life, with valuable notes and corrections. The original
documents from the archives of the Inquisition, relating to the
events of 1616 and 1633, recovered from Paris in 1846 by the efforts
of Count Rossi, and now in the Vatican Library, were to a limited
extent made public by Monsignor Marino-Marini in 1850, and
more unreservedly by M. Henri de 1'Epinois, in an essay entitled
412
GALL— GALLAND
resorted to by the public, and excited considerable controversy in
the scientific world. He had almost reached the zenith of his
fame when, in 1807, he repaired to Paris and established himself
there as a medical practitioner, at the same time continuing his
activity as a lecturer and writer. In 1 808 appeared his Introduc-
tion au cours de physiologic du cervcau, which was followed in
1809 by the Recherches sur le systcmc nervcux en general, et sur
etlui du cervcau en particular (originally laid before the Institute
of France in March 1808), and in 18 10 by the first instalment
of the Anatomic et physiologic du systime nervcux en giniral, et
du cervcau en patticulier, avee des observations sur la possibiliU
de reconnoitre plusieurs dispositions inteUectueUcs et morales de
Phomme et des amtnaux par la configuration de leurs tHcs. The
Recherchcs and the first two volumes of the Anatomic bear the
conjoint names of Gall and Spurzheim. The latter work was
completed in 18 19, and appeared in a second edition of six
volumes in 1822-1825. In 181 1 he replied to a charge of
Spinozism or atheism, which had been strongly urged against
him, by a treatise entitled Des dispositions innles de I'dme et
de r esprit, which he afterwards incorporated with his greater
work. In 1819 he became a naturalized French subject, but his
efforts two years afterwards to obtain admission to the Academy
of Sciences, although supported by E. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire,
were unsuccessful. In 1 823 he visited London with the intention
of giving a series of phrenological lectures, but his reception was
not what he had anticipated, and he speedily abandoned his
plans. He continued to lecture and practise in Paris until the
beginning of 1828, when he was disabled by an apoplectic seizure.
His death took place at Montrouge near Paris, on the 22nd of
August 1828.
GALL (a word common to many Teutonic languages, cf.
Dutch gal, and Gcr. Galle; the Indo-European root appears in
Gr. x°Mi an< l Lat. fel; possibly connected with " yellow,"
with reference to the colour of bile), the secretion of the liver
known as " bile," the term being also used of the pear-shaped
diverticulum of the bile-duct, which forms a reservoir for the bile,
more generally k nown as the " gall-bladder " (sec Liver) . From
the extreme bitterness of the secretion, " gall," like the Lat.
fel, is used for anything extremely bitter, whether actually or
metaphorically. From the idea that the gall-bladder was the
dominating organ of a bitter, sharp temperament, " gall " was
formerly used in English for such a spirit, and also for one very
ready to resent injuries. It thus survives in American slang,
with the meaning " impudence " or " assurance."
" Gall," meaning a sore or painful swelling, especially on a
horse, may be the same word, derived from an early use of the
word as meaning " poison." On the other hand, in Romanic
languages, the Fr. galle, Sp. agalla, a wind-gall or puffy distension
of the synovial bursa on the fetlock joint of a horse, is derived
from the Lat. galla, oak-apple, from which comes the English
" gall," meaning an excrescence on trees caused by certain
insects. (Sec Galls.)
GALLABAT, or Galabat, called by the Abyssinians Matemma
(Metcmraa), a town of the Anglo- Egyptian Sudan, in 13 N.
36 1 2' E. It is built, at the foot of a steep slope, on the left bank
of a tributary of the Atbara called the Khor Abnaheir, which
forms here the Sudan-Abyssinian frontier. Gallabat lies 00 m.
W. by N. of Gondar, the capital of Amhara, and being on the main
route from Sennar to Abyssinia, is a trade centre of some import-
ance. Pop. about 3000. The majority of the buildings are grass
tukls. Slaves, beeswax, coffee, cotton and hides were formerly
the chief articles of commerce. The slave market was closed
about 1874. Being on the frontier line, the possession of the town
was for long a matter of dispute between the Sudanese, and later
the Egyptians, on the one hand and the Abyssinians on the other.
About 1870 the Egyptians garrisoned the town, which in 1886
was attacked by the dervishes and sacked. From Gallabat a
dervish raiding party penetrated to Gondar, which they looted.
In revenge an Abyssinian army under King John attacked the
dervishes close to Gallabat in March 1889. The dervishes
suffered very severely, but King John being killed by a stray
bullet, the Abyssinians retired (see Egypt: Military Operations,
1885-1896). In December 1898 an Anglo-Egyptian force entered
Gallabat. The Abyssinians then held the fort, but as the result
of frontier arrangement the town was definitely included in the
Sudan, though Abyssinia takes half the customs revenue. Since
1809 the trade of the place has revived, coffee and live stock
being the most important items.
The town and district form a small ethnographical island,
having been peopled in the 18th century by a colony of Takruri
from Darfur, who, finding the spot a convenient resting-place
for their fellow-pilgrims on their way to Mecca and back, obtained
permission from the negus of Abyssinia to make a permanent
settlement. They are an industrious agricultural race, and
cultivate cotton with considerable success. They also collect
honey in large quantities. The Takruri possess jagged throwing
knives, which are said to have been brought from their original
home in the Upper Congo regions.
GALLAIT, LOUIS (1810-1887), Belgian painter, was born at
Tournay, in Hainaut, Belgium, on the 9th of May 1810. He
first studied in his native town under Hcnnequin. In 1832 his
first picture, " Tribute to Caesar," won a prize at the exhibition
at Ghent. He then went to Antwerp to prosecute his studies
under Mathieu Ignace Van Biec, and in the following year
exhibited at the Brussels Salon " Christ Healing the Blind."
This picture was purchased by subscription and placed in the
cathedral at Tournay. Gallait next went to Paris, whence he
sent to the Belgian Salons "job on the Dunghill," "Montaigne
Visiting Tasso in Prison"; and, in 1841, " The Abdication cf
Charles V.," in the Brussels Gallery. This was hailed as a
triumph, and gained for the painter a European reputation.
Official invitations then caused him to settle at Brussels, where he
died on the 20th of November 1887. Among his greater works
may be named: " The Last Honours paid to Counts Egmont
and Horn by the Corporations of the Town of Brussels," now
at Tournay; " The Death of Egmont," in the Berlin gallery;
the " Coronation of Baudouin, Emperor of Constantinople,'*
painted for Versailles; " The Temptation of St Anthony,"
in the palace at Brussels; " The Siege of Antioch, " Art and
Liberty," a " Portrait of M. B. Dumortier " and " The Plague at
Tournay," all in the Brussels gallery. " A Gipsy Woman and
her Children " was painted in 1852. " M. Gallait has all the
gifts that may be acquired by work, taste, judgment and
determination," wrote Theophile Gauttcr; his art is that cf
a man of tact, a skilled painter, happy in his dramatic treatment
but superficial. No doubt, this Walloon artist, following the
example of the Flemings of the Renaissance and the treatment
of Belgian classical painters and the French Romantic school,
sincerely aimed at truth; unfortunately, misled by contemporary
taste, he could not conceive of it excepting as dressed in senti-
mentality. As an artist employed by the State he exercised
considerable influence, and for a long period he was the leader of
public taste in Brussels.
See Teichlin, Louis Gallait und die Malerei in Deutschlani (1853);
LDujardin, L'Art flamand (1899); C. Lcmonnicr, Histmrtda
ux-arts en Belgique (1881).
GALLAND, ANTOINE (1646-1715), French Orientalist and
archaeologist, the first European translator of the Arabian
Nights, was born on the 4th of April 1646 at RoUot, in the
department of Somme. The completion of his school education
at Noyon was followed by a brief apprenticeship to a trade,
from which, however, he soon escaped, to pursue his linguistic
studies at Paris. After having been employed for some time
in making a catalogue of the Oriental manuscripts at the Sor-
bonne, he was, in 1670, attached to the French embassy at Con-
stantinople; and in 1673 he travelled in Syria and the Levant,
where he copied a great number of inscriptions, and sketched,
and m some cases removed historical monuments. After a brief
visit to France, where bis collection of ancient coins attracted
some attention, Galland returned to the Levant in 1676; and in
1679 he undertook a third voyage, being commissioned by the
French East India Company to collect for the cabinet of Colbert;
on the expiration of this commission he was instructed by the
government to continue his researches, and had the title of
GALLARATE— GALLAS
4'3
" antiquary to the king " conferred upon him. During his pro-
longed residences abroad he acquired a thorough knowledge of the
Arabic, Turkish and Persian languages and literatures, which, on
his final return to France, enabled him to render valuable assist-
ance to Thevenot, the keeper of the royal library, and to
Barthelemy d'Herbelot. After their deaths he lived for some
time at Caen under the roof of Nicolas Foucault (1643-1721),
the intendant of Caen, himself no mean archaeologist; and there
he began the publication (12 vols., 1704-17 17) of Les mille el
unc nuits, which excited immense interest during the time of its
appearance, and is still the standard French translation. It had
no pretensions to verbal accuracy, and the coarseness of the
language was modified to suit European taste, but the narrative
was adequately rendered. In 1701 Galland had been admitted
into the Academy of Inscriptions, and in 1709 he was appointed
to the chair of Arabic in the College dc France. He continued
to discharge the duties of this post until his death, which took
place on the 17th of February 17 15.
Besides a number of archaeological works, especially in the depart-
ment of numismatics, he published a compilation from the Arabic,
Persian and Turkish, entitled Paroles remarquables, bona mots et
maximes des orientaux (1604), and a translation from an Arabic
manuscript, De t'origine et du progris du cafe (1699). The former of
these works appeared in an English translation in 1795. His ConUs
et fables indiennes de Bid pat et de Lokman was published (1724) after
his death. Among his numerous unpublished manuscripts arc a
translation of the Koran and a Histoire ginirale des embereurs lures.
His Journal was published by M. Charles Schefcr in 1881.
GALLARATE, a town of Lombardy, Italy, in the province of
Milan, from which it is 25 m. N.W. by rail. Pop. (1001) 1 2,002.
The town is of medieval origin. It is remarkable mainly for its
textile factories. It is the junction of railways to Varese,
Laveno and Arona (for the Simplon). Six miles to the W.
are the electric works of Vizzola, the largest in Europe, where
23,000 h.p. are derived from the river Ticino.
GALLARS [in Lat. Gallasius), NICOLAS DBS (c. 1520-
c. 1580), Calvinistic divine, first appears as author of a Dcfcnsio
of William Farcl, published at Geneva in 1545, followed (1545-
1549) by translations into French of three tracts by Calvin.
In 1 551 he was admitted burgess of Geneva, and in 1553 made
pastor of a country church in the neighbourhood. In 1557 he
was sent to minister to the Protestants at Paris; his conductor,
Nicolas du Rousseau, having prohibited books in his possession,
was executed at Dijon; des Gallars, having nothing suspicious
about him, continued his journey. On the revival of the
Strangers' church in London (1560), he, being then minister at
Geneva, came to London to organize the French branch; and
in 1 561 he published La Forme de police eccUsiasliquc institute &
Londres en Vltglisc des Francois. In the same year he assisted
Bcza at the colloquy of Poissy. He became minister to the Pro-
testants at Orleans in 1564; presided at the synod of Paris in
1565; was driven out of Orleans with other Protestants in 1568;
and in 1571 was chaplain to Jeanne d'Albret, queen of Navarre.
Calvin held him in high esteem, employing him as amanuensis,
and as editor as well as translator of several of his exegctical
and polemical works. He himself wrote a commentary on
Exodus (1560); edited an annotated French Bible (1562) and
New Testament (1562); and published tracts against Arians
(1565-1566). His main work was his edition of Ircnaeus (1570)
with prefatory letter to Grindal, then bishop of London, and
giving, for the first time, some fragments of the Greek text.
His collaboration with Beza in the Histoire des ftglises Rifornrfcs
du royaume de France (1 580) is doubted by Bayle.
See Bayle, Dictionnaire hist, et criL; Jean Scnebier. Tlist.
lUUrairc de Geneve ( ! 786) ; Nouvelle Biog. gin. ( 1 857). (A. Go. *)
GALLAS, MATTHIAS, Count or Campo, Duke of Lucera
(1584-1647), Austrian soldier, first saw service in Flanders, and
in Savoy with the Spaniards, and subsequently joined the forces
of the Catholic League as captain. On the general outbreak
of hostilities in Germany, Gallas, as colonel of an infantry
regiment, distinguished himself, especially at the battle of Stadt-
lohn (1623). In 1630 he was serving as Gcncral-Feldwachtmeister
under Collalto in Italy, and was mainly instrumental in the
capture of Mantua. Made count of the Empire for this service,
lie returned to Germany for the campaign against Gustavus
Adolphus. In command of a corps of Wallenstein's army, he
covered Bohemia against the Swedes in 1631-1632, and served
it the Alte Veste near Nuremberg, and at Ltttzen. Further good
service against Bernhard of Saxc-Weimar commended General
Gallas to the notice of the emperor, who made him lieutenant-
general in his own army. He was one of the chief conspirators
against Wallenstein, and after the tragedy of Eger was appointed
to the command of the army which Wallenstein had formed and
ted. At the great battle of Nordlingen (23rd of August 1634)
in which the army of Sweden was almost annihilated, Gallas
commanded the victorious Imperialists. His next command was
in Lorraine, but even the Moselle valley had suffered so much
from the ravages of war that his army perished of want. Still
more was this the case in northern Germany, where Gallas com-
manded against the Swedish general Ban(r in 1637 and 1638.
At first driving the Swedes before him, in the end he made a
complete failure of the campaign, lost his command, and was
subject to much ridicule. It was, however, rather the indiscipline
of his men (the baneful legacy of Wallenstein's methods) than his
own faults which brought about his disastrous retreat across
North Germany, and at a moment of crisis he was recalled to
endeavour to stop Torstenson's victorious advance, only to be
shut up in Magdeburg, whence he escaped with the barest remnant
of his forces. Once more relieved of his command, he was again
recalled to make head against the Swedes in 1645 (after their
victory at Jankow). Before long, old and warworn, he resigned
his command, and died in 1647 at Vienna. His army had earned
for itself the reputation of being the most cruel and rapacious
force even in the Thirty Years' War, and his M erode Briider have
survived in the word marauder. Like many other generals of
that period, he had acquired much wealth and great territorial
possessions (the latter mostly his share of Wallenstein's estates).
He was the founder of the Austrian family of Clam-Gallas, which
furnished many distinguished soldiers to the Imperial army.
GALLAS, or more correctly Galla, a powerful Hamitic
people of eastern Africa, scattered over the wide region which
extends for about 1000 m. from the central parts of Abyssinia to
the neighbourhood of the river Sabaki in British East Africa.
The name " Galla " or " Gala " appears to be an Abyssinian
nickname, unknown to the people, who call themselves Urn'
Orma, " sons of men " or " sons of Orma," an eponymous hero.
In Shoa (Abyssinia) the word is connected with the river Gila in
Guragie, on the banks of which a great battle is said to have
been fought between the Galla and the Abyssinians. Arnaud
d'Abbadie says that the Abyssinian Moslems recount that,
when summoned by the Prophet's messenger to adopt Islam, the
chief of the Galla said " No," — in Arabic kdl (or g&l) la, — and the
Prophet on hearing this said, " Then let their very name imply
their denial of the Faith." Of all Hamitic peoples the Galla
arc the most numerous. Dr J. Ludwig Krapf estimated them
(c. i860) at from six to eight millions; later authorities put them
at not much over three millions. Individual tribes are said to be
able to bring 20,000 to 30,000 horsemen into the field.
Hardly anything is definitely known as to the origin and early
home of the race, but it appears to have occupied the southern
part of its present territory since the 16th century. According to
Hiob Ludolf and James Bruce, the Galla invaders first crossed the
Abyssinian frontiers in the year 1537. The Galla of Gojam (a
district along the northern side of the river Abai) tell how their
savage forefathers came from the south-cast from a country on
the other side of a bahr (lake or river), and the Ycjju and Raia
Galla also point towards the cast and commemorate the passage
of a bahr. Among the southern Galla tradition appears to be
mainly concerned with the expulsion of the race from the
country now occupied by the Somali. Their original home was
possibly in the district cast of Victoria Nyanza, for the tribes near
Mount Kenya are stated to go on periodical pilgrimages to the
mountain, making offerings to it as if to their mother. A theory
has been advanced that the great exodus which it seems certain
took place among the peoples throughout eastern Africa during
the 15th century was caused by some great eruption of Kenya
4i+
GALLATIN
and other volcanoes of equatorial Africa. As a geographical
term Galla-land is now used mainly to denote the south-central
regions of the Abyssinian empire, the country in which the Galla
are numerically strongest. There is no sharp dividing line be-
tween the territory occupied respectively by the Galla and by the
Somali.
In any case the Galla must be regarded as members of that vast
eastern Hamitic family which includes their neighbours, the
Somali, the Afars (Danakil) and the Abyssinians. As in all the
eastern Hamitcs, there is a perceptible strain of Negro blood in
the Galla, who are, however, described by Sir Frederick Lugard
as " a wonderfully handsome race, with high foreheads, brown
skins, and soft wavy hair quite different from the wool of the
Bantus." As a rule their features are quite European. Their
colour is dark brown, but many of the northern Galla arc of a
coffee and milk tint. The finest men are to be found among the
Limmu and Gudru on the river Abai.
The Galla arc for the most part still in tnc nomadic and pastoral
some agricultural settlements,
ncs roofed with grasses, arc
?alth consists chiefly in cattle
>es it is said that about seven
very man, woman and child ;
icither man nor woman' ever
the number of horses is very
flesh, blood, milk, butter and
so much importance by the
bee-keeping is in vogue, and
wife with a sufficient supply
onjugal rights. In the south
1 the number of a man's wives
wealth. Marriage-forms arc
ig common. Each tribe has
„c privilege
merchant for his people,' but in all public concci
advice of the fathers of families assembled in coui
proportion of the tribes are still pagan, worshippi
Waka, and the subordinate god and goddess Oj
whose favour is secured by sacrifices of oxen an
strange liberality of sentiment, they say that at
the year Waka leaves them and goes to attend to
enemies the Somali, whom also he has created,
notably the VVollo Galla, have been converted to
and are very bigoted adherents of the Prophet. I
the Galla are under Abyssinian rule, a land of superficial Christian*
ization has taken place, to the extent at least that the people arc
familiar with the names of Ma rem ma or Mary, Balawold or Jesus,
Girgis or St George, &c; but to all practical intents paganism is
still in force. The serpent is a special object of worship, the northern
Galla believing that he is the author of the human race. There is a
belief in wcrc-wolves (buda), and the northern Galla have sorcerers
who terrorize thcpcople. Though cruel in war, all Galla respect their
pledged word. They are armed with a lance, a two-edged knife, and
a shield of buffalo or rhinoceros hide. A considerable number find
employment in the Abyssinian armies.
Among the more important tribes in the south (the name in each
instance being compounded with Galla) arc the Ramatta, the
Kukatta, the Baolc, the Aurova, the Wadjole, the Hani, the Arrar and
the Kanigo Galla; the Borani, a very powerful tribe, may be con-
sidered to mark the division between north and south; and in the
north we find the Amoro, the Jarso, the Toolama, the VVollo, the
Ambassil, the Aijjo, and the Azobo Galla.
See C. T. Beke, " On the Origin of the Gallas," in Trans, of Brit.
Assoc. (1847); J. Ludwig Krapf, Travels in Eastern Africa (i860);
and Vocabulary of the Galla Language (London, 1842); Arnaud
d'Abbadic, DouzeAnsdanslallaute-Ethiopie (1668) ; Ph. Paulitschke,
Ethnographic Nord-Ost-Afrikas; Die getstige Kullur der Danakil,
Galla u. Som&l (Berlin, 1896); P. M. dc Salviac, Les Galla (Paris,
1901).
GALLATIN, ALBERT (1761-1849), American statesman, was
born in Geneva (Switzerland) on the 29th of January 1761. The
Gallatins were both an old and a noble family. They arc first
heard of in Savoy in the year 1258, and more than two centuries
later they went to Geneva (1510), united with Calvin in his
opposition to Rome, and associated their fortunes with those of
the little Swiss city. Here they remained, and with one or two
other great families governed Geneva, and sent forth many
representatives to seek their fortune and win distinction in the
service of foreign princes, both as soldiers and ministers. On the
eve of the French Revolution the Gallatins were still in Geneva,
occupying the same position which they had held for two hundred
years. Albert Gallatin's father died in 1765, his mother five
years later, and his only sister in 1777. Although left an orphan
at nine, he was by no means lonely or unprotected. His grand-
parents, a large circle of near relatives and Mile Catherine
Pictet (d. 1795), an intimate friend of his mother, cared for him
during his boyhood. He was thoroughly educated at the schools
of Geneva, and graduated with honour from the college or
academy there in 1779. His grandmother then wished him to
enter the army of the landgrave of Hesse, but he declined to serve
" a tyrant," and a year later slipped away from Geneva and
embarked for the United States. A competent fortune, good
prospects, social position, and a strong family connexion were
all thrown aside in order to tempt fate in the New World. His
relatives very properly opposed his course, but they nevertheless
did all in their power to smooth his way, and continued to treat
him kindly. In after life he himself admitted the justice of their
opinions. The temper of the times, a vague discontent with the
established order of things, and some political enthusiasm
imbibed from the writings of Rousseau, are the best reasons
which can now be assigned for Gallatin's desertion of home and
friends.
In July 1780 Gallatin and his friend Henri Serre (d. 17&4)
landed in Massachusetts. They brought with them youth, hope
and courage, as well as a little money, and at once entered into
business The times, however, were unfavourable. The great
convulsion of the Revolution was drawing to a close, and every-
thing was in an unsettled condition The young Genevans
failed in business, passed a severe winter in the wilds of Maine,
and returned to Boston penniless. Gallatin tried to earn a
living by teaching French in Harvard College, apparently not
without success, but the cold and rigid civilization of New
England repelled him, and he made his way to the South. In the
backwoods of Pennsylvania and Virginia there seemed to be
better chances for a young adventurer. Gallatin engaged in land
speculations, and tried to lay the foundation of his fortune in a
frontier farm. In 1789 he married Sophie Allegre, and every
prospect seemed to be brightening. But clouds soon gathered
again After only a few months of wedlock his wife died, and
Gallatin was once more alone. The solitary and desolate frontier
life became now more dreary than ever; he flung himself into
politics the only outside resource open to him, and his long and
eventful public career began.
The constitution of 1787 was then before the public, and
Gallatin, with his dislike of strong government still upon him,
threw himself into opposition and became one of the founders
of the Anti-Federalist, or, as it was afterwards called, the
Republican party. He was a member of the Pennsylvania Con-
stitutional Convention of 1 789-1 790, and of the Pennsylvania
Assembly in 1790, 1791, and 1792, and rose with surprising
rapidity, despite his foreign birth and his inability to speak
English with correctness or fluency. He was helped of course by
his sound education; but the true cause of his success lay in his
strong sense, untiring industry, courage, clear-sightedness and
great intellectual force. In 1793 he was chosen United States
senator from Pennsylvania by the votes of both political parties.
No higher tribute was ever paid to character and ability than that
conveyed by this election. But the staunch Federalists of the
senate, who had begun to draw the party lines rather sharply,
found the presence of the young Genevan highly distasteful.
They disliked his French origin, and suspected him to be a man of
levelling principles His scat was contested on account of a
technical flaw in regard to the duration of his citizenship, and in
February 1794, almost three months after the beginning of the
session, the senate annulled the election and sent him back to
Pennsylvania with all the glory of political martyrdom.
The leading part which Gallatin had taken in the " Whisky
Insurrection " in Western Pennsylvania had, without doubt,
been an efficient cause in his rejection by the senate. He in-
tended fully to restrain within legal bounds the opposition
which the excise on domestic spirits had provoked, but he made
the serious mistake of not allowing sufficiently for the character
of the backwoods population When legal resistance developed
into insurrection, Gallatin did his best to retrieve his error and
GALLATIN
4»5
prevent open war. At Redstone Old Fort (Brownsville) on the
29th of August 1794, before the " Committee of Sixty " who were
appointed to represent the disaffected people, be opposed with
vigorous eloquence the use of force against the government, and
refused to be intimidated by an excited band of riflemen who
happened to be in the vicinity and represented the radical clement.
He effectively checked the excitement, and when a month later
an overwhelming Federal force began moving upon the western
counties, the insurrection collapsed without bloodshed. Of all
the men who took part in the opposition to the excise, Gallatin
alone came out with credit. He was at once elected to the
national house of representatives, and took his seat in December
1795. There, by sheer force of ability and industry, he wrested
from all competitors the leadership of the Republicans, and be-
came the most dangerous opponent whom the Federalists had
ever encountered in congress. Inflamed with a hatred of France
just then rising to the dignity of a party principle, they found in
Gallatin an enemy who was both by origin and opinion peculiarly
obnoxious to them. They attacked him unsparingly, but in vain.
His perfect command of temper, his moderation of speech and
action, in a bitterly personal age, never failed, and were his most
effective weapons; but he made his power felt in other ways. His
clear mind and industrious habits drew him to questions of finance.
He became the financier of his party, preached unceasingly his
cardinal doctrines of simplicity and economy, and was an effective
critic of the measures of government. Cool and temperate,
Gallatin, when following his own theories, was usually in the
right, although accused by his followers of trimming. Thus, in
regard to the Jay treaty, he defended the constitutional right of
the house to consider the treaty, but he did not urge rejection in
this specific case. On the other band, when following a purely
party policy he generally erred. He resisted the navy, the
mainspring of Washington's foreign policy; he opposed commer-
cial treaties and diplomatic intercourse in a similar fashion.
On these points he was grievously wrong, and on all he changed
his views after a good deal of bitter experience.
The greatest period of Gallatin's career in congress was in
1798, after the publication of the famous X.Y.Z. despatches.
The insults of Talleyrand, and his shameless attempts to extort
bribes from the American commissioners, roused the deep anger
of the people against France. The Federalists swept all before
them, and the members of the opposition either retired from
Philadelphia or went over to the government. Alone and single-
handed, Gallatin carried on the fight in congress. The Federalists
bore down on him unmercifully, and even attempted (1708) a
constitutional amendment in regard to citizenship, partly, it
appears, in order to drive him from office. Still he held on,
making a national struggle in the national legislature, and relying
very little upon the rights of States so eagerly grasped by Jefferson
and Madison. But even then the tide was turning. The strong
measures of the Federalists shocked the country; the leaders
of the dominant party quarrelled fiercely among themselves;
and the Republicans carried the elections of 1800. In the
exciting contest for the presidency in the house of representa-
tives between Jefferson and Burr, it was Gallatin who led the
Republicans.
When, after this contest, Jefferson became president (1801),
there were two men whose commanding abilities marked them
for the first places in the cabinet. James Madison became
secretary of state, and Albert Gallatin secretary of the treasury.
Wise, prudent and conservative, Gallatin made few changes in
Hamilton's arrangements, and for twelve years administered
the national finances with the greatest skill. He and Jefferson
were both imbued with the idea that government could be carried
on upon a priori principles rusting on the assumed perfect ness of
human nature, and the chief burden of carrying out this theory
fell upon Gallatin. His guiding principles were still simplicity
of administration and speedy extinction of all debt, and every-
thing bent to these objects. Fighting or bribing the Barbary
pirates was a mere question of expense. It was cheaper to seize
Louisiana than to await the settlement of doubtful points.
Commercial warfare was to be avoided because of the cost.
All wars were bad, but if they could not be evaded it was lesa
extravagant to be ready than to rush to arms unprepared.
Amid many difficulties, and thwarted even by Jefferson himself
in the matter of the navy, Gallatin pushed on; and after six
years the public debt was decreased (in spite of the Louisiana
purchase) by $14,260,000, a large surplus was on band, a com-
prehensive and beneficent scheme of internal improvements was
ready for execution, and the promised land seemed in sight. Then
came the stress of war in Europe, a wretched neutrality at home,
fierce outbreaks of human passions, and the fair structure of
government by a priori theories based on .the goodness of urn-
oppressed humanity came to the ground. Gallatin was thrown
helplessly back upon the rejected Federalist doctrine of govern-
ment according to circumstances. He uttered no vain regrets,
but the position was a trying one. The sworn foe of strong
government, he was compelled, in pursuance of Jefferson's
policy, to put into execution the Embargo and other radical
and stringent measures. He did his best, but all was in vain.
Commercial warfare failed, the Embargo was repealed, and
Jefferson, having entangled foreign relations and brought the
country to the verge of civil war, retired to private life, leaving
to his successor Madison, and to Gallatin, the task of extricating
the nation from its difficulties. From 1809 the new-administra-
tion, drifting steadily towards war, struggled on from one abortive
and exasperating negotiation to another. It was a period of sore
trial to Gallatin. The peace policy had failed, and nothing else
replaced it. He had lost his hold upon Pennsylvania and his
support in the house, while a cabal in the senate, bitterly and
personally hostile to the treasury, crippled the administration
and reduced every government measure to mere inanity. At
last, however, in June 181 a, congress on Madison's recommenda-
tion declared war against England.
Gallatin never wasted time in futile complaints. His cherished
schemes were shattered. War and extravagant expenditure had
come, and he believed both to be fatal to the prosperity and
progress of America. He therefore put the finances in the best
order he could, and set himself to mitigate the evil effects of
the war by obtaining an early peace. With this end in view he
grasped eagerly at the proffered mediation of Russia, and without
resigning the treasury sailed for Europe in May 1813.
Russian mediation proved barren, but Gallatin persevered,
catching at every opportunity for negotiation. In the midst of his
labours came the news that the senate had refused to confirm his
appointment as peace commissioner. He si ill toiled on unofficially
until, the objection of the senate having been met by the appoint-
ment of a new secretary of the treasury, his second nomination was
approved, and he was able to proceed with direct negotiations.
'Die English and American commissioners finally met at Ghent,
and in the tedious and irritating discussions which ensued
Gallatin took the leading part. His great difficulty lay in manag-
ing his colleagues, who were, especially Henry Clay and John
Quincy Adams, able men of strong wills and jarring tempers.
He succeeded in preserving harmony, and thus established his
own reputation as an able diplomatist. Peace was his reward;
on the 24th of December 1814 the treaty was signed; and after
visiting Geneva for the first time since his boyhood, and assisting
in negotiating a commercial convention (1815) with England by
which all discriminating duties were abolished, Gallatin in July
181 5 returned to America.
While still in Europe he had been asked by Madison to become
minister to France; this appointment he accepted in January
18 16, and adhered to his acceptance in spite of his being asked
in April 181 6 to serve once more as secretary of the treasury.
He remained in France for the next seven years. He passed
his time in thoroughly congenial society, seeing everybody of
note or merit in Europe. He did not neglect the duties of his
official position, but strove assiduously and with his wonted
patience ta settle the commercial relations of his adopted
country with the nations of Europe, and in 1818 assisted Richard
Rush, then United States minister in London, in negotiating
a commercial convention with Great Britain to take the place
of that negotiated in 1815.
416
GALLAUDET— GALLE
In June 1823 be returned to the United States, where he found
himself plunged at once into the bitter struggle then in progress
for the presidency. His favourite candidate was his personal
friend William H. Crawford, whom he regarded as the true
heir and representative of the old Jeffersonian principles. With
these feelings he consented in May 1824 to stand for the vice-
presidency on the Crawford ticket. But Gallatin had come home
to new scenes and new actors, and he did not fully appreciate
the situation. The contest was bitter, personal, factious and fuLI
ef intrigue. Martin Van Burcn, then in the Crawford interest,
came lo the conclusion that the candidate for the second place,
by his foreign origin, weakened the ticket, and in Octobei
Gallatin retired from the contest. The election, undecided by the
popular vote, was thrown into the house, and resulted in the
choice of John Quincy Adams, who in 1826 drew Gallatin from
his retirement and sent him as minister to England to conduct
another complicated and arduous negotiation. Gallatin worked
at his new task with his usual industry, tact and patience, but the
results were meagre, although an open breach on the delicate
question of the north-cast boundary of the United States was
avoided by referring it to the arbitration of the king of the
Netherlands. In November 1827 he once more returned to the
United States and bade farewell to public life.
Taking up his residence in New York, he was in 1832-1839
president of the National Bank (afterwards the Gallatin Bank)
of New York, but his duties were light, and he devoted himself
chiefly to the congenial pursuits of science and literature. In
both fields he displayed much talent, and by writing his Synopsis
of the Indian Tribes vithin the United States East of the Rocky
Mountains and in the British and Russian Possessions in North
America (1836), and by founding the American Ethnological
Society of New York in 1842, he earned the title of " Father
of American Ethnology." He continued, of course, to interest
himself in public affairs, although no longer an active participant,
and in all financial questions, especially in regard to the bank
charter, the resumption of specie payments, and the panic of 1837,
he exerted a powerful influence. The rise of the slavery question
touched him nearly. Gallatin had always been a consistent
opponent of slavery; he felt keenly, therefore, the attempts of
the South to extend the slave power and confirm its existence,
and the remnant of his strength was devoted in his last days to
writing and distributing two able pamphlets against the war
with Mexico. Almost his last public act was a speech, on the
24th of April 1844, in New York City, against the annexation of
Texas; and in his eighty-fourth year he confronted a howling
New York mob with the same cool, unflinching courage which he
had displayed half a century before when he faced the armed
frontiersmen of Redstone Old Fort. During the winter of 1848-
1849 his health failed, and on the 12th of August 1S49, at the
home of his daughter in Astoria, Long Island, he passed peace-
fully away.
Gallatin was twice married. His second wife, whom he
married in November 1793, was Miss Hannah Nicholson, of
New York, the daughter of Com. James Nicholson (1 737-1804),
an American naval officer, commander-in-chief of the navy from
1777 until August 1 781, when with his ship the " Virginia,"
he was taken by the British " Iris " and " General Monk."
By her he had three children, two sons and a daughter, who all
survived him. In personal appearance he was above middle
height, with strongly-marked features, indicating great strength
of intellect and character. He was reserved and very reticent,
cold in manner and not sympathetic. There was, too, a certain
Calvinistic austerity about him. But he was much beloved by
his family. He was never a popular man, nor did he ever have
a strong personal following or many attached friends. He stood,
with Jefferson and Madison, at the head of his party, and won
his place by force of character, courage, application and in-
tellectual power. His eminent and manifold services to his
adopted country, his great abilities and upright character, assure
him a high position in the history of the United States.
The Writings of Albert Gallatin, edited by Henry Adams, were
published at Philadelphia, in three volumes, in 1879. With these
volumes was published an excellent biography, The Life of Albert
Callattn, also by Henry Adams; another good biography » John
Austin Stevens's Albert Gallatin (Boston, 1884) in the " American
Statesmen " series. (H. C. L.)
GALLAUDET, THOMAS HOPKINS (1787-1851), American
educator of the deaf and dumb, was born in Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania, of French Huguenot ancestry, on the 10th of
December 1787. He graduated at Yale in 1805, where he was
a tutor from 1808 to 1810. Subsequently he studied theology
at Andovcr, and was licensed to preach in 1814, but having
determined to abandon the ministry and devote his life to the
education of deaf mutes, be visited Europe in 1815-1816, and
studied the methods of the abta Sicard in Paris, and of Thomas
Braid wood (171 5-1806) and his successor Joseph Watson
(1765-1829) in Great Britain. Returning to the United States
in 1 8 16, he established at Hartford, Connecticut, with the aid of
Laurent Clcrc (1785-1869), a deaf mute assistant of the abbe
Sicard, a school for deaf mutes, in support of which Congress,
largely through the influence of Henry Clay, made a land grant,
and which Gallaudet presided over with great success until
ill-health compelled him to retire in 1830. It was the 6rst
institution of the sort in the United States, and served as a model
for institutions which were subsequently established He died
at Hartford, Connecticut, on the 5th of September 1851.
There are three accounts of his life, one by Henry Barnard, Lift,
Character and Services of the Rev. Thomas H. Gallaudet (Hartford,
1852); another by Herman Humphrey (Hartford. 1858), and a
third (and the best one) by his son Edward Miner Gallaudet (1888).
His son, Thomas Gallaudet (1822-1902), after graduating
at Trinity College in 1842, entered the Protestant Episcopal
ministry, settled in New York City, and there in 1852 organized
St Anne's Episcopal church, where he conducted services for deaf
mutes. In 1872 he organized and became general manager of
the Church mission to deaf mutes, and in 1885 founded the
Gallaudet home for deaf mutes, particularly the aged, at
Wappingcrs Falls, near Poughkecpsie, New York.
Another son, Edward Miner Gallaudet (b. 1837), was born
at Hartford, Connecticut, on the 3rd of February 1837, and
graduated at Trinity College in 1856. After teaching for a year
in the institution for deaf mutes founded by his father at Hartford,
he removed with his mother, Sophia Fowler Gallaudet (1 708-1877),
to Washington, D.C., where at the request of Amos Kendall
(1 780-1 869), its founder, he organized and took charge of the
Columbia Institution for the deaf and dumb, which received
support from the government, and of which he became president.
This institution was the first to furnish actual collegiate educa-
tion for deaf mutes (in 1864 it acquired the right to grant degrees),
and was successful from the start. The Gallaudet College
(founded in 1864 as the National Deaf Mute College and renamed
in 1S93 in honour of Thomas H. Gallaudet) and the Kendall
School are separate departments of this institution, under
independent faculties (each headed by Gallaudet), but under
the management of one board of directors.
GALLE, or Point de Galle, a town and port of Ceylon on the
south-west coast. It was made a municipality in 1865, and
divided into the five districts of the Fort, Cailowelle > Galopiadde,
Hirimburc and Cumbalwalla. The fort, which is more than a mile
in circumference, overlooks the whole harbour, but is commanded
by a range of hills. Within its enclosure are not only several
government buildings, but an old church erected by the Dutch
East India Company, a mosque, a Wesleyan chapel, a hospital,
and a considerable number of nouses occupied by Europeans.
The old Dutch building known as the queen's house, or governor's
residence, which dated from 1687, was in such a dilapidated
state that it was sold by the governor, Sir William Gregory, in
1873. Elsewhere there are few buildings of individual note r but
the general style of domestic architecture is pleasant and com-
fortable, though not pretentious. One of the most delightful
features of the place is the profusion of trees, even within the
town, and along the edge of the shore — suriyas, palms, coco-nut
trees and bread-fruit trees. The ramparts towards the sea furnish
fine promenades. In the harbour deep water is found close to the
shore, and the outer roads are spacious; but the south-west
GALLENGA— GALLEY
417
monsoon renders entrance difficult, and not unfrcquently drives
vessels from their moorings.
The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869, and the construction of
a breakwater at Colombo, leading to the transfer of the mail and
most of the commercial steamers to the capital of the island,
seriously diminished the prosperity of Galle. Although a few
steamers still call to coal and take in some cargo, yet the loss of
the Peninsular and Oriental and other steamer agencies reduced
the port to a subordinate position; nor has the extension of the
railway from Colombo, and beyond Galle to Matara, very much
improved matters. The tea-planting industry has, however,
spread to the neighbourhood, and a great deal is done in digging
plumbago and in growing grass for the distillation of citronclla
oif. The export trade is chiefly represented by coco-nut oil,
plumbago, coir yarn, fibre, rope and tea. In the import trade
cotton goods are the chief item. Both the export and import
trade for the district, however, now chiefly passes through
Colombo. Pop. (1001) 37,165.
Galle is mentioned by none of the Greek or Latin geographers,
unless the identification with Ptolemy's Avium Promon tori urn or
Cape of Birds be a correct one. It is hardly noticed in the native
chronicles before 1267, and Ibn Batuta, in the middle of the 14th
century, distinctly states that Kali — that is, Galle — was a small
town. It was not till the period of Portuguese occupation that it
rose to importance. When the Dutch succeeded the Portuguese
they strengthened the fortifications, which had been vigorously
defended against their admiral, Kosten; and under their rule the
place had the rank of a commandancy. In the marriage treaty of
the infanta of Portugal with Charles II. of England it was agreed
that if the Portuguese recovered Ceylon they were to hand over
Galle to the English ; but as the Portuguese did not recover Ceylon
the town was left to fall into English hands at the conquest of the
island from the Dutch in 1796. '. The name Galle is derived from the
Sinhalese gaila, equivalent to "rock"; but the Portuguese and
Dutch settlers, being better fighters than philologists, connected
it with the Latin gall us r a cock, and the image of a cock was
carved as a symbol of the town in the front of the old government
house.
GALLENGA, ANTONIO CARLO NAPOLEONS (1810-1895),
Italian author and patriot, born at Parma on the 4th of
November 1810, was the eldest son of a Picdmontcse of good
family, who served for ten years in the French army under
Massena and Napoleon. He had finished his education at the
university of Parma, when the French Revolution of 1830 caused
a ferment in Italy. Ue sympathized with the movement, and
within a few months was successively a conspirator, a state
prisoner, a combatant and a fugitive. For the next five years he
lived a wandering life in France, Spain and Africa. In August
1836 he embarked for New York, and three years later he
proceeded to England, where he supported himself as a translator
and teacher of languages. His first book, Italy; General Views
of its History and Literature, which appeared in 1841, was well
received, but was not successful financially. On the outbreak of
the Italian revolution in 1848 he at once put himself in com-
munication with the insurgents. He filled the post of Charge
d' Affaires for Piedmont at Frankfort in 1 848-1849, and for the
next few years he travelled incessantly between Italy and
England, working for the liberation of his country. In. 1854,
through Cavour's influence, he was elected a deputy to the Italian
parliament. He retained his scat until 1864, passing the summer
in England and fulfilling his parliamentary duties at Turin in the
winter. On the outbreak of the Austro-Frcnch War of 1859 he
proceeded to Lombardy as war correspondent of The Times.
The campaign was so brief that the fighting was over before he
arrived, but his connexion with The Times endured for twenty
years. He was a forcible and picturesque writer, with a com-
mand of English remarkable for an Italian. He materially
helped to establish that friendly feeling towards Italy which
became traditional in England. In 1859 Gallenga purchased the
Falls, at Llandogo on the Wye, as a residence, and thither he
retired in 1885. He died at this house on the 17th of December
1895. He was twice married. Among his chief works are an
Historical Memoir of Fra Dolcino and his Times (1853) ; a History
of Piedmont ( 3 vols., 1855; Italian translation, 1856); Country
Life in Piedmont (1858) ; The Invasion of Denmark (2 vols., 1864)*,
The Pearl of the Antilles [travels in Cuba] (1873); My Emitted
(2 vols., 1875); Two Years of the Eastern Question (a vols., 1877);
The Pope (Pius IX.) and the King (Victor Emmanuel) ( 2 vols.,
1879); South America (1880); A Summer Tour in Russia (1882);
Iberian Reminiscences (2 vols., 1883); Episodes of my Second
Life ( 1 884) ; Italy, Present and Future ( 2 vols. ,1887). Gallcnga's
earlier, publications appeared under the pseudonym of, Luigi
Mariotti.
GALLERY (through Ital. galleria, from Med. Lat. galeria, of
which the origin is unknown), 1 a covered passage or space
outside a main wall, sometimes used as a verandah if on the
ground floor, and as a balcony if on an upper floor and supported
by columns, piers or corbels; similarly the upper seats in a
theatre or a church, on either side as in many 17th-century
churches, or across the west end under the organ. The word is
also used of an internal passage primarily provided to place
various rooms in communication with one another; but if
of narrow width this is usually called a corridor or passage.
When of sufficient width the gallery is utilized to exhibit pictures
and other art treasures. In the 16th century the picture gallery
formed the largest room or hall in English mansions, with
wainscoted walls and a richly decorated plaster ceiling; the
principal examples arc those of Audley End, Essex (226 ft. by
34 ft); Hardwick, Derbyshire (166 It. by 22 ft.); Hatfield, Hert-
fordshire (163 ft. by 19 ft. 6 in.); Aston Hall, riiar Birmingham
(136 ft. by 18 ft.); Haddon Hall, Derbyshire (116 ft. by 17
ft.); and Montacute in Somersetshire (189 ft. by 22 ft.).
Hence the application of the term to art museums (the National
Gallery, &c.) and also to smaller rooms with top-light in which
temporary exhibitions are held.
GALLEY (derived through the O. Fr. galee, galie, from the
Med. Lat. galea, Ital. galea, Port, gali, of uncertain origin; from
the Med. Lat. variant form galera are derived the Mod. Fr.
goitre, Span, and Ital. galera) , a long single or half decked vessel of
war, with low free-board, propelled primarily by oars or sweeps,
but also having masts for sails. The word is used generally of the
ancient war vessels of Greece and Rome of various types, whose
chief propelling power was the oar or sweep, but its more specific
application is to the medieval war vessel which survived in the
navies of t he Mediterranean sea-powers after the general adoption
of the larger many-decked ship of war, propelled solely by sail-
power. Lcpanto (1571) was the last great naval battle in which
the galley played the principal part. The " galleass " or
" galliass " (Med. Lat. galeasea, Ital. galeasza, an augmented form
of galea) was a larger and heavier form of- galley; it usually
carried three masts and had at bow and stern a castellated
structure. The " galliot " (O. Fr. galiot, Span, and Port, galeota,
Ital. galcolta, a diminutive of galea) was a small light type of
galley. The " galleon " (formerly in English " galloon," Fr.
galion, derived from fhe Med. Lat. galio, galicmis, a derivative
of galea) was a sailing ship of war and trade, shorter than the
galley and standing high out of the water with several decks,
chiefly used by the Spaniards during the 16th century in the
carrying of treasure from America. The number of oars or sweeps
varied, the larger galley having twenty-five on each side; the'
galleass as many as thirty-two, each being worked by several men.
This labour was from the earliest times often performed by slaves
or prisoners of war. It became the custom among the Mediter-
ranean powers to sentence condemned criminals to row in the
war galleys of the state. Traces of this in France can be found as
early as 1532, but the first legislative enactment is in the Ordon-
nance d'Orlians of 156 1. In 1564 Charles IX. forbade the
sentencing of prisoners to the galleys for less than ten years.
The galley-slaves were branded with the letters Gal. At the end
of the reign of Louis XIV. the use of the galley for war purposes
had practically ceased, but the corps of the galleys was not
incorporated with the navy till 1748. The headquarters of the
galleys and of the convict rowers (gaUriens) was at Marseilles.
The majority of these latter were brought to Toulon, the others
were sent to Rochefort and Brest, where they were used for work
1 Du Cange, Glossarium, s.v. " Galeria," suggests an origin from
galera, a galley, on the analogy of " nave," from navis, the galley
being a long and narrow ship; but, he adds, alii alia opinantur.
+i8
GALLIA CISALPINA— GALLIENI
in the arsenal. At Toulon the convicts remained (in chains) on
the galleys, which were moored as hulks in the harbour. Shore
prisons were, however, provided for them, known as bagncs,
baths, a name given to such penal establishments first by the
Italians (bagno), and said to have been derived from the prison at
Constantinople situated close by or attached to the great baths
there. The name galerien was still given to all convicts, though
the galleys had been abandoned, and it was not till the French
Revolution that the hated name with all it signified was changed
to format. In Spain galera is still used for a criminal condemned
to penal servitude.
A vivid account of the life of galley-slaves in France is given in
Jean Marteilhcs's Memoirs of a Protestant, translated by Oliver
Goldsmith (new edition. 1895), which describes the experiences of
one of the Huguenots who suffered after the revocation of the edict
of Nantes,
GALLIA CISALPINA (Lat. Cis, on this side, i.e. of the Alps),
in ancient geography, that portion of northern Italy north of
Liguria and Umbria and south of the Alps, which was inhabited
by various Celtic and other peoples, of whom the Celts were in
continual hostility to Rome. In early times it was bounded on
the S. by Liguria and the Aesis, in Caesar's time by Liguria and
the Rubicon. After the Second Punic War (203* b.'c.) these tribes
were severely punished by the Roman generals for the assistance
they had rendered to Hannibal. Sulla divided the district into
two parts; the region between the Aesis and the Rubicon was
made directly subject to the government at Rome, while the
northern portion was put under a distinct authority, probably
similar to the usual transmarine commands (see Mommsen,
Hist, of Rome, Eng. trans., bk. iv. c. 10).
For the-early Celtic and other peoples and the later history of the
district see" Italy (ancient), and Rome: History, Ancient.
GALLIC ACID.trioxybenxoic acid(H0),(3^.s)C,HjC0 1 HH,0,
the acidum gallicum of pharmacy, a substance discovered by K.
W. Scheele; it occurs 'in the leaves of the bearberry, in pome-
granate root-bark, in tea, in gall-nuts to the extent of about 3 %,
and in other vegetable productions. It may be prepared by keep-
ing moist and exposed to the air for from four to six weeks, at a
temperature of 20 to 25° C, a paste of powdered gall-nuts and
water, and removing from time to time the mould which forms
on its surface; the paste is then boiled with water, the hot
solution filtered, allowed to cool, the separated gallic add drained,
and purified by dissolving in boiling. water, recrystallization at
about 2 7 C, and washing of the crystals with ice-cold water.
The production of the acid appears to be due to the presence in
the galls of a ferment. Gallic acid is most readily obtained by
boiling the tannin procured from oak-galls by means of alcohol
and ether with weak solution of acids. It may also be produced
by heating an aqueous solution of di-iodosalicylic acid with
excess of alkaline carbonate, by acting on dibromosalicylic acid
with moist silver oxide, and by other methods. It crystallizes in
white .or pale .fawn-coloured acicular prisms or silky needles,
and is soluble in alcohol and ether, and in 100 parts of cold and
3 of boiling water; it is without odour and has an astringent
and an acid taste and reaction. It melts at about 200 C, and
at 210 to 2 1 5 it is resolved into carbon dioxide and pyrogallol,
C«H»(OH)». With ferric salts its solution gives a deep blue
colour, and with ferrous salts, after exposure to the air, an in-
soluble, blue-black, ferroso-ferric gallate. Bases of the alkali
metals give with it four series-of salts; these are stable except
in alkaline solutions, in which they absorb oxygen and turn brown.
Solution of calcium bicarbonate becomes with gallic acid, on
exposure to the air, of a dark blue colour. Unlike tannic acid,
gallic acid does not precipitate albumen or salts of the alkaloids,
or, except when mixed with gum, gelatin. Salts of gold and silver
are reduced by it, slowly in cold, instantaneously in warm
solutions, hence its employment in photography. With phos-
phorus oxy chloride at 120° C. gallic add yields tannic acid, and
with concentrated sulphuric acid at ico°, rufi gallic acid, Ci 4 H«Ot,
an anthracene derivative. Oxidizing agents, such as arsenic
acid, convert it into cllagic acid, CuH a O»+H|0, probably a
fluorene derivative, a substance which occurs in gall-nuts, in the
external membrane of the episperm of the walnut, and prob-
ably in many plants, and composes the " bezoar stones " found
in the intestines of Persian wild goats. Mcdidnally, gallic add
has been, and is still, largely used as an astringent, styptic and
haemostatic Gallic acid, however, docs not coagulate albumen
and therefore possesses no local astringent action. So far is it
from being an haemostatic that, if perfused through living
blood-vessels, it actually dilates them. Its rapid neutraliza-
tion in the intestine renders it equally devoid of any remote
actions.
GALLICANISM, the collective name for various theories
maintaining that the church and king of France had ecclesiastical
rights of their own, independent and exdusive of the jurisdiction
of the pope. Gallicanism had two distinct sides, a constitutional
and a dogmatic, though both were generally held together, the
second serving as the logical basis of the first. And ndther
is intelligible, except in relation to the rival theory of Uitra-
montanism (q.v.). Dogmatic Gallicanism was concerned with
the question of ccdesiastical government. It maintained that
the church's infallible authority was committed to pope and
bishops jointly. The pope dedded in the first instance, but his
judgments must be tacitly or expressly confirmed by the bishops
before they had the force of law. This ancient theory survived
much longer in France than in other Catholic countries. Hence
the name of GaUican is loosely given to all its modern up-
holders, whether of French nationality or not. Constitutional
Gallicanism dealt with the relation of church and state in France.
It began in the 13th century, as a protest against the theocratic
pretensions of the medieval popes. They daimed that they, as
vicars of Christ, bad the right to interfere in the temporal con-
cerns of princes, and even to depose sovereigns of whom they
disapproved. Gallicanism answered that kings held their power
directly of God; hence their temporal concerns lay altogether
outside the jurisdiction of the pope. During the troubles of the
Reformation era, when the papal deposing power threatened to
become a reality, the Gallican theory became of great importance.
It was elaborated, and connected with dogmatic Gallicanism, by
the famous theologian, Edmond Richer (1550-1631), and finally
incorporated by Bossuet in a solemn Declaration of the French
Clergy, made in 1682. This document lays down: (1) that the
temporal sovereignty of kings is independent of the pope; (2)
that a general council is above the pope; (3) that the ancient
liberties of the GaUican Church are sacred; (4) that the infallible
teaching authority of the church belongs to pope and bishops
jointly. This declaration led to a violent quarrel with Rome,
and was officially withdrawn in 1693, though its doctrines con-
tinued to be largely hdd. They were asserted in an extreme
form in the Civil Constitution of the Clergy (1790), which almost
severed connexion between France and the papacy. In 1802
Napoleon contented himself by embodying Bossuet's declaration
textually in a statute. Long before his time, however, the issue
had been narrowed down to determining exactly how far the pope
should be allowed to interfere in French ecclesiastical affairs.
Down to the repeal of the Concordat in 1905 all French govern-
ments continued to uphold two of the andent " Gallican Liberties."
The secular courts took cognizance of ecclesiastical affairs when-
ever the law of the land was alleged to have been broken; and
papal bulls were not allowed to be published without the leave
of the state. (See also Febronianism.) (St. C)
GALLIENI, JOSEPH SIMON (18407 ), French soldier and
colonial administrator, was born at Saint-Beat, in the department
of Haute-Garonne,on the 24th of April 1849. He left the military
academy of Saint-Cyr in July 1870 as a second lieutenant in the
Marines, becoming lieutenant in 1873 and captain in 1878. He
saw service in the Franco-German War, and between 1877 and
1881 took an important part in the explorations and military
expeditions by which the French dominion was extended in the
basin of the upper Niger. He rendered a particularly valuable
service by obtaining, in March 1881, a treaty from Ahmadu,
almany of Segu, giving the French exclusive rights of commerce
on the upper Niger. For this he received the gold medal of the
Socilt* de Geographic. From 1883 to 1886 Gallieni was stationed
in Martinique. On the 24th of June 2886 he attained the rank
GALLIENUS— GALLIPOLI
419
of lieutenant-colonel, and on the aoth of December was nominated
governor of Upper Senegal. He obtained several successes against
Ahmadu in 1887, and compelled Samory to agree to a treaty by
which he abandoned the left bank of the Niger (see Senegal:
History). In connexion with his service in West Africa, Gallieni
published two works — Mission d'exploration du H out-Niger,
1 879-1 88 1 ( Paris, 1885), and Dtux Compognts au Sudan Jrancais
(Paris, 1891) — which, besides possessing great narrative interest,
give information of considerable value in regard to the resources
and topography of the country. In 1888 Gallieni was made an
officer of the Legion of Honour. In 1891 he attained the rank of
colonel, and from 1893 to 1895 he served in Tongking, command-
ing the second military division of the territory. In 1890 he
published his experiences in Trots CoUmnts au Tonkin. In 1896
Madagascar was made a French colony, and Gallieni was ap-
pointed resident-general (a title changed in 1897 to governor-
general) and commander-in-chief. Under the weak administra-
tion of his predecessor a widespread revolt had broken out
against the French. By a vigorous military system Gallieni
succeeded in completing the subjugation of the island. He also
turned his attention to the destruction of the political supremacy
of the Hovas and the restoration of the autonomy of the other
tribes. The execution of the queen's uncle, Ratsimamanga,
and of Rainandrianampandry, the minister of the interior, in
October 1S96, and the exile of Queen Ranavalo III. herself in
1897, on the charge of fomenting rebellion, broke up tbe Hova
hegemony, and made an end of Hova intrigues against French
rule. The task of government was one of considerable difficulty.
The application of the French customs and other like measures,
disastrous to British and American trade, were matters for which
Gallieni was not wholly responsible. His policy was directed to
the development of the economic resources of the island and was
conciliatory towards the non-French European population. He
also secured for the Protestants religious liberty. In 1899 he
published a Rapport d' ensemble sur la situation gintrale de Mada-
gascar. In 1 905 , when he resigned the governorship, Madagascar
enjoyed peace and a considerable measure of prosperity. In
1906 General Gallieni was appointed to command the XIV. army
corps and military government of Lyons. He reviewed the
results of his Madagascar administration in a book entitled
Ncuf Ans & Madagascar (Paris, 1908).
GALLIENUS. PUBUUS UCINIUS EONATIUS, Roman emperor
from A.o. 260 to 268, son of the emperor Valerian, was born about
218. From 253 to 260 he reigned conjointly with his father,
during which time he gave proof of military ability and bravery.
But when his father was taken prisoner by Shapur I. of Persia, in
260, Gallienus made no cflort to obtain his release, or to with-
stand the incursions of the invaders who threatened the empire
from all sides. He occupied part of his time in dabbling in
literature, science and various trifling arts, but gave himself up
chiefly to excess and debauchery. He deprived the senators of
their military and provincial commands, which were transferred
to cquites. During his reign the empire was ravaged by a fearful
pestilence; and the chief cities of Greece were sacked by the
Goths, who descended on the Greek coast with a fleet of five
hundred. His generals rebelled against him in almost every
province of the empire, and this period of Roman history came
to be called the reign of the Thirty Tyrants. Nevertheless,
these usurpers probably saved the empire at the time, by main-
taining order and repelling the attacks of the barbarians.
Gallienus was killed at Mcdiolanum by his own soldiers while
besieging Aurcolus, who was proclaimed emperor by the lllyrian
legions. His sons Valcrianus and Saloninus predeceased him.
Life by Trcbcllius Pollio in Script. Hist. Aug. ; on coins see articles
in Numism. ZcU. (1908) and Riv. ital. d. num. (1908).
GALLIFFET. GASTON ALEXANDRE AUGUSTS, Marquis
de. Prince de Martigncs (1830-1009), French general, was born
in Paris on the 23rd of January 1830. He entered the army in
1S4S, was commissioned as sub-licutcnant in 1853, and served
with distinction at the siege of Sevastopol in 1855, in the Italian
campaign of 1850, and in Algeria in i860, after which for a time he
served on the personal staff of the emperor Napoleon 111. He
displayed great gallantry as a captain at tbe siege and storm of
Puebla, in Mexico, in 1863, when he was severely wounded.
When he returned to France to recover from his wounds he was
entrusted with the task of presenting the captured standards and
colours to the emperor, and was promoted chef d'escadrons. He
went again to Algeria in 1864, took part in expeditions against
the Arabs, returned to Mexico as lieutenant-colonel, and, after
winning further distinction, became in 1867 colonel of the 3rd
Chasseurs d'Afrique. In the Franco-German War of 1870-71
he commanded this regiment in the army of the Rhine, until
promoted to be general of brigade on the 30th of August. At
the battle of Sedan he led the brigade of Chasseurs d'Afrique in
the heroic charge of General Margueritte's cavalry division,
which extorted the admiration of the old king of Prussia. Made
prisoner of war at the capitulation, he returned to France during
the siege of Paris by the French army of Versailles, and com-
manded a brigade against the Communists. In the suppression
of the Commune he did his duty rigorously and inflexibly, and on
that ground earned a reputation for severity, which, throughout
his later career, and in all his efforts to improve the French army,
made him the object of unceasing attacks in the press and the
chamber of deputies. In 1872 he took command of the Batna
subdivision of Algeria, and commanded an expedition against £1
Golca, surmounting great difficulties in a rapid march across the
desert, and inflicting severe chastisement on the revolted tribes.
On the general reorganization of the army he commanded the'
31st infantry brigade. Promoted general of division in 1875, he
successively commanded the 15th infantry division at Dijon, the
IX. army corps at Tours, and in 1882 the XII. army corps at
Limoges. In 1885 he became a member of the Conseil Superieur
de la Guerre. He conducted the cavalry manoeuvres in successive
years, and attained a European reputation on all cavalry
questions, and, indeed, as an army commander. Decorated with
the grand cross of the Legion of Honour in 1887, he received the
military medal for his able conduct of the autumn manoeuvres in
1 891, and after again commanding at the manoeuvres of 1894 he
retired from the active list. Afterwards he took an important
part in French politics, as war minister (22nd of June 1809 to
29th of May 1900) in M. Waldeck-Rousscau's cabinet, and
distinguished himself by the firmness with which he dealt with
cases of unrest in the army, but he then retired into private life,
and died on the 8th of July 1009.
GALLIO, JUNIUS ANNAEUS (originally Lucius Annaeus
Novatus), son of the rhetorician L. Annaeus Seneca and the
elder brother of L. Annaeus Seneca the philosopher, was born
at Corduba (Cordova) about the beginning of the Christian era.
At Rome he was adopted by L. Junius Gallio, a rhetorician of
some repute, from whom he took the name of Junius Gallio. His
brother Seneca, who dedicated to him the treatises De Ira and
De Vita Be at a, speaks of the charm of his disposition, also alluded
to by the poet Statius (Silvac, ii. 7,32). It is probable that he was
banished to Corsica with his brother, and that both returned
together to Rome when Agrippina selected Seneca to be tutor to
Nero. Towards the close of the reign of Claudius, Gallio was
proconsul of the newly constituted senatorial province of Achaea,
but seems to have been compelled by ill-health to resign the post
within a few years. During his tenure of office (in 53) he dis-
missed the charge brought by the Jews against the apostle Paul
(Acts xviii.). His behaviour on this occasion (" But Gallio
cared for none of these things ") shows the impartial altitude of
the Roman officials towards Christianity in its early days. He
survived his brother Seneca, but was subsequently put to death
by order of Nero (in 65) or committed suicide.
Tacitus, Annals, xv. 73; Dio Cassius lx. 35, Ixii. 25; Sir W. M.
Ramsay, St Paul the Traveller, pp. 257-261 ; art. in Hastings'
Diet of the Bible (H. Cowan). An interesting reconstruction is given
by Anatolc France in Sur la pierre blanche.
GALLIPOLI (anc. Callipolis), a seaport town and episcopal see
of Apulia, Italy, in the province of Lccce, 31 m. S by W of it by
rail, 46 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1001) town. 10,399, com-
mune, 13.459. It is situated on a rocky island in the Gulf of
Taranto, but is united to the mainland by a bridge, protected by
420
GALLIPOLI— GALLIPOLIS
a castle constructed by Charles I. of Anjou. The other fortifica-
tions have been removed. The handsome cathedral dates from
1629. The town was once famous for its exports of olive-oil,
which was stored, until it clarified, in cisterns cut in the rock.
This still continues, but to a less extent; the export of wine,
however, is increasing, and fruit is also exported.
The ancient Caliipolis was obviously of Greek origin, as its
name (" beautiful city ") shows. It is hardly mentioned in
ancient times. Pliny tells us that in his time it was known as
Anxa. It lay a little off the road from Tarentum to Hydruntum ,
but was reached by a branch from Aletium (the site is marked
by the modern church of S. Maria della Lizza), among the ruins
of which many Mcssapian inscriptions, but no Latin ones, have
been found. (T. As.)
GALUPOLI (Turk. Gelibolu, anc. KaXX&roXa), a seaport and
city of European Turkey, in the vilayet of Adrianople; at' the
north-western extremity of the Dardanelles, on a narrow peninsula
132 m. W.S.W. of Constantinople, and 00 m. S. of Adrianople, in
40 24' N. and 26 40' 30* E. Pop. (1005) about 25,000. Nearly
opposite is Lapsaki on the Asiatic side of the channel, which is
here about 2 m. wide. Gallipoli has an unattractive appear-
ance; its streets arc narrow and dirty, and many of its houses are
built of wood, although there arc a few better structures, occupied
by the foreign residents and the richer class of Turkish citizens.
The only noteworthy buildings are the large, crowded and
well-furnished bazaars with leaden domes. There arc several
mosques, none of them remarkable, and many interesting Roman
and Byzantine remains, especially a magazine of the emperor
Justinian (483-565), a square castle and tower attributed to
Bayezid I. (1 389-1403), and some tumuli on the south, popularly
called the tombs of the Thracian kings. The lighthouse, built
on a cliff, has a line appearance as seen from the Dardanelles.
Gallipoli is the seat of a Greek bishop. It has two good harbours,
and is the principal station for the Turkish fleet. From its
position as the key of the Dardanelles, it was occupied by the-
allied French and British armies in 1854. Then the isthmus a few
miles north of the town, between it and Bulair, was fortified with
strong earthworks by English and French engineers, mainly on
the lines of the old works constructed in 1357. These fortifica-
tions were renewed and enlarged in January 1878, on the
Russians threatening to take possession of Constantinople.
The peninsula thus isolated by the fortified positions has the Gulf
of Saros on the N.W., and extends some 50 m. S.W. The guns
of Gallipoli command the Dardanelles just before .the strait
joins the Sea of Marmora. The town itself is not very strongly
fortified, the principal fortifications being farther down the
Dardanelles, where the passage is narrower.
The district (sattjak) of Gallipoli is exceedingly fertile and well
adapted for agriculture. It has about 100,000 inhabitants, and
comprises four kazas (cantons), namely, (1) Maitos, noted for its
excellent cotton; (2) Keshan, lying inland north of Gallipoli,
noted for its cattle-market, and producing grain, linseed and
canary seed; (3) Myriofyto; and (4) Sharkeui or Shar-Koi
(Periston) on the coast of the Sea of Marmora. Copper ore and
petroleum are worked at Sharkeui, and the neighbourhood
formerly produced wine that was highly esteemed and largely
exported to France for blending. Heavy taxation, however,
amounting to 55% of the value of the wine, broke the spirit
of the viticulturists, most of whom uprooted, their vines and
replanted their lands .with mulberry trees, making sericulture
their occupation.
There are no important industrial establishments in Gallipoli
itself, except steam flour-mills and a sardine factory. The line
of railway between Adrianople and the Aegean Sea has been
prejudicial to the transit trade of Gallipoli, and several attempts
have been made to obtain concessions for the construction of a
railway that would connect this port with the Turkish railway
system. Steamers to and from Constantinople call regularly.
In 1904 the total value of the exports was £80,000. Wheat and
maize are exported to the Aegean islands and to Turkish ports on
Che mainland; barley, oats and linseed to Great Britain; canary
seed chiefly to Australia; beans to France and Spain. Semolina
and bran are manufactured in the district. Live stock, principally
sheep, pass through Gallipoli in transit to Constantinople and
Smyrna. Cheese, sardines, goats' skins and sheepskins are also
exported. The imports include woollen and cotton fabrics from
Italy, Germany, France and Great Britain, and hardware from
Germany and Austria. These goods are imported through
Constantinople. Cordage is chiefly obtained from Sexvia. Other
imports are fuel, iron and groceries.
The Macedonian city of Caliipolis was founded in the 5th
century B.C. At an early date it became a Christian bishopric,
and in the middle ages developed into a great commercial city,
with a population estimated at 100,000. It was fortified by the
East Roman emperors owing to its commanding strategic position
and its valuable trade with. Greece and Italy. In 1100 the
armies of the Third Crusade, under the emperor Frederick I.
(Barbarossa) , embarked here for Asia Minor. After the capture
of Constantinople by the Latins in 1204, Gallipoli passed into the
power of Venice. In x 294 the Genoese defeated a Venetian force
in the neighbourhood. A body of Catalans, under Roger Floras,
established themselves here in 1306, and after the death of their
leader massacred almost all the citizens; they were vainly
besieged by the allied troops of Venice and the Empire, and with-
drew in 1307, after dismantling the fortifications. About the
middle of the 14th century the Turks invaded Europe, and Galli-
poli was the first city to fall into their power. The Venetians
under Pictro Loredano defeated the Turks here in 14 16.
GALLIPOLIS, a city and the county-scat of Gallia county,
Ohio, U. S. A., on the Ohio river, about 125 m. E. by S. of
Cincinnati. Pop. (1890) 4498; (1900) 5432 (852 negroes); (1910)
5560. It is served by the Kanawha & Michigan (Ohio Central
Lines) and the Hocking Valley railways, and (at Caliipolis Ferry,
West Virginia, across the Ohio) by the Baltimore & Ohio railway.
The city is built on a level site several feet above the river's
high-water mark. It has a United States marine hospital and a
state hospital for epileptics. Among the city's manufactures are
lumber, furniture, iron, stoves, flour and brooms. The muni-
cipality owns and operates its waterworks. Caliipolis was
settled in 1790 by colonists from France, who had received
worthless deeds to lands in Ohio from the Scioto Land Company,
founded by Col. William Duer (1747-1799) and others in 1787
and officially organized in 1789 as the Compagnie du Scioto in
Paris by Joel Barlow, the agent of Duer and his associates
abroad, William Playfair, an Englishman, and six Frenchmen.
This company had arranged with the Ohio Company in 1787 for
the use of about 4,000,000 acres, N. of the Ohio and E. of the
Scioto, on which the Ohio Company had secured an option only.
The dishonesty of those who conducted the sales in France, the
unbusinesslike methods of Barlow, and the failure of Duer and
his associates to meet their contract with the Ohio Company,
caused the collapse of the Scioto Company early in 1700, and two
subsequent attempts to revive it failed. Meanwhile about
1 50,000 acres had been sold to prospective settlers in France, and
in October 1790 the French immigrants, who had been detained
for two months at Alexandria, Virginia, arrived on the site of
Gallipolis, where rude huts had been built for them. This land,
however, fell within the limits of the tract bought outright by the
Ohio Company, which sold it to the Scioto Company, and to
which it reverted on the failure of the Scioto Company to pay.
In 1794 William Bradford, attorney-general of the United States,
decided that all rights in the 4,000,000 acres, on which the Ohio
Company had secured an option for the Scioto Company, were
legally vested in the Ohio Company. In 1 795 the Ohio Company
sold to the French settlers for $1*25 an acre the land they
occupied and adjacent improved lots, and the United States
government granted to them 24,000 acres in the southern part of
what is now Scioto County in 1795; little of this land (still
known as the " French Grant "), however, was ever occupied by
them. Gallipolis was incorporated as a village in 1842, and was
first chartered as a city in 1865.
Sec Theodore T. Belote, The Scioto Speculation and the French
Settlement at Caliipolis (Cincinnati, 1907), series 2, voL iiL No. 3
of the University Studies of the University of Cincinnati.
GALLITZIN— GALLOWAY
421
GALLITZIN, DEMETRIUS AUGUSTINE (1770-1840),
American Roman Catholic priest, called " The Apostle of the
Allegh&nies," was born at the Hague on the 22nd of December
1770. His name is a form of Golitsuin (q.v.), the Russian family
from which he came. His father, Dimitri Alexeievich Gallitzin
(1735-1803), Russian ambassador to Holland, was an intimate
friend of Voltaire and a follower of Diderot; so, too, for many
years was his mother, Counters Adelheid Amalie von Schmettau
(1748- 1 806), until a severe illness in 17S6 led her back to the
Roman Catholic church, in which she had been reared. At the
age of seventeen he too became a member of that church. His
father had planned for him a diplomatic or military career, and in
1702 he was aide-de-camp to the commander of the Austrian
troops in Brabant; but, after the assassination of the king of
Sweden, he, like all other foreigners, was dismissed from the
service. He then set out to complete his education by travel,
and on the 28th of October 1792 arrived in Baltimore, Maryland,
where he finally decided to enter the priesthood. He was
ordained priest in March 1795, being the first Roman Catholic
priest ordained in America, and then worked in the mission at
Port Tobacco, Maryland, whence he was soon transferred to'the
Conewago district. His impulsive objection to some of Bishop
Carroll's instructions was sharply rebuked, and he was recalled
to Baltimore. But in 1 796 he removed to Taneytown, Maryland,
and in both Maryland and Pennsylvania worked with such mis-
directed zeal and autocratic manners that he was again reproved
by his bishop in 179S. In the Alleghanics, in 1799, he planned a
settlement in what is now Cambria county, Pennsylvania, and
bought up much land which he gave or sold at low prices to
Catholic immigrants, spending $150,000 or more in the purchase
of some 20,000 acres in a spot singularly ill suited for such an
enterprise. In 1S08, after his father's death, he was disinherited
by the emperor Alexander I. of Russia " by reason of your
Catholic faith and your ecclesiastical profession "; and although
his sister Anne repeatedly promised him his half of the valuable
estate and sent him money from time to time, after her death her
brother received little or nothing from the estate. The priest,
who after his father's death had in 1809 discarded the name of
Augustine Smith, under which he had been naturalized, and had
taken his real name, was soon deeply in debt. No small part was
a loan from Charles Carroll, and when Gallitzin was suggested for
the see of Philadelphia in 18 14, Bishop Carroll gave as an objec-
tion Gallitzin's " great load of debt rashly, though for excellent
and charitable purposes, contracted." In 181 5 Gallitzin was sug-
gested for the bishopric of Bardstown, Kentucky, and in 1827 for
the proposed sec of Pittsburg, and he refused the bishopric of
Cincinnati. He died at Loretto, the settlement he had founded
in Cambria county, on the 6th of May 1840. Among his
parishioners Gallitzin was a great power for good. His part in
building up the Roman Catholic Church in western Pennsylvania
cannot be estimated; but it is said that at his death there were
10,000 members of his church in the district where forty yean
before he had found a scant dozen. One ofjthe villages he founded
bears his name. Among his controversial pamphlets are: A
Defence of Catholic Principles (1816), Letter to a Protestant Friend
on the Holy Scriptures (1820), Appeal to the Protestant Public
(1834), and Six Letters of Advice (1834), in reply to attacks
on the Catholic Church by a Presbyterian synod.
See Sarah M. Brownson, Life of D.A. Gallitzin, Prince and Pries
(New York, 1873); a brief summary of his life by A. A. Lambinj
in American Catholic Records (Pittsburg, Pennsylvania, Octobei
1886, pp. 58-68) ; and a good bibliography by Thomas C. Middle tor
in The Gallitzin Memorandum Book, in American Catholic Historica
Society of Philadelphia, Records, vol. 4, pp. 32 sqq.
GALLIUM (symbol Ga; atomic weight 699), one of the metallic
chemical elements. It was discovered in 1875 through its
spectrum, in a specimen of zinc blende by Lecoq dc Boisbaudrar
(Comptes rendus, 1875, Si, p. 493, and following years). The chie
chemical and physical properties of gallium had been predictet
many years before by D. Mendcleeff (c. i860) from a consideratior
of the properties of aluminium, indium and zinc (see Element)
The metal is obtained from zinc blende (which only contains it ii
very small quantity) by dissolving the mineral in an acid, an<
irecipitaticg the gallium by metallic zinc. The precipitate is
lissolved in hydrochloric acid and foreign metals are removed by
ulphuretted hydrogen; the residual liquid being then fraction-
illy precipitated by sodium carbonate, which throws out the
;allium before the zinc. This precipitate is converted into
[allium sulphate and finally into a pure specimen of the oxide,
roth which the metal is obtained by the electrolysis of an alkaline
olution. Gallium crystallizes in greyish-white octahedra which
nclt at 30* 1 5 C. to a silvery-white liquid. It is very hard and but
.lightly malleable and flexible, although in thin plates it may be
)cnt several times without breaking. The specific gravity of the
solid form is 5-956 (24-5° C.),of the liquid 6069, whilst the specific
leats of the two varieties are, for the solid form 0-079 (12-23° C.)
md for the liquid 0-082 (106-119°) [M. Bcrthelot, Comptes
end us, 1878, 86, p. 786]. It is not appreciably volatilized at a red
icaL Chlorine acts on it readily in the cold, bromine not so
:asily, and iodine only when the mixture is heated. The atomic
weight of gallium has been determined by Lecoq de Boisbaudran
jy ignition of gallium ammonium alum, and also by L. Meyer and
t. Scubert.
Gallium oxide GajOj is obtained when the nitrate is heated, or by
solution of the metal in nitric acid and ignition of the nitrate. It
orms a white friable mass which after ignition is insoluble in acids.
!)n heating to redness in a stream of hydrogen it forms a bluish
nass which is probably a lower oxide of composition GaO. Gallium
detected by means of its spark spectrum, which gives two violet lines
[>f wave length 4171 and 4031.
GALLON, an English measure of capacity, usually of liquids,
but also used as a dry measure for corn. A gallon contains four
quarts. The word was adapted from an O. Norm. Fr. galon,
Central Fr. jalon, and was Latinized as gclo and galona. It
appears to be connected with the modern French jale, a bowl, but
the ultimate origin is unknown; it has been referred without
much plausibility to Gr. yav\6i, a milk pail. The British
imperial gallon of four quarts contains 277-274 cub. in. The
old English wine gallon of 231 cub. in. capacity is the standard
gallon of the United States.
GALLOWAY, JOSEPH (1731-1803), American lawyer and
politician, one of the most prominent of the Loyalists, was born in
West River, Anne Arundel county, Maryland , in 1 73 1 . He early
removed to Philadelphia, where he acquired a high standing as a
lawyer. From 1756 until 1774 (except in 1764) he was one of the
most influential members of the Pennsylvania Assembly, over
which he presided in 1 766-1 773. During this period, with his
friend Benjamin Franklin, he led the opposition to the Pro-
prietary government, and in 1764 and 1 765 attempted to secure a
royal charter for the province. With the approach of the crisis
in the relations between Great Britain and the American colonies
he adopted a conservative course, and, while recognizing the
justice of many of the colonial complaints, discouraged radical
action and advocated a compromise. As a member of the First
Continental Congress, he introduced (28th September 1774) a
" Plan of a Proposed Union between Great Britain and the
Colonies," and it is for this chiefly that he is remembered. It
provided for a president -general appointed by the crown, who
should have supreme executive authority over all the colonics,
and for a grand council, elected triennially by the several pro-
vincial assemblies, and to have such " rights, liberties and v
privileges as are held and exercised by and in the House of
Commons of Great Britain "; the president-general and grand
council were to be " an inferior distinct branch of the British
legislature, united and incorporated with it." The assent of the
422
GALLOWAY— GALLS
grand council and of the British parliament was to be " requisite
to the validity of all . . . general acts or statutes," except that
" in time of War, all bills for granting aid to the crown, prepared
by the grand council and approved by the president-general,
shall be valid and passed into a law, without the assent of the
British parliament." The individual colonies, however, were to
retain control over their strictly internal affairs. The measure
was debated at length, was advocated by such influential members
as John Jay and James Duane of New York and Edward
Rutlcdgc of South Carolina, and was eventually defeated only by
the vote of six colonics to five. Galloway declined a second
election to Congress in 1775, joined the British army at New
Brunswick, New Jersey (December 1776), advised the British te
attack Philadelphia by the Delaware, and during the British
occupation of Philadelphia (1777-1778) was superintendent of
the port, of prohibited articles, and of police of the city. In
October 1778 he went to England, where he remained until his
death at Watford, Hertfordshire, on the 29th of August 1803.
After he left America his life was attainted, and his property,
valued at £40,000, was confiscated by the Pennsylvania
Assembly, a loss for which he received a partial recompense in the
form of a small parliamentary pension. He was one of the
dearest thinkers and ablest political writers among the American
Loyalists, and, according to Prof. Tyler, " shared with Thomas
Hutchinson the supreme place among American statesmen
opposed to the Revolution."
Among his pamphlets are A Candid Examination of the Mutual
Claims of Great Britain and the Colonies (1775); Historical and
Political Reflections on the Rise and Progress of the American Rebellion
(1780); Cool Thoughts on the Consequences to Great Britain of
American Independence (1780); and The Claim of the American
Loyalists Reviewed and Maintained upon Incontrovertible Principles
of Law and Justice (1788).
See Thomas Batch (Ed.), The Examination of Joseph Galloway
by a Committee of the House of Commons (Philadelphia, 1855);
Ernest H. Baldwin, Joseph Galloway, the Loyalist Politician (New
Haven, 1903); and M. C. Tyler, Literary History of the American
Revolution (a vols., New York, 1897).
GALLOWAY, THOMAS (1796-1851), Scottish mathematician,
was born at Symington, Lanarkshire, on the 26th of February
1796. In 18 1 2 he entered the university of Edinburgh, where he
distinguished himself specially in mathematics. In 1823 he was
appointed one of the teachers of mathematics at the military
college of Sandhurst, and in 1833 he was appointed actuary to the
Amicable Life Assurance Office, the oldest institution of that kind
in London; in which situation he remained till his death on the
1 st of November 1851. Galloway was a voluminous, though, for
the most part, an anonymous writer. His most interesting
paper is " On the Proper Motion of the Solar System," and was
published in the Phil. Trans. , 1847. He contributed largely to
the seventh edition of the Encyclopaedia Br it annua, and also
wrote several scientific papers for the Edinburgh Review and
various scientific journals. His Encyclopaedia article, " Prob-
ability," was published separately.
See Transactions of the Royal Astronomical Society (1852).
GALLOWAY, a district in the south-west of Scotland, com-
prising the counties of Kirkcudbright and Wigtown. It was
the Novanlia of the Romans, and till the end of the 12th cen-
tury included Carrick, now the southern division of Ayrshire.
Though the designation has not been adopted civilly, its use
historically and locally has been long established. Thus the
Braces were lords of Galloway, and the title of earl of Galloway
(created 1623) is now held by a branch of the Stewarts. Galloway
also gives its name to a famous indigenous breed of black hornless
cattle. See Kirkcudbrightshire and Wigtownshire.
GALLOWS 1 (a common Teutonic word— cf. Goth. gaJga,
O. H. Gcr. galgOy Mod. Ger. Gal gen, A.S. gahan, &c— of uncertain
1 The word " gallows " is the plural of a word (f afar, galowe, fallow)
which, according to the New English Dictionary, was occasionally
used as late as the 17th century, though from the 13th century on-
wards the plural form was more usual. Caxton speaks both of " a
gallows," and, in the older form, of " a pair of gallows," this referring
probably to the two upright posts. From the 16th century onwards
gallows " has been consistently treated as a singular form, a new
plural, " gallowses," having come into use. " The latter, though
origin), the apparatus for executing the sentence of death by
hanging. It usually consists of two upright posts and a cross-
beam, but sometimes of a single upright with a beam projecting
from the top. The Roman gallows was the cross, and in the
older translations of the Bible " gallows " was used for the cross
on which Christ suffered (so galga in Ulfilas's Gothic Testament).'
Another form of gallows in the middle ages was that of which the
famous example at Montfaucon near Paris was the type. This
was a square structure formed of columns of masonry connected
in each tier with cross-pieces of wood, and with pits beneath,
into which the bodies fell after disarticulation by exposure to the
weather.
According to actual usage the condemned man stands 00 a
platform or drop (introduced in England in 1760), the rope hangs
from the cross-beam, and the noose at its end is placed round
his neck. He is hanged by the falling of the drop, the knot in
the noose being so adjusted that the spinal cord is broken by the
fall and death instantaneous. In old times the process was far
less merciful; sometimes the condemned man stood in a cart,
which was drawn away from under him; sometimes he had to
mount a ladder, from which he was thrust by the hangman.
Until 1832 malefactors in England were sometimes banged by
being drawn up from the platform by a heavy weight at the other
end of the rope. Death in these cases was by strangulation. At
the present time executions in the United Kingdom are private,
the gallows being erected in a chamber or enclosed space set
apart for the purpose inside the gaol.
The word " gibbet," the Fr. gibcl f gallows, which appears ia
the first instance to have meant a crooked stick,' was originally
used in English synonymously with gallows, as it sometimes
still is. Its later and more special application, however, was to
the upright posts with a projecting arm on which the bodies of
criminals were suspended after their execution. These gibbets
were erected in conspicuous spots, on the tops of bills (Gallows
Hill is still a common name) or near frequented roads. The
bodies, smeared with pitch to prevent too rapid decomposition,
hung in chains as a warning to evildoers. From the gruesome
custom comes the common use of the word " to gibbet " for any
holding up to public infamy or contempt.
GALLS. In animals galls occur mostly on or und^er the skin of
living mammals and birds, and arc produced by Acaridea, and by
dipterous insects of the genus Oestrus. Signor Moriggia * has
described and figured a horny excrescence, nearly 8 in. in length,
from the back of the human hand, which was caused by Acarus
domesticus. What are commonly known as galls are vegetable
excrescences, and, according to the definition of Lacaze-Duthiers,
comprise "all abnormal vegetable productions developed on
plants by the action of animals, more particularly by insects,
whatever may be their form, bulk or situation." For the larvae
of their makers the galls provide shelter and sustenance. The
exciting cause of the hypertrophy, in the case of the typical galls,
appears to be a minute quantity of some irritating fluid, or virus,
secreted by the female insect, and deposited with her egg in the
puncture made by hertpripositor in the cortical or foliaccous parts
of plants. This virus causes the rapid enlargement and subdivision
of the cells affected by it, so as to form the tissues of the gall. Oval
or larval irritation also, without doubt, plays an important part
in the formation of many galls. Though, as Lacaze-Duthiers
remarks, a certain relation is necessary between the " stimulus "
and the " supporter of the stimulus," as evidenced by the limita-
tion in the majority of coses of each species of gall-insect to some
one vegetable structure, still it must be the quality of the irritant
not strictly obsolete, is now seldom used; the formation is felt
to be somewhat uncouth, so that the use of the word in the plural
in commonly evaded " (New Eng. Diet. s.v. " Gallows ").
1 In Med. Lat. " gallows " was translated by furia and pa J t b rn lum ,
both words applied in classical Latin to a fork-shaped instrument
of punishment fastened on the neck of slaves and criminals. Furia,
in feudal law, was the right granted to tenants having major juris-
diction to erect a gallows within the limits of their fief.
1 Cf. Wace, Roman de Ron, iii. 83^0:
" Et il a le gibet saisi
Qui a son destre braz pendi."
4 Quoted in Zoological Record, iv. (1867), p. 193.
GALLS
423
of the tissues, rather than the specific peculiarities or the part
of the plant affected, that principally determines the nature of the
gall. Thus the characteristics of the currant-gall of Spalhegaster
baccarum, L., which occurs alike on the leaves and on the
flower-stalks of the oak, are obviously due to the act of ovi-
position, and not to the functions of the parts producing it;
the bright red galls of the saw-fly Ncmatus gallicola are found on
four different species of willow, Salix fragilis, S. alba, S. caprca
and 5. cinerea; 1 and the galls of a Cynipid, Bicrhita aptcra,
usually developed on the rootlets of the oak, have been procured
also from the deodar. 1 Often the gall bears no visible resemblance
to the structures out of which it is developed; commonly,
however, outside the larval chamber, or gall proper, and giving
to the gall its distinctive form, are to be detected certain more or
less modified special organs of the plant. The gall of Cecidomyia
strobilina, formed from willow-buds, is mainly a rosette of leaves
the stalks of which have had their growth arrested. The small,
smooth, seed-shaped gall of the American Cynips seminator,
Harris, according to W. F. Bassctt, 3 is the petiole, and its ter-
minal tuft of woolly hairs the enormously developed pubescence
of the young oak-leaf. Themoss-likecoveringof the "bedeguars"
of the wild rose, the galls of a Cynipid, Rhoditcs rosae, represents
leaves which have been developed with scarcely any parenchyma
between their fibro-vascular bundles; and the " artichoke-galls "
or " oak-strobile," produced by Aphilothrix gemmae, L., which
insect arrests the development of the acorn, consists of a cupule
to which more or less modified leaf-scales are attached, with a
peduncular, oviform, inner gall. 4 £. Newman held tho view that
many oak-galls are pseudobalani or false acorns: " to produce
an acorn has been the intention of the oak, but the gall-fly has
frustrated the attempt." Their formation from buds which
normally would have yielded leaves and shoots is explained by
Parfitt as the outcome of an effort at fructification induced by
oviposit ion, such as has been found to result in several plants from
injury by insect-agency or otherwise.* Galls vary remarkably
in size and shape according to the species of their makers. The
polythalamous gall of Aphilothrix radicis, found on the roots of
old oak-trees, may attain the size of a man's fist; the galls of
another Cynipid, Andricus occult us, Tschck ,• which occurs on the
male flowers of Qucrcus scssiliflora, is 2 millimetres, or barely a
line, in length. Many galls arc brightly coloured, as, for instance,
the oak-leaf hairy galls of Spaihcgaslcr tricolor, which are of a
crimson hue, more or less diffused according to exposure to light.
The variety of forms of galls is very great. Some are like urns
or cups, others lenticular. The " knoppcrn " galls of Cynips
polyccra, Gir., arc cones having the broad, slightly convex
upper surface surrounded witha toothed ridge. Of the Ceylonese
galls, " some are as symmetrical as a composite flower when in
bud, others smooth and spherical like a berry; some protected
by long spines, others clothed with yellow wool formed of long
cellular hairs, others with regularly tufted hairs." 7 Thecharacters
of galls are constant, and as a rule exceedingly diagnostic, even
when, as in the case of ten different gall-gnats of an American
willow, Salix hum His, it is difficult or impossible to tell the full-
grown insects that produce them from one another. In degree
of complexity of internal structure galls differ considerably.
Some are monothalamous, and contain but one larva of the gall-
maker, whilst others arc many-celled and numerously inhabited.
The largest class arc the unilocular, or simple, external galls,
divided by Lacaze-Duthiers into those with and those without
a superficial protective layer or rind, and composed of hard,
or spongy, or cellular tissue. In a common gall-nut that aut hority
distinguished seven constituent portions: an epidermis; a
subdermic cellular tissue; a spongy and a hard layer, composing
1 P. Cameron, Scottish Naturalist, ti. pp. 11-15.
• Entomologist, vii. p. 47.
• See in Proc. En torn. Soc. of London for the Year 1873, p. xvi.
4 See A. Muller, Gardener's Chronicle (1871), pp. 1162 and 1518;
and E. A. Fitch, Entomologist, xi. p. 129.
• Entomologist, vi. pp. 275-278, 339-34°-
• Verhandl. d. zoolog.-bot. Ges. in Wien, xxi. p. 709.
• Darwin, Variations of Animals and Plants under Domestication,
ti. p. 282.
the parenchyma proper; vessels which, without forming a
complete investment, underlie the parenchyma; a hard pro-
tective layer; and lastly, within that, an alimentary central
mass inhabited by the growing larva.*
Galls are formed by insects of several orders. Among the
Hymcnoptera are the gall- wasps (Cynips and its allies), which
infect the various species of oak. They are small insects, having
straight antennae, and a compressed, usually very short abdomen
with the second or second and third segments greatly developed,
and the rest imbricated, and concealing the partially coiled
ovipositor. The transformations from the larval state are
completed within the gall, out of which the imago, or perfect
insect, tunnels its way, — usually in autumn, though sometimes,
as has been observed of some individuals of Cynips Kollari,
after hibernation.
Among the commoner of the galls of the Cynipidae are the
"oak-apple" or "oak-sponge" of Andricus tcrminalis, Fab.;
the " currant " or " berry galls " of Spalhegaster baccarum,
L., above mentioned; and the "oak-spangles" of NeuroUrus
lenlicularis, 9 Oliv., generally reputed to be fungoid growths,
until the discovery of their true nature by Frederick Smith, 10 and
the succulent " cherry-galls " of Dryopltanta sculcUaris, Oliv.
The " marble " or " Devonshire woody galls " of oak-buds,
which often destroy the leading shoots of young trees, are pro-
duced by Cynips Kollari, 11 already alluded to. They were first
introduced into Devonshire about the year 1847, had become
common near Birmingham by xS66, and two or three years later
were observed in several parts of Scotland." They contain
about 17% of tannin." On account of their regular form they
have been used, threaded on wire, for making ornamental baskets.
The large purplish Mecca or Bussorah galls, 14 produced on a
species of oak by Cynips insane, Westw., have been regarded by
many writers as the Dead Sea fruit, mad-apples (mala insane),
or apples of Sodom (porno sodomitica), alluded to by Josephus
and others, which, however, are stated by £. Robinson (BiU.
Researches in Palestine, vol. i. pp. 522-524, 3rd ed., 1867) to be
the singular fruit called by the Arabs 'Osher, produced by the
Asckpias gigantea or procera of botanists. What in California,
are known as " flea seeds " are oak-galls made by a species of
Cynips; in August they become detached from the leaves that
bear them, and are caused to jump by the spasmodic movements
of the grub within the thin-walled gall-cavity . u
Common gall-nuts, nut-galls, or oak-galls, the Aleppo, Turkey,
or Levant galls of commerce (Ger. GaWtpfcl, Icvantisch*
Gallen; Fr. noix de Gallc), are produced on Qucrcus in-
fectoria, a variety of Q. Lusitanica, Webb, by Cynips (Diplolcpis,
Latr.) tinctoria, L., or C. gallae tincloriae Oliv. Aleppo galls
(gallae halepcnses) are brittle, hard, spherical bodies, $-£ in. in
diameter, ridged and warty on the upper half, and light brown
to dark greyish-yellow within. What are termed " blue,"
" black," or" green "gallscontain the insect; the inferior "white"
galls, which are lighter coloured, and not so compact, heavy or
astringent, are gathered after its escape (see fig. z .). Less valued
are the galls of Tripoli (Taraplus or Tarabulus, whence the name
" Tarablous galls ")• The most esteemed Syrian galls, according
to Pereira, are those of Mosul on the Tigris. Other varieties of
nut-galls, besides the above-mentioned, are employed in Europe
for various purposes. Commercial gall-nuts have yielded on
analysis from 26 (H. Davy) to 77 (Buchncr) % of tannin (see
• " Recherches pour servir a rhistoire des galles," Ann. des sci.
not. xix. pp. 293 sqq.
• According to Dr Adler, alternation of generations takes place
between N. lenticularis and Spathegaster baccarum (sec E. A. Ormcrod,
Entomologist, xi. p. 34).
» See Wcstwood, Introd. to the Mod. Qassif. of Insects, ii. (1840)
p. 130.
11 For figures and descriptions of insect and gall, see Entomologist,
iv. p. 17, vii. p. 241, ix. p. 53, xi. p. 131.
"Scottish Naturalist, i. (187 1 ) p. 116, &c.
"Vincn. Journ. de pharm. et de chim. xxx. (1856) p. 290;
" English Ink-Galls," Pharm. Journ. 2nd ser. iv. p. 520.
14 Sec Pereira, Materia Medico, vol. ii. pt. i. p. 347; Pharm. Journ.
1st ser. vol. viii. pp. 422-424.
» See R. H. Stretch and C. D. Gibbet* Proc. California Acad,
of Sciences, iv. pp. 265 and 266.
424-
GALLS
Vinen, loc. cii.), with gallic and cllagic acids, ligneous fibre,
water, and minute quantities of proteids, chlorophyll, resin, free
sugar and, in the cells around the inner shelly chamber, calcium
oxalate. Oak-galls are mentioned by Theophrastus, Dioscorides
(i. 146), and other ancient writers, including Pliny (Nat. Hist.
xvi. 9, 10, xxiv. 5), according to whom they may be produced
" in a single night." Their insect origin appears to have been
entirely unsuspected until within comparatively recent times,
though Pliny, indeed, makes the observation that a kind of gnat is
Fie. 1. — a, Aleppo "blue" gall; b, ditto in section, showing
central cavity for grub; c, Aleppo ° white " gall, perforated by
insect ; d, the same in section (natural size).
produced in certain excrescences on oak leaves. Bacon describes
oak-apples as " an exudation of plants joined with putrefaction."
Pomet 1 thought that gall-nuts were the fruit of the oak, and a
similar opinion obtains among the modern Chinese, who apply
to them the term Mu-shih-tsze, or " fruits for the foodlcss."*
Hippocrates administered gall-nuts for their astringent properties,
and Pliny (Nat. Hist. xxiv. 5) recommends them as a remedy in
affections of the gums and uvula, ulcerations of the mouth and
some dozen more complaints. In British pharmacy gall-nuts
are used in the preparation of the two astringent ointments
ungucnlutn gallae and unguentum gallac cum opio, and of the
tinclura gallae, and also as a source of tannin and of gallic acid
(q.v.). They have from very early times been resorted to as a
means of staining the hair of a dark colour, and they are the
base of the tattooing dye of the Somali women.'
The gall-making Hymenoptera include, besides the Cynipidae
proper, certain species of the genus Eurytoma (Isosoma, Walsh)
and family Chalcididae, e.g. E.kordei, the "joint-worm" of the
United States, which produces galls on the stalks of wheat; 4
also various members of the family Tentkrtdinidac, or saw-flies.
The larvae of the latter usually vacate their galls, to spin their
cocoons in the earth, or, as in the case of Alhalia abdominal is,
Klg., of the clematis, may emerge from their shelter to feed for
some days on the leaves of the gall-bearing plant.
The dipterous gall-formers include the gall-midges, or gall-
gnats (Cccidomyidae), minute slender-bodied insects, with bodies
usually covered with long hairs, and the wings folded over the
back. Some of them build cocoons within their galls, others
descend to the ground or become pupae. The true willow-galls
are the work either of these or of saw-flies. Their galls are to be
met with on a great variety of plants of widely distinct genera,
e.g. the ash, maple, horn-beam, oak, 4 grape-vine,* alder, goose-
berry, blackberry, pine, juniper, thistle, fennel, meadowsweet, 7
1 A Complete History of Drugs (translation), p. 160 (London, 1748).
* F. Porter Smith, Contrib. towards the Mat. Medico, . . . of Chna,
p. 100 (187 1 ).
* R. F. Burton. First Footsteps in E. Africa, p. 178 (1856).
* A. S. Packard, jun., Guide to the Study of Insects, p. 205 (Salem,
•On the Cecidomyids of Qucrcus Cerris, see Fitch, Entomologist,
•See, on Cecidomyia oenephila. Von Haimhoffcn, Vcrhandl. d.
soolog.-bot. Ges. in Wicn, xxv. pp. 801-810.
'See Entomologist's Month. Mag. iv. (1868) p. 233; and for
figure and description, Entomologist, xi. p. 13.
common cabbage and cereals. In the northern United States, in
May, " legions of these delicate minute flies fill the air at twilight,
hovering over wheat-fields and shrubbery. A strong north-west
wind, at such times, is of incalculable value to the fanner." 1
Other gall-making dipterous flics are members of the family
Trypetidae, which disfigure the seed-heads of plants, and of the
family Mycctopkilidae, such as the species Sciara lilieola* Low,
the cause of the oblong or rounded green and red galls of
the young shoots and leaves of the lime.
Galls are formed also by hemipterous and homopterous insects
of the families Tingidac, Psyllidae, Coccidac and Aphidac.
Coccus pinicorticis causes the growth of patches of white flocculent
and downy matter on the smooth bark of young trees of the
white pine in America. 10 The galls of examples of the last
family are common objects on lime-leaves, and on the petioles of
the poplar. An American Aphid of the genus Pemphigus pro-
duces black, ragged, leathery and cut-shaped excrescences on the
young branches of the hickory.
The Chinese galls of commerce (Woo-pei-tste) are stated to be
produced by Aphis Chinensis, Bell, on Rhus semialata, Murr. (FL
Bucki-amela, Roxb.), an Anacardiaceous tree indigenous to N.
India, China and Japan. They are hollow, brittle, irregularly
pyriform, tuberculated or branched vesicles, with thin walls, covered
externally with a grey down, and internally with a white chalk-like
matter, and insect-remains (see fig. 2). The escape of the insect
takes place on the spontaneous bursting of the walls of the vesicle,
probably when, after viviparous (thelytokous) reproduction for
several generations, male winged insects are developed. The galls
arc gathered before the frosts set in, and are exposed to steam to kill
the insects. 11
Chinese galls examined by Viedt u yielded 72 % of tannin, and
less mucilage than Aleppo galls. Several other varieties of galls
are produced by Aphides on species of Pistacia.
M. J. Lichtenstein has established the fact that from the egg of
the Aphis of Pistachio galls, Anopleura Untisei, is hatched an
apterous insect (the gall-founder), which gives birth to young
Aphides (emigrants), and that those, having acquired wings, fly to
the roots of certain grasses (Bromus sterilis and Hordeum vulgare).
and by budding underground give rise to several generations of
apterous insects, whence finally comes a winged brood (the pnpi-
fera). These last issuing from the ground fly to the Pistachio, and
on it deposit their pupae. From the pupae, again, are developed
sexual individuals, the females of which lay fecundated eggs pro-
ductive of gall-founders, thus recommencing the biological cycle
(see Compt. rend., Nov. 18, 1878, p. 782, quoted in Ann. and Meg.
Nat. Hist., 1879, p. 174).
Of other insects which have been recognized as gall-makers
Fig. a.— a, Chinese gall (about & nat size) ; b, ditto broken, showing
thin- walled cavity; c, Japanese gall (natural size).
there are, among the Coleoptera, certain Curculionids (gall-
weevils), and species of the exotic Sagridae and Lamiadae and an
• A. S. Packard, jun.. Our Common Insects, p. 203 (Salem, VS.
1873). On the Hessian fly, Cecidomyia destructor. Say, the May
brood of which produces swellings immediately above the joints of
barley attacked by it, see Asa Fitch. The Hessian Fly (Albany, 1847),
reprinted from Trans. New York State Agric. Soc voL vi.
• J. Winnertz, Beitrag iu einer Monograpkie der Sciannen, p. 164
(Vienna, 1867). . „ . , ,
» Asa Fitch, First and Second Rep. on the Noxums . . . Insect*
of the State of New York, p. 167 (Albany, 1856).
» See E. Doublcday, Pharm. Journ. 1st ser. vol. vu. p. 310; and
Pereira, ib. vol. iii. p. 377.
u Dingier' s Polyt. Journ. cexvi. p. 453.
GALLUPPI
+25
American beetle, Saperda inotnata (Cerambycidae), which forms
the pseudo-galls of Salix longijolia and Populus angulala, or
cottonwood Among the Lcpidoptera are gall-forming species
belonging to the Tineidae, Aegeriidae, Tortricidae and Ptero-
phoridac. The larva of a New Zealand moth, M or ova subfasciata,
Walk. (Cacoicia gallicolcns), of the family Drcpanulidae, causes
the stem of a creeping plant, on the pith of which it apparently
subsists, to swell up into a fusiform gall. 1
Mite-galls, or acarocccidia, arc abnormal growths of the leaves
of plants, produced by microscopic Acaridea of the genus
Phytopius (gall-mites), and consist of little tufts of hairs, or of
thickened portions of the leaves, usually most hypertrophicd on
the upper surface, so that the lower is drawn up into the interior,
producing a bursiform cavity. Mite-galls occur on the sycamore,
pear, plum, ash, alder, vine, mulberry and many other plants;
and formerly, e.g. the gall known as Erineum quercinum, on the
leaves of Quercus Ccrris, were taken for cryptogamic structures.
The lime-leaf " nail-galls " of Phytopius tiliae closely resemble the
" trumpet-galls " formed on American vines by a species of
Cecidomyia* Certain minute Nematoid worms, as Anguillula
scandens, which infests the ears of wheat, also give rise to galls.
Besides the larva of the gall-maker, or the householder, galls
usually contain inquilines or lodgers, the larvae of what are
termed guest -flies or cuckoo-flies. Thus the galls of Cynips and
its allies are inhabited by members of other cynipideous genera,
as Syncrgus, Amblynotus and Synophrus; and the pine-cone-like
gall of Salix slrobiloides, as Walsh has shown,* is made by a large
species of Cecidomyia, which inhabits the heart of the mass, the
numerous smaller cccidorayidous larvae in its outer part being
mere inquilines. In many instances the lodgers are not of the
same order of insects as the gall-makers. Some saw-flies, for
example, are inquilinous in the galls of gall-gnats and some
gall-gnats in the galls of saw-flies. Again, galls may afford
harbour to insects which are not essentially gall-feeders, as in the
case of the Curculio beetle Conolrachclius nenuphar, Hbst., of
which one brood cats the fleshy part of the plum and peach, and
another lives in the " black knot " of the plum-tree, regarded
by Walsh as probably a true cecidomyidous gall. The same
authority (Joe, cit. p. 550) mentions a willow-gall which provides
no less than sixteen insects with food and protection; these are
preyed upon by about eight others, so that alltogether some
twenty-four insects, representing eight orders, arc dependent for
their existence on what to the common observer appears to be
nothing but " an unmeaning mass of leaves." Among the
numerous insects parasitic on the inhabitants of galls are
hymenopterous flies of the family Proctotrypidae, and of the
family Chakididac, e.g. CaUimome rcgius, the larva of which
preys on the larvae of both Cynips glutinosa and its lodger
Syncrgus facialis. The oak-apple often contains the larvae of
Braconidae and Ichneumonidae, which Von Schlcchtcndal (loc.
sup. cit. p. 33) considers to be parasites not on the owner of the
gall, Andricus Urminalis, but on inquilinous Tortricidae. Birds
are to be included among the enemies of gall-insects. Oak-galls,
for example, arc broken open by the titmouse in order to obtain
the grub within, and the " button-galls " of Neuroterus numis-
matis, Oliv., arc eaten by pheasants.
A great variety of deformations and growths produced by
insects and mites as well as by fungi have been described. They
are in some cases very slight, and in others form remarkably
large and definite structures. The whole are now included under
the term Cecidia; a prefix gives the name of the organism to
which the attacks are due, e.g. Phytoptoceddia are the galls
formed by Phytoptid mites. Simple galls are those that arise
when only one member of a plant is involved; compound galls
1 For figure and description sec Zoology of the " Erebus " and
'• Terror, ii. pp. 46. 47 (1844- 1 875).
' On the nutc-galls and their makers, sec F. L6w, " Bcitrage zur
Naturgcsch. dcr Gallmilbcn {Phytopius. Duj.)," Verhandl. d. toohg.-
bot. Ges. in Wien, xxiv. (1874), pp. 2-16, with plate; and " Ubcr
Milbengallcn (Acarocccidicn) der VViener-Gegend," ib. pp. 495-5°®;
Andrew Murray, Economic Entomology. Aptera, pp. 331 -374 (1876);
and F. A. W. Thomas, Altere und ncue Beobachtungen uber Phytopto-
Cecidien (Halle. 1877)-
arc the result of attacks on buds. Amongst the most remark-
able galls recently discovered we may mention those found on
Eucalyptus, Casuarina and other trees and plants in Australia.
They are remarkable for their variety, and arc due to small
scale-insects of the peculiar sub-family Brachyscelinae. As
regards the mode of production of galls, the most important
distinction is between galls that result from the introduction of
an egg, or other matter, into the interior of the plant, and those
that are due to an agent acting externally, the gall in the latter
case frequently growing in such a manner as ultimately to enclose
its producers. The form and nature of the gall arc the result
of the powers of growth possessed by the plant. It has long been
known, and is now generally recognized, that a gall can only be
produced when the tissue of a plant is interfered with during, or
prior to, the actual development of the tissue. Little more than
this is known. The power that gall -producers possess of in-
fluencing by direct interference the growth of the cells of the plant
that affords them the means of subsistence is an art that appears
to be widely spread among animals, but is at the same time one
of which we have little knowledge. The views of Adlcr as to the
alternation of generations of numerous gall-flies have been fully
confirmed, it having been ascertained by direct observation that
the galls and the insects produced from them in one generation
are entirely different from the next generation; and it has also
been rendered certain that frequently one of the alternate
generations is parthenogenetic, no males being produced. It is
supposed that these remarkable phenomena have gradually
been evoked by difference in the nutrition of the alternating
generations. When two different generations are produced in
one year on the same kind of tree it is clear the properties of the
sap and tissues of the tree must be diverse so that the two genera-
tions are adapted to different conditions. In some cases the
alternating generations are produced on different species of trees,
and even on different parts of the two species.
On galls and their makers and inhabitants see further — J. T. C.
Ratzeburg, Die Forst-Insecten, Teil iii. pp. 53 seq. (Berlin, 1844);
T. W. Harris, Insects injurious to Vegetation (Boston, U.S., 2nd cd.,
Dipterous, inhabiting the Galls of certain species of Willow," Proc.
G. L. Mayr, Die mitteieuropdischen Eichengollen in Wort und Bild
(Vienna, 1870-1871), and the translation of that work, with notes, in
the Entomologist, vols. vii. seq.; also, by the same author, " Die
Einmiethler der imtteleurop&ischen Eichcngallen," Verhandl. d.
zoolog.-bot. Ges. in Wien, xxii. pp. 669-726; and " Die europaischeo
Torymiden," ib. xxiv. pp. 53-142 (abstracted in Cistula entomotogica
i., London, 1869-1876);?. Low, " Beit rage zur Kenntnis der
GallmOcken," ib. pp. 143-162, and 321-328; J. E. von Bergenstamm
and P. Low, "Synopsis Cecidomyidarum, «6. xxvi. pp. 1-104;
Penis, Ann. Soc. Entom. de France, 4th ser. vol. x. pp. 176-185:
R. Osten-Sacken, " On the North American Cecidomyidae," Smith-
sonian Miscellaneous Collections, vol. vi. (1867), p. 173; fc. L. Taschen-
berg, Entomologie fur Gdrtner und Gartenfreunde (Leipzig, 1871);
J. W. H. Traill, " Scottish Galls," Scottish Naturalist, i. (1871), pp.
123, Ac.; Albert Mailer, " British Gall Insects," The Entomologist's
and J. Vesque, Les Maladies des piantes cult ivies, pp. 98-105 (Paris,
1878). (F.fi.B.)
GALLUPPI, PASQUALE (1770- 1846), Italian philosopher,
was born on the 2nd of April 1770 at Tropea, in Calabria. He
was of good family, and after studying at the university of Naples
he entered the public service, and was for many years employed
in the office of the administration of finances. At the age of
sixty, having become widely known by his writingson philosophy,
he was called to the chair of logic and metaphysics in the univer-
sity of Naples, which he held till his death in November 1846.
His most important works are: Lcttere filosofiche (1827), in which
he traces his philosophical development ; Elementi di filosofia
(1832); Saggio filosofico sulla criiica delta conoscenza (1810-
1832); SulV analisi e sulla sintcsi (1807); Lezioni di logica e
di mctafisica (1832-1836); Filosofia della volant* (1832-1842,
426
GALLUS, C.;— GALT, SIR A. T
incomplete); Storia delta filosofia (i., 1842); Consider azioni
JUosoJicke sulT idealismo trascendentale (1841), a memoir on the
system of Fichte.
On his philosophical views see L. Ferri, Essai sur fhtstoire de la
philosothio en Ilalie au XIX* stick, i. (1869); V. Botta in Ueber-
weg's Hist, of Philosophy, ii. app. 2; C. Barzellotti, " Philosophy
in Italy," in Mind, id. (1878); V. Lastrucci, Pasquale CaUuppt.
Studio crilico (Florence, 1890).
GALLUS, CORNELIUS (c. 70-26 B.C.), Roman poet, orator and
politician, was born of humble parents at Forum Julii (Frejus)
in Gaul. At an early age he removed to Rome, where he was
taught by the same master as Virgil and Varius Rufus. Virgil,
who dedicated one of his eclogues (x.) to him, was in great
measure indebted to the influence of Callus for the restoration of
his estate. In political life Gallus espoused the cause of Octavi-
anus, and as a reward for his services was made praefect of Egypt
(Suetonius, Augustus, 66). His conduct in this position after-
wards brought him into disgrace with the emperor, and having
been deprived of his estates and sentenced to banishment, he
put an end to his life (Dio Cassius liii. 23). Gallus enjoyed a
high reputation among his contemporaries as a man of intellect,
and Ovid (Tristia, iv. 10) considered him the first of the elegiac
poets of Rome. He wrote four books of elegies chiefly on his
mistress Lycoris (& poetical name for Cythcris, a notorious
actress), in which he took for his model Euphorion of Chalcis
(q.v.)\ be also translated some of this author's works into Latin.
Nothing by him has survived; the fragments of the four poems
attributed to him (first published by Aldus Manutius in 1590
and printed in A. Riese's Anthologia Latina, 1869) are generally
regarded as a forgery.
See C. Vulker, De C. Colli vita el script is (1840-1844); A. Nicolas,
Delarieet des outrages de C. Callus (1851 ), an exhaustive monograph.
An inscription found at Philae (published 1896) records the Egyptian
exploits; see M. Schani, GeschichU der romischen Litteratur, and
Plcssis, Pofsie latine (1909)-
GALLUS, GAIUS AEUUS, praefect of Egypt 26-24 B.C. By
order of Augustus he undertook an expedition to Arabia Felix,
with disastrous results. The troops suffered greatly from disease,
heat, want of water and the obstinate resistance of the in-
habitants. The treachery of a foreign guide also added to his
difficulties. After six months Gallus was obliged to return to
Alexandria, having lost the greater part of his force. He was a
friend of the geographer Strabo, who gives an account of the
expedition (xvi. pp. 780-782; see also Dio Cassius liii. 29;
Pliny, Nat. Hist. vi. 32; C. Men vale, Hist, of the Romans under
the Empire, ch. 34; H. Kriiger, Der Fcldiug des A. C. nach
dem glUchlkhtn Arabien, 1862). He has been identified with the
Aelius Gallus frequently quoted by Galen, whose remedies arc
stated to have been used with success in an Arabian expedition.
GALLUS, GAIUS CESTIUS, governor of Syria during the reign
of Nero. When the Jews in Jerusalem, stirred to revolt by the
outrages of the Roman procurators, had seized the fortress of
Masada and treacherously murdered the garrison of the palace
of Herod, Gallus set out from Antioch to restore order. On the
17th of November a.d. 66 he arrived before Jerusalem. Having
gained possession of the northern suburb, he attacked the temple
mount; but, after five days' fighting, just when (according to
Josephus) success was within his grasp, he unaccountably with-
drew his forces. During his retreat he was closely pursued by
the Jews and surrounded in a ravine, and only succeeded in
making good his escape to Antioch by sacrificing the greater
part of his army and a large amount of war material. Soon after
his return Gallus died (before the spring of 67), and was succeeded
in the governorship by Licinius Mucianus, the prosecution of the
war being entrusted to Vespasian.
See Tacitus, Hist. v. io, 13; Suetonius, Vespasian, 4; Josephus,
Bell. Jud. ii. 14-20; E. Schurcr, Hist, of the Jewish People, div. i.
vol. ii. p. 212 (Eng. tr., 1890).
GALLUS, GAIUS SULPICJUS, Roman general, statesman
and orator. Under Lucius Aemilius Paulus, his intimate friend,
he commanded the 2nd legion in the campaign against Perseus,
king of Macedonia, and gained great reputation for having pre-
dicted an eclipse of the moon on the night before the battle of
Pydna (168 B.C.). On his return from Macedonia he was elected
consul (166), and in the same year reduced the Ligurians to
submission. In 164 he was sent as ambassador to Greece and
Asia, where he held a meeting at Sardis to investigate the charges
brought against Eumenes of Pergamum by the representatives
of various cities of Asia Minor. Gallus was a man of great learn-
ing, an excellent Greek scholar, and in his later years devoted
himself to the study of astronomy, on which subject he is quoted
as an authority by Pliny.
See Livy xliv. 37, Epit. 46; Polybius xxxi. 9, 10; Cicero. Brutus,
20, De oJJUiis, i. 6, De senectute, 14; Pliny. Nat. Hist. ii. 9.
GALOIS, EVARISTE (1811-1832), French mathematician, was
born on the 25th of October 181 1, and killed in a duel on the 31st
of May 1832. An obituary notice by his friend Auguste Chevalier
appeared in the Revue encydoptdique (1832); and his collected
works are published, Journal de Liouville (1846), pp. 381-444,
about fifty of these pages being occupied by researches on the
resolubility of algebraic equations by radicals. This branch of
algebra he notably enriched, and to him is also due the notion
of a group of substitutions (see Equation: Theory of Equations;
also Groups, Theory of).
His collected works, with an introduction by C. F. Picard, were
published in 1897 at Paris.
GALSTON, a police burgh and manufacturing town of Ayrshire,
Scotland. Pop. (1901) 4876. It is situated on the Irvine, 5 m.
E. by S. of Kilmarnock, with a station on the Glasgow & South-
western railway. The manufactures include blankets, lace,
muslin, hosiery and paper-millboard, and coal is worked in the
vicinity. About 1 m. to the north, amid the " bonnic woods and
braes," is Loudoun Castle, a seat of the carl of Loudoun.
GALT, SIR ALEXANDER TILLOCH (1817-1893), Canadian
statesman, was the youngest son of John Gait t he author. Bora
in London on the 6th of September 1817, he emigrated to Canada
in 1835, and settled in Sherbrooke, in the province of Quebec,
where he entered the service of the British American Land Com-
pany, of which he rose to be chief commissioner. Later he was
one of the contractors for extending the Grand Trunk railway
westward from Toronto. He entered public life in 1849 as Liberal
member for the county of Sherbrooke, but opposed the chief
measure of his party, the Rebellion Losses Bill, and in the same
year signed a manifesto in favour of union with the United States,
believing that in no other way could Protestant and Anglo-
Saxon ascendancy over the Roman Catholic French majority in
his native province be maintained. In the same year he retired
from parliament but re-entered it in 1853, and was till 1872 the
chief representative of the English-speaking Protestants of
Quebec province. On the fall of the Brown- Dorion administra-
tion in 1858 he was called on to form a ministry, but declined
the task, and became finance minister under Sir John Macdonald
and Sir George Carrier on condition that the federation of the
British North American provinces should become a part of their
programme. From 1858 to 1862 and 1864 to 1867 he was finance
minister, and did much to reduce the somewhat chaotic finances
of Canada into order. To him are due the introduction of the
decimal system of currency and the adoption of a system of
protection to Canadian manufactures. To his diplomacy was
due the coalition in 1864 between Macdonald, Brown and Carrier,
which carried the federation of the British North American
provinces, and throughout the three years of negotiation which
followed his was one of the chief influences. He became finance
minister in the first Dominion ministry, but suddenly and
mysteriously resigned on the 4th of November 1867. After his
retirement he gave to the administration of Sir John Macdonald
a support which grew more and more fitful, and advocated
independence as the final destiny of Canada: In 1871 he was
again offered the ministry of finance on condition of abandoning
these views, but declined. In 1877 he was the Canadian nominee
on the Anglo-American fisheries commission at Halifax, and
rendered brilliant service. In 1880 he was appointed Canadian
high commissioner to Great Britain, but retired in 1883 in favour
of Sir Charles Tupper. During this period he advocated imperial
federation. He was Canadian delegate at the Paris Monetary
Conference of 1881, and to the International Exhibition of
Fisheries in r883. From this date till his death on the 19th of
GALT, J.^GALTON
September 1893 be lived in retirement. No Canadian statesman
has had sounder or more abundant ideas, but a certain-intellectual
fickleness made him always a somewhat untrustworthy colleague
in political life. ( W. L. G.)
OALT, JOHN (1770-1839), Scottish novelist, was born at
Irvine, Ayrshire, on the 2nd of May 1779. He received his early
education at Irvine and Greenock, and read largely from one of
the public libraries while serving as a clerk in a mercantile office.
In 1804 he went to settle in London, where he published anony-
mously a poem on the Battle of Largs. After unsuccessful
attempts to succeed in business Gait entered at Lincoln's Inn,
but was never called to the bar. He obtained a commission from
a British firm to go abroad to find out whether the Berlin and
Milan decrees could be evaded. He met Byron and Sir John
Hobhouse at Gibraltar, travelled with Byron to Malta, and met
him again at Athens. He was afterwards employed by the
Glasgow merchant Kirkman Finlay on similar business at
Gibraltar, and in 1814 visited France and Holland. His early
works are the Life and Administration of Wolsey, Voyages and
Travels, Letters from the Levant, the Life of Benjamin West,
Historical Pictures and The Wandering Jew; and he induced
Colburn to publish a periodical containing dramatic pieces
rejected by London managers. These were afterwards edited
by Gait as the New British Theatre, which included some plays of
his own. He first showed his real power as a writer of fiction in
The Ayrshire Legatees, which appeared in Blackwood* s Magazine
in 1820. This was followed in 1821 by his masterpiece — The
Annals of the Parish; and, at short intervals, Sir Andrew Wylie,
The Entail, The Steam-Boat and The Provost were published.
These humorous studies of Scottish character are all in his
happiest manner. His next works were Ringan Gilhaixe (1823),
a story of the Covenanters; The Spaewife (1823), which relates
to the times of James I. of Scotland; Rothelan (1824), a novel
founded on the reign of Edward III.; The Omen- (1825), which
was favourably criticized by Sir Walter Scott; and The Last
of the Lairds, another picture of Scottish life.
In 1826 he went to America as secretary to the Canada Land
Company. He carried out extensive schemes of colonization,
and opened up a road through what was men forest country
between Lakes Huron and Erie. In 1827 he founded Guelph in
upper Canada, passing on his way the township of Gait on the
Grand river, named after him by the Hon. William Dixon. But
all this work proved financially unprofitable to Gait. In 1829
he returned to England commercially a ruined man, and devoted
himself with great ardour to literary pursuits, of which the first
fruit was Lawrie Todd — one of his best novels. Then came
Southennan, a tale of Scottish life in the times of Queen Mary.
In 1830 he was appointed editor of the Courier newspaper — a
post he soon relinquished. His untiring industry was seen in the
publication, in rapid succession, of a Life of Byron, Lives of-thc
Players, Bogle Corbet, Stanley Buxton, The Member, The Radical,
Eben Erskine, The Stolen Child, his Autobiography, and a col-
lection of tales entitled Stories of the Study. In 1834 appeared
his Literary Life and Miscellanies, dedicated by permission to
William IV., who sent the author a present of £200. As soon as
this work was published Gait retired to Greenock, where he
continued his literary labours till his death on the nth of April
1839.
Gait, like almost all voluminous writers, was exceedingly
unequal. His masterpieces are The Ayrshire Legatees, The
Annals of the Parish, Sir Andrew Wylie, The Entail, The Provost
and Lawrie Todd. The Ayrshire Legatees gives, in the form of
a number of exceedingly diverting letters, the adventures of the
Rev. Dr Pringlc and his family in London. The letters are made
the excuse for endless tea-parlies and meetings of kirk-session
in the rural parish of Garnock. The Annals of the Parish are
told by the Rev. Micah Balwhidder, Gait's finest character. This
work (which, be it remembered, existed in MS. before Waverley
was published) is a splendid picture of the old-fashioned Scottish
pastor and the life of a country parish; and, in rich humour,
genuine pathos and truth to nature it is unsurpassed even by
Scott. It is a fine specimen of the homely graces of the Scottish
427
dialect, and preserves much vigorous Doric phraseology fast past-
ing out of use even in country districts. In this novel Mr Gait
used, for the first time, the term " Utilitarian," which afterwards
became so intimately associated with the doctrines of John
Stuart Mill and Bentham (see Annals of the Parish, chap. xxxv. y
and a note by Mill in Utilitarianism, chap. ii.). In Sir Andrew
Wylie the hero entered London as a poor lad, but achieved re-
markable success by his shrewd business qualities. The character
is somewhat exaggerated, but excessively amusing. The Entail
was read thrice by Byron and Scott, and is the best of Gait's
longer novels. Leddy Grippy is a wonderful creation, and was
considered by Byron equal to any female character in literature
since Shakespeare's time. The Provost, in which Provost Pawkie
tells his own story, portrays inimitably the jobbery, bickerings
and self-seeking of municipal dignitaries in a quaint Scottish
burgh. In Lawrie Todd Gait, by giving us the Scot in America,
accomplished a feat which Sir Walter never attempted. This
novel exhibits more variety of style and a greater love of nature
than his other books. The life of a settler is depicted with unerring
pencil, and with an enthusiasm and imaginative power much more
poetical than any of the author's professed poems.
The best of Gait's novels were reprinted in Blackwood's Standard
Novels, to volume i. of which his friend Dr Moir prefixed a memoir.
OALT, a town in Waterloo county, Ontario, Canada, 23 m.
N.N.W. of Hamilton, on the Grand river and on the Grand Trunk
and Canadian Pacific railways. Pop. (1881) 5187; (1901) 7866.
It is named after John Gait, the author. It has excellent water
privileges which furnish power for flour-mills and for manu-
factures of edge tools, castings, machinery, paper and other
industries.
GALTON, SIR FRANCIS (1822- ), English anthropologist,
son of S. T. Galton, of Duddeston, Warwickshire, was born on the
1 6th of February 1822. His grandfather was the poet-naturalist
Erasmus Darwin, and Charles Darwin was his cousin. After
attending King Edward VI. 's grammar school, Birmingham, he
studied at Birmingham hospital, and afterwards at King's
College, London, with the intention of making medicine his pro-
fession; but after taking his degree at Trinity College, Cambridge,
in 1843 he changed his mind. The years 1845-1846 he spent in
travelling in the Sudan, and in 1850 he made an exploration, with
Dr John Anderson, of Damaraland and the Ovampo country in
south-west Africa, starting from Walfisch Bay. These tracts had
practically never been traversed before, and on the appearance
of the published account of his journey and experiences under the
title of Narrative of an Explorer in Tropical South Africa (1853)
Galton was awarded the gold medal of the Royal Geographical
Society. His Art of Travel; or, Shifts and Contrivances in Wild
Countries was first published in 1855. In i860 he visited the
north of Spain, and published the fruits of his observations of the
country and the people in the first of a series of volumes, which
he edited, entitled Vacation Tourists. He then turned to meteor-
ology, the result of his investigations appearing in Meteor o-
graphica, published in 1863. This work was the first serious
attempt to chart the weather on an extensive scale, and in it also
the author first established the existence and theory of anti-
cyclones. Galton was a member of the meteorological committee
(1868), and of the Meteorological Council which succeeded it, for
over thirty years. But his name is most closely associated with
studies in anthropology and especially in heredity. In 1869
appeared his Hereditary Genius, its Laws and Consequences, a work
which excited much interest in scientific and medical circles. This
was followed by English Men of Science, their Nature and Nurture,
published in 1874; Inquiries into Human Faculty and its Develop-
ment, issued in 1883; Life-History Album (1884); Record of
Family Faculties (1884) (tabular forms and directions for enter-
ing data, with a preface); and Natural Inheritance (1889). |Tbe
idea that systematic efforts should be made to improve the breed
of mankind by checking the birth-rate of the unfit and further-
ing the productivity of the fit was first put forward by him in 1865;
he mooted it again in 1884, using the term " eugenics " for the
first time in Human Faculty, and in 1004 he endowed a research
fellowship in the university of London for the promotion of
4 28
GALUPPI— GALVANOMETER
knowledge of that subject, which was defined as " the study of
agencies under social control that may improve or impair the
racial qualities of future generations, either physically or men-
tally." Galton was the author of memoirs on various an-
thropometric subjects; he originated the process of composite
portraiture, and paid much attention to finger-prints and their
employment for the identification of criminals, his publications
on this subject including Finger Prints (1892), Decipherment of
Blurred Finger Prints (1803) and Finger Print Directories (1895).
From the Royal Society, of which he was elected a fellow in i860,
he received a royal medal in 1886 and the Darwin medal in 1902,
and honorary degrees were bestowed on him by Oxford (1894)
and Cambridge (189s). In 1908 he published Memories of My
Life, and in 1909 he received a knighthood.
GALUPPI, BALDASSARE (1706-1785), Italian musical com-
poser, was bom on the 18th of October 1706 on the island of
Burano near Venice, from which he was often known by the
nickname of Buranello. His father, a barber, and violinist at the
local theatre, was his first teacher. His first opera, composed at
the age of sixteen, being hissed off the stage, he determined to
study seriously, and entered the Conservatory degli Incurabili at
Venice, as a pupil of Antonio Lotti. After successfully producing
two operas in collaboration with a fellow-pupil, G. B. Pescetti, in
1728 and 1729, he entered upon a busy career as a composer of
operas for Venetian theatres, writing sometimes as many as five
in a year. He visited London in 1741, and arranged a pasticcio,
Alexander in Persia, for the Hay market. Bumcy considered his
influence on English music to have been very powerful. In 1 740
he became vice-maestro di cappella at St Mark's and maestro in
1762. In 1749 he began writing comic operas to libretti by
Goldoni, which enjoyed an enormous popularity. He was invited
to Russia by Catherine II. in 1766, where his operas made a
favourable impression, and his influence was also felt in Russian
church music. He returned to Venice in 1768, where he had held
the post of director of the Conservatorio degli Incurabili since
1762. He died on the 3rd of January 1785.
Galuppi's best works are his comic operas, of which // Filosofo
di Campagna (1754), known in England as The Guardian Trick 1 d
(Dublin, 1762) was the most popular. His melody is attractive
rather than original, but his workmanship in harmony and
orchestration is generally superior to that of his contemporaries.
He seems to have been the first to extend the concerted finales of
Leo and Logroscino into a chain of several separate movements,
working up to a climax, but in this respect he is much inferior to
Sarti and Mozart.
Browning's poem, " A Toccata of Galuppi," does not refer to
any known composition, but more probably to an imaginary
extemporization on the harpsichord, such as was of frequent
occurrence in the musical gatherings of Galuppi's day.
Sec also Alfred Wotquerme, Baldassare Galuppi, itude biblio-
graphique sur sts ccuvrcs aramatiques (Brussels, 1002). Many of his
autograph scores are in the library of the Brussels conservatoire.
(E.J.D.)
GALVANI, LUIGI (1 737-1 798), Italian physiologist, after
whom galvanism received its name, was born at Bologna on the
9th of September 1737. It was his wish in early life to enter the
church, but by his parents he was educated for a medical career.
At the university of Bologna, in which city he practised, he was
in 1762 appointed public lecturer in anatomy, and soon gained
repute as a skilled though not eloquent teacher, and, chiefly from
his researches on the organs of hearing and genito-urinary tract
of birds, as a comparative anatomist. His celebrated theory
of animal electricity he enunciated in a treatise, " De Viribus
electricitatis in motu musculari commentarius," published in the
7th volume of the memoirs of the Institute of Sciences at Bologna
in U791, and separately at Modcna in the following year, and
elsewhere subsequently. The statement has frequently been
repeated that, in 1786, Galvani had noticed that the leg of a
skinned frog, on being accidentally touched by a scalpel which
had lain near an electrical machine, was thrown into violent
convulsions; and that it was thus that his attention was first
directed to the relations of animal functions to electricity. From
documents in the possession of the Institute of Bologna, however,
it appears that twenty years previous to the publication of ha
Commentary Galvani was already engaged in investigation at
to the action of electricity upon the muscles of frogs. The
observation that the suspension of certain of these animals on to
iron railing by copper hooks caused twitching in the muscles of
their legs led him to the invention of his metallic arc, the first
experiment with which is described in the third part of the
Commentary, with the date September 20, 1786. The arc he
constructed of two different metals, which, placed in contact
the one with a frog's nerve and the other with a muscle, caused
contraction of the latter. In Galvani's view the motions of the
muscle were the result of the union, by means of the metallic arc,
of its exterior or negative electrical charge with positive electricity
which proceeded along the nerve from its inner substance. Volta,
on the other hand, attributed them solely to the effect d
electricity having its source in the junction of the two dissimilar
metals of the arc, and regarded the nerve and muscle simply as
conductors. On Galvani's refusal, from religious scruples, to
take the oath of allegiance to the Cisalpine republic in 1797, he
was removed from his professorship. Deprived thus of the meats
of livelihood, he retired to the house of his brother Giacono,
where he soon fell into a feverish decline. The republican
government, in consideration of his great scientific fame, eventu-
ally, but too late, determined to reinstate him in his chair, and he
died at Bologna on the 4th of December 1798.
A quarto edition of his works was published at Bologna in itit-
1842, by the Academy of Sciences of the Institute of that city, under
the title Opere edite ed inedite del professore Luigi Galvani.
GALVANIZED IRON, sheet iron having its surface covered
with a thin coating of zinc. In spite of the name, galvanic
action has often no part in the production of galvanized iron,
which is prepared by dipping the iron, properly cleaned and
pickled in acid , in a bath of molten zinc. The hotter the zinc the
thinner the coating, but as a high temperature of the bath is
attended with certain objections, it is a common practice to uses
moderate temperature and clear off the excess of zinc by passing
the plates between rollers. In Norwood and Rogers's process a
thin coating of tin is applied to the iron before it is dipped in the
zinc, by putting the plates between layers of granulated tin in a
wooden tank containing a dilute solution of stannous chloride,
when tin is deposited on them by galvanic action. In " cold
galvanizing " the zinc is deposited elect rolytically from a bath,
preferably kept neutral or slightly acid, containing a 10%
solution of crystallized zincsulphate,ZnS0 4 -7HjO. The resulting
surface is usually duller and less lustrous than that obtained by
the use of molten zinc. Another method of forming a coating of
zinc, known as " shcrardizing," was invented by Sherard Cowper-
Coles, who found that metals embedded in zinc dust (a product
obtained in zinc manufacture and consisting of mctaUic zinc mixed
with a certain amount of zinc oxide) and heated to temperatures
well below the melting point of zinc, become coaled with a layer
of that metal. In carrying out the process the articles are placed
in an air-tight vessel with the zinc dust, which must be dry, and
subjected to a heat of 250-330^., the time for which the heating
is continued depending on the thickness of the deposit required
and varying from one-half to several hours. If an air-light
receptacle is not available, a small percentage of powdered carbon
is added to the zinc-dust, to prevent increase in the amount of
oxide, which, if present in excess, tends to make the deposit dull
Galvanized iron by its zinc surface is protected from corrosion
by the weather, though the protection is not very efficient in
the presence of acid or sulphurous fumes, and accordingly it
is extensively employed for roofing, especially in the form of
corrugated sheets. The iron wire used for wire-netting, tele-
graphic purposes, &c, is commonly galvanized, as also arc bolts,
nuts, chains and other fittings on ships.
GALVANOMETER, an instrument for detecting or measuring
electric currents. The term b generally applied to instruments
which indicate electric current in scale divisions or arbitrary
units, as opposed to instruments called amperemeters (f.»),
which show directly on a dial the value of the current in amperes.
GALVANOMETER
429
teters may be divided in*
struments, according as
her of these two. class
'urrent Galvanometers. — 1
rurrent galvanometer, ca
ends for its action is thai
tro of a coil of wire tend
»f the magnetic field of 1
tsstog through it. In t
ter, the coil 19 6uspcnde
nds to set itself with its
met. The movable syst
ice up and retain a defii
means which arc called
mple and original form t
>f a horizontal magnetic
of insulated wire by silk
a compass needle. The
trolled by the direction
within the coil. If the r
parallel to the plane of tl
1 through the coil it is defl
s of the coil determined
; controlling field. In tb
iter the needle was cith<
:hes in length, or else s
long pointer which mov<
be deflexion. A methoc
a mirror scale and tele
I W. Weber. The magi
scope having cross wires
iiviskms of a fixed scale si
Kelvin (Professor W.
improvement of reducing
ing it to the back of a '
suspended by a single f
of silvered microscopic
agnetic needle or needle
ig cemented to its back,
m a lamp the deflexions
the- movements of a spot
u This form of mirror
on with submarine cabU
blc instrument in the ph
le of time both the origir
, mirror galvanometer w<
astatic principle and wt
magnetic field. If two n
moment arc attached rij
other but with poles 1
item results; that is, it
to move in a horizontal pi
agnetic strength, the sys
edle is slightly weaker
II set itself with some a
n which it is placed. In
ised by Professor A. Broc
e suspended vertically i
pposite directions. The
be lower poles within an
nculates in the right dire
lies in the same directioi
magnetic moment can
taticity and freedom fro:
• magnetic field can be w
ranged to create in the sr
Is an extremely feeble
ts having a coil for each
both coils passes so as
the controlling magnet
F the needles is with the r
I. An astatic magnetic
jalvanometer gives a hig
it is, however, easily c
; neighbouring magnets
ore is not suitable for us
:t led to the introduction
ifirst devised by Lord I
instrument but subsequ
and others into a laborat
instrument a permanen
shoe shape, is employed 1
which a light movable c
insisting of two fine wire
I and serve to lead the d
vith its plane parallel to 1
hen when a current is pa
>re nearly parallel to the lines
oil may carry a pointer or a
represented by several much
nablc coil galvanometer has
ly disturbed by the magnetic
or electric currents, and thus
kshop and factory,
s suspended needle fixed coil
in with the insulation of the
rally silk-covered, Coa9tnem
oroughly saturated SJSmT
o wires are wound !JL
ial galvanometer."
wit can be used for the exact
comparison of electric currents by a null method, because if an
electric current b passed
through one wire and creates
certain deflexions of the
needle, the current which
annuls this deflexion when
passed through the other
wire must be equal to the
first current. In the con-
struction of a movable coil
galvanometer, it is usual to
intensify the magnetic field
by inserting a fixed soft iron
core in the. interior of the
movable coil. If the current
to be measured is too large
to be passed entirely through
the galvanometer, a portion
is allowed -to flow through a
circuit connecting the two
terminals of the instrument.
This circuit is called a shunt
and is generally arranged so
as. to take 0-9, 0*99, or 0099
of the total current, leaving
o-i, o-oi or 0001 to flow
through the galvanometer.
W. E-. Ayrton and T. Mather have designed a universal shunt box or
resistance which can be applied to any galvanometer and by which a
known fraction of any current can be sent through the galvanometer
when we know its resistance (see Jour. Inst. Elec. Eng. Lond., 1894,
23. p. ;M4)- A galvanometer can be calibrated, or the meaning of- its
deflexion determined, by passing through it an electric current of
known value and observing the deflexion of the qccdle or coil. The
known current can be provided in the following manner:-— a single
secondary cell of any kind can have its electromotive force measured
by the potentiometer {q.v.), and compared with that of a standard
voltaic cell. If the secondary cell is connected with the galvanometer
through a known high resistance R, and if the galvanometer is
shunted, that is, has its terminals connected by another resistance S,
then if the resistance of the galvanometer itself is denoted by G,
Fig. 1. —Kelvin Astatic Mirror Gal-
vanometer. Elliott square pattern.
Fig. 2. — Movable Coil Galvanometer.
the whole resistance of the shunted galvanometer and high resistance
(tS
has a value represented by R+ ^V^ , and therefore the current
through the galvanometer produced by an electromotive force E of
the cell is represented by
SE
R(G+S)+GS*
Suppose this current produces a deflexion of the needle or coil
or spot of light equal to X scale divisions, we can then alter the
value of the resistances R and S, and so determine the relation
between the deflexion and the current. By the sensitiveness of the
432
GALWAY
same name, is more remarkable for scenic beauty than for extent.
Besides these perennial lakes, there are several low tracts, called
turloughs, which are covered with water during a great part of the
year. Loughs Mask and Corrib are connected by a salmon ladder,
and contain large trout. Galway, with the Scrcab Waters, drain-
ing into Camus Bay, a branch of Kilkieran Bay, with Recess
and the Ballynahinch waters, are the best fishing centres. On
account of its scenic beauty, both coastal and inland, together
with its facilities for sport, county Galway is frequented by
summer visitors. Though for long the remoter parts were difficult
of access, as in the case of Donegal, Mayo, Clare and the western
counties generally, the Galway and Clif den railway assisted private
enterprise to open up the country. The western mountains,
broken by deep landlocked and island-sheltered bays, as well as
by the innumerable small loughs of the Connemara districts,
afford scenes varying from gentle slopes occasionally well wooded
along the water's edge to wild, bare moorlands among the
heights, while the summits are usually bold and rocky cones.
Several small fishing villages have acquired the dignity of water-
ing-places from the erection of hotels, which have also been
planted in previously untenanted situations of high scenic
attractions; among these may be mentioned Leenane at the
head of Killary harbour, Renvyle House at its entrance, Letter-
frack on Ballynakill Bay, St reams town and Clifden, and Cashel
on Bertraghboy Bay. Inland are Recess, near Lough Derrydare,
and Ballynahinch, on the lough of that name, both on the
railway, at the foot of the Twelve Pins.
Gtolop. — The east of this county lies in the Carboniferous Lime-
stone plain, with domes of Old Red Sandstone rising near Dunmore
and Mount Bellew. As Galway town is neared, the grey rock
appears freely on the surface, and Lough Corrib spreads itself over
almost level land. Its west branches, however, run up into " Dal-
radian " bills, which rise abruptly on the threshold of Connemara-.
A broad mass of ice-worn gneiss and granite lies between Lough
Corrib and Galway Bay, cut off so sharply at the sea as to suggest
the presence of an east-and-west line of fracture. The Twelve
Bens owe their supremacy to the quartsites, which are here well
bedded and associated with limestone and mica-schist. Silurian
conglomerates and sandstones, with andesitic lavas, overlie the
Dalradians, with marked unconformity, south of Leenane and
round Lough Nafooey. The surfaces of the hard rocks admirably
record the action of ice throughout the county. There is black
Carboniferous marble at Menlough near Galway ; and the well-known
" Connemara Marble" is a banded serpent i nous crystalline limestone
in the- Dalradians at Recess, Ballynahinch and Streamstown.
Compact red granite is worked at Shantallow, and the region west
of Galway contains many handsome porphyritic red varieties.
Climate and Industries.— -The climate is mild and healthy but
variable, and violent winds from the west are not uncommon.
Frost or snow seldom remains long on the western coast, and cattle
of every description continue unhoused during the winter. The
eastern part of the county produces the best wheat. Oats are fre-
quently sown after potatoes in moorish soils less adapted for wheat.
The flat shores of the bays afford large supplies of seaweed for
manure. Limestone, gravel and marl are to be had in most other
Erts. When a sufficient quantity of manure for potatoes cannot
had, the usual practice is to pare and burn the surface. In many
places on the seashore fine early potatoes are raised in deep sea-sand
manured with seaweed, and the crop is succeeded by barley. Those
parts of the eastern district less fitted for grain are employed in
Ksturage. Heathy sheep-walks occupy a very large tract between
onivea and Galway. An extensive range from Athenry, stretching
to Galway Bay at Kinvarra, is also chiefly occupied by sheep. Over
half the total acreage of the county is pasture-land, and cattle, sheep,
pigs and poultry are extensively reared. The proportion of tillage to
pasturage is roughly as one to four; and owing to the nature of the
country fully one-third of the total area, is quite barren.
Manufactures are not carried on beyond the demand caused by
the domestic consumption of the people. Coarse friezes, flannels
and blankets are made in all parts and sold largely in Galway and
Loughrea. Connemara has been long celebrated for its hand-knit
woollen stockings. Coarse linen, of a narrow breadth, called handle
linen, is also made for home consumption. There is a linen-weaving
factory at Oughtcrard. The manufacture of kelp, formerly a great
source of profit on the western shores, is still carried on to some
extent. Feathers and sea-fowls' eggs are brought in great quantities
from the islands of Aran, the produce of the puffins and other sea-
fowl that frequent the cliffs. Fishing affords occupation to many
of the inhabitants, the industry having as its centres the ports of
Galway and Clifden.
The Midland Great Western main line enters the county at
Ballinasloe, and runs by Athenry to Galway, with an extension
to Oughtcrard (Lough Corrib) and Clifden. The Great Southern &
Western line from Sligo to Limerick traverses the county from
N. to S., by way of Tuam, Athenry and Gort.
Population and Administration. — The population of county
Galway (211,227 in 1891; 193,549 in 1901) decreased by more
than half in the last seventy years of the 19th century, and the
decrease continues, as emigration is heavy. About 97% of the
population are Roman Catholics, and a somewhat less percentage
are rural. The Erse tongue is. maintained by many in this
remote county. The chief towns are Galway (pop. 13426),
Tuam (3012), Ballinasloe (4004) and Loughrea (2815), with the
smaller towns of Portumna, Gort, Clifden, Athenry, Headford,
Oughtcrard and Eyrecourt. The county is divided into four
parliamentary divisions (returning one member each); north,
south, east and Connemara, while the town of Galway returns
one member. There are eighteen baronies. Assizes are held at
Galway, quarter-sessions at Galway, Ballinasloe, Clifden, Gort,
Loughrea, Oughterard, Portumna and Tuam. The county
comprises parts of the Protestant dioceses of Tuam and of
Killaloe; and of the Roman Catholic dioceses of Elphin, Galway,
Clonfert and Killaloe.
History.— The history of county Galway is exceedingly obscure,
and nearly every one of its striking physical features carries its
legend with it. For centuries local septs struggled together for
mastery undeterred by outside influence. The wreck of part of
the Spanish Armada on this coast in 1588 left survivors whose
influence is still to be traced. The formation of Galway into a
county was effected about 1 579 by Sir Henry Sydney, lord deputy
of Ireland. In the county at Aughrim (q.v.) the decisive battle
of the English Revolution was fought in 1691. Among the
antiquities are several round towers. The only perfect one is at
Kilmacduagh, a very fine example 112 ft. high, leaning con-
siderably out of the perpendicular. Raths or encampments are
numerous and several cromlechs are to be seen in good preserva-
tion. The ruins of monastic buildings are also numerous. That
of Knockmoy, about 6 m. from Tuam, said to have been founded
in 1 180 by Cathal O'Connor, was adorned with rude fresco
paintings, still discernible, which were considered valuable as
being the best authentic representations existing of ancient
Irish costumes. Ancient castles and square towers of the Anglo-
Norman settlers arc frequently met with; some have been kept in
repair, but the greater number are in ruins. The castle of Tuam,
built in 1 161 by Roderick O'Connor, king of Ireland, at the period
of the English invasion, is said to have been the first building of
this description of stone and mortar in Ireland. The remains of a
round castle, a form of building very uncommon in the mfliUry
architecture of the country, are to be seen between Gort and
Kilmacduagh. The extraordinary cyclopean and monastic
ruins on the Aran Islands (?.*.) must be mentioned; and the
town of Galway, Athenry, and the neighbourhood of Ballinasloe
all show interesting remains. The small church of Clonfert, in the
south of the county, with a fine Romanesque doorway, is a
cathedral, the diocese of which was united with Kilfenora,
Kilmacduagh and Killaloe in 1833.
GALWAY, a seaport, parliamentary borough and the county
town of county Galway, Ireland, on the north shore of Galway
Bay, and on the main line of the Midland Great Western railway.
Pop. of urban district (1901) 13,426. Some of the streets are
very narrow, and contain curious specimens of old buildings,
chiefly in antique Spanish style, being square, with a central
court, and a gateway opening into the street. The most note-
worthy of these is the pile known as Lynch's Castle. This
residence takes its name from the family of whom James Lynch
Fitzstcphen, mayor of Galway in 1493, was a member; whose
severity as a magistrate is exemplified in the story that he
executed his own son, and thus gave origin (according to one of
several theories) to the familiar term of Lynch law. The principal
streets are broad and contain good shops. St Nicholas church is a
fine cruciform building founded in 1320, and containing monu-
ments, and a bell, one of a peal, which appears to have been
brought from Cavron in France, but how this happened is not
known. The church was made collegiate in 1484, and Edward
VL created the Royal College of Galway in connexion with it;
GAMA
433
but the old college buildings no longer serve this purpose, and the
church ceased to be collegiate in 1840. There arc remains of
a Franciscan friary founded in 1296. St Augustine's church
(Roman Catholic) is modern (1859). The town is the seat of
a Roman Catholic diocese. There are grammar, model and
industrial schools, the first with exhibitions to Trinity College,
Dublin; but the principal educational establishment is University
College, a quadrangular building in Tudor Gothic style, of grey
limestone. It was founded as Queen's College, with other
colleges of the same name at Belfast and Cork, under an act of
1845, and its name was changed when it was granted a new
charter pursuant to the Irish Universities Act 1008. The
harbour comprises an extensive line of quays, and is connected
for inland navigation with Lough Corrib. The shipping trade is
considerable, but as a trans-Atlantic port Galway was exploited
unsuccessfully. .The fisheries, both sea and salmon, are im-
portant. The chief exports are wool, agricultural produce and
black marble, which is polished in local mills. Other industrial
establishments include corn-mills, iron-foundries, distilleries, and
brush and bag factories. The borough, which returned two
members to parliament until 1885, now returns one.
Galway is divided into the old and new towns, while a suburb
known as the Claddagh is inhabited by fishermen. This is a
curious collection of small cottages, where communal govern-
ment by a locally elected mayor long prevailed, together with
peculiar laws and customs, strictly exclusive intcr-marriage,anda
high moral and religious standard. Specimens of the distinc-
tive Claddagh ring, for example, were worn and treasured
as venerated heirlooms. These customs, with the distinctive
dress of the women, died out but slowly, and even to-day their
vestiges remain.
The environs of Galway are pleasant, with several handsome
residences. The most interesting point in the vicinity is Rosea m,
with its round tower, ruined church and other remains. Salthill,
with golf links, is a waterside residential suburb.
Little is known of the history of Galway until after the arrival
of the English, at which time it was under the protection of
O'Flaherty, who possessed the adjoining district to the west.
On the extinction of the native dynasty of the O'Connors, the
town fell into the hands of the De Burgos, the head of a branch of
which, under the name of M' William Eight er, long governed it by
magistrates of his own appointment. After it had been secured
by walls, which began to be built about 1270 and arc still in part
traceable, it became the residence of a number of enterprising
settlers, through whom it attained a position of much commercial
celebrity. Of these settlers the principal families, fourteen in
number, were known as the tribes of Galway. They were of
Norman, Saxon or Welsh descent, and became so exclusive in
their relationships that dispensations were frequently requisite
for the canonical legality of marriages among them. The town
rapidly increased from this period in wealth and commercial
rank, far surpassing in this respect the rival city of Limerick.
Richard II. granted it a charter of incorporation with liberal
privileges, which was confirmed by his successor. It had thc<
right of coinage by act of parliament, but there is no. evidence to
show that it exercised the privilege. Another charter, granted in
1545, extended the jurisdiction of the port to the islands of Aran,
permitted the exportation of all kinds of goods except linens and
woollens, and confirmed all the former privileges. Large numbers
of Cromwell's soldiers arc said to have settled in the town; and
there are many traces of Spanish blood among the population.
Its municipal privileges were extended by a charter from James I.,
whereby the town, and a district of two miles round in every
direction, were formed into a distinct county, with exclusive
jurisdiction and a right of choosing its own magistrates. During
the civil wars of 1641 the town took part with the Irish, and was
surrendered to the Parliamentary forces under Sir Charles Coote;
after which the ancient inhabitants were mostly driven out, and
their property was given to adventurers and soldiers, chiefly
from England. On the accession of James II. the old inhabitants
entertained sanguine hopes of recovering their former rights.
But the successes of King William soon put an end to their ex-
XX. 8
pectations; and the town, after undergoing another siege, again
capitulated to the force brought against it by General Ginkell.
GAMA, VASCO DA (c. 1460-1524), Portuguese navigator and
discoverer of the sea-route to India, was born at Sines, a small
seaport in the province of Alemtejo. Of da Gama's early history
little is known. His descent, according to the Nobiliario of
Antonio de Lima, was derived from a noble family which is
mentioned in the year 11 66; but the line cannot be traced
without interruption farther back than the year 1280, to one
Alvaro da Gama, from whom was descended Estevio da Gama,
civil governor of Sines, whose third son Vasco was born prob-
ably about the year 1460. In that year died Prince Henry the
Navigator, to whose intelligence and foresight must be traced
back all the fame that Portugal gained on the seas in the 15th and
1 6th centuries. Explorers sent out at his instigation discovered
the Azores and unknown regions on the African coast, whence
continually came reports of a great monarch, " who lived east of
Benin, 350 leagues in the interior, and who held both temporal
and spiritual dominion over all the neighbouring kings," a story
which tallied so remarkably with the accounts of "Prester John "
which had been brought to the Peninsula by Abyssinian priests,
that John II. of Portugal steadfastly resolved that both by sea
and by land the attempt should be made to reach the country
of this potentate. For this purpose Pedro de Covilham and
AfTonso de Payva were despatched eastward by land; while
Bartholomeu Diaz (q.v.), in command of two vessels, was sent
westward by sea (see Abyssinia, 14). That there was in truth
an ocean highway to the East was proved by Diaz, who returned
in December 1488 with the report that when sailing southward
he was carried far to the east by a succession of fierce storms,
past — as he discovered only on his return voyage — what he
ascertained to be the southern extremity of the African continent.
The condition of John's health and concerns of state, however,
prevented the fitting out of the intended expedition; and it was
not till nine years later, when Emanuel I. had succeeded to
the throne, that the preparations for this great voyage were
completed— hastened, doubtless, by Columbus's discovery of
America in the meanwhile.
For the supreme command of this expedition the king selected
Vasco da Gama, who bad in his youth fought in the wars against
Castile, and in his riper years gained distinction as an intrepid
mariner. The fleet, consisting of four vessels specially built for
this mission, sailed down the Tagus on the 9th of July 1497, after
prayers and confession made by the officers and crews in a small
chapel on the site where now stands the church of S. Maria de
Belem (sec Lisbon), afterwards built to commemorate the event
Four months later the flotilla cast anchor in St Helena Bay,
South Africa, rounded the Cape in safety, and in the beginning
of the next year reached Malindi, on the east coast of Africa.
Thence, steering eastward, under the direction of a pilot obtained
from Indian merchants met with at this port, da Gama arrived
at Calicut, on the Malabar coast, on the 20th May 1408, and set
up, according to the custom of his country, a marble pillar as a
mark of conquest and a proof of his discovery of India. His
reception by the zamorin, or Hindu ruler of Calicut, would
have in all probability been favourable enough, had it not been
for the jealousy of the Mahommedan traders who, fearing for
their gains, so incited the Hindus against the new-comers that da
Gama was unable to establish a Portuguese factory. Having
seen enough of India to assure him of its great resources, he
returned to Portugal in September 1499. The king received him
with every mark of distinction, granted him the use of the prefix
Dom, thus elevating him to the rank of an untitled noble, and
conferred on him pensions and other property. In prosecution
of da Gama's discoveries another fleet of thirteen ships waa
immediately sent out to India under Pedro Alvares Cabral, who,
in sailing too far westward, by accident discovered Brazil, and on
reaching his destination established a factory at Calicut. The
natives, again instigated by the Mahommedan merchants, rose
up in arms and murdered all whom Cabral had left behind. To
avenge this outrage a powerful armament of ten ships was fitted
out at Lisbon, the command of which was at first given to
2a
434
GAMALIEL
Cabral, but was afterwards transferred to da Gama, who received
the title admiral of India (January 1 502) . A few weeks later the
fleet sailed, and on reaching Calicut da Gama immediately
bombarded the town, treating its inhabitants with a savagery
too horrible to describe. From Calicut he proceeded in November
to Cochin, "doing all the harm he could on the way to all that he
found at sea/' and having made favourable trading terms with it
and with other towns on the coast, he returned to Lisbon in
September 1503, with richly laden ships. He and his captains
were welcomed with great rejoicings and he received additional
privileges and revenues.
Soon after his return da Gama retired to his residence in Evora,
possibly from pique at not obtaining so high rewards as he
expected, but more probably in order to enjoy the wealth and
position which he had acquired; for he was now one of the
richest men in the kingdom. He had married, probably in 1500,
a lady of good family, named Catherina de Ataidc, by whom he
had six sons. According to Corrca, he continued to advise King
Emanuel I. on matters connected with India and maritime policy
up to 1505, and there arc extant twelve documents dated 1507-
1522 which prove that he continued to enjoy the royal favour.
The most important of these is a grant dated December 1510
by which Vasco da Gama was created count of Vidigueira, with
the extraordinary privileges of civil and criminal jurisdiction
and ecclesiastical patronage. During this time the Portuguese
conquests increased in the East, and were presided over by
successive viceroys. The fifth of these was so unfortunate that
da Gama was recalled from his seclusion by Emanuel's successor,
John III., and nominated viceroy of India, an honour which in
April 1524 he left Lisbon to assume. Arriving at Goa during
September of the same year, he immediately set himself to correct
with vigour the many abuses which had crept in under the rule
of his predecessors. He was not destined, however, to prosecute
far the reforms he had inaugurated, for, on the Christmas-eve
following his arrival, he died at Cochin after a short illness, and was
buried in the Franciscan monastery there. In 1 538 his body was
conveyed to Portugal and entombed in the town of Vidigueira.
In 1880 what were supposed on insufficient evidence to have been
his remains were transferred to the church of Santa Maria de
Belem. His voyage had the immediate result of enriching
Portugal, and raising her to one of the foremost places among the
nations of Europe, and eventually the far greater one of bringing
to pass the colonization of the East by opening its commerce
to the Western world.
1874); Thome Lopes, narrative (1502) in voL i. of Ramusio.
GAMALIEL (Vta)- This name, which in Old Testament
times figures only as that of a prince of the tribe of Manasseh
(vide Num. i. 10, &*c), was hereditary among the descendants of
Hfllel. Six persons bearing the name are known.
x. Gamaliel I., a grandson of Hillcl, and like him designated
Ha-Zaqen (the Elder), by which is apparently indicated that
he was numbered among the Sanhedrin, the high council of
Jerusalem. According to the tradition of the schools of Palestine
Gamaliel succeeded his grandfather and his father (of the latter
nothing is known but his name, Simeon) as Nasi, or president of
the Sanhedrin. Even if this tradition does not correspond with
historic fact, it is at any rate certain that Gamaliel took a leading
position in the Sanhedrin, and enjoyed the highest repute as an
authority on the subject of knowledge of the Law and in the
interpretation of the Scriptures. He was the first to whose name
was prefixed the title Rabban (Master, Teacher). It is related in
the Acts of the Apostles (v. 34 et seq.) that his voice was uplifted
in the Sanhedrin in favour of the disciples of Jesus who were
threatened with death, and on this occasion he is designated
as a Pharisee and as being " had in reputation among all the
people " (popoivMtaKako* rifuoi ravrl rv Xa<£). In the Mtshna
(Gitfin iv. 1-3) he is spoken of as the author of certain legal
ordinances affecting the welfare of the community (the expression
in the original is " tiqqun ha-dlam" i.c. improvement of the
world) and regulating certain questions as to conjugal rights.
In the tradition was also preserved the text of the epistles
regarding the insertion of the intercalary month, which he sent
to the inhabitants of Galilee and the Darom (»-«• southern
Palestine) and to the Jews of the Dispersion (Sanhedrin 11b and
elsewhere). He figures in two anecdotes as the religious adviser
of the king and queen, i.e. Agrippa I. and his wife Cypris
(Pcsahim 88 b). His function as a teacher is proved by the fact
that the Apostle Paul boasts of having sat at the feet of Gamaliel
(Acts. xxii. 3). Of his teaching, beyond the saying preserved in
A both i. 16, which enjoins the duty of study and of scrupulous-
ness in the observance of religious ordinances, only a very
remarkable characterization of the different natures of the
scholars remains (A both di R. Nathan, ch. xl.). His renown in
later days is summed up in the words (Mishna, end of SoUh):
" When Rabban Gamaliel the Elder died, regard for the Torah
(the study of the Law) ceased, and purity and piety died." As
Gamaliel I. is the only Jewish scribe whose name is mentioned
in the New Testament he became a subject of Christian legend,
and a monk of the 12th century (Hermann the Premonstra-
tensian) relates how he met Jews in Worms studying Gamaliel's
commentary on the Old Testament, thereby most probably
meaning the Talmud.
2. Gamaliel II., the son of Simon ben Gamaliel, one of
Jerusalem's foremost men in the war against the Romans (tidt
Joseph us, Bdium Jud. iv. 3, 9, Vita 38), and grandson of Gamaliel
I. To distinguish him from the latter he is also called Gamaliel
of Jabneh. In Jabnch (Jamnia), where during the siege ol
Jerusalem the scribes of the school of Hillcl had taken refuge by
permission of Vespasian, a new centre of Judaism arose under the
leadership of the aged Johanan ben Zakkai, a school whose
members inherited the authority of the Sanhedrin of Jerusalem.
Gamaliel II. became Johanan ben Zakkai 's successor, and
rendered immense service in the strengthening and reintegration
of Judaism, which had been deprived of its former basis by the
destruction of the Temple and by the entire loss of its political
autonomy. He put an end to the division which had arisen
between the spiritual leaders of Palestinian Judaism by the
separation of the scribes into the two schools called respectively
after Hillcl and Shaoimai, and took care to enforce his own
authority as the president of the chief legal assembly of Judaism
with energy and often with severity. He did this, as he himself
said, not for his own honour nor for that of his family, but in order
that disunion should not prevail in Israel. Gamaliel's position
was recognized by the Roman government also. Towards the
end of Domitian's reign (c a. d. 95) he went to Rome in company
with the most prominent members of the school of Jabneh, n
order to avert a danger threatening the Jews from the action of
the terrible emperor. Many interesting particulars have been
given regarding the journey of these learned men to Rome and
their sojourn there. The impression made by the capital of the
world upon Gamaliel and his companions was an overpowering
one, and they wept when they thought of Jerusalem in ruins.
In Rome, as at home, Gamaliel often had occasion to defend
Judaism in polemical discussions with pagans, and also with
professed Christians. In an anecdote regarding a wit which
Gamaliel was prosecuting before a Christian judge, a converted
Jew, he appeals to the Gospel and to the words of Jesus in
Matt. v. 17 (Shabbath 116 a, b). Gamaliel devoted apecia)
attention to the regulation of the rite of prayer, which after the
GAMBETTA
435
cessation of sacrificial worship had become all-important He
gave the principal prayer, consisting of eighteen benedictions, its
final revision, and declared it every Israelite's duty to recite it
three times daily. He was on friendly terms with many who were
not Jews, and was so warmly devoted to his slave Tabi that when
the latter died he mourned for him as for a beloved member of his
own family. He loved discussing the sense of single- portions of
the Bible with other scholars, and made many fine expositions of
the text. With the words of Dcut. xiii. 18 he associated the
lesson: " So long as thou thyself art merciful, God will also be
merciful to thee." Gamaliel died before the insurrections under
Trajan had brought fresh unrest into Palestine. At his funeral
obsequies the celebrated proselyte Aquila (Akylas Onkelos),
reviving an ancient custom, burned costly materials to the value
of seventy minae. Gamaliel himself had given directions that his
body was to be wrapped in the simplest possible shroud. By this
he wished to check the extravagance which had become associated
with arrangements for the disposal of the dead, and his end was
attained; for his example became the rule, and it also became the
custom to commemorate him in the words of consolation
addressed to the mourners (Kethub. 8 b). Gamaliel's son,
Simon, long after his father's death, and after the persecutions
under Hadrian, inherited his office, which thenceforward his
descendants handed on from father to son.
3. Gamaliel III., son of Jehuda I. the redactor of the Mishna,
and his successor as Nasi (patriarch). The redaction of the
Mishna was completed under him, and some of his sayings are
incorporated therein (Aboth ii. 2-4). One of these runs as follows:
" Beware of those in power, for they permit men to approach
them only for their own uses; they behave as friends when it is
for their advantage, but they do not stand by a man when he is in
need." Evidently this was directed against the sclf-seckingof the
Roman government. Gamaliel III. lived during the first half of
the 3rd century.
4. Gamaliel IV., grandson of the above, patriarch in the latter
half of the 3rd century: about him very little is known.
5. Gamaliel V., son and successor of the patriarch Hillcl II.:
beyond his name nothing is known of him. He lived in the
latter half of the 4th century. He is the patriarch Gamaliel
whom Jerome mentions in his letter to Pamachius, written in 393.
6. Gamaliel VI., grandson of the above, the last of the
patriarchs, died in 425. With him expired the office, which had
already been robbed of its privileges by a decree of the emperors
Honorius and Thcodosius II. (dated the 17th of October 41s)*
Gamaliel VI. was also a physician, and a celebrated remedy of his
is mentioned by his contemporary Marccllus (De Medicament**,
liber 21). (W. Ba.)
GAMBETTA, L&ON (1838-1882), French statesman, was born
at Cahors on the 2nd of April 1838. His father, a Genoese, who
had established himself as a grocer and had married a French-
woman named Massabie, is said to have been his son's prototype
in vigour and fluency of speech. In his sixteenth year young
Gambetta lost by an accident the sight of his left eye, which
eventually had to be removed. Notwithstanding this privation,
he highly distinguished himself at the public school of Cahors,
and in 1857 proceeded to Paris to study law. His southern
vehemence gave him great influence among the students of the
Quartier Latin, and he was soon known as an inveterate enemy
of the imperial government. He was called to the bar in 1850,
but, although contributing to a Liberal review, edited by
Challemel Lacour, did not make much way until, on the 17th
of November 1868, he was selected to defend the journalist
Delescluze, prosecuted for having promoted the erection of a
monument to the representative Baudin, who was killed in
resisting the coup d'Ual of 1851. Gambetta seized his opportunity
and assailed both the coup d'flat and the government with an
eloquence of invective which made him immediately famous.
In May 1869 he was returned to the Assembly, both by the first
circumscription of Paris and by Marseilles, defeating Hippolyte
Carnot for the former constituency and Thiers and Lesseps for
the latter. He elected to sit for Marseilles, and lost no oppor-
tunity of attacking the Empire in the Assembly. He was at first
opposed to the war with Germany, but when satisfied that it had
been forced upon France he did not, like some of his colleagues,
refuse to vote supplies, but took the patriotic line of supporting
the flag. When the news of the disaster at Sedan reached Paris,
Gambetta called for strong measures. He himself proclaimed the
fall of the emperor at the corps Itgislatif, and the establishment of
a republic at the hotel de ville. He was one of the first members
of the new government of national defence, becoming minister
of the interior. He advised his colleagues to leave Paris and
conduct the government from some provincial city. This advice
was* rejected from dread of another revolution in Paris, and a
delegation to organize resistance in the provinces was despatched
to Tours, but when this was seen to be inefficient Gambetta
himself (7th October) quitted Paris in a balloon, and upon
arriving at Tours took the supreme direction of affairs as minister
of the interior and of war. Aided by M. de Freycinet, then a
young officer of engineers, as his assistant secretary of war, he
displayed prodigies of energy and intelligence. He speedily
organized an army, which might possibly have effected the relief
of Paris if Metz had held out, but the surrender of Baraine
brought the army of the crown prince into the field, and success
was impossible. After the defeats of the French near Orleans
early in December the seat of government had to be transferred
to Bordeaux, and when Paris surrendered at the end of January,
Gambetta, though resisting and protesting, was compelled to
submit to the capitulation concluded with Prince Bismarck.
He immediately resigned his office. Elected by nine departments
to the National Assembly meeting at Bordeaux (on the 1st of
March 187 1) he chose to sit for Strassburg, which by the terms of
the treaty about to be submitted to the Assembly for ratification
was to be ceded to Prussia, and when the treaty was adopted he
resigned in protest and retired to Spain.
He returned to France in June, was elected by three depart-
ments in July, and commenced an agitation for the definitive
establishment of the Republic On the 5th of November 1 87 1 he
established a journal, La RBpublique fronc.aise, which soon
became the most influential in France, His orations at public
meetings were more effective than those delivered in the
Assembly, especially that made at Bordeaux on his return, and
that at Grenoble on the 26th of November 1872, in which he
spoke of political power having passed to Us nouvdlcs couches
soc tales. When Thiers, however, fell from power in May 1873,
and a Royalist was placed at the head of the government in the
person of Marshal MacMahon, Gambetta gave proof of his
statesmanship by unceasingly urging his friends to a moderate
course, and by his tact and parliamentary dexterity, no less than
by his eloquence, he was mainly instrumental in the voting of the
constitution in February 1875. This policy he continued during
the early days of the now consolidated Republic, and gave it
the appropriate name of " opportunism." It was not until the
4th of May 1877, when the peril from reactionary intrigues was
notorious, and the clerical party had begun a campaign for the
restoration of the temporal power of the pope, that he delivered
his famous speech denouncing " clericalism " as "the enemy."
On the 1 6th of May Marshal MacMahon, in order to support the
clerical reactionaries, perpetrated his parliamentary coup d'ilal,
and on the 15th of August Gambetta, in a speech at Lille, gave
him the alternative sc soumcttre ou se dtmcttrc. He then under-
took a political campaign to rouse the republican party through-
out France, which culminated in a speech at Romans (September
18, 1878) formulating its programme. MacMahon, equally
unwilling to resign or to provoke civil war, had no choice but to
dismiss his advisers and form a moderate republican ministry
under the premiership of Dufaure.
When the resignation of the Dufaure cabinet brought about
the abdication of Marshal MacMahon, Gambetta declined to
become a candidate for the presidency, but gave his support to
Grevy; nor did he attempt to form a ministry, but accepted the
office of president of the chamber of deputies (January 1879).
This position, which he filled with much ability, did not pre-
vent his occasionally descending from the presidential chair to
make speeches, one of which, advocating an amnesty to the
+36
GAMBIA
communards, was especially memorable. Although he really
directed the policy of the various ministries, he evidently thought
that the time was not ripe for asserting openly his own claims to
direct the policy of the Republic, and seemed inclined to observe
a neutral attitude as far as possible; but events hurried him on,
and early in 1881 he placed himself at the head of a movement
for restoring scrutin de liste, or the system by which deputies are
returned by the entire department which they represent, so that
each elector votes for several representatives at once, in place of
scrutin d'arrondisscment, the system of small constituencies,
giving one member to each district and one vote to each elector.
A bill to re-establish scrutin de liste was passed by the Assembly
on 19th May 1881, but rejected by the Senate on the 19th of
June.
But this personal rebuff could not alter the fact that in the
country his was the name which was on the lips of the voters at
the election. His supporters were in a large majority, and on the
reassembling of the chamber, the Ferry cabinet quickly resigned.
Gambetta was unwillingly entrusted by Grlvy on the 14th of
November 1881 with the formation of a ministry — known as
Le Grand Minister*. He now experienced the Nemesis of his
over-cautious system of abstinence from office for fear of com-
promising his popularity. Every one suspected him of aiming at
a dictatorship; attacks, not the less formidable for their injustice,
were directed against him from all sides, and his cabinet fell on
the 26th of January 1882, after an existence of only sixty-six
days. Had he remained in office his declarations leave no doubt
that he would have cultivated the British alliance and co-
operated with Great Britain in Egypt; and when the Frcycinet
administration, which succeeded, shrank from that enterprise
only to see it undertaken with signal success by England alone,
Gambctta's foresight was quickly justified. His fortunes were
presenting a most interesting problem when, on the 31st of
December 1882, at his house in Ville d'Avray, near Sevres, he
died by a shot from a revolver which accidentally went off.
Then all France awoke to a sense of her obligation to him, and
his public funeral on the 6th of January 1883 evoked one of the
most overwhelming displays of national sentiment ever witnessed
on a similar occasion.
Gambetta rendered France three inestimable services: by
preserving her self-respect through the gallantry of the resistance
he organised during the German War, by his tact in persuading
extreme partisans to accept a moderate Republic, and by his
energy in overcoming the usurpation attempted by the advisers
of Marshal MacMahon. His death, at the early age of forty-four,
cut short a career which had given promise of still greater things,
for he had real statesmanship in his conceptions of the future of
his country, and he had an eloquence which would have been
potent in the education of his supporters. The romance of his
life was his connexion with Leonie Leon (d. 1006) , the full details
of which were not known to the public till her death. This lady,
with whom Gambetta fell in love in 1871, was the daughter of a
French artillery officer. She became his mistress, and the liaison
lasted till he died. Gambetta himself constantly urged her to
marry him during this period, but she always refused, fearing to
compromise his career; she remained, however, his confidante
and intimate adviser in all his political plans. It is understood
that at last she had just consented to become his wife, and the
date of the marriage had been fixed, when the accident which
caused his death occurred in her presence. Contradictory
accounts have indeed been given as to this fatal episode, but that
it was accidental, and not suicide, is certain. On Gambetta the
influence of Leonie was absorbing, both as lover and as politician,
and the correspondence which has been published shows how
much he depended upon her. But in various matters of detail the
serious student of political history must be cautious in accepting
her later recollections, some of which have been embodied in the
writings of M. Francis Laur, such as that an actual interview took
place in 1878 between Gambetta and Bismarck. That Gambetta
after 1875 felt strongly that the relations between France and
Germany might be improved, and that he made it his object, by
travelling incognito, to become better acquainted with Germany
and the adjoining states, may be accepted, but M. Laur appears
to have exaggerated the extent to which any actual negotiations
took place. On the other hand, the increased knowledge of
Gambetta's attitude towards European politics which later
information has supplied confirms the view that in him France lost
prematurely a master mind, whom she could ill spare. In April
1005 a monument by Dalou to his memory at Bordeaux was
unveiled by President Loubet.
were published by J.
Dipeckes, circulatra,
any biographies have
ion Gambetta (18*4).
ttta, kistoire et doctrine
lies politique* (1885);
borde, Leon Gambetta
i, Gambetta, Life and
Sec also G. Hanotaux.
|. F. Laur's Le Cetur
is the correspondence
nbetta and Bismarck "
h the correspondence
(iTcm.)
GAMBIA, an important river of West Africa, and the only
river of Africa navigable by ocean-going boats at all seasons for
over 200 m. from its mouth. It rises in about n° 25* N. and
12 15' W., within 150 m. of the sea on the north-eastern escarp-
ment of the Futa Jallon highlands, the massif where also rise the
head-streams of the Senegal and some of the Niger tributaries,
besides the Rio Grande and many other rivers flowing direct to
the Gulf of Guinea. The Gambia, especially in its lower course, is
very serpentine, and although the distance from the source to
the mouth of the river is little more than 300 m. in a direct line,
the total length of the stream is about 1000 m. It flows first
N.N.E., receiving many left-hand tributaries, but about 12*35^.
takes a sharp bend N.W. and maintains this direction until it
leaves the fertile and hilly region of Bondu. The descent to the
lower district is marked by the Barraconda rapids, formed by a
ledge of rock stretching across the river. Between 30 and 50 m.
above the falls the Gambia is joined by two considerable affluents,
the Nicriko from the north and the Kuluntu or Grey river from
the south. From the Barraconda rapids to the Atlantic the
Gambia has a course of about 350 m. Throughout this distance
the waters are tidal, and the river is navigable all the year round
by boats drawing 6 ft. of water. At Yarbatcnda, a few miles
below Barraconda, the river has a breadth, even at the dry
season, of over 300 ft., with a depth of 13 to 20 ft. From the falls
to McCarthy's Island, a distance of 200 m„ the river valley, which
here presents a park-like appearance, is enclosed by low rocky
hills of volcanic character. For 50 m. below the island, where the
st ream is about 800 yds. wide, the banks of the river arc steep and
thickly wooded. They then become low and are fringed with
mangrove swamps. From Devil's Point, a sharp promontory on
the north bank — up to which place the water is salt — the river
widens considerably and enters the Atlantic, in about 13}* N.
and i6|° W., by a broad estuary. Near the mouth of the river
on the south side is St Mary's Island (3! m. long by 1 J broad),
and opposite on the north bank hi Barra Point, the fiver being
here contracted to 2} m. Eighteen miles lower down the distance
from shore to shore is 27 m. There is a sand-bar at the entrance
to the river, but at the lowest state of the tide there are 26 ft. of
water over the bar. The Gambia is in flood from November to
June, when the Barraconda rapids are navigable by small boats.
Above the rapids the stream is navigable for 160 m. Politically
the Gambia is divided between Great Britain and France-
Britain possessing both banks of the river up to, but not includ-
ing, Yarbatenda.
The Gambia was one of the rivers passed by Hanno the
Carthaginian in his famous voyage along the west coast of
Africa. It was known to Ptolemy and the Arabian geographers,
and was at one time supposed to be a mouth of the Nik, and,
later (18th century), a branch of the Niger. It was possibly
visited by Genoese navigators in 1291, and was certainly dis-
covered by the Portuguese c. 1446, but was first explored for any
distance from its mouth (i45S) by the Venetian AlviseCadamosto
GAMBIA
437
(q.v.), who published an account of -his travels at Vicenxa in 1507
(La Prima Navigazione per I'Oceano alle terre de' Negri delta
Bassa Ethiopia). Aflerwardslhc Gambia becamcastarting-placc
for explorers of the interior, among them Mungo Park, who began
both his journeys. (170s and 1805) from this river. It was not
until 1818 that the sources of the Gambia were reached, the
discovery being made by a Frenchman. Gaspard Mollien,who had
travelled by way of the Senegal and Bondu. The middle course
of the river was explored in 1851 by R. G. MacDonnell, then
governor of the Gambia colony, and in 1881 Dr V. S. Gouldsbury
also navigated its middle course. No native craft of any kind
was seen above Barraconda. The more correct name of the river
is Gambra, and it is so called in old books of travel.
See Mungo Park's Travels (London. 1709); G. Mollicn, Travels
. . . to the Sources of the Senegal and Gambia . . ., edited by T. E.
Bowdich (London, 1820) ; the aorount of Dr Gouldsbury '» journey in
the Blue Book C 3065 ( 1881 ) . also under the country heading bebw.
GAMBIA, the most northerly of the British West African
dependencies. It consists of a stretch of land on both sides of the
lower Gambia. The colony, with the protectorate dependent upon
it. has an area of about 4000 sq. m". and a population officially
estimated (1007) at 163,000. The colony proper (including
St Mary's Island, British Kommbo, the Ceded Mile, McCarthy's
Island and other islets) has an area of about 69 sq. m. The
protectorate consists of a strip of land extending ten kilometres
(about 6 m.) on each side of the river to a distance of about
200 ra. in a direct line from the sea. The land outside these
limits is French. Within the protectorate are various petty
kingdoms, such as Barra, to the north of the Gambia, and
Kommbo, to the south. The breadth of the colony near the coast
is somewhat greater than it is higher up. The greatest breadth
is 3*0 m.
Physical Features, Fauna and Flora. — The colony, as its name
implies, derives its character and value from the river Gambia' (q.v.),
which is navigable throughout and beyond the limits of the colony,
while large ocean-going ships can always cross the bar at its mouth
and enter the port of Bathurst. Away from the swamps by the river
banks, the country is largely " bu&h." The region above NlcCarthy'a
Island is hilly. Much of the land is cleared for cultivation. The
fauna includes lions, leopards, several kinds of deer, monkeys,
bush-cow and wild boar. Hippopotami are found in the upper part
of the river, and crocodiles abound in the creeks. The buds most
common are bush-fowl, bustards, guinea-fowl, quail, pigeon and
sand-grouse. Bees arc very numerous in parts of the country.
The flora resembles that ot West Africa generally, the mangrove
being common. Mahogany and rosewood (Pterocarpus eriuaeeus)
trees are found, though not in large numbers, and the rubber-vine
and oil-palm are also comparatively scarce. There arc many varieties
of fern. The cassava (manioca) and indigo plants are indigenous.
Climate. — The climate during the dry season (November-June)
is the best on the British West African coast, and the Gambia is
then considered fairly healthy. Measures for the extermination of
the malarial mosquito are carried on with good effect. The mean
temperature at Bathurst is 77° F. { the shade minimum bang 56°
and the solar maximum 165 9 . Up river the variation in temperature
is even greater than at Bathurst, from 50* in the morning to 100 -
104° at 3 r.u. being common at McCarthy's Isle. The average
rainfall is about 50 in. a year, but save for showers in May and June
there is rarely any rain except between July and October. The first
instance of rain in December in twenty-six years was recorded in
1906. The dry east wind known as the harmatran blows inter-
mittently from December to March.
Inhabitants. — The inhabitants, who are both thrifty and
industrious, are almost entirely of Negro or Negroid race, the
chief tribes represented being the Mandingo (q.v.), the Jolof and
the Jola. Numbers of Fula (q.v.) are also settled in the country.
Fully four-fifths of the natives are Mahommedans. The few
European residents are officials, traders or missionaries.
Towns and Trade. — Bathurst, pop. about 8000, the chief
town of the colony, in 13° 24' N., 16* 36' W., is built on St Mary's
Inland, which lies at the mouth of the river near its south
bank and is connected with the mainland by a bridge across
Oyster Creek. It was founded in 1816 and is named after the
3rd carl Bathurst. secretary of state for the colonies from 181 2 to
1827. Bathurst is a fairly well-built town, the chief material
employed being red sandstone. It lies about 12 to 14 ft. above
the level of the river. The principal buildings face the tern, and
include Government House, barracks, a well-appointed hospital,
founded by Sir R. G. MacDonnell (administrator, 1847-1852),
and various churches. The market-place is shaded by a fine
avenue of bombax and other wide-spreading trees. There are no
other towns of any size in the Gambia. A trading station called
Georgetown is situated on McCarthy's Island, so named after Sir
Charles McCarthy, the governor of Sierra Leone, who in 1824 was
captured and beheaded by the Ashanti at the battle of Essamako.
Albreda, a small port on the north bank of the river, of some
historic interest (see below), Is in the Barra district.
Products.— Ground-nuts (A roc his hypogaea), rubber, beeswax,
palm kernels, rice, cotton, and millet arc the chief productions*.
Millet and rice arc the staple food of the people. The curing of hides,
the catching and drying of fish, boat-building, and especially the
weaving of cotton into cloths called " pagns, afford employment
to a considerable number of persons. Formerly the principal ex-
ports, besides slaves, were gold-dust, wax and hides, the gold being
obtained from the Futa Jallon district farther inland. Between
1830 and 1840 from i«x> to aooo oz. of gold were exported annually,
but shipments ceased soon afterwards, though small quantities of
gold-dust can still be obtained from native goldsmiths. The export
of hides received a severe check in 1892-1893 through the death of
nearly all the cattle, but after an interval of seven or eight years
the industry gradually revived. The value of hides exported in-
creased from £520 in 1902 to £9615 in 1907. The collection of rubber
was started about 1880, but the trade has not assumed large pro-
portions. In 1907 the value of the rubber exported was /460a.
The export of wax, valued at £37.000 in 1843, had dwindled in
t9©7 to £2325. The cultivation of the ground-nut, first exported
in 1830. assumed importance by 1837. and by 1850 had become the
chief industry of the colony. In 1907 the value of the nuts was
£256,68*. over \ | of the total exports (exclusive of specie). Nearly
the whole male population is engaged in the industry for eight months
of the year. Planted in June, after the early rains, the crop is
reaped in October or November and exported to Europe (< to
Marseilles) for the extraction of its oil, which is usually sold as olive
oil. A feature of the industry is the appearance at the beginning of
the planting season of thousands of men from a distance, " strange
farmers," as they are called, who arc housed and fed and given
farms to cultivate. In return they have to give half the produce
to the landlords. As soon as he has sold his nuts, the " strange
farmer " goes off, often not returning for years.
Apart from the cultivation of the ground-nut, the agricultural
resources of the country arc undeveloped. Large herds of cat tic are
kept by the Fula, and in cattle rich natives usually invest their
wealth. Land can be hired for 2d. an acre per annum for twenty-
one years. All land lying vacant or unused, or to which the occupier
is unable to produce any title, is vested in the crown. A botanical
station was opened in 1894, and the cultivation of American and
Egyptian cotton was taken in hand in 1902. The experiment
proved discouraging. Great difficulty was experienced in getting
farmers to grow cotton for export, as unless carried on onTiighly
scientific lines its cultivation is not so profitable as that of theground*
nut. The principal imports, of which over J come from GreatBritain
or British colonies, are cotton goods, kola-nuts (from Sierra Leone),
tobacco, rice, sugar and spirits. In the ten years 1898 to 1907 the
average annual value of the exports was £301,000, of the imports
£316,000. There are no mines in the colony, nor any apparent
mineral wealth, except ridges of ironstone in. the regions above
McCarthy's Island. Bathurst is in telegraphic communication with
Europe and the rest of Africa. There are no railways In the colony,
but it is traversed by well-made roads of a uniform width of 18 ft.
The Liverpool it
government stea
Island, and a sm
trade is chiefly Bi
Surrounded on
colony largely <
country roost of
also done with t
French influence
locally known as
tectorate. and is
the colony propo
Administration
governor, assiste
the last-named
The colony is sell
which in 1906 foi
from customs. -
maintained. Tr
which, for admin
in which the nati
law-courts apnea
There is also at E
for the trial of cases involving the civil status of Moslems.
Primary schools are maintained by the various religious denomi-
nations, and receive grants from government. The Wesleyans have
+38
GAMBIA
also a secondary and a technical school. There is a privately
supported school for Mahommedans at Bathurst. The Anglicans.
Wesleyans and Roman Catholics have numerous converts.
History.— Ot the early history of the Gambia district there is
•cant mention. At what period the stone circles and pillars
(apparently of a " Druidical " character), whose ruins are found at
several places along the upper Gambia, were erected is not known.
Those at Lamin Koto, on the right bank of the river opposite
McCarthy's Island, are still in good preservation, and are an
object of veneration to the Mahommedans (see Ceog. J own.
vol. xii., 1808). The country appears to have formed part,
successively, of the states of Ghana, Melle and Songhoi. The
relations, political and commercial, of the natives were all with
the north and east; consequently no large town was founded on
the banks of the river, nor any trade carried on (before the
coming of the white man) by vessels sailing the ocean About
the 1 1 th century the district came under Mahommedan influence.
The Portuguese visited the Gambia in the i $th century, and
in the beginning of the i6th century were trading in the tower
river. Embassies were sent from the Portuguese stations in-
land to Mclle to open up trade with the interior, but about the
middle of the century this trade — apparently mostly in gold and
slaves— declined. At the end of the century the river was known
as the resort of banished men and fugitives from Portugal and
Spain. It was on the initiative of Portuguese living in England
that Queen Elizabeth, in 1588, granted a patent to "certain
merchants of Exeter and others of the west parts and of London
for a trade to the river of Senega and Gambra in Guinea." This
company was granted a monopoly of trade for ten years. Its
operations led to no permanent settlement in the Gambia. In
1618 James I. granted a charter to another company named
" The Company of Adventurers of London trading into Africa/'
and formed at the instigation of Sir Robert Rich, afterwards carl
of Warwick, for trade with the Gambia and the Gold Coast.
This company sought to open up trade with Timbuktu, then
believed to be a great mart for gold, which reached the lower
Gambia in considerable quantities. With this object George
Thompson (a merchant who had traded with Barbary) was sent
out in the " Catherine/' and ascended the Gambia in his ship to
Kassan, a Portuguese trading town, thence continuing his journey
in small boats. In his absence the " Catherine " was seized and
the crew murdered by Portuguese and half-castes, and Thompson
himself was later on murdered by natives. Two years afterwards
Richard Jobson, another agent of the Company of Adventurers,
advanced beyond the falls of Barraconda; and he was followed,
about forty years later, by Vermuyden, a Dutch merchant, who
on his return to Europe asserted that be had reached a country
fuU of gold.
The Company of Adventurers had built a fort near the mouth
of the Gambia. This was superseded in 1664 by a fort built by
Captain (afterwards Admiral Sir Robert) Holmes on a small
bland so ra. from the mouth of the river and named Fort James,
In honour of the duke of York (James II.). This fort was built
expressly to defend the British trade against the Dutch, and from
that time the British remained in permanent occupation of one or
more ports on the river. In 1723 Captain Bartholomew Stibbs
was sent out by the Royal African Company, which had succeeded
the earlier companies, to verify Vermuyden's reports of gold.
He proceeded 60 m. above the falls, but the land of gold was not
found. The French now became rivals for the trade of the
Gambia, but the treaty of Versailles in 1783 assigned the trade in
the river to Britain, reserving, however, Albreda for French trade,
while it assigned the Senegal to France, with the reservation of
the right of the British to trade at Portendic for gum. This
arrangement remained in force till 1857, when an exchange of
possessions was effected and the lower Gambia became a purely
British river. In the period between the signing of the treaty of
Versailles and 1885 the small territories which form the colony
proper were acquired by purchase or cession from native kings.
St Mary's Isle was acquired in 1806; McCarthy's Isle was bought
in 1823; the Ceded Mile was granted by the king of Barra in
i8a6; and British Kommbo between 1840 and 1855. During
this period the colony had gone through an economic crisis by
the abolition of the slave trade (1807), which had been since 1662
its chief financial support. The beginning of a return to pro-
sperity came in 1816 when some British traders, obliged 10 leave
Senegal on the restoration of that country to France after the
Napoleonic wars, founded a settlement on St Mary's Isle. From
that year the existing colony, as distinct from trading on the river,
dates. The Gambia witnessed many administrative changes.
When the slave trade was abolished, the settlement was placed
under the jurisdiction of the governor of Sierra Leone, and was
formally annexed to Sierra Leone on the dissolution of the Royal
African Company (1822). It so remained until 1843, when the
Gambia was made an independent colony, its first governor
being Henry Frowd Seagram. Afterwards (1866) the Gambia
became a portion of the officially styled *' West African Settle*
ments." In 1888 il was again made a separate government,
administered as a crown colony. Between the years last
mentioned— 1866-1888— the colony had suffered from the retro-
grade policy adopted by parliament in respect to the West
African Settlements (vide Report of the Select Commit tec of 1865).
In 1870 negotiations were opened between France and Great
Britain on the basis of a mutual exchange of territories in West
Africa. Suspended owing to the outbreak of the Franco- Prussian
War t he negotiations were resumed in 1876. " Definite proposals
were at that time formulated by which the Gambia was to be
exchanged for all posts by France between the Rio Poagas
( Pongo river, French Guinea) and the Gabun. This would have
been a comprehensive and intelligible arrangement, but so strong
a feeling in opposition to any cession of British territory was
manifested in parliament, and by various mercantile bodies,
that the government of the day was unable to press the scheme."'
Nothing was done, however, to secure for the Gambia a suitable
hinterland, and in 1877 the 4th earl of Carnarvon (then colonial
secretary) warned British traders that they proceeded beyond
McCarthy's Isle at their own risk. Meantime the French from
Senegal pushed their frontier close to the British settlements,
so that when the boundaries were settled by the agreement of
the toth of August 1889 with France, Great Britain was able to
secure only a ten-kilometre strip on either side of the river. This
document fixed the frontier of the British protectorate inland at
a radius of 10 m. from the centre of the town of Yarbatenda;
which town is situated at the limit of navigability of the Gambia
from the sea. By Art. 5 of the Anglo-French convention of the
8th of April 1004, Yarbatenda was ceded to France, with the
object of giving that country a port on the river accessible to
sea-going merchantmen.
Since 187 1 the colony had been self-supporting, but on the
acquirement of the protectorate il was decided, in order to balance
increasing expenditure, to impose a " hut tax " on the natives.
This was done in 1895. The tax, which averages 4s. per annum
for a family, met with no opposition.
In 1893 a slave-raiding chief, named Fodi Kabba, had to be
forcibly expelled from British territory. In 1804 another slave-
raider, Fodi Silah, gave much* trouble to the protectorate. Aa
expedition under Captain E. H. (afterwards admiral) Gamble
succeeded in routing him, and Fodi Silah took refuge in French
territory, where he died. During the expedition Captain Gamble
was led into an ambush, and in this engagement lost 1 5 killed and
47 wounded. In 1000 trouble again arose through the agency of
Fodi Kabba, who had fixed his residence at Medina, in French
territory. Two travelling commissioners (Mr F. C. SitweO and
Mr Silva) were murdered in June of that year, at a place called
Suankandi, and a punitive expedition was sent out under
Colonel H. E. Brake. Suankandi was captured and, the French
co-operating, Medina was also captured, Fodi Kabba being
killed on the 23rd of March 1001.
The people of the protectorate are in general peaceful and
contented, and slave trading is a thing of the past. Provision
was moreover made by an ordinance of 1006 for the extinction of
slavery itself throughout the protectorate, it being enacted thai
1 Extract from a despatch of Lord Salisbury to the Bridal
ambassador to France, dated 30th of March 189a.
GAMBIER— GAMBRINUS
439
henceforth all children born of slaves were free from birth, and
that all slaves became free on the death of their master.
See the A nuual Reports on the colony published by the colonial
office, London, which give the latest official information; C. P.
Lucas's Historical Geography of the British Colonics, vol. Hi., West
Africa (2nd ed., Oxford, 1000) (this book contains valuable biblio-
graphical notes); and The Gambia Colony and Protectorate, an
official handbook (with map and considerable historical information),
by F. B. Archer, treasurer of the colony (London, 1906). Early
accounts of the country will be found in vol. ii. of Thomas Astley s
New General Collection of Voyages and Travels (London, 1745-1747)*
See also Major W. Gray and Surgeon Dochard, Travels «• Western
Africa in 1818-1821, from the Rmer Gambia ...to the River Nipt
(London, 1839). The flora has been the subject of a special study,
A. Rancpn, La Flore utiUdubassindelaGambielhor6tAux t 1895). Most
of the books mentioned under Gold Coast also deal with theGambia.
GAMBIER, JAMBS OAMBIRR, Baxon (1756-1833). English
admiral, was born on the 13th of October 1756 at the Bahamas,
of which his father, John Gambier, was at that time lieutenant-
governor. He entered the navy in 1767 as a midshipman on
board the " Yarmouth," under the command of his uncle; and,
his family interest obtaining for him rapid promotion, he was
raised in 1778 to the rank of post-captain, and appointed to the
41 Raleigh," a fine 32-gun frigate. At the peace of 1783 he was
placed on half-pay; but, on the outbreak of the war of the
French Revolution, he was appointed to the command of the
74- gun ship " Defence," under Lord Howe; and in her he had
an honourable share in the battle on the 1st of June 1794. In
recognition .of his services on this occasion, Captain Gambier
received the gold medal, and was made a colonel of marines;
the following year he was advanced to the rank of rear-admiral,
and appointed one of the lords of the admiralty. In this office he
continued for six years, till, in February 1801, he, a vice-admiral
of 1709, hoisted his flag on board the " Neptune," of 98 guns,
as third in command of the Channel Fleet under Admiral Corn*
wallis. where, however, he remained for but a year, when be was
appointed governor of Newfoundland and commander-in-chief
of the ships on that station. In May 1804 he returned to the
admiralty, and with a short intermission in 1806, continued
there during the naval administration of Lord Melville, of his
uncle. Lord Barham, and of Lord Mulgrave. In November 1805
he was raised to the rank of admiral; and in the summer of 1807,
whilst still a lord of the admiralty, he was appointed to the
command of the fleet ordered to the Baltic, which, in concert
with the army under Lord Cathcart, reduced Copenhagen, and
enforced the surrender of the Danish navy, consisting of nineteen
ships of the line, besides frigates', sloops, gunboats, and naval
stores. This service was considered by the government as worthy
of special acknowledgment; the naval and military commanders,
officers, seamen and soldiers received the thanks of both Houses
of Parliament, and Admiral Gambier was rewarded with a peerage.
In the spring of the following year be gave up his seat at the
admiralty on being appointed to the command of the Channel
Fleet; and in that capacity he witnessed the partial, and pre-
vented the total, destruction of the French fleet in Basque Roads,
on the 1 ath of April 1809. It is in connexion with this event,
which might have been as memorable in the history of the British
navy as it is in the life of Lord DundonaJd (see Dundonald),
that Lord Gam bier's name is now best known. A court-martial,
assembled by order of a friendly admiralty, and presided over
by a warm partisan, " most honourably acquitted " him on the
charge " that, on the nth of April, the enemy's ships being then
on fire, and the signal having been made that they could be
destroyed, he did, for a considerable time, neglect or delay taking
effectual measures for destroying them "; but this decision was
in reality nothing more than a party statement of the fact that a
commander-in-chief, a supporter of the government, is not to be
condemned or broken for not being a person of brilliant genius or
dauntless resolution. No one now doubts that the French fleet
should have been reduced to ashes, and might have been, had
Lord Gambier had the talents, the energy, or the experience of
many of his juniors. He continued to hold the command of the
Channel Fleet for the full period of three years, ft the end of which
time — in 181 1 — he was superseded. In 1814 he acted m a civil
capacity as chief commissioner for Defoliating a treaty of peace
with the United States; for his exertions in which business he
was honoured with the Grand Cross of the Bath. In 1 830 be was
raised to the high rank of admiral of the fleet, and he died on the
19th of April 1833.
Lord Gambier was a man of earnest, almost morbid, religious
principle, and of undoubted courage; but the administration of
the admiralty has seldom given rise to such flagrant scandals as
during the time when he was a member of it; and through the
whole war the self-esteem of the navy suffered no such wound as
during Lord Gambler's command in the Bay of Biscay.
The so-called Memorials, Personal and Historical, of Admiral
Lord Gambier, by Lady Chattcrton (1861), has no historical value.
The life of Lord Gambier is to be read in Marshall's Royal Naval
Biography, in Ralfe's Naval Biography, in Lord Dundonaki's Auto-
biography of a Seaman, In the Minutes of the Courts-Mart ial and in
the general history of the period.
GAMBIER, a village of College township, Knox county, Ohio,
U.S.A., on the Kokosing river, 5 m. £. of Mount Vernon. Pop.
(1000) 751; (1910) 537* It is served 1)y the Cleveland, Akron k
Columbus railway. The village is finely situated, and is the seat
of Kenyon College and its theological seminary, Bexley HaU
(Protestant Episcopal), and of Harcourt Place boarding school
for girls (1889), also Protestant Episcopal The college was in-
corporated in 1824 as the " Theological Seminary of the Protes-
tant Episcopal Church in the Diocese of Ohio "; but in 1891
" Kenyon College," the name by which the institution has always
been known, became the official title. Its first exercises were held
at Worthington, Ohio, in the home of Philander Chase (1775-
1852), first Protestant Episcopal bishop in the North-west
Territory! by whose efforts the funds for its endowment had been
raised in England in 1823-1824, the chief donors being Lords
Kenyon and Gambier. The first permanent building, " Old
Kenyon " (still standing, and used as a dormitory), was erected
on Gambier Hill in 1827 in the midst of a forest. In 1007-1908
the theological seminary had 18 students and the collegiate
department 1 19.
Some account of the founding of the college may be found in Bishop
Chase's Reminiscences; an Autobiography, comprising a History of the
Principal Events in the Author's Life to 1847 (2 vols.,Ncw York, 1848).
OAM BOOB (from Camboja, a name of the district whence if is
obtained), a gum-resin procured from Garcinia Hanburii, a
dioecious tree with leathery, laurel-like leaves, small yellow
flowers, and usually square-shaped and four-seeded fruit, a
member of the natural order Guttifcrae, and indigenous to
Cambodia and pans of Siam and of the south of Cochin China,
formerly comprised in Cambojan territory. The juice, which
when hardened constitutes gamboge, is contained in the bark of
the tree, chiefly in numerous ducts in its middle layer, and from
this it is procured by making incisions, bamboo joints being
placed to receive it as it exudes. Gamboge occurs in commerce
in cylindrical pieces, known as pipe or roll gamboge, and also,
usually of inferior quality, in cakes or amorphous masses. It is
of a dirty orange externally; is hard and brittle, breaks with a
conchoidal and reddish-yellow, glistening fracture, and affords a
brilliant yellow powder; is odourless, and has a taste at first
slight, but subsequently acrid; forms with water an emulsion;
and consists of from 20 to 25% of gum soluble in water, and from
70 to 75% of a resin. Its commonest adulterants are rice-flour
and pulverized bark.
Gamboge (Cambogio) is a drastic hydragogue cathartic, caus-
ing much griping and irritation of the intestine. A small
quantity is absorbed, adding a yellow ingredient to the urine
and acting as a mild diuretic. Its irritant action on the skin may
cause the formation of pustules. It is less active only than
croton oil and etaterium, and may be given in doses of half to two
grains, combined with some sedative such as hyoecyamus, in
apoplexy and in extreme cases of dropsy. Gamboge is used as a
pigment, and as a colouring matter for varnishes. It appears to
have been first brought into Europe by merchants from the East
at the clos e of t he 16th century.
GAMBRIIfUS. a mythical Flemish king who is credited with the
first brewing of beer. His name is usually derived from that of
Jan Primus, U. Jan (John) I., the victorious duke of Brabant,
from 1 261 to 1294, who was president of the Brussels gild of
44-o
GAME— GAME LAWS
brewers; his portrait with a foaming glass of ale in his hand had
the place of honour in the gild-hall, and this led in time, it is
suggested, to the myth of the beer-king who is usually repre-
sented outside a barrel with a tankard in his hand.
GAME, a word which in its primary and widest significance
means any amusement or sport, often combined in the early
examples with " glee," " play," " joy " or " solace." It is a
common Teutonic word, in O. Eng. gomen, in O.H.G. gamon, but
only appears in modern usage outside English in Dan. gammen
and Swed. gamman. The ulterior derivation is obscure, but
philologists have identified it with the Goth, gaman, companion
or companionship; if this be so, it is compounded of the prefix
ga-, with, and the root seen in " man." Apart from its primary
and general meaning the word has two specific applications, first
to a contest played as a recreation or as an exhibition of skill, in
accordance with rules and regulations; and, secondly, to those
wild animals which are the objects of the chase, and their flesh as
used for food, distinguished as such from meat, fish and poultry,
and from the flesh of deer, to which the name " venison " is given.
For " game," from the legal aspect, and the laws relating to its
pursuit and capture see Game Laws. The athletic contestsof the
ancient Greeks (itySms) and the public shows (ludi) of the arena
and amphitheatre of the ancient Romans are treated below
(Gamcs, Classical); the various forms of modern games,
indoor and outdoor, whether of skill, strength or chance, are
deak with under their specific titles. A special use ("gaming"
or "gambling") restricts the term to the playing of games for
money, or to betting and wagering on the results of events, as in
horse- racing, &c (see Gaming and Wagering). " Gamble,"
" gambler " and " gambling " appear very late in English. The
earliest quotations in the New English Dictionary for the three
words are dated 1775, 1747 and 1784 respectively. They were
first regarded as cant or slang words, and implied a reproach,
either as referring to cheats or sharpers, or to those who played
recklessly for extravagant stakes. The form of the words is
obscure, but is supposed to represent a local variation gamntle of
the ME. gamenian. From this word must, of course, be dis-
tinguished " gambol," to sport, frisk, which, as the older forms
(gambald, gambaud) show, is from the Fr. gambade, leap, jump, of
a horse, It. gambado, gamba, leg (Mod. Yx.jambc).
GAME LAWS. This title in English law is applied to the
statutes which regulate the right to pursue and lake or kill
certain kinds of wild animals (sec above). The existence of
these statutes is due to the rules of the common law as to the
nature of property, and the interest of the Norman sovereigns
and of feudal superiors in the pleasures of sport or the chase.
The substantial basis of the law of property is physical possession
of things and the power to deal with them as wc see fit. By the
common law wild animals are regarded as res nuilius, and as not
being the subject of private property until reduced into possession
by being killed or captured. A bird in the hand is owned: a
bird in the bush is not. Even bees do not become property until
hived. " Though a swarm lights in my tree," says Bracton,
" I have no more property therein than I have in the birds which
make their nests thereon." If reclaimed or confined they become
property. If they escape, the rights of the owner continue only
while he is in pursuit of the fugitive, i.e. no other person can in
the meantime establish a right of properly against him by
capturing the animal. A swarm of bees " which fly out of my
hive are mine so long as 1 can keep them in sight and have
power to pursue them." But the right of recapture docs not
entitle the owner to follow his animals on to the lands of another,
and the only case in which any right to follow wild animals on to
the lands of others is now expressly recognized is when deer or
bares are hunted with hounds or greyhounds. This recognition
merely excepts such pursuit from the law as to criminal game tres-
pass, and fox-hunters and those who course hares or hunt stags
are civilly liable for trespass if they pass over land without the
consent of the occupier (Paul v. Summer hayes, 1878, 4 Q.B.D. o).
It is a maxim of the common law that things in which no one
can claim any property belong to the crown by its prerogative:
iblt rule fca* been applied to wQd animals, and in particular 10
deer and what is now called " game." The crown rights may
pass to a subject by grant or equivalent prescription. In the
course of time the exclusive right to take game, &c, on lands
came to be regarded as incidental to the ownership or occupation
of the lands. This is described as the right to game ratione soli.
In certain districts of England which are crown forests or chases
or legal parks, or subject to rights of free warren, the right to
take deer and game is not in the owner or occupier of the soil, but
is in the crown by prerogative, or ralionc prhilegii in the grantee
of the rights of chase, park or free warren, which are anterior to
and superior to those of the owner or occupier of the lands over
which the privilege has been granted. In all cases where these
special rights do not exist, the right to take or kill wild animals is
treated as a profit incidental to the ownership or occupation of
the land on which they are found, and there is no public right to
take them on private land or even on a highway; nor is there any
method known to the law by which the public at large or an
undefined body of persons can lawfully acquire the right to take
wild animals in alieno solo.
In the nature of things the right to take wild animals U
valuable as to deer and the animals usually described as game,
and not as to those which are merely noxious as vermin, or simply
valueless, as small birds. Upon the rules of the common law
there has been grafted much legislation which up till the end of
the i8tb century was framed for the preservation of deer and
game for the recreation and amusement of persons of fortune,
and to prevent persons of inferior rank from squandering in the
pursuit of game time which their station in life required to be
more profitably employed. These enactments included the
rigorous code known as the Laws of the Forest (see Fojlest
Laws), as well as what are usually called the Game Laws.
In England the older statutes relating to game were all repealed
early in the 19th century. From the time of Richard II. (1389)
to 1831, no person might kill game unless qualified by estate or
social standing, a qualification raised from a 40a. freehold in 1389
to an interest of £100 a year in freehold or £150 in long leaseholds
(1673). In 1 83 1 this qualification by estate was abolished as to
England. But in Scotland the right to hunt is theoretically
reserved to persons who have in heritage that unknown quantity
a " plough-gate of land " (Scots Act 1621, c. 31); and in Ireland
qualifications by estate are made necessary for killing game am)
keeping sporting dogs (Irish Act 169S, 8 Will. III. c. 8). In
England the game laws proper consist of the Night Poaching Acts
of 1828 and 1844, the Game Act of 1831, the Poaching Prevention
Act 1862, and the Ground Game Acts of 1880 and 1906. From
the fact that the right of landowners over wild animals on their
land does not amount to ownership it follows that they cannot
prosecute any one for stealing live wild animals: and that apart
from the game laws the only remedy against poachers is by civil
action for trespass. As between trespasser and landowner the
law is peculiar {Blades v. Higgs, 186s, xx H.L.C. 621). If A
starts and kills a hare on B's land the dead hare belongs to B
(ralione soli) and not to A, though he has taken the bare by hisowa
efforts (per industriam). But if A hunts the hare from B's land
on to C's land and there kills it, the dead hare belongs to A and
not to B or C. It is not B's because it was not taken on his land,
and it is not C's because it was not started on his land. In other
words the right of each owner is limited to animals both started
and killed on his own land, and in the case of conflicting claims
to the animal taken (made tationc soli) the captor can make title
(per induslriam) against both landowners. If he is a trespasser
he is liable to civil or criminal proceedings by both landowners,
but the game is his unless forfeited under a statute. Another
peculiar result of the law is that where trespassers (e.g. poachers)
kill and carry off game or rabbits as part of one continuous
transaction they are not guilty of theft, but only of game trespass
(R. v. Tovmley, 1871, L.R. 1 C.C.R. 315), but it is theft (or*
trespasser to pick up and carry off a pheasant killed by the owner
of the land on his own land or even a pheasant killed by an
independent gang of poachers. The young of wild animals
belong (propter impoUntiam) to the owner of the land until they
are able to fly or run away. This right does not extend to Ik
GAME LAWS
eggs of wild birds. But the owner can reduce the eggs into
possession by taking them up and setting them under hens or in
enclosures. And if this is done persons who take them are
thieves and not merely poachers. A game farm, like a decoy for
wild water-fowl, is treated as a trade or business; but a game
preserve in which full-grown animals fly or run wild is subject to
the ordinary incidents of the law as to animals ferae naturae.
The classification of wild animals for purposes of sport in England
is as follows: —
i. Beasts of forest arc hart and hind (red deer), boar, wolf and all
beasts of venery.
2. Beasts of chase and park are buck and doe (fallow deer), fox,
marten and roe, or all beasts of venery and hunting.
3. Beasts of (free) warren are roc, hare, rabbit, partridge, pheasant,
woodcock, quail, rail and heron.
4. Game, as defined by the Night Poaching Act of 1828 and the
Game Act of 1S31, is pheasant, partridge, black game, red grouse,
bustard and hare. In France game (gibier) includes everything
eatable that runs or flics..
«>. Wild fowl not in an] nevertheless
prized for sport, e.g. due
6. Wild birds not fallii »ss protected
against destruction by t) which were,
however, passed with qu e laws.
As regards class 1 no lority of the
crown may kill within a Ijaccnt high-
ways, rivers or enclosure! a forest docs
not depend on owncrshi| I prerogative
as to the animals, i.e. it ne priviiegii:
and this right is not in ic Act 1831.
A chase is a forest in the park (which
is an enclosed chase) is created by crown grant or by prescription
founded on a lost grant. The rights of the grantee arc in substance
the same as those of the crown in a forest, and do not depend on
ownership of the soil. In the case of a free warren the grantee
usually but not necessarily owns some or all of the soil over which
the right of warren runs. The right of free warren depends on
crown grant or prescription founded on lost grant, and involves a
right of property over beasts and fowl of warren on all lands within
the franchise. As will appear from the list above, some game birds
are not fowl of warren, e.g. black g.imc and red grouse (Duke of
Devonshire v. Lodge, 1827, 7 B. & C. 39). Free warren is quite
different from ordinary warrens, in which hares or rabbits are bred
by the owner of the soil for sport or profit. Ground game in such
warrens is protected under the Larceny Act 1861, s. 17, as well as by
the game laws. In manors, of which none have been created since
1290. the lord by his franchi.se had the sporting rights over the
manor, but at the present time this right is restricted to the commons
and wastes of the manor, the freehold whereof is in him, and does not
extend to enclosed freeholds nor as a general rule to enclosed copy*
holds, unless at the time of enclosure the sporting rights were
reserved to him by the Enclosure Act or award {Sowerby v. Smith,
1873. L.R. 8 C.P. 514). In other words his rights exist ratione
soli and not ratione priviiegii. The Game Act 1831 gives lords of
manors and privileged persons certain rights as to appointing
gamekeepers with special |>owcrs to protect game within the district
over which their rights extend (ss. 13, 14, 15, 16). The game laws
in no way cut down the special privileges as to forest, park, chase or
free warren (1831, s. 9), and confirm the sporting right of lords of
manors on the wastes of the manor ( 1 H3 1, s. 10). As to all lands not
affected by these rights, the ri^ht to kill or take game on the land is
presumably in the occupier. On letting land the owner may, subject
to the qualifications hereinafter stated, reserve to himself the right
to kill or take " game " or rabbits or other wild animals concurrently
with or in exclusion of the tenant. Where the exclusive right is in
the landlord the tenant is not only liable to forfeiture or damages for
broaches of covenants in the lease, but is also liable to penalties on
summary conviction if without the lessor's authority lie pursues,
kills or takes any " game " upon the land or gives permission to
other* to do so (1831, s. 12). In effect he is
mule criminally liable for game trespass on lands
in hi-* own occupation, so far as relates to game,
but is not so liable if he takes rabbits, *nipc,
woodcock, quails or rails.
The net effect of the common law and the
game laws is to give the occupier of lands and the
uwiht of sporting rights over them the following
remedies against persons who infringe their right
to kill or take wild animals on the land. A
stringer who enters on the land of another to
take it ny wild animals is liable to the occupier for
trespass on the land and for the animals started
and killed on the land by the trespasser. He is
also criminally liable for game trespass if he has
entered on the land to search for or in pursuit of
" game " or woodcock, snipe, quail, landrails or
rablntft. If the trespass is in the daytime (whether on lands of the 1
subject or in royal forests, Sue), the penalty on conviction may not | *
Hare . . . .
Red deer (male) .
Fallow deer .
Roe deer
Pheasant
Partridge
Black game .
Red grouse .
Ptarmigan
Bustard (wild turkey).
4+1
go together, in which case
-. offender refuses his name
e occupier or to the owner
tres, or refuses to leave the
is liable to a penalty not
d together in game trespass
intimidation or menace, to
rd to take their names or
Lher penalty up to £5.
game or rabbits in the night-
iction is imprisonment with
>n a second, imprisonment,
ffendcr may be put under
ter a first conviction or for
jt a first or second offence
ippeal to quarter sessions,
ried on indictment and is
imprisonment with hard
: arrested by the owner or
1 if the offenders assault or
apons they are liable to be
e same extent as in the last
s extended to persons found
of game. If three or more
or destroy game or rabbits,
jludgcon or other offensive
d on conviction sentenced
sonment with hard labour
n the beginning of the first
: hour after sunset, and by
ter sunset to the beginning
8, s. 12; act of 1831, s. 34).
Greenwich time,
c severe, but encounters
j armed gangs of poachers
t is to be observed that it is
aps or loaded soring guns
Act 1861, s. 31), whereby
may be caused even to a
icrs can be prevented only
heir activities; and it is to
e Game Laws above stated
to be enforced by private
he police, with the result
of private nocturnal war.
rhich applies to highways,
1, occupiers or their game-
ly direct authority as to
Act 1862, under which a
xy, street or public place,
s good cause to suspect of
> been unlawfully in search
is or abetting such person,
nlawfully obtained, or any
for the killing or taking
lit or other conveyance in
ficer shall have good cause
:h article or thing, is being
ing be found the constable
linst the offender, summon-
onal court, on conviction
than £5, and forfeits the
in. In this act " game "
xl the eggs of game birds
o poaching either by night
tion for poaching an appeal
poaching the game, &c,
h tries the poacher,
within periods known as
game. The present dose
England.
None
None
None
None
Feb. 1 to Sept. 30
Feb. I to Aug. 31
Dec. 10 to Aug. 20 1
Dec. 10 to Aug. 12
None
March 1 to Sept. I
Ireland.
April 21 to Aug. 11 1
Jan. 1 to June 9
Sept. 20 to June 10
None
Feb. 1 to Sept. 30
(1845) A
Feb. 1 to Aug. 31
(1899)
Dec. 10 to Aug. 20
Dec. 10 to Aug. 12
Dec. 10 to Aug. 20
Jan. 10 to Sept. I
Scotland.
None
None
None
None
Feb. 1 to Sept. 30
Feb. I to Aug. 31
Dec. to to Aug. 20
Dec. 10 to Aug. 12
Dec. 10 to Aug. 12
None
1 Unless varied by order of lord-lieutenant.
Except in Devon, Somerset and New Forest, where to Sept. 1.
442
GAME LAWS
I
In England
may not be
■ell or expos
and July. 1
•ell winged
close season
This prohibi
and to the *
;amc or rabt
ircarmsat n
interest for i
Birds Proto
kingdom.
Licences. — Besides the restrictions on the right to take or kill game
which arise out of the law as to ownership or occupation of the lands
on which it is found, there are further restrictions imposed by the
laws of excise. From the time of Richard II. (1389) until 1831 the
right of persons other than gamekeepers properly deputed by the
lord of a manor to take game was made to depend on the social
rank of the person, or on the amount of his interest in land, which
ranged from a 40s. freehold (in 1389) to £100 a year (1671). These
restrictions were abolished in 1831, and the right to kill game was
bui
any,
take, kill or pursue, or aid or assist in any manner in the taking,
killing or pursuing, by any means whatever, or use any dog, gun,
net or other engine for the purpose of taking^ killing or pursuing any
came, or any woodcock, snipe, quail, landrail, or any coney, or any
deer, shall take out a proper licence to kill game under this act" —
subject to a penalty of £20. There are certain exceptions and
exemptions as to royal personages, royal gamekeepers, and with
reference to taking woodcock or snipe by nets or springes, by coursing
or hunting hares or deer, or killing deer, rabbits or hares (Hares
Acts 1848, Game Licences Act i860) in certain enclosed lands by
the owners or occupiers. A licence is not required for beaters and
assistants who go out with holders of a game licence. The licence
is granted by the Inland Revenue Department. The issue is regu-
lated by the Game Licences Act i860 as amended by the Customs
and Inland Revenue Act 1883. The licences now. in use are of four
loads: —
Those taken out after 31st July—
To expire on the next 31st Jury £300
To expire on the next 31st October . « . . 2 O o
Those taken out after 1st November —
To expire on the next 31st July . . . 300
Those taken out for any continuous period of four-
teen days specified in the licence 100
In the case of gamekeepers in Great Britain for whom the employer
iys the duty on male servants, the annual licence fee is £2,
but the licence extends only to lands on which the employer has a
right to kill game. A licence granted to a person in his own right
and not as gamekeeper or servant is effective throughout the United
Kingdom. The game licence does not authorize trespass on the lands
of others in search of game nor the shooting of game, Ac, at night,
and is forfeited on a conviction of game trespass (1831, s. 30: i860,
a. 1 1 ). Persons who have game licences need not nave a gun licence,
but the possession of a gun licence docs not qualify the holder to kill
game or even rabbits.
The sale of game when killed b also subject to statutory regulation.
Gamekeepers may not sell game except under the authority of their
employer (1831, as. 17, 25). Persons who hold a full game licence
may sell game, but only to persons who hold a licence to deal in game.
These licences are annual (expiring on the istof July), and are granted
in London by justices of the peace, and in the rest of England by
the council of the borough or urban or rural district in which the
dealer seeks to carry on business (1831, s. 18; 1893, c. 73, s. 27),
and a notice of the existence of the licence must be posted on the
licensed premises. A licence must be taken out for each shop.
The following persons are disqualified for holding the licence: inn-
keepers, persons holding licences to sell intoxicants, owners, guards
or drivers of mail-carts, stagecoaches or public conveyances, carriers
and higglers (1831, s. 18). This enactment interferes with the grant
of game licences to large stores which aho have licences to sell beer.
The licensed dealer may buy British game only from persons who
are lawfully entitled to sell game. Conviction of an offence under the
Game Act 1631 avoids the licence (s. 22). The local licence must
also be supplemented by an excise licence for which a fee of £2 is
charged. Licensed dealers in game are prohibited from selling game
killed in the United Kingdom from the tenth day after the beginning
of dose time to the end of that period. The provisions above stated
under the act of 1831 applied only to England, but were in i860
extended to the rest of the United Kingdom, and were- In 1893
applied to dealers in game imported from abroad. The main effect
of the system of licences is to prevent the disposal of game by
poachers rather than to benefit the revenue.
Detr. — Deer are not included within the definition of game in
any of the English game laws. Deer-stealing was very seriously
punished by the old law, and under an act 01 9 George I. c 22,
depredations
inder certain
offences with
It is a felony
milieus, or in
previous coo-
cat, Ac, and
ers, forfeiture
ting traps for
kilunc 00 his
Smith, 1901,
b punished a*
ly in the eggs
p. But under
s incurred by
licence from,
from the nest
' a swan, wild
and under an
1862 (United
ons suspected
ts, partridges,
Vets deal* itb
lands has not
cring damage
; may not .kill
or for breach
nmon law the
orting right t,
:s reasonably,
arily done to
own standing
ectly liable to
rd on the land
re not entitled
mc or rabbits
sised on land,
»r the damage
rrtr v. Nelsn,
>3; Hilin v.
the occupiers
t. As regards
y the Ground
ne interests of
al and labour
t the occupier
>ation has the
The right is
the owner or
its to another,
on the land is
on has a right
to take hares
common lands
i for not more
rer such lands
, and the law
lling or taking
1 the occupiers
he 1st of Sep-
for their joint
ie Agricultural
b, with damage
ply to damage
I is entitled to
r acre over the
- take which b
lim other thea
1 in writing to
Km is. a;. 1 ne ngnc 01 cm cenaoi is wocieaaiMC aad canaot bf
GAMES, CLASSICAL
443
contracted away. Disputes as to amount are to be settled by
arbitration; but claims to be effectual must be made as to growing
crops before reaping, raising or feeding off, and as to cut crops before
carrying. In the case of contracts of tenancy created before the 1st
of January 1909, allowances arc to be made if by their terms com-
pensation for damage by game is stipulated for, or an allowance of
an agreed amount for damage by game was expressly made in fixing
the rent. The compensation is payable by the landlord subject to
his right to be indemnified in cases where the sporting rights are not
vested in him.
Sporting Rights. — Sporting rights (*>. rights of fowling or of
shooting, or of taking or killing game or rabbits, or of fishing), when
severed from the occupation of land, are subject toincomcorproperty
tax, and to assessment for the purpose of local rates (Rating Act
1874) ; and in valuing land whether for rates or taxes the value of the
sporting rights is now an important and often the chief item of value
in beneficial occupation of the land. Where the sporting rights are
the landlord's, the rate thereon is paid in the first instance by the
tenant and deducted from his rent. Where the sporting right is
reserved and let,' the rating authority may rate cither the landlord
or the sporting tenant as occupier of the nght. The Ground Came
Acts have not affected the liability to assessment of concurrent rights
of killing hares and rabbits reserved by a landlord, or of a concurrent
right granted by the occupier (Ryde (2nd ed.>, 385-387). The owner-
ship of sporting rights severed from the ownership or occupation of
the land over which they arc exercisable is not an interest in land
giving the electoral franchise or a claim for compensation if the land
n taken under the Lands Clauses Consolidation Acts.
Scotland. — By the law of Scotland all men have right and privilege
of game on their own estates as a real right incident thereto, which
does not pass by an agricultural lease except by express words, or
in the case of ground game by the act of 1880. The landlord is
liable to the tenant for damage done to the surface of the lands in
exercise of his right to the game and also for extraordinary damage
by over-preserving or over-storking. Under an act of 1877 he was
liable for excessive damage done by rabbits or game reserved to or
retained under a lease granted after the 1st of January 1678, or
reserved by presumption of common law; this act from 1909 on-
wards is superseded by the provisions of the Agricultural Holdings
Act 1906. Night poaching is punished by the same act as in England,
and day poaching by an act of 1832 and the act of 1882. Until 1887
poaching by night under arms was a capital offence. The definition
of game in Scotland for purposes of night poaching is the same as
in England. The provisions of the act of 1832 as to game trespass
by day apply also to deer, roc, rabbits, woodcock, snipe, rails and
wild duck; but in other respects closely resemble those of the
English act of 1831.
Offences against the game laws arc not triable by justices of the
peace, but only in the sheriff court. The close time lor game birds in
Scotland is the same as in England, so far as dealing in them is
concerned, but differs slightly as to killing. Black game may not be
kilted between the 10th of December and the 2«h of August, nor
ptarmigan between the 10th of December and the 20th of August.
There is no close time for red, fallow or roe deer, or rabbits. By an
old Scots act of 1621 (omitted from the recent wholesale repeal of
such acts) no one may lawfully kill game in Scotland who does not
own a plough-gate of land except on the land of a person so qualified.
Ireland. — The common law as to game is the same for Ireland as
for England. The game laws of Ireland are contained partly in acts
passed prior to the union (1698, 1707, 1787 and 1797), partly in acts
limited to Ireland, and as to the rest in acts common to the whole
United Kingdom.
Under the act of 1698 no one may kill game in Ireland who has not
a freehold worth £40 a year or £1000 net personality, and elaborate
provisions are made by that and later acts against the keeping of
sporting dogs by persons not qualified by estate to kill game. British
officers anu soldiers in Ireland appear to have been much addicted
to poaching, and their activities were restrained by enactments of
1608 and 1707.
Night poaching in Ireland is dealt with by an act of 1826. Trespass
on lands in pursuit of game to which the landlord or lessor has by
reservation exclusive right is summarily punishable under an act
of 1864, which includes in the definition of game, woodcock, snipe,
quails, landrails, wild duck, widgeon and teal. Under the Land Act
1881 the landlord of a statutory holding may at the commencement
of the term subject to the Ground Game Acts retain and exercise the
exclusive right of taking " game " as above defined.
A game licence is not required for taking or killing rabbits. But
in other respects the law as to game licences, dog licences and licences
to deal in game is the same as in Great Britain.
British Possessions Abroad.— The English game laws have not
been carried to any colony as part of the personal law of the colonists,
nor have they been extended to them by imperial or colonial legisla-
tion. But the legislatures of many colonies have passed acts to
preserve or protect native or imported wild animals, and in some of
these statutes the protected animals are described as game. These
statutes are free from feudal prepossessions aa to sporting rights,
and are framed rather on the lines of the Wild Birds Protection Acta
than on the English game laws, but I n tome po sse ssi o ns, e.g. Quebec,
sporting leases by the crown are recognised. The acta since 1895
are indicated in the annual summary of colonial legislation furnished
in the Journal of the Society of Comparative Legislation,
See also Oke's Came Laws, 4th ed., by Willis Bund (1897) ; Warry,
Came Lavs of England (1897); Marchant and Wat kins, Wild Birds
Protection Act (1897). (W. F. C.)
GAMES, CLASSICAL. 1. Public Games.— The public games of
Greece (a?&»ts) and Rome (JLudi) consisted in athletic contests
and spectacles of various kinds, generally connected with and
forming part of a religious observance. Probably no institution
exercised a greater influence in moulding the national character,
and producing that unique type of physical and intellectual
beauty which we see reflected in Greek art and literature, than the
public contests of Greece (see Athlete; Athletic Sports).
For them each youth was trained in the gymnasium, they were
the central mart whither poet, artist and merchant each brought
his wares, and the common ground of union for every member of
the Hellenic race. It is to Greece, then, that we must look for the
earliest form and the fullest development of ancient games. The
shows of the Roman circus and amphitheatre were at best a
shadow, and in the later days of the empire a travesty, of the
Olympia and Pythia, and require only a cursory notice.
The earliest games of which we have any record are those at
the funeral of Patroclus, which form the subject of the twenty-
third Iliad. They are noteworthy as showing that <»_-»
Greek games were in their origin dearly connect* d with
religion; either, as here, a part of the funeral rites, or else
instituted in honour of a god, or as a thank-offering for a victory
gained or a calamity averted, or in expiation of some crime.
Each of the great contests was held near some shrine or sacred
place and is associated with some deity or mythic al hero. It was
not before the 4th century that this honour was paid to a living
man (see Plutarch, Ly sunder, 18). The games of the Iliad and
those of the Odyssey at the court of Alcinous are also of interest
as showing at what an early date the distinctive forms of Greek
athletics — boxing, wrestling, putting the weight, the foot and
the chariot race — were determined.
The Olympian games were the earliest, and to the last they
remained the most celebrated of the four national festivals.
Olympia was a naturally enclosed spot in the rich plain of Elis,
bounded on the N. by the rocky heights of Cronion, and on the S.
and W. by the Alpheus and its tributary the Cladeus. There was
the grove of Alt is, in which were ranged the statues of the
victorious athletes, and the temple of Olympian Zeus with the
chryselephantine statue of the god, the masterpiece of Pheidias.
There Heracles (so ran the legend which Pindar has introduced
in one of his finest odes), when he bad conquered Elis and slain its
king Augcas, consecrated a tcmenos and instituted games in
honour of his victory. A later legend, which probably embodies
historical fact, tells how, when Greece was torn by dissensions and
ravaged by pestilence, Iphitus inquired of the oracle for help,
and was bidden restore the games which had fallen into
desuetude; and there was in the time of Pausanias, suspended
in the temple of Hera at Olympia, a bronze disk whereon were
inscribed, with the regulations of the games, the names of
Iphitus and Lycurgus. From this we may safely infer that the
games were a primitive observance of the Eleians and Pisans, and
first acquired their celebrity from the powerful concurrence of
Sparta. The sacred armistice, or cessation of all hostilities,
during the month in which the games were held, is also credited
to Iphitus.
In 776 B.C. the Eleians engraved the name of their countryman
Coroebus as victor in the foot race, and thenceforward we have
an almost unbroken list of the victors in each succeeding Olympiad
or fourth recurrent year. For the next fifty years no names
occur but those of Eleians or their next neighbours. After 720
bx. we find Corinthians and Megarcans, and later still Athenians
and extra-Peloponnesians. Thus what at first was nothing more
than a village feast became a bond of union for all the branches of
the Doric race, and grew in time to be the high festival to which
every Greek gathered, from the mountain fastnesses of Thessaly
to the remotest colonies of Cyrene and Marseilles. It survived
even the extinction of Greek liberty, and had nearly completed
twelve centuries when it was abolished by the decree «f the
444
GAMES, CLASSICAL
Christian emperor Theodosius, in the tenth year of his reign.
The last Olympian victor was a Romanized Armenian named
Varastad.
Let us attempt to call up the scene which Olympia in its palmy
days must have presented as the great festival approached.
Heralds had proclaimed throughout Greece the " truce of God."
So religiously was this observed that the Spartans chose to risk
the liberties of Greece, when the Persians were at the gates of
Pylae, rather than march during the holy days. Those white
tents which stand out against the sombre grey of the olive groves
belong to the Hcllanodicae, or ten judges of the games, chosen
one for each tribe of the Eleians. They have been here already
ten months, receiving instruction in their duties. All, too, or
most of the athletes must have arrived, for they have been
undergoing the indispensable training in the gymnasium of the
Allis. But along the " holy road " from the town of Elis there
arc crowding a motley throng. Conspicuous in the long train of
pleasure-seekers are the Bttapol or sacred deputies, clad in their
robes of office, and bearing with them in their carriages of state
offerings to the shrine of the god. Nor is there any lack of
distinguished visitors. It may be Alcibiades, who, they say, has
entered no less than seven chariots; or Gorgias, who has written
a famous fri£<t£if for the occasion; or the sophist Hippias,
who boasts that all he bears about him, from the sandals on his
feet to the dithyrambs he carries in his hand, arc his own manu-
facture; or Aetion, who will exhibit his picture of the Marriage
of Alexander and Roxana — the picture which gained him no less
a prize than the daughter of the Hellanodiccs Praxonidcs; or, in
an earlier age, the poet-laureate of the Olympians, Pindar him-
self. One feature of the medieval tournament and the modern
racecourse is wanting. Women might indeed compete and win
prizes as the owners of teams, but all except the priestesses of
Pemcter were forbidden, matrons on pain of death, to enter the
enclosure.
At daybreak the athletes presented themselves in the Boulcu-
terium, where the presidents were silling, and proved by witnesses
that they were of pure Hellenic descent, and had no stain,
religious or civil, on their character. Laying their hands on the
bleeding victim, they swore that they had duly qualified them-
selves by ten months' continuous training in the gymnasium, and
that they would use no fraud or guile in the sacred contests.
Thence they proceeded to the stadium, where they stripped to
the skin and anointed themselves. A herald proclaimed, " Let
the runners put their feet to the line," and called on the spectators
to challenge any disqualified by blood or character. If no
objection was made, they were started by the note of the
trumpet, running in heats of four, ranged in the places assigned
them by lot. The presidents seated near the goal adjudged the
victory. The foot-race was only one of twenty-four Olympian
contests which Pausanias enumerates, though we must not
suppose that these were all exhibited at any one festival. Till the
77th Olympiad all was concluded in one day, but afterwards the
feast was extended to five.
The order of the games is for the most part a matter of conjecture,
but, roughly speaking, the historical order of their institution was
followed. We will now describe in this order the most important.
(1) The Foot-race. — For the first 13 Olympiads the Wm«, or
single lap of the stadium, which was 200 yds. long, was the only
contest. The UavXot, in which the course was traversed twice,
was added in the 14th Olympiad, and in the 15th the 66\ixot, or
long race, of 7, 12 or< according to the highest computation, 24 laps,
about 2{ m. in length. We are told that the Spartan Ladas, after
winning this race, dropped down dead at the goal. There was also,
for a snort time, a race in heavy armour, which Plato highly com-
mends as a preparation for active service. (2) Wrestling was intro-
duced in the 18th Olympiad. The importance attached to this
exercise is shown by the very word palaestra, and Plutarch calls it
the most artistic and cunning of athletic games. The practice
differed little from that of modern times, save that the wrestler's
limbs were anointed with oil and sprinkled with sand. The third
throw, which decided the victory, passed into a proverb, and strug-
gling on the ground, such as wo see in the famous statue at Florence.
was not allowed, at least at the Olympia. (3) In the same year was
Introduced therirrafaor (pentathlon), a combination of the five Karnes
eaamermfdin the well-koown pcnUmeter ascribed to Simonklev.—
M*s, wivtotip, 4fa»r, Inns, wto*.
Only the first of these calls for any comment. The only leap practised
seems to have been the long jump. The leapcrs increased their
momentum by means of dXrqpcs or dumb-bells, which they swung
in the act of leaping and dropped as they " took off." The take-off
may have been slightly raised, and some commentators with very
little warrant have stated that spring-boards were used. The record
jump with which Phayllus of Croton is credited, 55 ft., is incredible
with or without a spring-board. It is disputed whether a victory in
all five contests, or in three at least, was required to win the virraAs*.
(4) The rules lor boxing were not unlike those of the modern ring
(see Pugilism), and the chief difference was in the use of the caestus.
This in Greek times consisted of leather thongs bound round the
boxer's fists and wrists; and the weighting with lead or iron or metal
studs, which made the cacstus more like a " knuckle-duster " than
a boxing-glove, was a later Roman development. The death of an
antagonist, unless proved to be accidental, not only disqualified for a
prize but was severely punished . The use of car-guards a nd the comic
allusions to broken ears, not noses, suggest that the Greek boxer
did not hit out straight from the shoulder, but fought windmill
fashion, like the modern rustic. In the pancratium, .1 combination of
wrestling and boxing, the use of the caeslus, and even of the clenched
fist, was disallowed. («j) The chariot-race had its origin in the 23rd
Olympiad. Of the hippodrome, or racecourse, no traces remain,
but from the description of Pausanias we may infer that the dimen-
sions were approximately 1600 ft. by 400. Down the centre there
ran a bank of earth, and at each end of this bank was a turning-pott
round which the chariots had to pass. " To shun the goal with rapid
wheels " required both nerve and skill, and the charioteer played a
more important part in the race than even the modern jockey.
Pausanias tells us that horses would shy as they passed t he fatal spots.
The places of the chariots were determined by lot, ami there were
elaborate arrangements for giving all a fair start. The number of
chariots that might appear on the course at once is uncertain.
Pindar (Pyth. v. 46) praises Arcesilaus of Cyrcnc for having brought
off his chariot uninjured in a contest where no fewer than forty took
part. The large outlay involved excluded all but rich competitors,
and even kings and tyrants eagerly contested the palm. Thus in
the list of victors we find the names of Cylon, the would 4* tyrant
of Athens, Pausanias the Spartan king, Archclaus of Macedon, Gelon
and Hiero of Syracuse, and Thcron of Agrigcntum. Chariot -races
with mules, with mares, with two hordes in place of four, were
successively introduced, but none of these present any specul
interest. Races on horseback date from the 33rd Olympiad. As the
course was the same, success must have dc|>ended on skill as much
as on swiftness. Lastly, there were athletic contests of the same
description for boys, anil a competition of heralds and trumpeters,
introduced in the 93rd Olympiad.
The prizes were at first, as in the Homeric times, of some intrinsic
value, but after the 6th Olympiad the only prize for each contest
was a garland of wild olive, which was cut with a golden sickle from
the kaTlislcphanoH, the sacred tree brought by Hercules "from the
dark fountains of Istcr in the land of the Hyperboreans, to be a
shelter common to all men and a crown of noble deeds " (Pindar,
01. iii. 18). Greek writers from Herodotus to Plutarch dwell with
complacency on the magnanimity of a people who cared for nothing
hut honour and were content to struggle for a corruptible croun.
But though the Greek games present in this respect a favourable
contrast to the greed and gambling of the modern racecourse, yet
to represent men like Milon and Damoxenus as act uatcd by pure love
of glory is a pleasing fiction of the moralists. The successful athlete
rcccivccl in addition to the immediate honours very substantial
rewards. A herald proclaimed his name, his j>arcntage and bis
country: the Hcllanodicae took from a table of ivory and gold the
olive crown and placed it on his head, and in his hand a branch trf
palm ; as he marched in the sacred revel to the temple of Zeus, his
friends and admirers showered in his path flowers and costly gifts,
singing the old song of Archilochus, rfivtWa KaXXlruc, and his name
was canonized in the Greek calendar. Fresh honours and rewards
awaited him on his return home. If he was an Athenian he received,
according to the law of Solon, 500 drachmae, and free rations for
life in the Prytaneum; if a Spartan, he had as his prerogative the
post of honour in battle. Poets like Pindar, Simonidcs and buripidc*
sung his praises, and sculptors like Pheidias and Praxiteles were
engaged by the state to carve his statue. We even read of a breach
in the town walls being made to admit him, as if the common road
were not good enough for such a hero; and there are well-attested
instances of altars being built and sacrifices offered to a successful
athlete. No wonder then that an Olympian prize was regarded
as the crown of human happiness. Cicero, with a Roman's contempt
for Greek frivolity, observes with a sneer that an Olympian victur
receives more honour* than a triumphant general at Rome, and till*
the story of the Rhodian Di agora*, who, having himself won the
prize at Olympia, and seen his two sons crowned on the same day,
was addressed by a Laconian in these words:—" Die, Diagoras,
for thou hast nothing short of divinity to desire." ( AkiUadei,
when setting forth his services to the state, nuts first his victory at
Olympia, and the prestige he had won for Athens by his magnificent
display. But perhaps the most remarkable evidence of the exag-
gerated vaVit wVndv \Y« GrotUa attached to athletic prowess is a
casaa\ cupest** ^VwriK TW>jojko*» «w^% ^Vka *««*&»■***
GAMES, CLASSICAL
445
enthusiastic reception of Brasidas at Scione. The state, he says,
voted him a crown of gold, and the multitude flocked round him and
decked him with garlands, as though he were an athlete.
The Pythian games originated in a local festival held at
Delphi, anciently called Pylho, in honour of the Pythian Apollo,
and were limited to musical competitions. The date at which
they became a Panhcllenic &.yu* (so Demosthenes calls them)
cannot be determined, but the Pythiads as a chronological era
date from 527 B.C., by which time music had been added to all the
Panhellenk contests. Now, too, these were held at the end of
every fourth year; previously there had been an interval of
eight years. The Amphictyones presided and the prise was a
duplet of laurel.
The Neman games were biennial and date from 516 B.C.
They were by origin an Argivc festival in honour of Nemean
Zens, but in historical times were open to all Greece and
provided the established round of contests, except that no
mention is made of a chariot-race. A wreath of wild celery was
the prise.
The Isthmian games* held on the Isthmus of Corinth in the
first and third year of each Olympiad, date, according to Eusebius,
from 523 B.C. They are variously reported to have been founded
by Poseidon or Sisyphus in honour of Mclicertes, or by Theseus
to celebrate his victory over the robbers Sinis and Sciroo, Their
early importance is attested by the law of Solon which bestowed
a reward of 100 drachmae on every Athenian who gained a
victory. The festival was managed by the Corinthians; and
after the city was destroyed by Mummius (146 B.C.) the presidency
passed to the Sicyonians until Julius Caesar rebuilt Corinth
(46 B.C.). They probably continued to exist till Christianity
became the religion of the Roman empire. The Athenians were
closely connected with the festival, and had the privilege of
proedria, the foremost seat at the games, while the Eleans were
absolutely excluded from participation. The games included
gymnastic, equestrian and musical contests, differing little from
those of the other great festivals, and the prize was a crown made
at one time of parsley (more probably wild celery), at a later
period of pine. The importance of the Isthmian games in later
times is shown by the fact that Flamininus chose the occasion
for proclaiming the liberation of Greece, 106 B.C. That at a
later anniversary (a.d. 67) Nero repeated the proclamation of
Flamininus, and coupled with it the announcement of his own
infamous victory at Olympia, shows alike the hoUowness of
the first gift and the degradation which bad befallen the Greek
games, the last faint relic of Greek nationality.
The Ludi Public* of the Romans included feasts and
theatrical exhibitions as well as the public games with
Rowma wmcn a * one wc are concerned. As in Greece, they
were intimately connected with religion. At the
beginning of each civil year it was the duty of the consuls
to vow to the gods games for the safety of the commonwealth,
and the expenses were defrayed by the treasury. Thus,
at no cost to themselves, the Roman public were enabled to
indulge at the same time their religious feelings and their love of
amusement. Their taste for games naturally grew till it became
a passion, and under the empire games were looked upon by
the mob as one of the two necessaries of life. The acdiles who
succeeded to this duty of the consuls were expected to supplement
the state allowance from their private purse. Political adven-
turers were not slow to discover so ready a road to popularity, and
what at first had been exclusively a state charge devolved upon
men of wealth and ambition. A victory over some barbarian
horde or the death of a relation served as the pretext for a
magnificent display. But the worst extravagance of private
citizens was eclipsed by the reckless prodigality of the Caesars,
who squandered the revenues of whole provinces in catering for
the mob of idle sightseers on whose favour their throne de-
pended. But though public games played as important a part in
Roman as in Greek history, and must be studied by the Roman
historian as an integral factor in social and political life, yet,
regarded solely as exhibitions, they are comparatively devoid of
interest, and we sympathize with Pliny, who asks his friend how
any man of sense can go day after day to view the same dreary
round of fights and races.
It is easy to explain the different feelings which the games
of Greece and of Rome excite. The Greeks at their best were
actors, the Romans from first to last were spectators. It is true
that even in Greek games the professional element played a large
and ever-increasing part. As early as the 6th century B.C.
Xenophanes complains that the wrestler's strength is preferred to
the wisdom of the philosopher, and Euripides, in a well-known
fragment, holds up to scorn the brawny swaggering athlete.
But what in Greece was a perversion and acknowledged to be
such, the Romans not only practised but held up as their ideal.
No Greek, however high in birth, was ashamed to compete in
person for the Olympic crown. The Roman, though little inferior
in gymnastic exercises, kept strictly to the privacy of the
palaestra; and for a patrician to appear in public as a charioteer
is stigmatized by the satirist as a mark of shameless effrontery.
Roman games are generally classified as fixed, extraordinary
and votive; but they may be more conveniently grouped accord-
ing to the place where they were held, vis. the circus or the
amphitheatre.
For the Roman world the circus was at once a political club, a
fashionable lounge, a rendezvous of gallantry, a betting ring,
and a playground for the million. Juvenal, speaking loosely, says
that in his day it held the whole of Rome; but there is no reason
to doubt the precise statement of P. Victor, that in the Circus
Maximus there were seats for 350,000 spectators.
Of the various Ludi Circenses it may be enough here to give a
short account of the most important, the Ludi Magui or Maximi.
Initiated according to legend by Tarquinius Priscus, the Ludi
Magni were originally a votive feast to Capitoline Jupiter, promised
by the general when he took the field, ana performed on hw return
from the annual campaign. They thus presented the appearance of
a military spectacle, or rather a review of the whole burgess force,
which marched 4n solemn procession from the capitol to the forum
and thence to the circus, which lay between the Palatine and Aven-
tine. First came the sons of patricians mounted on horseback,
next the rest of the burghers ranged according to their military
classes, after them the athletes, naked save for the girdle round
their loins, then the company of dancers with the harp and flute
players, next the priestly colleges bearing censers and other sacred
instruments, and lastly the simulacra of the gods, carried aloft on
their shoulders or drawn in cars. The games themselves were four-
fold >— (1) the chariot race; (2) the Indus Troiae; (3) the military
review; and (4) gymnastic contests. Of these only the first two call
for any comment. (1) The chariot employed in the circus was the
two-wheeled war car, at first drawn by two, afterwards by four, and
more rarely "by three horses. Originally only two chariots started
for the prize, but under Caligula we read of as many as twenty-four
heats run in the day, each of four chariots* The distance traversed
was fourteen times the length of the circus or nearly 5 m. The
charioteers were apparently from the first professionals, though
the stigma under which the gladiator lay never attached to their
calling. Indeed a successful driver may compare in popularity and
he drivers were divided into
•s of their tunics, whence arose
ed such importance under the
there were two factions, the
een and the blue, were added
imc in Domitian's reign there
Even in Juvenal's day party
e green was looked upon as a
npire had been transferred to
cirrus were made the basis of
ulted in sanguinary tumults,
53i), in which 30,000 citizens
was a sham-fight on horseback
jtbs. A spirited description of
see also Ciacus.)
t notice, though occasionally
roperly to the amphitheatre,
ils who were pitted either with
one another or with men— cannves, criminals or trained hunters
called bestiarii. ' The first certain instance on record of this amuse-
ment is in 186 B.C., when M. Fulvius exhibited lions and tigers in
the arena. The taste for these brutalizing spectacles grew apace,
and the most distant provinces were ransacked by generals and
proconsuls to supply the arena with rare animals— giraffes, tigers
and crocodiles. Sulla provided for a single show 100 lions, and
Pompey 600 lions, besides elephants, which were matched with
Gactulian hunters. Julius Caesar enjoys the doubtful honour of
inventing the bull-fight. At the inauguration of the Colosseum
5000 wild and 4000 tame beasts were killed, and to commemorate
4+6
GAMING AND WAGERING
Trajan's Dacian victories there was a butchery of i 1.000 beasts.
The naumackia was a sea-fight, either in the arena, which was
flooded for the occasion by a system of pipes and sluices, or on an
artificial lake. The rival fleets were manned by prisoners of war
or criminals, who often fought till one side was exterminated. In
the sea-fight on Lake Fucinus, arranged by the emperor Claudius,
100 ships and 19,000 men were engaged.
But the special exhibition of the amphitheatre was the munus
Hediatorium, which dates from the funeral games of Marcus and
Decimus Brutus, given in honour of their father, 264 B.C. It was
probably borrowed from Etruria, and a refinement on the common
savage custom of slaughtering slaves or captives on the grave of a
warrior or chieftain. Nothing so clearly brings before us the vein
of coarseness and inhumanity which runs through the otherwise
noble character of the Roman, as his passion for gladiatorial shows.
We can fancy how Pericles, or even Alcibiadcs, would have loathed
a spectacle that Augustus tolerated and Traian patronized. Only
after the conquest of Greece we hear of their introduction into
Athens, and they were then admitted rather out of compliment to
the conquerors than from any love of the sport. In spite of numerous
prohibitions from Constantine downwards, they continued to
nourish even as late as St Augustine. To a Christian martyr, if we
may credit the story told by Thcodorct and Cassiodorus. belongs the
honour of their final abolition. In the year 404 Telemachus, a
monk who had travelled from the East on this sacred mission,
rushed into the arena and endeavoured to separate the combatants.
He was instantly despatched by the praetor's orders; but Honorius,
on hearing the report, issued an edict abolishing the games, which
were never afterwards revived. (See Gladiators.)
Of the other Roman games the briefest description must suffice.
The Ludi Apollinares were established in 212 B.C., and were annual
after 211 B.C.; mainly theatrical performances. The Metalenses
wore in honour of the great goddess, Cybele; instituted 204 B.c,
and from rot B.C. celebrated annually. A procession of Galli, or
priests of Cybele, was a leading feature. Under the empire the
festival assumed a more orgiastic character. Four of Terence's
plays were produced at these games. The Ludi Saecutares were
celebrated at the beginning or end of each saeculum,* period variously
interpreted by the Romans themselves as 100 or 1 10 years. The
celebration by Augustus in 17 B.C. is famous by reason of the Ode
composed by Horace for the occasion. They were solemnised by
the emperor Philip A.D. 248- to commemorate the millennium of the
city.
2. Private Games. — These may be classified as outdoor and
indoor games. There is naturally all the world over a much
closer resemblance between the pursuits and amusements of
children than of adults. Homer's children built castles in the
sand, and Greek and Roman children alike had their dolls, their
hoops, their skipping-ropes, their hobby-horses, their kites,
their knuckle-bones and played at hopscotch, the tug-of-war,
pitch and toss, blind-man's buff, hide and seek, and kiss in
the ring or at closely analogous games. Games of ball were
popular in Greece from the days of Nausicaa, and at Rome there
were five distinct kinds of ball and more ways of playing with
them. For particulars the dictionary of antiquities most be
consulted. It is strange that we can find in classical literature no
analogy to cricket, tennis, golf or polo, and though the foUis
resembled our football, it was played with the hand and arm, not
with the leg. Cock-fighting was popular both at Athens and
Rome, and quails were kept and put to various tests to prove
their pluck.
Under indoor games we may distinguish games of chance and
games of skill, though in some of them the two elements are
combined. Tesserae, shaped and marked with pips like modern
dice, were evolved from the tali, knuckle-bones with only four
flat sides. The old Roman threw a hazard and called a main,
just as did Charles Fox, and the vice of gambling was lashed by
Juvenal no less vigorously than by Pope. The Latin name for a
dice-box has survived in ihtfritUlary butterfly and flower.
The primitive game of guessing the number of fingers simul-
taneously held up by the player and his opponent is still popular
in Italy where it is known as " morra." The proverbial phrase
for an honest man was quicum in tenebris mikes, one you
would trust to play at morra in the dark.
Athena found the suitors of Penelope seated on cowhides and
playing at mraool, some kind of draughts. The invention of the
game was ascribed to Palamcdes. In its earliest form it was
played on a board with five lines and with five pieces. Later we
find eleven lines, and a further development was the division of
the board into squares, as in the game of xoXos (dties). In the
Roman lalruiituli (soldiers), the men were distinguished at
common soldiers and " rovers," the equivalent of crowned pieces.
Duodecim scripta, as the name implies, was played on a board
with twelve double lines and approximated very closely to our
backgammon. There were fifteen pieces on each side, and the
moves were determined by a throw of the dice; " blots " might be
taken, and the object of the player was to clear off all his own men.
Lastly must be mentioned the Cottabus (q.i.), a game peculiar to
the Greeks, and with them the usual accompaniment of a wine
party. In its simplest form each guest threw what was left in his
cup into a metal basin, and the success of the throw, determined
partly by the sound of the wine in failing, was reckoned a divina-
tion of love. For the various elaborations of the game (in Sicily
we read of Cottabus bouses), Athenaeus and Pollux must be con-
sulted.
Bibliography.— Daremberg et Saglio, Di cti o nn a i re des am*
tiqnitis trecques et romaines, articles " Agon." " Athleta," " Circus,"
"Ludi," ,, 0^yrapia, ,, "Spiele"; Curdus and Adler, (XymPia (5
vols.. 1890, Ac.); Hachtmann, (Hympia und seine Fesupiek:
BlQmner, Home Life of the Ancient Creeks; J P. Mahaffv, OU
Creek Education; P. Gardner and F. B. Jevons, Manual •/Greek
Antiquities; E. N. Gardiner, Creek Athletic Sports (1910); Becker.
Marquardt, Handbuck der rdmucken AlterULmer (5 vols.). (F. S.)
GAMING AND WAGERING. It is somewhat difficult exactly
to define or adequately to distinguish these terms of allied
meaning. The word " game " (q.t.) is applicable to most pastimes
and many sports, irrespective of their lawful or unlawful
character. " Gaming " is now always associated with the
staking of money or money's worth on the result of a game of
pure chance, or mixed skill and chance; and " gambling " has
the same meaning, with a suggestion that the stakes are excessive
or the practice otherwise reprehensible, while M wager " and
" wagering " are applied to money hazarded on any contingency
in which the person wagering has no interest at risk other than
the amount at stake. " Betting " is usually restricted to wagers
on events connected with sports or games, and " lottery " applies
to speculation to obtain prizes by lot or chance.'
At English common law no games were unlawful and no
penalties were incurred by gambling, nor by keeping gaming-
houses, unless by reason of disorder they became a pnblie
nuisance. From very early times, however, the English statute
law has attempted to exercise control over the sports, pastimes
and amusements of the lieges. Several points of view have been
taken: (1) their competition with military exercises and training;
(2) their attraction to workmen and servants, as drawing them
from work to play; (3) their interference with the observance of
Sunday; (4) their combination with betting or gambling at
causing Impoverishment and dishonesty in children, servants and
other unwary persons; (5) the use of fraud or deceit in connexion
with them. The legislation has assumed several forms: (1)
declaring certain games unlawful either absolutely or if accom-
panied by staking or betting money or money's worth on the event
of the game; (a) declaring the keeping of establishments for
betting, gaming or lotteries illegal, or prohibiting the use of
streets or public places for such purposes; (3) prohibiting the
enforcement in courts of justice of gambling contracts.
The earliest English legislation against games was passed in the
interests of archery and other manly sports which were believed to
render the lieges more fit for service in war. A statute «*,„„
of Richard II. (1388) directed servants and labourers XnHuTmnd
to have bows and arrows and to use them on Sundays MtJ „ ^
and holidays, and to cease from playing football, quoits,
dice, putting the stone, kails and other such importune games.
A more drastic statute was passed in 1409 (1 1 Hen. IV. c
4) and penalties were imposed in 1477 (17 Edw. IV. e. 3) 00
persons allowing unlawful games to be played on their premises.
These acts were superseded in 1541 (33 Hen. VIII. c. 9) by a statute
r „, w „by«
passed on the petition of the bowycrs, fletchcrs (fiUkters), stringers
and arrowhead makers of the realm. This act (still partly in force)
is entitled an " act for maintenance of archery and debarring of
unlawful games"; and it recites that, since the last statutes (of
3 & 6 Hen. VIII.) " divers and many subtil inventative and crafty
persons have found and daily find many and sundry new and crafty
games and plays, as logating in the fields, slide-thrift, otherwise
called shove-groat, as well within the city of London as elsewhere
in many other and divers parts of this realm, keeping houses, plays
and alleys for the maintenance thereof, by reason whereof archery is
sore decayed, and daily is like to be more minished, and divers
GAMING AND WAGERING
447
raas
mat
bowyen and fletchers, for lack of work, pone and inhabit themselves
in Scotland and other places out of this realm, there working and
teaching their science, to the puissance of the same, to the great com-
fort of strangers and detriment of this realm." Accordingly penalties
are iraposedon all persons keeping houses for unlawful games, and
all persons resorting thereto (». 8). The games specified are dicing,
table (backgammon) or carding, or any game prohibited by any
statute theretofore made or any unlawful new game then or thereafter
invented or to be invented. It is further provided that " no manner
of artificer or craftsman of any handicraft or occupation, husband-
man, apprentice, labourer, servant at husbandry, journeyman or
servant of artificer, mariners, fishermen, watermen, or any serving
man, shall play at the tables, tennis, dice, cards, bowls, clash,
coyting, togatine or any other unlawful game out of Christ!
under the pain of xxs. to be forfeit for every time; and in Christ i
to play at any of the said games in their masters' houses or in their
masters 1 presence; and also that no manner of person shall at any
time play at any bowl or bowls in open places out of his garden or
orchard ' (s. n). The social evils of gambling (impoverishment,
crime, neglect of divine service) are incidentally alluded to in the
preamble, but only in connexion with the main purpose of the statute
— the maintenance of archery. No distinction is made between
games of skill and games of chance, and no reference is made to play-
ing for money or money's worth. The Book of Sports of James I.
(1617), republished by Charles I. (1633), was aimed at encouraging
certain sports on Sundays and holidays; but with the growth of
Puritanism the royal efforts failed. The Sunday Observance Act
1625 prohibits the meeting of people out of their own parishes on the
Lord s Day for any sports or pastimes whatsoever. It has been
attempted to enforce this act against Sunday football. The act
goes on to prohibit any bear-baiting, bull-baiting, interludes,
common plays or other unlawful exercises or plays on Sunday by
parishioners within their own parishes. According to Blackstone
(iv. Comm. c. 13) the principal ground of complaint leading to
legislation in the 18th century was " gambling in high life." He
collects the statutes made with this view, but only those still in
force need have been mentioned.
The first act directed against gambling as distinct from playing
games was that of 1665 (16 Car. II. c 7) "against deceitful, dis-
orderly and excessive gaming " which deals with games both of
skill and chance at which people cheat, or play otherwise than with
ready money, or lose more than £100 on credit. In 1698 (13 Will.
III. c 23) legislation was passed against lotteries, therein described
as " mischievous and unlawful games." This act was amended in
17 10 (9 Anne c 6), and in the same year was paused a statute which
is the beginning of the modern legislation against gambling (0 Anne
c. 19). It includes within its scope money won by " gaming or
playing " at cards, &c, and money won by betting " on the sides
or hands of those who game at any of the forbidden games. But it
refers to tennis and bowls as well as to games with cards and dice.
The following list of lawful games, sports and exercises is given in
Otipkant 0% Horses, &c. (6th ed.) : horse-races, steeplechases, trotting
matches, coursing matches, foot-races, boat-races, regattas, rowing
matches, golf, wrestling matches, cricket, tennis, fives, rackets,
bowls, skittles, quoits, curling, putting the stone, football, and
presumably every bona-fide variety, e.g. croquet, knurr and spell,
hockey or any similar games. Cock-fighting is said to have been
unlawful at common law, and that and other modes of setting animals
to fight are offences against the Prevention of Cruelty-to Animals
Acts. The following are also lawful games: whist ana other lawful
games at cards, backgammon, bagatelle, billiards, chess, draughts
and dominoes. But to allow persons to play for money at these
{[ames or at skittles or " skittle pool " or puff and dart " on
icensed premises is gaming within the Licensing Act 1872. The
earlier acts declared unlawful the following games of skill: foot-
ball, quoits, putting the stone, kails, tennis, bowls, clash or kails, or
cloyshcayls, toga ting, half bowl, slide-thrift or shove-groat and
backgammon. Backgammon and other games in 1739 played with
backgammon tables were treated as lawful in that year. Horse-
racing, long under restriction, being mentioned in the act of 1665
and many 18th-century acts, was Tully legalised in 1840 (t & 4
Vict, c 35). The act of 1541. so far as it declared any game of mere
skill unlawful, was repealed by the Gaming Act 1845. Billiards is
legal in private houses or clubs and in public places duly licensed.
The following games have been declared by the statutes or the judges
to be unlawful, whether played in public or in private, unless played
in a royal palace where the sovereign is residing: ace of hearts,
pharaoh (faro), basset and hazard (1738), passage, and every game
then invented or to be invented with dice or with any other instru-
ment, engine or device in the nature of dice having one or more
figures or numbers thereon (1739), roulct or roly-poly (1744), and all
lotteries (except Art Union lotteries), rouge et noir, baccarat-banque
(1884), ekemin de fer (1895), and all games at cards which are not
games of mere skill. The definition of unlawful game does not in-
clude whist played for a prize not subscribed to by the players,
but it does include playing cards for money in licensed premises;
even in the private room of the licensee or with private friends
during closing hours.
The first attack on lotteries was in 1698, against lotteries " by
dice, lots, cards, balls or any other numbers or figures or in any other
way whatsoever. An act of 172 1 prohibited lotteries which under
the name of sales distributed prizes in money, advowsons, land,
jewels, &c, by lots, tickets, numbers or figures. Acts of 1722. 1733
and 1J23 prohibited any sale of tickets, receipts, chances or numbers
in foreign lotteries. The games of cards already referred to as un-
lawful were in 1738 declared to be " games or lotteries by cards or
dice," and in 1802 the definition of lottery was extended to include
" little-goes and any game or lottery not authorized by parliament,
drawn by dice, lots, cards, balls, or by numbers or figures or by any
other way, contrivance or device whatsoever." This wide definition
reaches raffles and sweepstakes on races. The advertisement of
foreign or illegal lotteries is forbidden by acts of 18x6 and 1844.
In 1846 art unions were exempted from the scope of the Lotteiy
ngland
t -office
ie Art
nts or
ned in
H.TS to
tions "
which
for the
Diners;
or by
[rom a
seems
sven if
gra
nei
not
ind
i mmoo
law punishable only if a public nuisance were created. The act of
1541 imposes penalties on persons maintaining houses for unlawful
games. Originally licences could be obtained for such houses, but
these were abolished in 1 £55 (2 & 3 Phil, and Mar.). In 1698 lotteries
were declared public nuisances, and in 1602 the same measure was
meted out to lotteries known as little-goes. Special penalties are
provided for those who set up lotteries or any unlawful game with
cards or dice, &c. (1738. «739i 1744)* In 1751 inhabitants of a
parish were enabled to insist on the prosecution of gamine-houses.
The act of 1802 imposed severe penalties on persons publicly or
privately keeping places for any lottery. This statute hits at the
deliberate or habitual use of a place for the prohibited purpose, and
does not touch isolated or incidental uses on a single occasion, e.g.
at a bazaar or show; but under an act of 1823 the sale of lottery
tickets is in itself an offence. The Gaming Act 1845 facilitates the
search of suspected gaming-houses and the proof that they arc such.
It provides that, to prove any house to be a common gaming-house,
it shall be sufficient to show that it is kept or used for playing
therein at any unlawful game, and that a bank is kept there by one
or more of the players exclusively of the others, or that the chances
of any game played therein arc not alike favourable to all the
players, including among the players the banker or other person by
whom the game is managed; or against whom the other players
stake, play or bet." Gambling, it will be noticed, is still in this
definition connected with some kind of game. The act also provides
that proof that the gaming was for money shall not be required,
and that the presence of cards, dice and other instruments of gaming
shall be prima-facie evidence that the house was used as a common
Eaming-house. The most recent statute dealing with gaming-
ouses is of 1834, which provides summary remedies against the
keeper and makes further provisions to facilitate conviction. It
may be added that the Gaming Act 1845 makes winning money by
cheating at any game or wager punishable in the same way as
obtaining money by false pretences. At the present time proceedings
for keeping gaming-houses in the sense in which that word is com-
monly understood arc comparatively rare, and are usually against
foreigners. The statutes hit both public and private gaming-houses
(see the Park Club case, Jenks v. Tvrpin, 1884, 13 Q.B7D. 505,
the leading case on unlawful games). The proprietor and the person
who keeps the bank at an unlawful game are both within the statute:
the players are not, but the act of Henry VIII. is so far alive that
they can be put under recognizance not to frequent gaming-houses,
Under the Licensing Act 1872 penalties are incurred by licensed
victuallers who suffer any gaming or unlawful game to be played
on their premises. A single instance of playing an unlawful game
for money in a private house is not within the statutes (R. v. Davits,
1897. 2 Q.B. 199).
In England, so far as the general public is concerned, gaming at
cards is to a large extent superseded by betting on sports and pas-
times, or speculation by means of lotteries or like devices. The
legislation against betting to nomine began in 1853. In the Betting
Act 1853 it is. described as a kind of gaming of late sprung up to the
injury and demoralization of improvident persons by the opening of
places called betting houses and offices, and the receiving of money
tn advance by the owners or occupiers or their agents on promises
to pay money on events or horse races and like contingencies. This
act strikes at ready money betting as distinguished from betting on
credit (" on the nod "). It was avowedly framed to hit houses open
to all and sundry as distinguished from private betting clubs such as
TatteraaU's. Tut act sew* to vw&fo. \»m«* ^WW^ ^Vwasss^
448
GAMING AND WAGERING
office, room or other place for the purpose (inter alia) of any person
betting with persons " resorting thereto " or of receiving deposits
in consideration of bets on contingencies relating to horse-races or
other races, fights, games, sports or exercises. The act especially
excepts persons who receive or hold prizes or stakes to> be paid to
► the owner
ncurredby
ositors the
Bed persons
be Betting
le meaning
the- police
tivo in the
ingenuity
or evading
il decisions
The House
I ring on a
racecourse is not a " place " within the statute; and members of a
bona-fide club who bet with each other in the club arc not subject
to the penalties of the act. But the word " place " has been held
to include a public-house bar, an archway, a small plot of waste
ground, and a bookmaker's stand, and even a bookmaker's big
umbrella, and it is difficult to extract from the judges any clear
indication of the nature of the " places " to which the act applies.
The. act is construed as applying only to ready-money betting, i.e..
when the stake is deposited with the bookmaker, and only to places
used for betting with persons physically resorting thereto; so that
bets by letter, telegram or telephone do not fall within its penalties.
The arm of the law has been found long enough to punish as thieves
" welshers," who receive and make ou with deposits on bets which
they never mean to pay if they lose. The act of 1853 makes it an
offence to publish advertisements showing that a house is kept for
betting. It was supplemented in 1874 by an act imposing penalties
on persons advertising as to letting. But this has been read as
applying to bets falling within the act of 1853, and it does not
prohibit the publication of betting news or 6porting tips in news-
papers. A few newspapers do not publish these aids to ruin, and in
some public libraries the betting news is obliterated, as it attracts
crowds of undesirable readers. The act of 1853 has been to a great
extent effectual against betting houses, and has driven some of
them to Holland and other places. But it has been deemed ex-
pedient to legislate against betting in the streets, which has been
found too attractive to the British workman.
By the Metropolitan Streets Acts 1867 any three or more persons
assembled together in any part of any street in the city of London
~. or county of London for the purpose of netting and
222* deemed to be obstructing the street, may be arrested
9mum * without warrant by a constable and fined a sum not cx-
- . . . . "ghi , ...
any open place lo which the public have, or are permitted to have,
access, at or with any table or instrument of gaming, or any coin, card,
token or other article used as an instrument or means of gaming,
at any game or pretended game of chance, shall be deemed a rogue
and vagabond." This act amended a prior act of 1868, passed to
repress the practice of playing pitch and toss in the streets, which
had become a public nuisance in the colliery districts. The powers
of making by-laws for the peace, order and good government of
their districts, possessed by municipal boroughs — and since 1888
by county councils— and extended in 1899 to the new London
boroughs, have in certain cases been exercised by making by-laws
forbidding any person to " frequent or use any street or other public
place, on behalf either of himself or any other person, for the purpose
of bookmaking, or betting, or wagering, or agreeing to bet or wager
with any person, or paying, or receiving or settling bets." This and
similar by-laws have been held valid, but were found inadequate,
and by the Street Betting Act 1906 (6 Edw. VII. c 43), passed by the
efforts of the late Lord Davey, it is made an offence for any person
to frequent or loiter in a street or public place on behalf of himself
or of any other person for the purpose of bookmaking or betting or
wagering or agreeing to bet or wager or paying or receiving or settling
bets. The punishment for a first offence is fine up to £10, for a second
fine up to £20. and the punishment is still higher in the case of a third
or subsequent offence, or where the accused while committing the
offence has any betting transaction with a person under the age of
sixteen. The act does not apply to ground used for a course for
horse-racing or adjacent thereto on days on which races take place;
but the expression public place includes a public park, garden or
sea-beach, and any unenclosed ground to which the public for the
time have unrestricted access, and enclosed places other than public
parks or gardens to which the public have a restricted right of
access with or without payment, it the owners or persons controlling
the place exhibit conspicuously a notice prohibiting betting therein.
A constable may arrest without warrant persons offending and seize
all books, papers, cards and other articles relating to betting found
in their possession, and these articles may be forfeited on conviction.
Besides the above provision against betting with infants the Betting
and Loans (Infants) Act 1892, passed at the instance of the late
Lord Herschell, makes it a misdemeanour 10 send, with a view to
profit, to any one known by the sender to be an infant, a document
inviting him to enter into a betting or wagering transaction. The
act is intended to protect lads at school and college from temptation
by bookmakers.
Wc must now turn from the public law with respect to gaining
to the treatment of bets and wagers from the point of view of
their obligation on the individuals who lose them A ff . .
wager may be denned as " a promise to give money or M "
money's worth upon the determination or ascertainment of an
uncertain event " (Anson, Low of Contract, 1 1 th ed., p. 206). The
event may be uncertain because it has not happened or because
its happening is not ascertained; but to make the bargain a
wager the determination of the event must be the sole condition
of the bargain. According to the view taken in England of the
common law, bets or wagers were legally enforceable, subject to
certain rules dictated by considerations of public policy, eg.
that they did not lead to immorality or breach of the peace, or
expose a third person to ridicule. 1 The courts were constantly
called upon to enforce wagers and constantly exercised their
ingenuity to discover excuses for refusing. A writer on the law of
contracts* discovers here the origin of that principle of " public
policy " which plays so important a part in English law. Wager-
ing contracts were rejected because the contingencies on which
they depended tended to create interests hostile to the common
weal. A bet on the life of the emperor Napoleon was declared
void because it gave one of the parties an interest in keeping the
king's enemy alive, and also because it gave the other an interest
in compassing his death by unlawful means. A bet as to the
amount of the hop-duty was held to be against public policy,
because it tended to expose the condition of the king's revenue to
all the world. A bet between two hackney coachmen, as to which
of them should be selected by a gentleman for a particular
journey, was void because it tended to expose the customer to
their importunities. When no such subtlety could be invented,
the law, however reluctantly, was compelled to enforce the
fulfilment of a wager. Actions on wagers were not favoured by
the judges; and though a judge could not refuse to try such an
action, he could, and often did, postpone it until after the decision
of more important cases.
Parliament gradually intervened to confine the common law
within narrower limits, both in commercial and non-commercial
wagers, and both by general and temporary enactments. An
example of ihc latter was 7 Anne c. 16 (1 7 10), avoiding all wagers
and securities relating to the then war with France. The earliest
general enactment was 16 Car. II. c. 7 (1665), prohibiting the
recovery of a sum exceeding £100 lost in games or pastimes, or in
betting on the sides or hands of the players, and avoiding securities
for money so lost. 9 Anne c. 19 avoided securities for such wagers
for any amount, even in the hands of bona-fide holders for value
without notice, and enabled the loser of £10 or upwards to sue for
and recover the money he had lost within three months of the
loss. Contracts of insurance by way of gaming and wagering
were declared void, in the case of marine risks in 1746, and in the
case of other risks in 1774. It was not until 1845 that a general
rule was made excluding wagers from the courts. Section 18 of
the Gaming Act 1845 (passed after a parliamentary inquiry in
1844 as to gaming) enacted " that all contracts or agreements,
whether by parole or in writing, by way of gaming or wagering
shall be null and void, and that no suit shall be brought or main-
tained in any court of law or equity for recovering any sum of
money or valuable things alleged to be won upon any wager, or
which shall have been deposited in the hands of any person (o
abide the event on which any wager shall have been made;
provided always that this enactment shall not be deemed to apply
to any subscription or contribution, or agreement to subscribe or
contribute, for or towards any plate, prise or sum of money lo be
awarded to the winner or winners of any lawful game, sport,
pastime or exercise."
The construct ion put on this enactment enabled turf commission
1 Leake on Contracts (4th ed.). p. 529.
> Pollock, Contracts (7th ed.), p. 313.
GAMING AND WAGERING
4+9
agents to recover from their principals bets made and paid for
them. But the Gaming Act 1892 rendered null and void any
promise, express or implied, to repay to any person any sum of
money paid by him under, or in respect of, any contract or agree-
ment rendered null and void by the Gaming Act 1845, or to pay
any sum of money by way of commission, fee, reward, or other-
wise in respect of any such contract or agreement, or of any
services in relation thereto or in connexion therewith, and
provided that no action should be brought or maintained to
recover any such sum. By the combined effect of these two
enactments the recovery by the winner from the loser or stake-
holder of bets or of stakes on games falling within s. 18 of the
Gaming Act 1845 is absolutely barred; but persons who have
deposited money to abide the event of a wager are not debarred
from crying off and recovering their stake before the event is
decided, or even after the decision of the event and before the
stake is paid over to the winner; 1 and a man who pays a bet for a
friend, or a turf commission agent or other agent who pays a bet
for a principal, has now no legal means of recovering the money,
unless some actual deceit was used to induce him to pay in ignor-
ance that it was a bet. But a person who has received a bet on
account of another can still, it would seem, be compelled to pay
it over, and the business of a betting man is treated as so far
lawful that income-tax is charged on its profits, and actions
between parties in such a business for the taking of partnership
accounts have been entertained.
The effect of these enactments on speculative dealings in shares
or other commodities calls for special consideration. It seems to
be correct to define a wagering contract as one in which two
persons, having opposite opinions touching the issue of an event
(past or future), of which they are uncertain, mutually agree that
on the determination of the event one shall win, and the other
shall pay over a sum of money, or other stake, neither party
having any other interest in the event than the sum or stake to
be won or lost. This definition does not strike at contracts in
" futures," under which the contractors are bound to give or take
delivery at a date fixed of commodities not in existence at the date
of the contract. Nor are such contracts rendered void because
they are entered into for purposes of speculation; in fact, their
legality is expressly recognized by the Sale of Goods Act 1893.
Contracts of insurance are void if made by way of gaming or
wagering on events in which the assured has no interest present
or prospective whether the matter be life or fire risks (1774)
or maritime risks (Marine Insurance Act 1906). An act
known as Sir John Barnard's Act (7 Geo. II. c. 8, entitled
" An act to prevent the infamous practice of stock jobbing ")
prohibited contracts for liberty to accept or refuse any public
stocks or securities and wagers relating to public stocks, but
this act was repealed in i860, and contracts to buy or sell stocks
and shares are not now void because entered into by way ol
speculation and not for purposes of investment. The only limita-
tion on such contracts is that contained in Lee man's Act (30 &
31 Vict, c 29) as to contracts for the sale of shares in joint-
stock banking companies. But a transaction in any commodity,
though in form commercial, falls within the Gaming Acts if in
substance the transaction is a mere wager on the price of the
commodity at a date fixed by the contract. It does not mattei
whether the dealing is in stocks or in cotton, nor whether it if
entered into on the Stock Exchange, or on any produce exchange,
or elsewhere; nor is it conclusive in favour of the validity of tht
bargain that it purports to bind the parties to take or deliver th<
article dealt in. The courts are entitled to examine into the true
nature of the transaction; and where the substantial intention ol
the parties is merely to gamble in differences, to make what h
called " a time bargain," the fact that it is carried out by a serici
of contracts, regular and valid in form, will not be sufficient t<
exclude the application of the Gaming Acts.
In very many cases transactions with " outside stockbrokers "01
" bucket shops " have been held to be mere wagers, although th<
contracts purported to give " put " or "call" options to demanc
delivery or acceptance of the stocks dealt with; and the core!
» Burge v. Aikby, 1900, 1 Q.B. 744.
leposited by the " client " has been treated as a mere security for
performance of the bargain, and recoverable if sued for in time,
x. before it is used for the purpose for which it is deposited.
There was not up to 1009 any authoritative decision as to the
ipplication of the Gaming Act 1892 to transactions on the London
itock Exchange through a stockbroker who is a member el
1 the House "; but the same principle appears to be applicable
vhere the facts of the particular deal clearly indicate that the
ntention was to make a mere time bargain, or to pay or receive
lifferences only. The form, however, of all bargains on the
itock Exchange is calculated and intended to preclude people
rom setting up a gaming act defence: as each contract entitles
he holder to call for delivery or acceptance of the stock named
herein. In the event of the bankruptcy of a person involved in
peculations, the bankruptcy officials exclude from proof against
he estate all claims founded on any dealing in the nature of a
vager; and on the same principle the bankrupt's trustee can-
lot recover sums won by the bankrupt by gaming transactions,
>ut unexhausted " cover " on uncompleted transactions may be
-ccovered back.
Besides the enactments which prevent the recovery of bets or
vagers by action there has also been a good deal of legislation
lealing with securities given in respect of " gambling
iebts." The earliest (1665) dealt with persons playing
it games otherwise than for ready money and losing
£100 or more on credit, and not only prohibited the winner from
recovering the overplus but subjected him to penalties for winning
it. An act of 1710 (9 Anne c. 19) declared utterly void all notes,
Dills, bonds, judgments, mortgages or other securities where the
:onsideration is for money or valuable security won by gaming
it cards, stocks or other games, or by betting on the aides or
bands of the gamesters, or for reimbursing money knowingly
idvanced for such gaming or betting. This act draws a distinc-
tion between gaming and other bets or wagers. Under this act
Lhe securities were void even in the hands of innocent transferees.
In 184 1 the law was altered, declaring such securities not void
but made upon an " illegal " consideration. The effect of the
change is to enable an innocent transferee for value, of a bill, note
or cheque, to recover on a security worthless in the hands of the
original taker (see s. 30 of the Bills of Exchange Act 1882), but to
put on him the burden of proving that he is a bona fide holder
for value. In the case of a negotiable security given for a wager
not within the acts of 17 10 or 1841 (e.g. a bet on a contested
election), but within the act of 1845, a third person holding it
would be presumed to be a holder for value and on the person
prima facie liable under the security falls the burden of proving
that no consideration was given for it. It has been decided after
considerable divergence of judicial opinion that an action will not
He in England in favour of the drawee against the drawer of a
cheque drawn at Algiers on an English bank, partly for losses at
baccarat, and partly for money borrowed to continue playing the
game. The ground of decision was in substance that the Gaming
Acts of 1845 and 1892 as the Uxfori prohibit the English courts
from enforcing gaming debts wherever incurred (Moulis v.
Owen, 1907, 1 K.B. 746).
Scotland.— A Scots act of 162 1 c. 14 (said still to be in force)
forbids playing at cards or dice in any common house of hostelry,
and directs that sums over 100 marks won on any one day at carding
1 horse races should be at once sent to the
on. The Lottery Acts, except that of 1698.
the Betting House Act 1853 was extended
e Street Betting Act 1906 extends to Scot-
can be suppressed under the Burgh Police
ing, lotteries or gaming under that of 1903.
ic to try actions on wagers, as being spon-
ng the dignity of the courts. 9 Anne c. 10
41 extend to Scotland, but the weight of
ic Gaming Act 1845 docs not.
Acts apinst lotteries were extended to
i general law as to gaming is the same in
Tertain of the earlier imperial acts are in
force in British possessions. «.£. the act of 9 Anne c. 19, which is In
force in Ontario subject to amendments made in 1902. In the
Straits Settlements, Jamaica and British Guiana there are ordin-
ances directed against gambling and lotteries, and particularly
45©
GAMUT— GANDHARVA
against forms of gambling introduced by the Chine*. Under these
ordinances the money paid for a lottery ticket is recoverable by law.
In the Transvaal betting houses were suppressed by proclamation
(No. 33) soon after the annexation. An invention known in France
aa the pari mutuel, and in Australia as the totalizator, is allowed
to be used on race-courses in most of the states (but not in New
South Wales). In Queensland,- South Australia, Tasmania and
Western Australia the state levies a duty on the takings of the
asachioe. In Tasmania the balance of the money retained by the
stewards of the course less the tax must be applied solely for improv-
ing the course or promoting horse-racing. In Victoria under an
act of 1901 the promoters of sports may by advertisement duly posted
snake betting on the ground illegal
Egypt- — By law No. 10 of 1905 all lotteries are prohibited with
certain exceptions, and it is made illegal to hawk the tickets or offer
them for sale or to bring illegal lotteries in any way to the notice
of die public. The authorized lotteries are those for charitable
purposes, e.g. those of the benevolent societies of the various foreign
communities.
United States— \n the United States many of the states make
gaming a penal offence when the bet is upon an election, or a horse
race, or a game of hazard. Betting contracts and securities given
upon a bet are often made void, and this may destroy a gaming note
in the hands of an innocent purchaser for value. The subject lies
outside of the province of the federal government. By the legislation
of some states the loser may recover his money if he sue within a
limited time, as he might have done in England under 9 Anne c. 19.
Authorities. — Brandt on Games (1872); Otiphant, Law of
Horses, cV«. (6th ed. by Lloyd, 1908); Schwabe on the Stock Ex-
change (1905); Mclshcimer on the Stock Exckantt (4th ed., 190$);
Coldridge and Hawksford, The Law of Gambling (1895); Stutfield,
Betting (3rd ed., 1901). (W. F. C.)
GAMUT (from the Greek letter gamma, used as a musical
symbol, and ut, the first syllable of the medieval hymn Sanctus
Johannes), a term in music used to mean generally the whole
compass or range of notes possessed by an instrument or voice.
Historically, however, the sense has developed from its stricter
musical meaning of a scale (the recognized musical scale of any
period), originating in the medieval "great scale," of which the
invention has usually been ascribed to Guido of Arezxo (q.v.) in
the nth century. The whole question is somewhat obscure, but,
in the evolution of musical notation out of the classical alpha-
betical system, the invention of the medieval gamut is more
properly assigned to Hucbald (d. 930). In his system of scales
the semitone was always between the 2nd and 3rd of a tetrachord,
as G f A,b B, C, so the ti B and # F of the second octave were in
false relation to the bB and lj Fof the first two tctrachords. To
this scale of four notes, G, A, b B, C, were subsequently added a
note below and a note above, which made the hexachord with
the semitone between the 3rd and 4th both up and down, as
F, G, A^bB, C, D. It was at a much later date that the 7th, our
leading note, was admitted into a key, and for this the first two
letters of the last line of the above-named hymn, "Sanctus
Johannes," would have been used, save for the notion
that as the note Mi was at a semitone below Fa, the same vowel
should be heard at a semitone below the upper Ut, and the
syllable Si was substituted for Sa. Long afterwards the syllable
Ut was replaced by Do in Italy, but it is still retained in France;
and in these two countries, with whatever others employ their
nomenclature, the original Ut and the substituted Do stand for
the sound defined by the letter C in English and German termin-
ology. The literal musical alphabet thus accords with the
a remnant of Greek use survives. • A was originally followed
In the scale by the semitone above, as the classical Mese was
followed by ParamcsC, and this note, namely bB, is still called
B in German, English I) B (French and Italian SI) being repre-
sented by the letter H. The gamut which, whenever instituted,
did not pass out of use until the 19th century, regarded the
hexachord and not the octachord, employed both letters and
syllables, made the former invariable while changing the latter
according to key relationship, and acknowledged only the three
keys of G, C and F; it took its name from having the Greek
letter gamma with Ut for its lowest keynote, though the Latin
letters with the corresponding syllables were applied to all the
other notes*
GAHDAK, a river of northern India. It rises in the Nepal
Himalayas, flows south-west until it reaches British territory,
where it forms the boundary between the United Provinces and
Bengal for a considerable portion of its course, and falls into the
Ganges opposite Patna. It is a snow-fed stream, and the
surrounding country in the plains, lying at a lower level than its.
banks, is endangered by its floods. The river is accordingly
enclosed by protective embankments.
The Little Gandak rises in the Nepal hills, enters Gorakhpur
district about 8 m. west of the Gandak, and joins the Gogra just
within the Saran district of Bengal.
The Bukhx (or old) Gandak also rises in the Nepal hills, and
follows a course roughly parallel to and east of that of the Gandak,
of which it represents an old channel, passing Muzaffarpur, and
joining the Ganges nearly opposite to Moughjr. Its principal
tributary is the Baghmati, which rises in the hills N- of Kath-
mandu, flows in a southerly direction through Tirhut, and joins
the Burhi Gandak close to Ruscra.
GANDAMAK. a village of Afghanistan, 35 m. from Jalalabad
on the road to KabuL On the retreat from Kabul of General
Elphinstone's army in 1842, a hill near Gandamak was the scene
of the massacre of the last survivors of the force, twenty officers
and forty-five British soldiers. It is also notable for the treaty of
Gandamak, which was signed here in 1879 with YakubKhan.
(See Afghanistan.)
. GANDERSHBIM, a town of Germany in the duchy of Bruns-
wick, in the deep valley of the Gande, 48 m. S.W. of Brunswick, on
the railway BSissura-Holzminden. •» Pop. (1905) 2847. It has two
Protestant churches of which the convent church (Stiftskirche)
contains the tombs of famous abbesses, a palace (now used as law
courts) and the famous abbey (now occupied by provincial
government offices). There are manufactures of linen, cigars,
beet-root sugar and beer.
The abbey of Gandersheim was founded by Duke Ludolf of
Saxony, who removed here % in 856 the nuns who had been
shortly before established at* Brunshausen. His own daughter
Hathumoda was the first abbess, who was succeeded on her death*
by her sister Gerberga. Under Gerberga's government Louis UL
granted a privilege, by which the office of abbess was to continue
in the ducal family of Saxony as long as any member was found
competent and willing to accept the same. Otto III. gave the
abbey a market, a right of toll and a mint; and after the bishop
of Hildesheim and the archbishop of Mainz had long contested
with each other about its supervision, Pope Innocent HI. declared
it altogether independent of both. The abbey was ultimately
recognised as holding directly of the Empire, and the abbess had
a vote in the imperial diet.- The conventual estates were of great
extent, and among the feudatories who could be summoned to
the court of the abbess were the elector of Hanover and the king
of Prussia. Protestantism was introduced in 1 568, and Magdalena,
the last Roman Catholic abbess, died in 1589; but Protestant
abbesses were appointed to the foundation, and continued to
enjoy their imperial privileges till 1803, when Gandershehn
was incorporated with Brunswick. The last abbess, Augusta
Dorothea of Brunswick, was a princess of the ducal house, and
kept her rank till her death. The memory of Gandersheim will
long be preserved by its literary memorials. Hroswitha, the
famous Latin poet, was a member of the sisterhood in the oth
century; and the rhyming chronicle of Eberhard of Gandersheim
ranks as in all probability the earliest historical work composed in
low German.
The Chronicle, which contains an account of the first period of the
monastery, is edited by L. Wieland in the Monumenta Germ, historic*
(1877), and has been the object of a special study by Paul Hasse
(Gdttingen, ,1872). See also " Aeii vita Hathumodac abbattssae
Gandershcimensb prima* ," in J. G. von Eckhart's Velerum moeu-
mentamm quatemio (Lrfpaig, 17*>); and Hasc, MitUlaluHiche
Baudenkmder Niedersacksens (1870).
GANDHAIVA. in Hindu mythology, the term used to denote
.(i) in the Rig-Veda usually a minor deity; (3) in later writings
a class of divine beings. Aa a unity Gandharva baa no special
attributes but many duties, and b in dose relation with the great
gods. Thus he » director of the sun's horses; he is guardian of
GANDfA— GANGES
noma, the sacred liquor, and therefore is regarded as the heavenly
physician, soma being a panacea. He is servant of Agni the god
of light and of Varuna the divine judge. He is omnipresent: in
the heavens, in the air and in the waters. He is the keeper of
heaven's secrets and acts as messenger between gods and men.
He is gorgeously clothed and carries shining weapons. For wife
he has the spirit of the clouds and waters, Apsaras, and by her
became father of the first mortals, Yama and YamL He is the
tutelary deity of women and presides over marriage ceremonies.
In their collective capacity the Gandharva share the duties
allotted to the single deity. They live in the bouse of Indra and
with their wives, the Apsaras, beguile the time by singing, acting
and dancing. Sometimes they are represented as numbering
twelve, sometimes twenty-seven, or they are innumerable. In
Hindu law a Gandharva marriage is one contracted by mutual
consent and without formality.
GANDfA, a seaport of eastern Spain, in the province of
Valencia; on the Gandfa- Alcoy and Altira-Denia railways.
Pop. (1000) 10,026. Gandfa is on the left bank of the river
Alcoy or Slrpis, which waters one of the richest and most populous
plains of Valencia and enters the Mediterranean Sea at the small
harbour of Gandfa (El Grab), 3 m. N.E. The chief ancient
buildings of Gandfa are the Gothic church, the college, founded by
San Francisco de Borgia, director-general of the order of Jesus
(1510-1572), and the palace of the dukes of Gandfa—- a title held
in the 15th and z6th centuries by members of the' princely house
of Borgia or Borja. A Jesuit convent, the theatre, schools and
the palace of the dukes of Osuna, are modern. Besides its manu-
factures of leather, silk, velvet and ribbons, Gandfa has a thriving
export trade in fruit, and imports coal, guano, timber and flour.
In 1904; 400 vessels, of 200,000 tons, entered the harbour.
GANDO, a sultanate of British West Africa, included in the
protectorate of Nigeria, situated on the left bank of the Niger
above Borgu. The sultanate was established,*. i8io,onthedeath
of Othman Dan Fodio, the founder of the Fula empire, and its
area and importance varied considerably during the 19th century,
several of the Fula emirates being regarded as tributaries, while
Gando itself was more or less dependent on Sokoto.' Gando in
the middle of the -century included both banks of the Niger
at least as far N.W. as Say. The districts outside the British
protectorate now belong to France. Since 1884 Gando has been
in treaty relations with the British, and in 1003 the part assigned
to the British sphere by agreement with France came definitely
under the control of the administration jn Nigeria. Gando now
forms the sub-province of the double province of Sokoto. The
emir was appointed under British authority after the conquest of
Sokoto in 1903. Since that date the province has been organized
for administration on the same system as the rest of the pro-
tectorate of Northern Nigeria. Provincial and native courts of
justice have been established, roads have been opened, the slave
trade has been abolished, and the country assessed under the new
scheme for taxation. British garrisons are stationed at Jegga
and Ambrusa. The chief town is Gando, situated on the Sokoto,
the first considerable affluent of the Niger from the east, about
60 m. S.W. of the town of Sokoto.
GANESA, or Ganesh, in Hindu mythology, the god of wisdom
and prudence, always represented with an elephant's head possibly
to indicate his sagacity. He is the son of Si va and Parvati. He is
among the most popular of Indian deities, and almost every act,
religious or social, in a Hindu's life begins with an invocation to
him , as do most books. He typifies not the wisdom of knowledge
but that worldly wisdom which results in financial success, and
thus he is particularly the god of the Hindu shopkeeper. In his
divine aspect Ganesa is ruler over the hosts of heaven, the spirits
which come and go to do India's will.
GANGES (Ganga), a great river of northern India, formed by
the drainage of the southern ranges of the Himalayas. This
mighty stream, which in its lower course supplies the river
system of Bengal, rises in the Garhwal state, and falls into the
Bay of Bengal after a course of 1 500 m. It issues, under the name
of the Bhagirathi, from an ice cave at the foot of a Himalayan
snow-bed near Gangotri, 10,300 ft. above the level of the sea.
+5*
During its passage through the southern spurs of the Himalayas it
receives the lahnavi from the north-west, and subsequently the
Alaknanda, alter which the united stream takes the name of the
Gantes. Deo Prayag, their point of junction, is a celebrated place
of pilgrimage, as is also Gangotri, the source of the parent stream.
AtSuk
Hardw
arnagai
receive
than a
course,
sister si
of the 1
by sou
and the
Gogra
land at
Prayag
devout
It is he
Short
Behar,
the sou
from tl
receives the Kusi. and then, skirting the Rajmahal hills, turns sharply
to the southward, passing near the site of the ruined city of Gaur.
By this time it has approached to within 240 m., as the crow flics,
from the sea. About 20 m, farther on it begins to branch out over
the level country, and this spot marks the commencement of the
larauna or
; of waters
m the hill
under the
Noakhali.
^ of a great
1 HugJi,
inncls that
the 1
'tween the
letta. The
uMurshi-
* southern
* of great
tela. This
tdari tree,
tree is the
be mouth.
:raft.— the
mis in the
lunication,
d. Below
ttheHugli
i craft and
The Ganges is essentially a river of great cities : Calcutta, Mongfcyr,
Patna, Benares and Allahabad all lie on its course below its junction
with the Jumna: and the ancient capitals, Agra and Delhi, are
on the Jumna, higher up. The catchment basin of the Ganges Is
bounded on the N. by a length of about 700 m. of the Himalayan
range, on the S. by the Vindhya mountains, and on the E. by the
ranges which separate Bengal from Burma. The vast river basin
thus enclosed embraces A&A*° «q« m. According to the latest
calculations, the length of the main stream of the Ganges is 1540 m.,
or with its longest affluent, 1680; breadth at true entrance into the
sea, 20 m.; breadth of channel in dry season, ij to a} m.; depth in
dry season, 30 ft.; flood discharge. 1,800,000 cub. ft. per second;
ordinary discharge. 207,000 cub. ft.; longest duration of flood,
about 40 days. The average fall from Allahabad to Benares is 6 in.
per mile; from Benares to Calcutta, between 4 »«d 5 in.; from
Calcutta to the sea, 1 to 2 in. Great changes take place from time
to time in the river-bed, which alter the face of the country. La-
tensive islands are thrown up, and attach themselves to the mainland,
while the river deserts its old bed and seeks a new channel, it may be
many miles off. Such changes arc so rapid and on so vast a scale, and
the corroding power of the current on the bank so irresistible, that
in Lower Bengal it is considered perilous to build any structure of a
large or permanent character on its margin. Many decayed or ruined
cities attest the changes in the river-bed in ancient times; and
within our own times the main channel which formerly passed
Rajmahal has turned away from it, and left the town high and dry.
7 m. from the bank. .... ... ... M
The Ganges is crossed by swt railway bridges on its course as
far as Benares; and another, at Sara in Eastern Bengal, has been
•anctvmed
4-52
GANGOTRI— GANNAL
The Uppbr Ganges Canal and the Lower GangbsCamal m the
two principal systems of perennial irrigation in the United Pro-
yinces. The Ganges canal was opened by Lord Dalhousk in 1854, and
irrigates 978,000 acres. The Lower Ganges canal, an extension of
the original canal, has been in operation since 1876 and irrigates
930,000 acres. The two canals, together with the eastern Jumna,
command the greater portion of the Doab lying between the
Ganges and the Jumna, above Allahabad. Navigation m either is
insignificant. (T. H. H.*)
GANGOTRI, a celebrated place of Hindu pilgrimage, among
the Himalaya Mountains. It is situated in the native state of
Garhwal in the United Provinces, on the Bhagirathi, the chief
bead-stream of the Ganges, which is here not above 15 or 30 yds.
broad, with a moderate current, and not in general above 3 ft.
deep. The course of the river runs N. by E.; and on the bank
near Gangotri there is a small temple about 30 ft. high, in which
are images representing Ganga, Bhagirathi and other figures of
mythology. It dates from the early part of the 18th century.
The bed of the river adjoining the temple is divided of! by the
Brahmans into three basins, where the pilgrims bathe. One of
these portions is dedicated to Brahma, another to Vishnu and
the third to Siva. The pilgrimage to Gangotri is considered
efficacious in washing away the sins of the devotee, and ensuring
him eternal happiness in the world to come. The water taken
from this sacred spot is exported by pilgrims to India and sold
at a high price. The elevation of the temple above the 'sea is
10,319 ft.
GANGPUR, a tributary state of Orissa, Bengal, included until
1905 among the Chota Nagpur States. It is bounded N. by
Rancbi district, E. by the Singhbhum district, S. by Sambalpur
and Bamra, and W. by Raigarh in the Central Provinces. The
country is for the most part an undulating plain, broken by
detached ranges of hills, one of which, the Mahavira range,
possesses a very remarkable appearance, springing abruptly from
the plain in an irregular wall of tilted and disrupted rock, with
two flanking peaks. The rivers are the lb and the Brahmani,
formed here by the union of the Sankh and the South Koel, both
navigable by canoes. The lb was formerly famous on account of
diamonds found in its bed, and its sands are still washed for gold.
One of the largest coalfields in India extends into the state,
and iron ore is also found. Jungle products— lac, silk cocoons,
catechu and resin, which are exported; wild animals — bisons,
buffaloes, tigers, leopards, hyenas, wolves, jackals, wild dogs and
many sorts of deer. Area, 2492 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 338,896;
estimated revenue, £16,000.
GANGRENE (from Gr. yiyypasva, an eating sore, from
ypalniv, to gnaw), a synonym in medicine for mortification (?.*.),
or a local death in the animal body due to interruption of the
circulation by various causes.
GANILH, CHARLES (1758-1836), French economist and
politician, was born at Allanche in Cental on the 6th of January
1758. He was educated for the profession of law and practised
as avocai. During the troubled period which culminated in the
taking of the Bastille on the 14th of July 1789, he came pro-
minently forward in public affairs, and was one of the seven
members of the permanent Committee of Public Safety which sat
at the hotel de ville. He was imprisoned during the Reign of
Terror, and was only released by the counter-revolution of the
oth Thermidor. During the first consulate he was called to the
tribunate, but was excluded in 1803. In 1815 he was elected
deputy for Cantal, and finally left the Chamber on its dissolution
in 1823. He died in 1836. Ganilh is best known as the most
vigorous defender of the mercantile school in opposition to the
views of. Adam Smith and the English economists.
His works, though interesting from the clearness and precision
with which these peculiar opinions are presented, do not now possess
much value for the student of political economy. He wrote Essai
politique t%r le revenue des peuplet de FantiquM, du moyen dge, 6fc.
(1808) ; Des systems d'ieononm politique (1809) ; Thtoru d'iconomu
>***£* * l8l5); DkiionnaiT€ analytique de VUonomU politique
GANJAM , a district of British India, in the extreme north-east
of the Madras Presidency. It has an area of 8373 sq. m. Much
of the district is exceedingly mountainous and rocky, but is
Interspersed with open valleys and fertile plains. Pleasant
groves of trees in the plains give to the scenery a greener appear-
ance than is usually met with in the districts to the south. The
mountainous tract known as the Maliyas, or chain of the Eastern
Ghats, has an average height of about 3000 ft.— its principal
peaks being Singharaj (4976 ft.), Mahendragiri (4933) and
Devagiri (4535)* The hilly region forms the agency of Can jam,
with an area of 3483 sq. m. and a population (in 1901) of 331,114,
mostly wild backward tribes, incapable of being governed under
ordinary conditions and therefore ruled by an agent of the
governor with special powers. The chief rivers arethe Rushikulya,
the Vamsadhara and the Languliya. The sea and river fisheries
afford a livelihood to a considerable section of the population.
The hilly region abounds in forests consisting principally of sal,
with satin-wood, ebony and sandal-wood in smaller quantities.
Ganjam formed part of the ancient kingdom of Kalinga. Its
early history is involved in obscurity, and it was not till after the
Gajapati dynasty ascended the throne of Orissa that this tract
became even nominally a part of their dominions. Owing to the
nature of the country the rising Mahommcdan power was long
kept at bay; and it was not till nearly a century after the first
invasion of Orissa that a Mahommedan governor was sent .to
govern the Chicacole Circars, which included the present district of
Ganjam. In 1 753 Chicacole, with the Northern Circars, were made
over to the French by Salabat Jang for the maintenance of his
French auxiliaries. In 1759 Masulipatam was taken by an
English force sent from Bengal, and the French were compelled to
abandon Ganjam and their other factories in the north. In 1 765
the Northern Circars (including Ganjam) were granted to the
English by imperial firman, and in August 1768 an English
factory was founded at Ganjam, protected by a fort. The present
district of Ganjam was constituted in 1802. In the earlier years of
British rule considerable difficulty was experienced in the adminis-
tration of the district; and on more than one occasion the re-
fractory large landholders had to be coerced by means of regular
troops. In z8i6 Ganjam was overrun by the Pindaris; and in
1836 occurred the Gumsur campaign, when the British first came
into contact with the aboriginal Kondhs, the suppression of whose
practice of human sacrifice was successfully accomplished. A
petty rising of a section of the Kondhs occurred in 1865, which
was, however, suppressed without the aid of regular troops.
In 1 00 1 the pop. of the district was 3,010,356. showing an
increase of 30% in the decade. There are two systems of govern-
ment irrigation: (1) the Rushikulya project, and (3) the Ganjam
minor rivers system. The principal crops arc rice, other food
grains, pulse, oil seeds and a little sugar-cane and cotton. Salt is
evaporated, as a government monopoly, along the coast. Sugar
is refined, according to German methods, at Aska, where rum also
is produced. A considerable trade is conducted at the ports of
Gopalpur and Calingapatam, which are only open roadsteads.
The district is traversed throughout by the East Coast railway
(Bengal-Nagpur system), which was opened from Calcutta to
Madras in 1000. There are colleges at Berhampore and Parlaki-
medi. The headquarters station is Berhampore; the town of
Ganjam occupied this position till 1815, when it was found
unhealthy, and its importance has since declined.
GANNAL, JEAN NICOLAS (1791-1852), French chemist, was
born at Sane-Louis on the 38th of July x 791. In 1808 he entered
the medical department of the French army, and witnessed the
retreat from Moscow in 1813. After the downfall of the empire be
worked at the £cole Polytechnique in Paris and subsequently at
the Faculty of Sciences as assistant to L. J. Tbcnard. His
contributions to technical chemistry included a method of
refining borax, the introduction of elastic rollers formed of
gelatin and sugar for use in printing, and processes for manu-
facturing glue and gelatin, lint, white lead, &c The Institute
awarded him a Montyon prise in 1837 for his advocacy of
chlorine as a remedy in pulmonary phthisis, and again in 1835 for
his discovery of the efficacy of solutions of aluminium acetate and
chloride for preserving anatomical preparations. In the latter
part of his life he turned his attention to embalmment, his
method depending on the injection of solutions of aluminium salts
into the arteries. He died at Paris in January 2853. His son
GANNET
+53
tBUX, born in 1829, also devoted himself to the question of the
disposal of the dead, among his publications being Mori rteUe el
mart apparent* (1868), Inhumation et cremation (1876), and Us
Cimetiercs (1885). a work on the history and law of burial, of
which only one volume appeared.
GAftMCT (O.E. ganot) or Solan Goose, ' the PeUcanus bassanus
of Linnaeus and the Sula bassana of modern ornithologists, a
large sea-fowl long known as a numerous visitor, for the purpose
of breeding, to the Bass Rock at the entrance of the Firth of
Gannct, or Solan Goose.
Forth, and to certain other islands off the coast of Britain, of
which four are in Scottish waters— namely, Ailsa Craig, at the
mouth of the Firth of Clyde; the group known collectively as
St Kilda; Sulcskerry, some 40 m. north-east of the Butt of Lewis;
and the Stack and Skerry, about the same.distance westward of
Stromness. It appears also to have two stations off the coast of
1 The phrase ganotes b*H (gannet's bath), a periphrasis for the sea,
occurs in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, in reference to events which
took place a.d. 975, as pointed out by Prof. Cunningham, whose
learned treatise on this bird (/Mi, i860, p. 1) nearly exhausts all
that can be said of its history and habits. A few pages further on
(p. 13) this writer remarks: — " The name gannct is intimately con-
nected^ with our modern English gander, both words being modifica-
tions of the ancient British gan or ' gans,' which is the same word
as the modern German ' Gans,' which in its turn corresponds with
the old High German ' Kans.' the Greek xto the Latin anser, and
the Sanskrit ' hansa,' all of which possess the same signification, viz.
a goose. The origin of the names solan or soland, sulan, sula and
haf-sula, which are evidently all closely related, is not so obvious.
Martin [Voy. St Kilda] informs us that some imagine that the word
solan comes from the Irish soulcr, corrupted and adapted to the
Scottish language, qui oculis irretortis e longinauo rcspicial praedam*
The earlier writers in general derive the word from the Latin soUa,\n
consequence of the bird's supposed habit of hatching its egg with its
foot ; and in a note intercalated into Ray's description of the solan
goose in the edition of his Itineraries published by the Ray Society,
and edited by Dr Lankestcr, we are told, though no authority for the
statement is given, that ' th%» gannet, Sula alba, should be written
solcnt goose, \jb. a channel goose.' " Hereon an editorial note
remark* that this last statement appears to have been a suggestion of
Yarrcll's, and that it seems at least as possible that iImT" Solent"
took its name from the bird.
Ireland, the Skellig Islands and the Stags of Broadhaven, and it
resorts besides to Lundy Island in the Bristol Channel— its only
English breeding-place. Farther to the northward its settle-
ments are Myggenaes, the most westerly of the Faeroes, and
various small islands off the coast of Iceland, of which the
Vestmannacyjar, the Reykjanes Fuglaske? and Grimsey are the
chief. On the western side of the Atlantic it appears to have but
five stations, one in the Bay of Fundy, and four rocks in the
Gulf of St Lawrence. On all these seventeen places the bird
arrives about the end of March or in April and departs in autumn
when its young are ready to fly; but even during the breeding-
season many of the adults may be seen on their fishing excursions
at a vast distance from their home, while at other times of the
year their range is greater still, for they not only frequent the
North Sea and the English Channel, but stray to the Baltic, and,
in winter, extend their flight to the Madeiras, while the members
of the species of American birth traverse the ocean from the shores
of Greenland to the Gulf of Mexico.
Apparently as bulky as a goose, and with longer wings and tail,
the gannet weighs considerably less. The plumage of the adult is
white, tinged on the head and neck with buff, while the outer
edge and principal quills of the wings are black, and some bare
spaces round the eyes and on the throat reveal a dark blue skin.
The first plumage of the young is of a deep brown above, bat
paler beneath, and each feather is tipped with a triangular white
spot. The nest is a shallow depression, cither on the ground
itself or on a pile of turf, grass and seaweed— which last is often
conveyed from a great distance. The single egg it contains has a
white shell of the same chalky character as a cormorant's. The
young are hatched blind and naked, but the slate-coloured skin
with which their body is covered is soon clothed with white
down, replaced in due time by true feathers of the dark colour
already mentioned. The mature plumage is believed not to be
attained for some three years. Towards the end of summer the
majority of ganncts, both old and young, leave the neighbourhood
of their breeding-place, and, betaking themselves to the open sen,
follow the shoals of herrings and other -fishes (the presence of
which they are most useful in indicating to fishermen) to a great
distance from land. Their prey is almost invariably captured by
plunging upon it from a height, and a company of gannets fishing
presents a curious and interesting spectacle. Flying in a line,
each bird, when it comes over the shoal, closes its wings and
dashes perpendicularly into the- waves, whence it emerges after a
few seconds, and, shaking the water from its feathers, mounts in a
wide curve, and orderly takes its place in the rear of the string, to
repeat is headlong plunge so soon as it again finds itself above its
prey.*
Structurally the gannet presents many points worthy of note,
such as its closed nostrils, its aborted tongue, and its toes all
connected by a web — characters which it possesses in common
with most of the other members of the group of birds (Stegano-
fodes) to which it belongs. But more remarkable still is the
system of subcutaneous air-cells, some of large size, pervading
almost the whole surface of the body, communicating with the
lungs, and capable of being inflated or emptied at the will of the
bird. This peculiarity has attracted the attention of several
writers— Montagu, Sir R. Owen (Proc. Zod. Soc. t 1831, p. 90),
and Macgillivray.
In the southern hemisphere the gannet is represented by two
nearly allied but somewhat smaller forms — one, Sula capensit,
inhabiting the coast of South Africa, and the other, S. serraior,
the Australian seas. Both much resemble the northern bird, but
'The large number of ganncts. and the vast quantity of fish they
take, has been frequently animadverted upon, but the computations
on this last point are perhaps fallacious. It seems to be certain that
in former days fishes, and herrings in particular, were at least as
plentiful as now, if not more so, notwithstanding that gannets were
more numerous. Those frequenting the Bass were reckoned by
Macgillivray at 20,000 in 1831, while in 1869 they were computed at
12,000, showing a decrease of two-fifths in 38 years. On Ailsa in
1869 there were supposed to be as many as on the Bass, but their
number was estimated at 10,000 in 1877 (Report on the Hcrrino
Fisheries of Scotland, 1878, pp. xxv. and 171), — being a diminution of
one-sixth in eight years, or nearly twice a»qp«i\«ak^ft.\ta.^*ftjk«
45+
GANODONTA— GAO
the former seems to have a permanently black tail, and the Utter
a tail the four middle feathers of which are blackish-brown with
white shafts.
Apparently inseparable from the gannets generically are the
smaller birds well known to sailors as boobies, from the extra-
ordinary stupidity they commonly display. They differ, how-
ever, in having no median stripe of bare skin down the front of
the throat; they almost invariably breed upon trees and are
inhabitants of warmer climates. One of them, S. cyanops, when
adult has much of the aspect of a gannct, but 5. piscaior is readily
distinguishable by its red legs, and S. leucogaster by its upper
plumage and neck of deep brown. These three are widely
distributed within the tropics, and are in some places exceedingly
abundant. The fourth, S. variegata, which seems to preserve
throughout its life the spotted suit characteristic of the immature
S. bosson*, has a much more limited range, being as yet only
known from the coast of Peru, where it is one of the birds which
contribute to the formation of guano. (A. N.)
GANODONTA (so named from the presence of bands of enamel
on the teeth), a group of specialized North American Lower and
Middle Eocene mammals of uncertain affinity. The group
includes Htmiganus, PsiUocotkerium and Conoryctes from the
Puerco, Calamodon and Hemigonus from the Wasatch, and
Slylinodon from the Bridger Eocene. With the exception of
Conoryctcs, in which it is longer, the skull is short and suggests
affinity to the sloths, as does what little is known of the limb-
bones. The dentition, too, is of a type which might well be
considered ancestral to that of the Edentata. For instance, the
molars when first developed have tritubercular summits, but
these soon become worn away, leaving tall columnar crowns,
with a subcircular surface of dentine exposed at the summit of
each. Moreover, while the earlier types have a comparatively
full aeries of teeth, all of which are rooted and invested with
enamel, in the later forms the incisors are lost, the cheek-teeth
•ever develop roots but grow continuously throughout life.
These and other features induced Dr J. L. Wortman to regard
the Ganodonta as an ancestral suborder of Edentata; but this
view is not accepted by ProL W. B. Scott. Teeth provision-
ally assigned to Calamodon have been obtained from the Lower
Tertiary deposits of Switzerland.
See I. L. Wortman, " The Ganodonta and their Relationship to
the Edentata," Bull. Amer. Mus. vol. ix. _p. 59 (1897); W. B. Scott,
" Mammalia of the Santa Cruz Beds, Edentata, Rep. Princeton
Bxped. to Patagonia, vol. v. (1903-1904). (R. L.*)
GANS, EDUARD (1797-1839), German jurist, was born at
Berlin on the 22nd of March 1797, of prosperous Jewish parents.
He studied law first at Berlin, then at Gottingen, and finally at
Heidelberg, where he attended Hegel's lectures, and became
thoroughly imbued with the principles of the Hegelian philosophy.
In 1820, after taking his doctor's degree, he returned to Berlin
as lecturer on law. In 1825 he turned Christian, and the following
year was appointed extraordinary, and in 1828 ordinary, professor
in the Berlin faculty of law. At this period the historical school
of jurisprudence was coming to the front, and Cans, predisposed
owing to his Hegelian tendencies to treat law historically, applied
the method to one special branch — the right of succession. His
great work, Erbreckt in iteUgcsckichUicker Entwicklung (1824,
1825, 1829 and 1835), is of permanent value, not only for its
extensive survey of facts, but for the admirable manner in which
the general theory of the slow evolution of legal principles is
presented. In 1830, and again in 1835, Gans visited Paris, and
formed an intimate acquaintance with the leaders of literary
culture and criticism there. The liberalit y of his views, especially
on political matters, drew upon Gans the displeasure of the
Prussian government, and his course of lectures on the history of
the last fifty years (published as VorUsungen liber d. Gesckukte
d. lehkn fUnfug Jakrt, Leipzig, 1833-1834) was prohibited. He
died at Berlin on the 5th of May 1839. .In addition to the works
above mentioned, there may be noted the treatise on the funda-
mental laws of property (Uber die Grundlage des BasUtes, Berlin,
1829), a portion of a systematic work on the Roman civil law
(System des romiscken Civil- Rechts, 1827), and a collection of his
miscellaneous writings (VermisckUSckriJlen^ 1832). Gans edited.
the PhUosepkie der CeuhiekU in Hegel's Werkt, and contributed
an admirable preface.
See Rome des deux monies (Dec 1839).
GANSBACHBR, JOHANN BAPTIST (1778-1844). Austriaa
musical composer, was born in 1778 at -Sterling in Tirol. His
father, a schoolmaster and teacher of music, undertook his son's
early education, which the boy continued under various masters
till 1802, when he became the pupil of the celebrated Abb* G. J.
Vogier. To his connexion with this artist and with his fellow,
pupils, more perhaps than to his own merits, Glnsbacher's
permanent place in the history of music is due; tor it was during
his second stay with Vogier, then (1810) living at Darmstadt,
that he became acquainted with Weber and Meyerbeer, and the
close friendship which sprang up among the three young
musicians, and was dissolved by death only, has become cele-
brated in the history of their art. But Ginsbacher was himself
by no means without merit. He creditably filled the responsible
and difficult post of director of the music at St Stephen's
cathedral, Vienna, from 1823 till his death (July 13, 1844); and
his compositions show high gifts and accomplishment. They
consist chiefly of church music, 17 masses, besides litanies,
motets, offertories, &c, being amongst the number. He also
wrote several sonatas, a symphony, and one or two minor com-
positions of a dramatic kind.
GANT& a cloth made from cotton or tow warp and jute weft.
It is largely used for bags for sugar and similar material, and has
the appearance of a fine hessian cloth.
GANYMEDE, in Greek mythology, son of Tros, king of
Dardania, and CalHrrhoi. He was the most beautiful of mortals,
and was carried off by the gods (in the later story by Zeus himself,
or by Zeus in the form of an eagle) to Olympus to serve as cup-
bearer (Apollodorus iii. 12; Virgil, Aeneid, v. 354; Ovid,
Metam. x. 255). By way of compensation, Zeus presented his
father with a team of immortal horses (or a golden vine).
Ganymede was afterwards regarded as the genius of the fountains
of the* Nile, the life-giving and fertilizing river, and identified by
astronomers with the Aquarius of the zodiac Thus the divinity
that distributed drink to the gods in heaven became the genius
who presided over the due supply of water on earth. When
pederasty became common in Greece, an attempt was made to
justify it and invest it with dignity by referring to the rape of the
beautiful boy by Zeus; in Crete, where the love of boys was
reduced to a system, Minos, the primitive ruler and law-giver,
was said to have been the ravisher of Ganymede. Thus the name
which once denoted the good genius who bestowed the precious
gift of water upon man was adopted to this use in vulgar Latin
under the form Calamitus. Ganymede being carried off by the
eagle was the subject of a bronze group by the Athenian sculptor
Lcochares, imitated in a marble statuette in the Vatican. E.
Veckenstcdt (Ganymedcs, Libau, 1881) endeavours to prove that
Ganymede is the genius of intoxicating drink (/itfv, mead, for
which he postulates a form nijfof), whose original home was
Phrygia.
See article by P. Weizsaclcer in Reseller's Lexikon der ilythotogie.
In the article Greek Art,. fig. 53 (PI- I.) gives an illustration of
Ganymede borne aloft by an eagle.
GAO, Gao-Gao, or Garo, a town of French West Africa, in the
Upper Senegal and Niger colony, on the left bank of the Niger,
400 m. by river below Timbuktu. Pop. about 5000. The
present town dates from the French occupation in xooo; of the
ancient city there are scanty ruins, the chief being a truncated
pyramid, the remains of the tomb (16th century) of Mahommed
Askia, the Songhoi conqueror, and those of the great mosque.
According to tradition a city stood on this spot in very ancient
times and its inhabitants are said to have had intercourse with
the Egyptians. It is known, however, that the city of which the
French settlement is the successor was founded by the Songhoi,
probably in the 7th or 8th century, and became the capital of
their empire. Garo (Ga-rho) appears to have been the correct
name of the Songhoi city, though it was also known as Gogo and
Kuku (Kaougha). 1 In the 1 2th century Idrisi describes Kuku as
1 There was another city called Kaoka or Gaoga east of Lake
Chad in the country now known as BagirmL Itwas the seat of the
GAOL— GARASHANIN
455
a populous unwalled town devoted to commerce and industry;
it is possible, however, that Idrisi is referring not to Gao but to
another town somewhat to the south— at that period the middle
course of the Niger had many prosperous towns along its banks.
In the 14th century Gao was conquered by the king of Melle, and
its great mosque was built (c 1325) by the Melle sovereign
Kunkur Musa on his return from a pilgrimage to Mecca. In the
15th century the Songhoi regained power and Gao attained its
greatest prosperity in the reign of Askia. It did not enjoy the
commercial importance of Jenni nor the intellectual supremacy
of Timbuktu, but was the political centre of the western Sudan
for a long period. On the break up of the Songhoi power the
city declined in importance. It became subject in 1590 to the
Ruma of Timbuktu, from whom it was wrested in 1770 by the
Tuareg, the last named surrendering possession to the French.
The first European to reach Gao was Mungo Park (1805) \ h* **>
followed in 1851 by Heinrich Barth, and in 1896 by the French
naval lieutenant Hourst. Gao is now the headquarters of a mili-
tary district. . A caravan route leads from it to Kano and Bornu.
From Gao upwards the Niger is navigable for over 1000 m.
See Timbuktu. For the Gao region of the Niger see an article
by F. Dubois in L'Afriauejrancuise (January 1909).
GAOL, or Jail, a prison (?.».)• The two forms of the word are
due to the parallel dual forms in Old Central and Norman French
respectively, jaioU or jaole, and gaioU or gayolU. The common
origin is the mcd. Lat. gabiola, a diminutive formed from cavea,
a hollow, a den, from which the English " cave " is derived.
The form " gaol " still commonly survives in English, and is in
official usage, e.g. " gaol-delivery," but the common pronuncia-
tion of both words, ' jail," shows the real surviving word.
©AON (Heb. for "Excellency," plural Geonim), the title
given to the heads of the two Jewish academies in Babylonia,
Sura and Pumbeditha. Though the name is far older, it is
chiefly applied to Rabbis who lived between (he close of the
Talmud and the transference of the centre of Judaism from Asia
to Europe — i.e. from the end of the 6th to the middle of the nth
century A.D. The Geonim were required to do homage to the
Exilarchs (see Exilaich) but were otherwise independent.
They exercised wide authority and were appealed to in settle-
ment of the social and religious affairs of the diaspora. To them
must be assigned the arrangement of the main lines of the present
Synagogue liturgy. Their chief literary activity took the form of
Answers to Questions— a form which was extensively used in
later centuries. The most noted of the Geonim, who will be
found treated under their respective names, were Afeai, Amram,
Semach, Saadiah, Sherira and Hai. Hai Gaon died in 1038,
closing the period of the Geonim after an activity of four and a
half centuries.
A full list of the Geonim is given in tabular form in the Jewish
Encyclopaedia, vol. v. p. 571. (I. A.)
GAP, the capital of the French department of the Hautes
Alpcs. Pop. (1906) town, 6888; commune, 10,823. It is built
at a height of 2418 ft. on the right bank of the Luye (an affluent
of the Durance), in an agreeable position, and is dominated afar
by snowy peaks on the N.E. The little city has the look of a
Provencal town, being white. The 17th-century cathedral
church has been entirely reconstructed (1866-1905). In the
prefecture is the tomb of the constable de Lesdiguieres (1543-
1626), dating from about 1613, and due to a Lorraine sculptor,
Jacob Richier. The same building contains various scientific
and archaeological collections, as well as the very rich archives,
which include many MSS. from the monastery of Durbon, &c.
There are a few small manufactories of purely local importance.
Gap is connected by railway with Briancon (51$ m.) and with
Grenoble (85} m.), while from the railway junction of Veynes
(i6|m.W. of Gap) it is 122 m. by rail to Marseilles. The episcopal
Bulala dynasty, an offshoot of the royal family of Kanem, whose
rule in the 15th century extended from the Shari to Darfur. The
existence of the state was first mentioned by Leo Africanua. To the
Bornuese it was known as Bulala or Kuka Bulala, a name which
persist* as that of a district in French Congo (see Boknu). The
similarity of the name Gaoga to that of the Songhoi capital has given
rise to much confusion.
see of Gap, now in the ecclesiastical province of Aix en Provence,
is first certainly mentioned in the 6th century, and in 1791 was
enlarged by the annexation of that of Embrun (then suppressed).
Gap is the Vapincum of the Romans, and was founded by
Augustus about 14 B.C. It long formed part of Provence, but in
1232 most of the region passed by marriage to the dauphins of
Viennois. The town itself, however, remained under the rule of
the bishops until 1512, when it was annexed to the crown of
France. The bishops continued to bear the title of count of
Gap until the Revolution. The town was sacked by the
Huguenots in 1567 and 1577, and by the duke of Savoy in 1692.
It was the birthplace of the reformer Guillaume Fare! (1480-
1565). who first preached his doctrines there about 1561-1562,
but then took refuge in Switzerland.
See J. Roman, Hiitoirt de la vOle de Cap (Gap, 1802).
(W. A. B. C)
GAPAN, a town of the province of Nueva Ecija, Luzon,
Philippine Islands, 3 m. E. of San Isidro, the capital. Pop.
(1903) 11,278. It is situated in a rich rice-growing region, and
extensive forests in its vicinity contain fine hardwoods. Its
climate is comparatively cool and healthy. The principal native
dialects spoken arc Tagalog and Pampangan. Gapan is the oldest
town of the province.
GARARISH (Kaxasish), a semi-nomadic tribe of Semitic
origin, dwelling along the right bank of the Nile from Widi
Haifa to MerawL Many members of the tribe are agriculturists,
others act as guides or transport drivers. They declare themselves
kinsfolk of the Ababda, but they are more Arab than Beja.
GARASHANIN, IUYA (1812-1874), Servian statesman, was
the son of a Servian peasant, who made money by exporting
cattle and pigs to Austria and by his intelligence and wealth
attained to a certain influence in the country. He wanted to
give his son as good an education as possible, and therefore sent
him to Hungary to learn first in a Greek and then in a German
school Highly gifted, and having passed through a regular
although somewhat short school training, the young Iliya very
quickly came to the front. In 1836 Prince Milosh appointed him
a colonel and commander of the then just organized regular army
of Servia. In 1842 he was called to the position of assistant to
the home minister, and from that time until his retirement from
public life in 1867 he was repeatedly minister of home affairs, dis-
tinguishing himself by the energy and justice of his administration.
But he rendered far greater services to his country as minister
for foreign affairs. He was the first Servian statesman who had a
political programme, and who worked to replace the Russian pro:
tectorate over Servia by the joint protectorate of all the great
powers of Europe. As minister for foreign affairs in 1853 he was
decidedly opposed to Servia joining Russia in war against Turkey
and the western powers. His anti-Russian views resulted in
Prince Menshikov, while on his mission in Constantinople, 1853,
peremptorily demanding from the prince of Servia (Alexander
Karageorgevich) his dismissal But although dismissed, his
personal influence in the country secured the neutrality of Servia
during the Crimean War. He enjoyed esteem in France, and it
was due to him that France proposed to the peace conference of
Paris (1856) that the old constitution, granted to Servia by
Turkey as suzerain and Russia as protector in 1839, should be
replaced by a more modern and liberal constitution, framed by a
European international commission. But the agreement of the
powers was not secured. Garashanin induced Prince Alexander
Karageorgevich to convoke a national assembly, which had not
been called to meet for ten years. The assembly was convoked
for St Andrew's Day 1858, but its first act was to dethrone Prince
Alexander and to recall the old Prince Milosh Obrenovicb. When
after the death of his father Milosh (in i860) Prince Michael
ascended the throne, he entrusted the premiership and foreign
affairs to lliya Garashanin. The result of their policy was that
Servia was given a new, although somewhat conservative, con-
stitution, and that she obtained, without war, the evacuation
of all the fortresses garrisoned by the Turkish troops on the
Servian territory, including the fortress of Belgrade (1867).
Garashanin was preparing a general rising of the Balkan nations
45*
GARAT— GARBLE
against the Turkish rule, and had entered into confidential
arrangements with the Rumanians, Bosnians, Albanians,
Bulgarians and Greeks, and more especially with Montenegro.
But the execution of his plans was frustrated by his sudden
resignation (at the end of 1867), and more especially by the
assassination of Prince Michael a few months later (the xoth of
June 1808). Although he was a Conservative in politics, and as
such often in conflict with the leader of the Liberal movement,
Yovan Ristich, he certainly was one of the ablest statesmen
whom Scrvia had in the 19th century. (C. Mi.)
GARAT, DOMINIQUE JOSEPH (1749-1833), French writer
and politician, was born at Bayonnc on the 8th of September
1740. After receiving a good education under the direction of a
relation who was a cure, and having been an advocate at Bor-
deaux, he came to Paris, where he obtained introductions to the
most distinguished writers of the time, and became a contributor
to the Encyclopedic milhodique and the If cr curt de France, He
gained considerable reputation by an lloge on Michel de L'Hopital
in 1778, and was afterwards three times crowned by the Academy
for iloges on Suger, Montausier and Fontenelle. In 1785 he was
named professor of history at the LyUe, where his lectures
enjoyed an equal popularity with those of G. F. Laharpe on
literature. Being chosen a deputy to the states-general in 1780,
he rendered important service to the popular cause by his
narrative of the proceedings of the Assembly contributed to the
Journal de Paris. Possessing strongly optimist views, a mild
and irresolute character, and indefinite and changeable con-
victions, he played a somewhat undignified part in the great
political events of the time, and became a pliant tool in carrying
out the designs of others. Danton had him named minister of
justice in 1792, and in this capacity had entrusted to him what he
called the commission af reuse of communicating to Louis XVI.
his sentence of death. In 1 793 he became minister of the interior.
In this capacity he proved himself quite inefficient. Though
himself un corrupt, he winked at the most scandalous corruption
in his subordinates, and in spite of the' admirably organized
detective service, which kept him accurately informed of every
movement in the capital, he entirely failed to maintain order,
which might easily have been done by a moderate display of
firmness. At last, disgusted with the excesses which, he had been
unable to control, he resigned (August 1 5, 1 793). On the and of
October he was arrested for Girondist sympathies but soon
released, and be escaped further molestation owing to the
friendship of Barras and, more especially, of Robespierre, whose
literary amour-propre he had been careful to flatter. On the 9th
Tbermidor, however, he took sides against Robespierre, and on
the 1 2th of September 1 704 he was named by the Convention as a
member of the executive committee of public instruction. In
1708 he was appointed ambassador to Naples, and in the following
year he became a member, then president, of the Council of the
Ancients. After the revolution of the 18th Brumaire he was
chosen a senator by Napoleon and created a count. During the
Hundred Days be was a member of the chamber of representa-
tives. In 1 803 he was chosen a member of the Instit utc of France,
but after the restoration of Louis XVIII. his name was, in 1816,
deleted from the list of members. After the revolution of 1830
he was named a member of the new Academy of Moral and
Political Science. He died at Ustaritz near Bayonnc, April 25,
1833. His writings arc characterized by elegance, grace and
variety of style, and by the highest kind of rhetorical eloquence;
but his grasp of his subject is superficial, and as his criticisms
have no root in fixed and philosophical principles they are not
unfrcquently whimsical and inconsistent. He must not be
confounded with bis elder brother Dominique (i73S-»799)» who
was also a deputy to the states-general.
The works of Garat include, besides those already mentioned.
Considerations sur la Revolution Fronfaise (Paris, 179a); Uimoires
sur la Revolution, ou exposi de ma conduite 0795); MSmoires sur
la vie de U. Suard. sur ses tcrils. et sur U XVIJJ* sitcle (1820);
tloges on Joubcrt, K16ber and Deaaix; several notices of distin-
guished persons; and a large number of articles in periodicals.
Valuable materials lor the history of Carat's tenure of the ministry,
ootably the police reports of Dutard, are given in W. A. Schmidt' I
roUKK&blUptliaum frtsMfoise (3 voJs.7Ldpxig, 1867-1870).
GARAT, PIERRE-JEAN (1764-1823), French singer, nephew
>f Dominique Joseph Garat, was born in Bordeaux on the 251b
>f April 1764. Gifted with a voice of exceptional timbre and
rompass he devoted himself, from an early age, to the cultivation
>f his musical talents. On account of his manifesting a distaste
or the legal profession, for which his father wished him to study,
le was deprived of his allowance, but through the patronage of a
riend he obtained the office of secretary to Comte d'Artots, and
was afterwards engaged to give musical lessons to the queen of
France. At the beginning of the Revolution he accompanied
Rode to England, where the two musicians appeared together in
roncerts. He returned to Paris in 1794. After the Revolution he
>ecame a professional singer, and on account of a song which be
lad composed in reference to the misfortunes of the royal family
le was thrown into prison. On regaining his liberty he went to
Hamburg, where he at once achieved extraordinary success; and
t>y his subsequent appearances in Paris, and his visits to Italy,
Spain, Germany and Russia, he made for himself a reputation u
1 singer unequalled by any other of his own time. He was a keen
partisan of Gluck in opposition to Handel. On the institution of
the Conservatoire de Musi que he became its professor of singing
He also composed a number of songs, many of which have
:onsiderable merit. He died on the xst of March 1823 in Paris.
GARAY, JANOS (18x2-1853), Hungarian poet and author,
was born on the xoth of October x8xa, at Szcgszfird, in the
rounty of Tolna. From 1823 to 1828 he studied at Funfkirchen,
uid subsequently, in 1829, at the university of Pest. In 1834 be
brought out an heroic poem, in hexameters, under the title
Csatdr. After this he issued in quick succession various hist orical
dramas, among which the most successful were Arbdts, OrsUfft
Uona and B&tkori Erzstbct — the first two published at Pest in
1837 and the last in 1840. Garay was an energetic journalist.
Mid in 1838 be removed to Pressburg, where he edited the political
journal HirnOk (Herald). He returned to Pest in 1830, when he
was elected a corresponding member of the Hungarian Academy
of Sciences. In 1842 he was admitted into the Kisfaludy Society,
of which he became second secretary. Garay enriched Hungarian
literature with numerous lyrical poems, ballads and tales. The
first collection of his poems was published at Pest in 1843; and
bis prose tales appeared in 1845, under the title of Tatlrajuk
(Sketches with the Pen). His historical ballads and legends,
ityled Arp&dok (Pest, 1847, and ed. 1848), showed him to be a
master in the art of ballad-writing. Some of his lyrical poems
slso are excellent, as, for example, Balatoni Kogyldk (Shells from
Lhe Balaton Lake) (Pest, 1848). His legend Bosnydk Zs*fi*
(Pest, 1847), and his poetical romance Frangepdn KrisUjni
(Christopher Frangepan's Wife) (Pest, 1846), gained the prise of
the Kisfaludy Society. His last and most famous work was an
historical poem in twelve cantos, with the title Szcnt Ldsd6
(Saint Ladislaus) (Egcr, 1852, 2nd ed., Pest, 1853, 3rd ed. 1863).
Garay was professor of Hungarian language and literature to the
university of Pest in 1848-1849. After about four years' illness
he died on the 5th of November 1853, in great want. A collective
edition of his poems was published at Pest the year after his
death by F. Ney (2nd ed. i860), and several of his poems were
translated by Kcrtbcny.
See Cany Jdnos Ossses kdltemfnyri (2nd ed., Pest, i860); and
Dichtungen von Jokann Garay (2nd ed., Vienna, 1856).
GARBLE (a word derived from the Arab, gharbcla, to sift, and
related to ghirbal, a sieve; the Arabic words are of foreign origin,
probably from the Lat. cribrum, a sieve), originally a medieval
commercial term in the Mediterranean ports, meaning to son
out, or to sift merchandize, such as corn, spices, Ac., in order
to separate what was good from the refuse or waste; hence to
select the best of anything for retention. Similarly a " garbler "
was an official who was appointed to sort out, or test the work of
those who bad already sorted, the spices or drugs offered for sale
in the London markets. In this original sense the word is now
obsolete, but by inversion, or rather perversion, " garble " now
means to sort out or select, chiefly from books or other literary
works, or from public speeches, tome portion which twists, muti-
lates, or ra4m*\xit&e«&^v\ATHe^
GARCAO— GARCIA DE PAREDES
457
OARtfO, PEDRO ANTONIO JOAQUIM CORRtA (1724-
1772), Portuguese lyric poet, was the son of Philippe Correa da
Sena, afidalgo of the royal house who held an important post in
the foreign office; his mother was of French descent. The poet's
health was frail, and after going through a Jesuit school in Lisbon
and learning English, French and Italian at home, he proceeded in
1743 to the university of Coimbra with a view to a legal career.
He took his degree in 1748, and two years later was created
a knight of the Order of Christ. In 1751 his marriage with
D. Maria Salema brought him a rich dower which enabled him
to live in ease and cultivate letters; but in later years a law-suit
reduced him to poverty. From 1760 to 1762 he edited the
Lisbon Gautte. In 1756, in conjunction with Cruz e Silva and
others, Garcao founded the Arcadia Lusitana to reform the
prevailing bad taste in literature, identified with Seiccntismo,
which delighted in conceits, windy words and rhetorical phrases.
The Arcadia fulfilled its mission to some extent, but it lacked
creative power, became dogmatic, and ultimately died of inanition.
Garcao was the chief contributor to its proceedings, bearing the
name of " Corydon Erimantheo," and his orations and dis-
sertations, with many of his lyrics, were pronounced and read at
its meetings. He lived much in the society of the English
residents in Lisbon, and he is supposed to have conceived a
passion for an English married lady which completely absorbed
him and contributed to his ruin. In the midst of his literary
activity and growing fame, he was arrested on the nigbt of the
9th of April 1771, and* committed to prison by Pombal, whose
displeasure he had incurred by his independence of character.
The immediate cause of his incarceration would appear to have
been his connexion with a love intrigue between a young friend of
his and the daughter of a Colonel Elsdcn, but he wis never
brought to trial, and the matter must remain in doubt. After
much solicitation, his wife obtained from the king an order for bcr
husband's release on the 10th of November 177a, but it came too
late. Broken by infirmities and the hardships of prison life,
Garcao expired that very day in the Lixnoeiro, at the age of
forty-seven.
Taking Horace as his model, and aided by sound judgment,
scholarship and wide reading, Garcao set out to raise and purify
the standard of poetical taste, and his verses are characterized by
a classical simplicity of form and expression. His sonnets ad
sodaUs show a charming personality; his vigorous and elegant
odes and epistles are sententious in tone and reveal an inspired
poet and a man chastened by suffering. His two comedies in
bendecasyllables, the Tkcatro Novo (played in January 1766)
and the AssemblSa, are excellent satires on the social life of the
capital; and in. the Cantata de Dido, included in the latter piece,
the spirit of Greek art is allied to perfection of form, making this
composition perhaps the gem of Portuguese 18th century poetry.
Garcao wrote little and spent much time on the labor limae.
Hm works were published posthumously in 1778, and the most com-
plete and accessible edition is that ofj. A. de Azcvcdo Castro (Rome,
1888). An English version of the Cantata de Dido appeared in the
Academy (January 19th, 1805). Sec Innoccncio da Silva. Dtc.ctona.rio
bibliograpkico Portuguez, vol. vi. pp. 386-391, and vol. xvii. pp. 18a-
184; also Dr Thcophilo Braga, A Arcadia Lusitana (Oporto, 1899).
GARCIA (DEL POPOLO VICEN70), MANOEL (1775-183*),
Spanish singer and composer, was born in Seville on the 22nd of
January 1775. He became a chorister at the cat hedral of Seville,
and studied music under the best masters of that city. At
seventeen he made his debut on the stage at Cadiz, in an operetta,
in which were included songs of his own composition. Soon after-
wards he appeared at Madrid in the twofold capacity of singer and
composer. His reputation being established, he proceeded to
Paris, where he appeared for the first time, in 1808, in Paer's
opera Griselda. Here also he was received with great applause,
his style of singing being especially appreciated. This he further
improved by careful study of the Italian method in Italy itself,
where he continued his successes. His opera // Califo di Bagdad
was favourably received at Naples ip 181 2, but his chief successes
were again due to his perfection as a vocalist. His opera La
Mori* di Toss* was produced in 1S21 fa Paris, where it was
followed in 1823 by his II FaxsoUito. In 1824 he went to London,
and thence proceeded to America (1825) with a company of
artistes, amongst whom were his son Manoel and his daughter
Maria, better known under her subsequent name of Malibran.
In New York was produced his opera La Figlia dcW aria in 1827.
He extended his artistic tour as far as Mexico, and was on the
point of returning to Europe in order to retire from public life
when he was robbed of his well-earned wealth by brigands on his
way to Vera Cruz. Settled again in Paris in 1829, he soon retired
from the stage, and devoted himself exclusively to teaching. He
died in Paris on the 2nd of June 1832. His method of teaching
was famous, and some of the most celebrated singers of the early
part of the century were amongst his pupils. He also wrote an
excellent book on the art of singing called hfctodo di canto, of
which the essence was subsequently incorporated by his sob
Manoel in his admirable Traits compkt de Vart du chant (1847).
His operas have not survived their day. He wrote nearly forty {a
all, but with the exception of those quoted, and El Pacta calculista,
produced when he was' thirty, none arc remarkable. Besides the
children already mentioned, his daughter Paulina, Madame
Viardot (1821-1910), worthily continued the tradition for the
best singing with which his name' had become associated.
His. son, Manoel Garcia (1805-1006), who celebrated his
hundredth birthday in London on the 17th of March 1005, was
born at Madrid, and after his father's death devoted himself to
teaching. He was a professor at the Paris Conservatoire from
1830 to 1848, from that time to 189$ was a professor at the
Royal Academy of Music in London. He became famous for his
invention of the laryngoscope about 1850, apart from his position
as the greatest representative of the old '* bd canto " style of
singing.
GARCfA DE LA HUERTA, VICENTE ANTONIO (1734-1787)1
Spanish dramatist, was born at Zafra on the 9th of March 17341
and was educated at Salamanca. At Madrid he soon attracted
attention by his literary arrogance and handsome person; and
at an early age became chief of the National Library, a post from
which he was dismissed owing to the intrigues of his numerous
enemies. The publication of his unsatisfactory collection of
Spanish plays entitled Tlicatro Ilcspanol (1 785-1 786) exposed him
to severe censures, which appear to have affected his reason.
He died at Madrid on the 12th of March 1787, without carrying
into effect his avowed intention of reviving the national drama.
His Agamemnon vengado derives from Sophocles, his J aire is
translated from Voltaire, and even his once fam9us Roquet,
though Spanish in subject, is classic in form.
QARCfA DE PAREDES, DIEGO (1466-1534), Spanish soldier
and duellist, was a native of Trujillo in Estremadura, Spain.
He never commanded an army or rose to the position of a general,
but he was a notable figure in the wars of the end of the 1 5th and
beginning of the 16th century, when personal prowess had still a
considerable share in deciding the result of actions. His native*
town and its district, which lie between Talavera and Madrid,
produced many of the most noted conquistadorcs of America,
including the Pizarro family. Diego himself served in his youth
in the war of Granada. His strength, daring and activity fitted
him to shine in operations largely composed of night marches,
escalades, surprises and hand-to-hand combats. The main
scene of his achievements was m Italy, and he betook himself to
it — on his own showing— not in search of glory, but because he
had killed a relation of his own, Ruy Sanchez de Vargas, in a street
fight arising out of a quarrel about a horse. He fled to Rome,
then under the rule of the Borgias. Diego was a distant relation
to the cardinal of Santa Cruz (Carvajal), a favourite with Pope
Alexander VI., who was in conflict with the barons of the
Romagna and took Diego into his service. He remained a soldier
of the pope till he killed a man in a personal quarrel and found it
necessary to pass over to the enemy. Now he became acquainted
with the Colonnas, who appreciated his services. The wars
between Ferdinand V. of Aragon (the Catholic king) and Louis
XII. gave him a more creditable opening. The Spanish general
Gonsalvo de Cordoba, who knew his value, employed. Kim and
trusted Yum; and tot U»\l vtxvfe i&^ <wra<fc\N*si w**n.
4S»
GARCIA GUTIERREZ— GARDA, LAKE OF
frontier of Navarre, and once against the Turks on the Danube,
till 1530. His countrymen made him the hero of many
Munchausen-like stories of personal prowess. It was said that he
held a bridge single-handed against 200 Frenchmen, that he
stopped the wheel of a water-mill, and so forth. In the " Brief
Summary " of his life and deeds attributed to him, and printed at
the end of the Chronicle of the Great Captain, published in 1584 at
Alcali de Henares, he lays no claim to having done more than
was open to a very athletic man. He was killed at Bologna in
1534 by a fall while engaged in a jumping- match with some of
the younger officers of the army. His body was carried to his
native town Trujillo, and buried in the church ol Santa Maria
Mayor in 1545. ^^
GARCfA GUTIERflEZ, ANTONIO (28x2-1884), Spanish
dramatist, was born at Chidana (Cadiz) on the 5th of July x8i 2,
and studied medicine in his native town. In 1832 he removed
to Madrid, and earned a scanty living by translating plays of
Scribe and the elder Dumas; despairing of success, he was on the
point of enlisting when he suddenly sprang into fame as the author
of El Tr evador, which was played for the first time on the 1st of
March 1836. Garda Gutierrez never surpassed, this first effort,
which placed him among the leaders of the romantic movement
in Spain, and which became known all over Europe through
Verdi's music His next great success was Simdn Bocanegra
(1843), but, as his plays were not lucrative, he emigrated to
Spanish America, working as a journalist in Cuba and Mexico till
1850, when he returned to Spain. The best works of his later
period are a tanuela entitled El GrumeU (1853), La Venganza
calalona (1864) and Juan Lorenzo (1865). He became head of
the archaeological museum at Madrid, and died there on the 6th
of August 1884. His Potstas (1840) and another volume of
lyrics, entitled Lux y tinicbtas (1842), are unimportant, but the
brilliant versification of his plays, and his power of analysing
feminine emotions, give him a foremost place among the Spanish
dramatists of the 19th century.
GAUD, a department in the south of France, consisting of part
of the old province of Languedoc Pop. (1006) 421,166. Area
3270 sq. m. It is bounded N. by the departments of Lozere and
Ardeche, E. by the Rhone, which separates it from Vaucluse and
Bouches-du-Rhdne, S. by' the Mediterranean, S.W. by Herault
and W. by Aveyron. Card is divided into three sharply-defined
regions. Its north-western districts are occupied by the range of
the Cevennes, which on the frontier of Lozere attain a height of
5120 ft. The whole of this region is celebrated for its fruitful
valleys, its gorges, its beautiful streams, its pastures, and the
chestnut, mulberry and other fruit trees with which the
mountains are often clothed to their summits. The Garrigues, a
dry, hilly region of limestone, which lends itself to the cultivation
of cereals, the vine and olive, stretches from the foot of the
Cevennes over the centre of the department, covering about half
its area. The southern portion, which extends to the sea, and was
probably at one time covered by it, is a low plain with numerous
lakes and marshes. Though unhealthy, it is prosperous, and
comprises the best arable land and vineyards in Gard.
Besides the Rhone, which bounds the department on the E.,
and the Ardeche, the lower course of which forms part of its
boundary on the N., the principal rivers are the Ceze, Gard,
Vidourle and Herault. The most northern of these is the Ceze,
which rises in the Cevennes, and after a course of about 50 m. in
an E.S.E. direction falls into the Rhone above Roquemaure.
The Gard, or Gardon, from which the department takes its name,
is also an affluent of the Rhone, and, rising in the Cevennes from
several sources, traverses the centre of the department, having a
length of about 60 m. In the upper part of its course It flows
through a succession of deep mountain gorges, and from the
melting of the snows on the C6vennes is subject to inundations,
which often cause great damage. Its waters not infrequently
rise 18 or 20 ft in a few hours, and its bed is sometimes increased
in width to nearly a mile. Near Rcmoulins it is crossed by a
celebrated Roman aqueduct— the Pont du Gard (see Aqu^ductX
The VJdourJe flows in a S.S.E. direction from its source near Le
I^^Mj^s/ttTMCouaa of About so^MlkintothtK^. tyttow
Sommieres it forms the western boundary of the department.
The Herault has its source and part of its course in the west of
Gard. The Canal de Beaucaire extends from the Rhone at
Beaucaire to Aigues-Mortes, which communicates with the
Mediterranean at Grau-du-Roi by meant of the Grand-Rouhine
The climate is warm in the south-east, colder in the north-
west; it is rather changeable, and rain-storms are common. The
cold and violent north-west wind known as the mistral b its
worst drawback. Les Fumades (near Ailegre) and Euzet have
mineral springs. The chief grain crops are wheat and oats.
Rye, barley and potatoes are also grown. Gard is famed for its
cattle, its breed of small horses, and its sheep, the wool of which is
of a very fine quality. In the rearing of silk- worms it ranks first
among French departments. The principal fruit trees are the
olive, mulberry and chestnut. The vine is extensively cultivated
and yields excellent red and white wines. The department ii
rich in minerals, and the mines of coal, iron, lignite, asphalt,
zinc, lead and copper, which arc for the most part situated in the
neighbourhoods of Alais and La Grand '-Combe, constitute one of
the duel .sources of its wealth. Great quantities of salt are
obtained from the salt marshes along the coast. The quarries of
building and other stone employ a considerable number of work-
men. The fisheries are productive. The manufactures are exten-
sive, and include those of silk, of which Alais is the chief centre,
cotton and woollen fabrics, hosiery, ironware, hats (Andnze),
liquorice, gloves, paper, leather, earthenware and glass. There
are also breweries and distilleries, and important metallurgical
works, the chief of which are those of Bcsseges. The exports el
Gard include coal, lignite, coke, asphalt, building-stone, iron,
steel, silk, hosiery, wine, olives, grapes and truffles.
The department is served by the Paris-Lyon railway. It is
divided into the arrondissements of Nlmes, Alais, Uses and Le
Vigan, with 40 cantons and 351 communes. The chief town is
Nlmes, which is the seat of a bishopric of the province of Avignon
and of a court of appeal Gard belongs to the 15th military
region, which has its headquarters at Marseilles, and to the
academie (educational division) of Montpellier. Nlmes, Alais,
Uzes, Aigues-Mortes, Beaucaire,Saint-Gilles, Beaseges,La Grand'-
Combe and Villeneuve-les-Avignon are the principal places.
Opposite the manufacturing town of Pont -St- Esprit the .Rhone
is crossed by a fine medieval bridge more than 1000 yds. long
built by the Pontiff brethren. Le Vigan, an ancient town with
several old houses, carries on silk-spinning.
GARDA, LAKE OF (the Locus Bcnacus of the Romans), the
most easterly and the most extensive of the great Lombard
lakes, being only surpassed in the Alpine region by those of
Geneva and Constance. Save the extreme northern extremity
(Riva, which was secured from Venice by Tirol in 1517), the
whole lake is Italian, being divided between the provinces of
Verona and Brescia* Its broad basin orographically represents
the southern portion of the valley of the Adige, though that river
now flows through a narrow trench which is separated from the
lake by the long narrow ridge of the Monte Baldo (7277 ft.).
Nowadays the lake is fed by the Sarca, that flows in at its north
end from the glaciers of the Adamello, while at the southern
extremity of the lake the Minrio flows out, on its way to join the
Po. The area of the lake is about 143 sq. m., its length is 3 »i m.,
its greatest breadth is about 10 m., the height of itssurfaceabove
sea-level is 216 ft. and the greatest depth yet measured is 19x6 ft*
Its upper or northern end is narrow, but between Garda (E.) and
Said (W.) the lake expands gradually into a nearly circular basin,
which at the southern extremity is divided into two pans by the
long low promontory of Sermione, that projects from the southern
shore between Peschiera and Desenzano. Owing to this con-
formation the lake is much exposed to sudden and violent winds,
which Virgil alludes to in his well-known line {Gtorf. ii. line 160):
fiuciibus ct frtmitu ossurgtns, Benoce t marino. The most
dangerous of these winds is the Borea or Suer, that sweeps down
from the north as through a funneL In the southern portion of
the lake the Vinesso, an E.S.E. wind, is most dreaded. TJ* On
i.b •> iftvAu .wind csmin*lwa ito* wsx %\wJt^«a waduncths
GARDANE— GARDINER
459
lake, blows from S. to N. The steep grey limestone crags of
Monte Baldo, on the eastern side of the lake, contrast strongly
with the rich vegetation on the western and southern shores.
The portion of the western shore that extends from Gargnano to
Said is the most sheltered and warmest part of the region, so that
not merely does it resemble one continuous garden (producing
lemons, figs, mulberries, olives, &c), but is frequented in winter,
and has been given the name of the Riviera Benacense. The
lovely promontory of Scrmione, at the southern end of the lake,
has also an extremely luxuriant vegetation, while It contains
many remains of buildings of Roman and later date, having been
the Sirmio of Catullus, who resided here and celebrated its beauties
in many of his poems. In 1837 a boat with paddles set in motion
by horses was put on the lake, but the first steamer dates only
from 1844. At the south end of the lake, E. and W. respectively
of the promontory of Scrmione, are the towns of Pcschiera
(14} m. by rail from Verona on the east) and of Dcsenzano (1 7) m.
by rail from Brescia on the west), which arc 8j m. distant from
each other. On the west shore of the lake arc Said, Toscolano,
Gargnano and Limone, while the rugged cast shore can boast
only of Bardolino and Garda. At the northern tip of the lake,
and in Tirol, is Riva, the most considerable town on the lake,
and 15! m. by rail from the Mori station on the main Brenner
Hne. (W.A.B.C.)
GARDAMK, CLAUDS MATTHIBU, Count (1766- 181 8),
French general and diplomatist, was born on the 30th of January
1766. He entered the army and rose rapidly during the revolu-
tionary wars, becoming captain in 1703. In May 1799 he
distinguished himself by saving a division of the French army
whkh was about to be crushed by the Russians at the battle of
Bassignana,and was named at once brigadier-general by Morcau.
He incurred Napoleon's displeasure for an omission of duty
shortly before the battle of Marengo (June 14th, 1800), but in
1805 was appointed to be aide-de-camp of the emperor. His chief
distinction, however, was to be won in the diplomatic sphere.
In the spring of 1807, when Russia and Prussia were at war with
France, and the emperor Alexander I. of Russia was also engaged
in hostilities with Persia, the court of Teheran sent a mission to
the French emperor, then at the castle of Finkenstein in the east
of Prussia, with a view to the conclusion of a Franco-Persian
alliance. This was signed on the 4th of May 1807, at that castle;
and Napoleon designed Gardane as special envoy for the cement-
ing of that alliance. The secret instructions which he drew up
for Gardane, and signed on the 30th of May, are of interest as
showing the strong oriental trend of the emperor's policy. France
was to guarantee the integrity of Persia, to recognize that
Georgia (then being invaded by the Russians) belonged to the
shah, and was to make all possible efforts for restoring that
territory to him. She was also to furnish to the shah arms,
officers and workmen, in the number and to the amount
demanded by him. Napoleon on his side required Persia to
declare war against Great Britain, to expel all Britons from her
territory, and to come to an understanding with the Afghans
with a view to a joint Franco-Pcrso-Afghan invasion of India.
Gardane, whose family was well known in the Levant, had a long
and dangerous journey overland, but was cordially received at
Teheran in December 1807. The conclusion of the Franco-
Russian treaty at Tilsit in July 1807 rendered the mission
abortive. Persia longed only for help against Russia and had
no desire, when all hope of that was past, to attack India. The
shah, however, promised to expel Britons and to grant to France
a commercial treaty. For a time French influence completely
replaced that of England at Teheran, and the mission of Sir
John Malcolm to that court was not allowed to proceed. Finally,
however, Gardane saw that nothing much was to be hoped for in
the changed situation of European affairs, and abruptly left the
country (April 1809). This conduct was not wholly approved by
Napoleon, but he named him count and in 1810 attached him
to Massena's army in Portugal. There, during the disastrous
retreat from Santarcm to Almeida, he suffered a check which
brought him into disfavour. The rest of his career calls for no
jKtdce. Hi died in 1818. The report which be sent to Cham-
pagny (dated April 13rd, 1800) 00 the stale of Persia and the
prospects of a successful invasion of India is of great interest-
He admitted the difficulties of this enterprise, but thought that
a force of picked French troops, aided by Persians and Afghans,
might under favourable conditions penetrate into India by way of
Kandahar, or through Sind, especially if the British were dis-
tracted by maritime attacks from Mauritius.
See Count Alfred de Gardane, Mission dngtnhal Cardan* tn Perse
(Paris, 1865); and P. A. L. de Driault, La Politique oriental* do
NapoUon 1 Sibastiani el Cardan* (Paris, 1904). (J. Hl. R.)
QARDELEGEN, a town of Germany, in Prussian Saxony, on
the right bank of the Milde, 20 m. W. from Stendal, on the main
line of railway Berlin-Hanover. Pop. (1905) 8193. It has a
Roman Catholic and three Evangelical churches, a hospital,
founded in z 285, and a high-grade school There arc considerable
manufactures, notably agricultural machinery and buttons, and
its beer has a great repute. Gardelegen was founded in the 10th
century, and was for a long time the seat of a line of counts. It
suffered considerably in the Thirty Years' War, and in 1775 was
burned by the French. On the neighbouring heath Margrave
Louis I. of Brandenburg gained, in 1343, a victory over Otto the
Mild of Brunswick,
GARDEN (from O. Fr. gardin, mod Fr. jardtn; this, like
our words "garth," a paddock attached to a building, and
" yard," comes from a- Teutonic Word for an enclosure which
appears in Gothic as gards and O. H. Ger. garl, cf. Dutch gaardo
and Ger. gar ten), the ground enclosed and cultivated for the
growth of fruit, flowers or vegetables (see Horticulture).
The word is also used for grounds laid out ornamentally, used as
places of public entertainment. Such were the famous Ranelagh
and Vauxhall Gardens in London; it is similarly used in zoologi-
cal gardens, and as a name in towns for squares, terraces or
streets. From the fact that Epicurus (q.v.) taught in the gardens
at Athens, the disciples of his school of philosophy were known as
ol dro r£>r idptuv (so Diog. LaCrtius z. xo); and Cicero (De
finibus v. t. 3, and elsewhere) speaks of the Horti Epicuri.
Thus as the " Academy " refers to the Platonic and the " Porch *
(aroa) to the Stoic school, so the " Garden ' r is the name given to
the Epicurean school of philosophy. ApoUodorus was known as
aprorlpapvot, the tyrant of the garden.
GARDENIA, in botany, a genus of the natural order Rubiaeeae,
containing about sixty species of evergreen trees and shrubs,
natives of the warmer parts of the old world. Several are
grown in stoves or greenhouses for their handsome, sweet-scented
white flowers. The flowers are developed singly at the end of a
branch or in the leaf-axils, and are funnel- or salver-shaped with
a long tube. The double forms of Gardenia florida (a native of
China) and G. radicans (a native of Japan) are amongst the most
beautiful and highly perfumed of any in cultivation. Gardenias
are grown chiefly for cut flowers, and are readily propagated by
cuttings. They require plenty of heat and moisture in the grow-
ing season, and must be kept free from insects such as the mealy
bug, green fly, red spider and scale-insect.
GARDINER, JAMES (16S8-1745), Scottish soldier, 'was born at
Camden in Linlithgowshire, on the x ith of January 1688. At the
age of fourteen he entered a Scottish regiment in the Dutch
service, and was afterwards present at the battle of Ramiltics,
where he was wounded. He subsequently served in different
cavalry regiments, and in 1730 was advanced to the rank of
lieutenant-colonel, and in 1743 to that of colonel. He fell at the
battle of Prestonpans, the sxst of September 174s. The
circumstances of his death are described in Sir Walter Scott's
Waver ley. In his early years he was distinguished for his
recklessness and profligacy, but in 17x9 a supernatural vision,
as he regarded it, led to his conversion, and from that time he
lived a life of great devoutness and of thorough consistency with
his Christian profession. Dr Alexander Carlyle of Inveresk,
author of an autobiography, says that he was " very osten-
tatious " about his conversion — speaks of him as weak, and
plainly thinks there was a great deal of delusion in CoL
Gardiner's account of bis sins.
Hia life was written b* Ik TOKa^ VfeAAntagt «^\
460
GARDINER, S. R.— GARDINER, STEPHEN
OARDINEH, SAMUEL RAWSON (1829-1902), English
historian, son of Rawson Boddam Gardiner, was born near
Alresford, Hants, on the 4th of March 1820. He was educated at
Winchester and Christ Church, Oxford, where he obtained a first
class in literoc humaniores. He was subsequently elected to
fellowships at All Souls (1884) and Merton (1892). For some
years he was professor of modern history at King's College,
London, and devoted his life to historical work. He is the
historian of the Puritan revolution, and has written its history in
a series of volumes, originally published under different titles,
beginning with the accession of James I. ; the seventeenth (the
third volume of the History of the Commonwealth and Protectorate)
appeared in 1901. This was completed in two volumes by C. H.
Firth as The Last Years of the Protectorate (1909). The scries is
History of England from the Accession of James I. to the Outbreak
of the Civil War, 1603-1642 (10 Vols.); History of the Great Civil
War, 1642- 164Q (4 vols.); and History of the Commonwealth and
Protectorate, 1640-1660. His treatment is exhaustive and
philosophical, taking in, along with political and constitutional
history, the changes, in religion, thought and sentiment during his
period, their causes and their tendencies. Of the original
authorities on which his work is founded many of great value
exist only in manuscript, and his- researches in public and
private collections of manuscripts at home, and in the archives
of Simancas, Venice, Rome, Brussels and Paris, were inde-
fatigable and fruitful. His accuracy is universally acknowledged.
He was perhaps drawn to the Puritan period by the fact of his
descent from Cromwell and Ireton, but he has certainly written of
it with no other purpose than to set forth the truth. In his
judgments of men and their actions he is unbiassed, and his
appreciations of character exhibit a remarkable fineness of
perception and a broad sympathy. Among many proofs of these
qualities it will be enough to refer to what he says of the characters
of James I., Bacon, Laud, Strafford and Cromwell. On consti-
tutional matters he writes with an insight to be attained only by
the study of political philosophy, discussing in a masterly
fashion the dreams of idealists and the schemes of government
proposed by statesmen. Throughout his work he gives a promi-
nent place to everything which illustrates human progress in
moral and religious, as well as- political conceptions, and specially
to the rise and development of the idea of religious toleration,
finding his authorities not only in the words and actions of men of
mark, but in the writings of more or less obscure pamphleteers,
whose essays indicate currents in the tide of public opinion.
His record of the relations between England and other states
proves his thorough knowledge of contemporary European
history, and is rendered specially valuable by his researches
among manuscript sources which have enabled him to expound
for the first time some intricate pieces of diplomacy.
Gardiner's work is long and minute; the fifty-seven years
which it covers are a period of exceptional importance in many
directions, and the actions and characters of the principal persons
in it demand careful analysis. He is perhaps apt to attach an
exaggerated importance to some of the authorities which he was
the first to bring to light, to see a general tendency in what may
only be the expression of an individual eccentricity, to rely too
much on ambassadors' reports which may have been written for
some special end, to enter too fully into the details of diplomatic
correspondence. In any case the length of his work is not the
result of verbiage or repetitions. His style is clear, absolutely
unadorned, and somewhat lacking in force; he appeals con-
stantly to the intellect rather than to the emotions, and is seldom
picturesque, though in describing a few famous scenes, such as the
execution of Charles I., he writes with pathos and dignity. The
minuteness of his narrative detracts from its interest; though
his arrangement is generally good, here and there the reader
finds the thread of a subject broken by the intrusion of incidents
not immediately connected with it, and does not pick it up.again
without an effort. And Gardiner has the defects of his supreme
qualities, of his fairness and critical ability as a judge of character;
Jtif work lacks enthusiasm, and /eaves the reader cold and un-
mewsd. Yet, apart from its sterling excellence, It is not without
ness of thought, a love of parity
te and feeling. He wrote other
, but his great history is that by
1 worthy result of a life of unre-
iment of historical scholarship.
formally acknowledged: in 1862
if £1 50 per annum, *' in recogni-
is to the history of England ";
ord, LL.D. of Edinburgh, and
ary student of Christ Church,
ed the appointment of regius
Oxford, lest its duties should
rat of his history. He died on
f Gardiner's separate work* are:
ferriage (2 vols., London, 1869);
iritan Revolution, 1625-1660 (1st
, 1899); Oliver Cromwell (London,
as (London, 1897): Outline 4
, 1887; 2nd ed., London. 1896);
(2 vols.. 1st ed.. London, 1890-
892). He edited collection* of
ind from 1891 was editor of the
(W. Ho.)
193-1555)» English bishop and
Jury St Edmunds. The date of
1$, seems to be about- ten years
ave passed current that he was
of no authority. His father is
l Gardiner, a substantial doth
ras born (see his* will, printed in
\eologUal Institute, 1. 329), who
cation. In 1 51 f he, being then
Nichols's Epistles of Erasmus,
ly already been to Cambridge,
I and greatly distinguished him*
Greek. He afterwards devoted
w, in which subjects he attained
: could dispute his pre-eminence,
of civil law in 1 5 20, and of c
[ the notice of Cardinal Wolsey,
n this capacity he is said to have
:rtfordshire, when the conclusion
More brought Henry VIII. and
-. It is stated, and with great
occasion on which he was first
but he does not appear to have
service till three years later. In
acquired a very intimate know*
1527 be and Sir Thomas More
ic part of England in arranging
adors for the support of an army
hat year he accompanied Wobey
ion to France, the splendour and
mjcally described by Cavendish,
mt with the cardinal — including,
id privy councillors — Gardiner
inted with the real heart of the
a thing of such peculiar moment,
dous to cement his alliance witb
ration as far as possible in the
f set his heart — a divorce from
course of his progress through
Icnry to send back his secretary
court, Master Stevens, for fresh
liged to reply that he positively
the only instrument he had in
tter." Next year Gardiner, still
enl by him to Italy along with
College, Cambridge, to promote
His despatches on this occasion
may think of the cause on which
$«« * ^ocAwV<iV\MJjK«^Tvtiofc*
GARDINER, STEPHEN
+61
real and ability with which be discharged his functions. Here his
perfect familiarity with the canon law gave him a great advantage.
He was instructed to procure from the pope a decretal com-
mission, laying down principles of law by which Wolsey and
Campeggio might hear and determine the cause without appeal
The demand, though supported by plausible pretexts, was not
only unusual but dearly inadmissible. Clement VII. was then at
Orvieto, and had just recently escaped from captivity at St
Angelo at the hands of the imperialists. But fear of offending
the emperor could not have induced him to refuse a really
legit imate request from a king like Henry. He naturally referred
the question to the cardinals about him; with wbom Gardiner
held long arguments, enforced, it would seem, by not a little
browbeating of the College. What was to be thought, he said, of
a spiritual guide, who either could not or would not show the
wanderer his way? The king and lords of England would be
driven to think that God had taken away from the Holy See the
key of knowledge, and that pontifical laws which were not dear
to the pope himself might as well be committed to the flames.
This ingenious pleading, however, did not serve, and he was
obliged to be content with a general commission for Campeggio
and Wolsey to try the cause in England. This, as Wolsey saw,
was quite inadequate for the purpose in view; and he again
instructed Gardiner, while thanking the pope for the commission
actually granted, to press him once more by very urgent pleas,
to send the desired decretal on, even if the latter was only to be
shown to the king and himself and then destroyed. Otherwise,
he wrote, he would lose his credit with the king, who might even
be tempted to throw off his allegiance to Rome altogether. At
last the pope — to his own bitter regret afterwards— gave what
was desired on the express conditions named, that Campeggio
was to show it to the king and Wolsey and no one else, and then
destroy it, the two legates holding their court under the general
commission. After obtaining this Gardiner returned home;
but early in the following year, 1529, when proceedings were
delayed on information of the brief in Spain, he was sent once
more to Rome. This time, however, his efforts were unavailing.
The pope would make no further concessions, and would not
even promise not to revoke the cause to Rome, as he did very
shortly after.
Gardiner's services, however, were fully appreciated. He was
appointed the king's secretary. He had been already some years
archdeacon of Taunton, and the archdeaconry of Norfolk was
added to it in March 1529, which two years later he resigned for
that of Leicester. In 1 530 he was sent to Cambridge to procure
the decision of the university as to the unlawfulness of marriage
with a deceased brother's wife, in accordance with the new plan
devised for settling the question without the pope s intervention^
In this he succeeded, though not without a good deal of artifice,
more creditable to his ingenuity than to his virtue. In November
1 53 1 the king rewarded him for his services with the- bishopric
of Winchester, vacant by Wolsey's death. The promotion was
unexpected, and was accompanied by expressions from the king
which made it still more honourable, as showing that if he had
been in some things too subservient, it was from no abject, self-
seeking policy of bis own. Gardiner had, in fact, ere this remon-
strated boldly with his sovereign on some points, and Henry
now reminded him of the fact,. " I have often squartd with you,
Gardiner," he said familiarly, " but I love you never the worse,
as the bishopric I give will convince yon." In 153a, nevertheless,
he exdted some displeasure in the king by the part he took in the
preparation of the famous " Answer of the Ordinaries " to the
complaints brought against them in the House of Commons.
On this subject he wrote a very manly letter to the king in his own
defence.
His next important action was not so creditable; for he was,
not exactly, as is often said, one of Cranmer's assessors, but,
according to Cranmer's own expression, " assistant " to him as
counsd for the king, when the archbishop, in the absence of
Queen Catherine, pronounced her marriage with Henry null and
void on the 23rd of May 1533. Immediately afterwards he was
sent over to Marseilles, where an interview between the pope and
Francis I. took place in September, of which event Henry
stood in great suspicion, as Francis was ostensibly his moat
cordial ally, and had hitherto maintained the justice of his cause
in the matter of the divorce. It was at this interview that Bonner
intimated the appeal of Henry VIII. to a general council in case
the pope should venture to proceed to sentence against him.
This appeal, and also one on behalf of Cranmer presented with it,
were of Gardiner's drawing up. In 1535 he and other bishops
were called upon to vindicate the king's new title of " Supreme
Head of the Church of England." The result was his celebrated
treatise Dt vera obedicnHa, the ablest, certainly, of all the
vindications of royal supremacy. In the same year he had an
unpleasant dispute with Cranmer about the visitation of his
diocese. He was also employed to answer the pope's brief
threatening to deprive Henry of his kingdom.
During the next few years he -was engaged in various embassies
in France and Germany. He was indeed so much abroad that
he had little influence upon the king's councils. But in 1 530 be
took part in the enactment of the severe statute of the Six Articles,
which led to the resignation of Bishops Latimer and Shaxton and
the persecution of the Protestant party. In 1540, on the death of
Cromwell, earl of Essex, he was elected chancellor of the university
of Cambridge. A few years later he attempted, in concert with
others, to fasten a charge of heresy upon Archbishop Cranmer in
connexion with the Act of the Six Articles; and but for the
personal intervention of the king he would probably have
succeeded. He was, in fact, though he had supported the royal
supremacy, a thorough opponent of the Reformation m a
doctrinal point of view, and it was suspected that he even
repented his advocacy of the royal supremacy. He certainly
had not approved of Henry's general treatment of the church,
especially during the ascendancy of Cromwell, and he was
frequently visited with storms of royal indignation, which he
schooled himself to bear with patience. In 1544 a relation of
his own, named German Gardiner, whom he employed as his
secretary, was put to death for treason in reference to the king's
supremacy, and his enemies insinuated to the king that he
himself was of bis secretary's way of thinking. But in truth the
king had need of him quite as much, as he had of Cranmer; for it
was Gardiner, who even under royal supremacy, was anxious
to prove that England had not fallen away from the faith,
while Cranmer's authority as primate was necessary to upholding
that supremacy. Thus Gardiner and the archbishop maintained
opposite sides of the king's church policy; and though Gardiner
was encouraged by the king to put up articles against the arch-
bishop himself for heresy, the archbishop could always rdy on the
king's protection in the end. Heresy was gaining ground in high
places, especially after the king's marriage with Catherine Parr;
and there seems to be some truth in the story that the queen
herself was nearly committed for it at one time, when Gardiner,
with the king's approbation, censured some of her expressions
in conversation. In fact, just after her marriage, four men
of the Court were condemned at Windsor and three of them
were burned. The fourth, who was the musician Marbeck, was
pardoned by Gardiner's procurement.
Great as Gardiner's influence had been with Henry VIII., hit
name was omitted at the last in the king's will, though Henry
was believed to have intended making him one of his executors*'
Under Edward VI. he was completely opposed to the policy of the
dominant party both in ecclesiastical and in civil matters. The
religious changes be objected to both on prindple and on the
ground of their being moved during the king's minority; and
he resisted Cranmer's project of a general visitation. His re*
monstrances, however, were met by his own committal to the
Fleet, and the visitation of his diocese was held during his
imprisonment. Though soon afterwards released r h was not long
before he was called before the council, and, refusing to give
them satisfaction on some points, was thrown into the Tower*
where he continued during the whole remainder of the reign, a
period slightly over five years. During this time he in vain
demanded his liberty, and to be called before parliament as a peer
ei the ttataa. H*WiJcKa>ik > <ii?*\jtiimVKiux^^
4-62
GARDINER— GARDNER
Poynet, a chaplain of Cranmer's who had not long before been
made bishop of Rochester. At the accession of Queen Mary, the
duke of Norfolk and other state prisoners of high rank were in the
Tower along with him; but the queen, on her first entry into
London, set them ail at liberty. Gardiner was restored to his
bishopric and appointed lord chancellor, and he set the crown on
the queen's bead at her coronation. He also opened her first
parliament and for some time was her leading councillor.
He was now called upon, in advanced life, to undo not a little of
the work in which he had been instrumental in his earlier years—
(o vindicate the legitimacy of the queen's birth and the lawfulness
of her mother's marriage, to restore the old religion, and to
recant what be himself had written touching the royal supremacy.
It is said that he wrote a formal Palinodia or retractation of his
book Dc vera obediential but it does not seem to be now extant;
and the reference is probably to his sermon on Advent Sunday
1554. after Cardinal Pole had absolved the kingdom from schism.
As chancellor he had the onerous task of negotiating the queen's
marriage treaty with Philip, to which he shared the general
repugnance, though he could not oppose her will. In executing it,
however, he took care to make the terms as advantageous for
England as possible, with express provision that the Spaniards
should in nowise be allowed to interfere in the government of the
country. After the coming of Cardinal Pole, and the reconcilia-
tion of the realm to the see of Rome, he still remained in high
favour. How far he was responsible for the persecutions which
afterwards arose is a debated question. He no doubt approved
of the act, which passed the House of Lords while he presided
there as chancellor, for the revival of the heresy laws. Neither
is there any doubt that he sat in judgment on Bishop Hooper,
and on several other preachers whom he condemned, not exactly
to the flames, but to be degraded from the priesthood. The
natural consequence of this, indeed, was that wnen they declined,
even as laymen, to be reconciled to the Church, they were
handed over to the secular power to be burned. Gardiner,
however, undoubtedly did his best to persuade them to save
themselves by a course which be conscientiously followed himself;
nor does it appear that, when placed on a commission along with
a number of other bishops to administer a severe law, he could
very well have acted otherwise than he did. In his own diocese
no victim .of the persecution is known to have suffered till after
his death; and, much as he was already maligned by opponents,
there are strongevidences that his natural disposition was humane
and generous. In May 1553 he went over to Calais as one of the
English commissioners to promote peace with France; but their
efforts were ineffectual. In Octo1>er 1 555 he again opened parlia-
ment as lord chancellor, but towards the end of the month he
fell ill and grew rapidly worse till the 12th of November, when
he died over sixty years of age.
Perhaps no celebrated character of that age has been the
subject of so much ill merited abuse at the hands of popular
historians. That his virtue was not equal to every trial must be
admitted, but that he was anything like the morose and narrow-
minded bigot he is commonly re pre se nted, there is nothing
whatever to show. He has been called ambitious, turbulent,
crafty, abject, vindictive, bloodthirsty and a good many other
things besides, not quite in keeping with each other; in addition
to which it is roundly asserted by Bishop Burnet that he was
despised alike by Henry and by Mary, both of whom made use of
him as a tool. How such a mean and abject character submitted
to remain five years in prison rather than change his principles is
not very dearly explained; and as to his being despised, we have
seen already that- neither Henry nor Mary considered him by any
means despicable. The truth is, there is not a single' divine or
statesman of that day whose course throughout was so thoroughly
consistent. He was no friend to the Reformation, it is true, but
he was at least a conscientious opponent. In doctrine he adhered
to. the old faith from first to last, while as a question of church
policy, the only matter for consideration with him was whether
the new laws and ordinances were constitutionally justifiable.
His merits as a theologian It is unnecessary to discuss; it is as
s w tmt a mm Mads buyer that he stands conspicuous. But ma
learning even in divinity was far from commonplace. The part
that he was allowed to take in the drawing up of doctrinal
formularies in Henry VIII. 's time is not clear; but at a later
date he was the author of various tracts in defence of the Real
Presence against Cranmer, some of which* being written in prison,
were published abroad under a feigned name. Controversial
writings also passed between him and Bucer, with whom he had
several interviews in Germany, when he was there as Henry
YTU.'s ambassador.
He was a friend of learning in every form, and took great
interest especially in promoting the study of Greek at Cambridge.
He was, however, opposed to the new method of pronouncing
the language introduced by Sir John Cheke, and wrote letters to
him and Sir Thomas Smith upon the subject, in which, according
to Ascham, his opponents showed themselves the better critics,
but he the superior genius. In his own household be loved to
take in young university men of promise; and many whom he
thus encouraged became distinguished in after life as bishops,
ambassadors and secretaries of state. His house, indeed, was
spoken of by Leland as the seat of eloquence and the special
abode of the muses.
He lies buried in his own cathedral at Winchester, where his
effigy is still to be seen. (J. <*•••>
GARDINER, a city of Kennebec county, Maine, U.S.A., at the
confluence of Cobbosseecontee river with the Kennebec, 6 m.
below Augusta. Pop. (1800) 5491; (1900) 5501 (537 foreign-
born); (1910) 53x1. It is served by the Maine Central railway.
The site of the city is only a few feet above sea-level, and the
Kennebec is navigable for large vessels to this point; the water
of the Cobbosseecontee, falling about 130 ft. in a mile, furnishes
the dty with good power for its manufactures (chiefly paper,
machine-shop products, and shoes) . The dty exports considerable
quantities of lumber and ice. Gardiner was founded in 1760 by
Dr Sylvester Gardiner (1707-1786), and for a time the settlement
was called Gardinerston; in 1779, when it was incorporated as a
town, the founder being then a Tory, it was renamed Pittston.
But in 1803, when that part of Pittston which lay on the W.
bank of the Kennebec was incorporated as a separate town and
new life was given to it by the grandson of the founder, the present
name was adopted. Gardiner was chartered as a dty in 1840,
The town of Pittston, on the E. bank of the Kennebec, had a
population of 1x77 in 1000.
GARDNER, PERCY (1846-* ), English classical archaeo-
logist, was born in London, and was* educated at the City
of London school and Christ's College, Cambridge (fellow, 187a).
He was Disney professor of archaeology at Cambridge from 1880
to 1887, and was then appointed professor of dassical archaeo-
logy at Oxford, where he had a stimulating influence on the study
of andent, and particularly Greek, art. He also became promi-
nent as an historical critic on Biblical subjects. Among his works
are: Types of Creek Coins (1883): A Numismatic Commentary
on Pausanias (with F. Imhoof-Blumer, 1887); New Chapters in-
Greek History (189a), an account of excavations in Greece and
Aisa Minor; Manual of Creek Antiquities (with F. B. Jevons,
and ed. 1898); Grammar of Greek Art (1905); Exptoratio
Eoangdica (1899), on the origin of Christian belief; A Historic
View of the New Testament (1001); Growth of Christianity (1907).
His brother, Ernxst Annus Gaidnes (1862- ), educated
at the City of London school and Caius College, Cambridge
(fellow, 1885), is also well known as an archaeologist. From
1887 to 1895 he was director of the British School of Archaeology
at Athens, and later became professor of archaeology at University
College, London. His publications indude: Introduction to
Greek Epigraphy (1887); Ancient Athens (190a); Handbook of
Greek Sculpture (1905); Six Greek Sculptors (19x0). He was
dected first Public Orator of London University in 191a
GARDNER, a township of Worcester county, Massachusetts,
U.S.A. Pop. (1890) 8424; (1900) 10,813, of whom 3449 were
foreign-born; (1910 census) 14,699. The township is traversed
by the Boston & Maine railway. It has an area of 214 sq. m. of
bill country, well watered with streams and ponds, and mdndes
Um vulageat* Gtxtoet tam.\rj vsSl^N. tl ftohtaoiK South
GARE-FOWL
+&3
Gardner and West Gardner. In the township are the state
colony for the insane, the Henry Heywood memorial hospital,
and the Levi Heywood memorial library (opened in 1886), a
memorial to Levi Heywood (1800-1882), a prominent local
manufacturer of chairs, who invented various kinds of chair*
making machinery. Byiar the principal industry of the township
(dating from 1805) is the manufacture of chairs, the township
having in 1905 the largest chair factory in the world; among the
other manufactures are toys, baby-carriages, silver-ware and
oil stoves. In 1905 the total factory product of the township
was valued at $5,019,010, the furniture product alone amounting
to 14,267,064, or 85-2% of the total Gardner, formed from
parts of Ashburnham, Templeton.Westminsterand Wincbenderi,
was incorporated in 1785, and was named in honour of Col.
Thomas Gardner (1724-1775), a patriot leader of Massachusetts,
who was mortally wounded in the battle of Bunker Hill.
See W. D. Herrick, History of the Town of Gardner (Gardner.
1878), covering the years 1785-1878.
ARE-FOWL 1 (Icelandic, Geirfugl; Gaelic. Gearbkul), the
anglicized form of the Hebridean name of a large sea-bird now
considered extinct, formerly a visitor to certain remote Scottish
islands, the Great Auk of most English book-writers, and the
Gare-Fowl, or Great Auk.
Aha impennis of Linnaeus. In size it was hardly less than a tame
goose, and in appearance it much resembled its smaller and
surviving relative the razor-bill (Alca tarda); but the glossy
black of its head was varied by a large patch of white occupying
nearly all the space between the eye and the bill, in place of the
razor-bill's thin white line, while the bill itself bore eight or more
deep transverse grooves instead of the smaller number and the
ivory-like mark possessed by the species last named. Otherwise
the coloration was similar in both, and there is satisfactory
evidence that the gare-fowl's winter-plumage differed from that
of the breeding-season just as is ordinarily the case -in other
members of the family Alcidae to which it belongs. The most
striking characteristic of the gare-fowl, however, was the com-
paratively abortive condition of its wings, the distal portions of
1 The name first appears, and in this form, in the Account of Hirta
(St Kilda) and Rona.frc. by the lord register. Sir George M'Renzir.
of Tarbat. printed by Pin lemon in h» Collection of Voyates and
Travels (iii. p. 730), and then in Sibbald's Scotia tlluitral* (1684).
Martin soon after, in his Voyage to St Kilda. spelt it " GairfowL"
Sir R. Owen adopted the form garfowl." without, as would seem,
any precedent authority.
which, though the bird was just about twice the linear dimensions
of the razor-bill, were almost exactly of the same size as in that
species—proving, if more direct evidence were wanting, its
inability to fly.
The most prevalent misconception concerning the gare-fowl is
one which has been repeated so often, and in books of such
generally good repute and wide dispersal, that a successful
refutation seems almost hopeless. This is the notion that it was
a bird possessing a very high northern range, and consequently
to be looked for by Arctic explorers. How this error arose would
take too long to tell, but the fact remains indisputable that,
setting aside general assertions resting on no evidence worthy of
attention, there is but a single record deserving any credit at all
of a single example of the species having been observed within the
Arctic Circle, and this, according to Prof. Reinhardt, who had the
best means of ascertaining the truth, is open to grave doubt.* It
is clear that the older ornithologists let their imagination get the
better of their knowledge or their judgment, and their statements
have been blindly repeated by most of their successors. Another
error which, if not so widely spread, is at least as serious, since
Sir R. Owen unhappily gave it countenance, is that this bird
11 has not been specially hunted down like the dodo and dinornis,
but by degrees has become more scarce." If any reliance can be
placed upon the testimony of former observers, the first part of
this statement is absolutely untrue. Of the dodo all we know is
that it flourished in Mauritius, its only abode, at the time the
island was discovered, and that some 200 years later it had ceased
to exist — the mode of its extinction being open to conjecture, and
a strong suspicion existing that though indirectly due to man's
acts it was accomplished by his thoughtless agents (Phil. Trims.,
1869, p. 354). The extinction of the Dinornis lies beyond the
range of recorded history. Supposing it even to have taken
place at the very latest period as yet suggested — and there is
much to be urged in favour of such a supposition— little but oral
tradition remains to tell us how its extirpation was effected.
That it existed after New Zealand was inhabited by man is indeed
certain, and there is nothing extraordinary in the proved fact that
the early settlers (of whatever race they were) killed and ate
moas. But evidence that the whole population of those birds
was done to death by man, however likely it may seem, is
wholly wanting. The contrary is the case with the gare-fowl. In
Iceland there is the testimony of a score of witnesses, taken down
from their lips by one of the most careful naturalists who ever
lived, John Wolley, that the latest survivors of the species were
caught and killed by expeditions expressly organised with the
view of supplying the demands of caterers to the various museums
of Europe. In like manner the fact is incontestable that its
breeding-stations in the western part of the Atlantic were for
three centuries regularly visited and devastated with the combined
objects of furnishing food or bait to the fishermen from very early
days, and its final extinction, according to Sir Richard Bonny-
castle (Newfoundland in 1842, i. p. 232), was owing to " the ruth-
less trade in its eggs and skin." There is no doubt that one of the
chief stations of this species in Icelandic waters disappeared
through volcanic action, and that the destruction of the old
Geirf uglasker drove some at least of the birds which frequented it
to a rock nearer the mainland, where they were exposed to danger
from which they had in their former abode been comparatively
free; yet on this rock (Eldey— fire-island) they were " specially
hunted down " whenever opportunity offered, until the stock
there was wholly extirpated in 1844.
A third misapprehension is that entertained by John Gould
in his Birds of Great Britain, where he says that " formerly this
bird was plentiful in all the northern parts of the British Islands,
particularly the Orkneys and the Hebrides. At the commence-
ment of the 19th century, however, its fate appears to have been
sealed; for though it doubtless existed, and probably bred, up to
the year 1830, its numbers annually diminished until they became
so few that the species could not hold its own." Now of the
1 The specimen is in the Museum of Copenhagen: the doubt lies as
to the locality where it was obtained, whether at Dvka, "wVccW ^
within, or at the F\staf^*^^'vi*\>tanx % ^ r«je«.<o«asu
4.64
GARFIELD
Orkneys, we know that George Low, who died in 1795, says in his
posthumously-published Fauna Orcadcnsis that he could not find
it was ever seen there; and on Bullock's visit in 181 3 he was told,
says Montagu (Orn. Diet. A pp.), that one male only had made its
appearance for a long time. This bird he saw and unsuccessfully
hunted, but it was killed soon after his departure, while its mate
had been killed just before his arrival, and none have been seen
there since. As to the Hebrides, St Kilda is the only locality
recorded for it, and the last example known to have been obtained
there, or in its neighbourhood, was that given to Fleming (Edinb.
Phil. J own. x. p. 06) in 1821 or 1822, having been some time
before captured by Mr Maclellan of Glass. That the gare-fowl
was not plentiful in either group of islands is sufficiently obvious,
as also is the impossibility of its continuing to breed " up to the
year 1830."
But mistakes like these are not confined to British authors.
As on the death of an ancient hero myths gathered round bis
memory as quickly as clouds round the setting sun, so have stories,
probable as well as impossible, accumulated over the true history of
this species, and it behoves the conscientious naturalist to exercise
more than common caution in sifting the truth from the large
mass of error. Americans have asserted that t he specimen which
belonged to Audubon (now at Vassar College) was obtained by
him on the banks of Newfoundland, though there is Macgillivray's
distinct statement (Brit. Birds, v. p. 350) that Audubon pro-
cured it in London. The account given by Degland (Orn. Euro p.
ii. p. 529) in 1849, and repeated in the last edition of his work by
M. Gerbe, of its extinction in Orkney, is so manifestly absurd that
it deserves to be quoted in full: " II se trouvait en assez grand
nombre il y a une quinzaine d'annees aux Orcades; mais le
ministre presbytenen dans le Mainland, en off rant une forte prime
aux personnes qui lui apportaient cct oiseau, a e*te" cause de sa
destruction sur ces tics." The same author claims the species as a
visitor to the shores of France on the testimony of Hardy
(Annuaire normond, 1841, p. 298), which he grievously misquotes
both in his own work and in another place (Naumannia, 1855,
p. 423), thereby misleading an anonymous English writer (Nat.
Hist. Rev., 1865, p. 475) and numerous German readers.
John Milne in 1875 visited Funk Island, one of the former
resorts of the gare-fowl, or " penguin," as it was there called, in
the Newfoundland seas, a place where bones had before been
obtained by Stuvite, and natural mummies so lately as 1863 and
1864. Landing on this rock at the risk of his life, he brought off
a rich cargo of its remains, belonging to no fewer than fifty birds,
some of them in size exceeding any that had before been known.
His collection was subsequently dispersed, most of the specimens
finding their way into various public museums.
A literature by no means inconsiderable has grown up respecting
the gare-fowl. Neglecting works of general bearing, few of which
are without many inaccuracies, the following treatises may be
especially mentioned: — J. J. S. Steenstrup, " Et Bidrag til Geir-
fuglens Naturhistorie og saerligt til Kundskabcn om dens ttdligere
Udbredningskreds," Naturk. Foren. Vidcnsk. MeddeUlser (Copen-
hagen, 1855), p. 33; E. Charlton, "On the Great Auk," Trans.
Tyueside Nat. Field Club, iv. p. in; " Abstract of Mr J. Wolley's
Researches in Iceland respecting the Gare-fowl," Ibis (1861). p. 374;
W Preycr, " Ober Plautus impennis," Journ. far Orn. (1862), pp.
no, 337); K. E. von Baer, " Uber das Aussterbcn dcr Tierartcn in
Fhy&iologis
Acad. Im
the Skeletc
Gare-fowl
Gurney, ju
1639; H.
R- 1854: V
11. pp. 1. t
(1870). p. :
March, jn
omitted to
Kingsley w
extinction
charming 1
GARFIELD, JAMES ABRAM (1831-1881), twentieth president
of the United States, was born on the 10th of November 1831
in m log cMbin in the tittle frontier town of Orange, Cuyahoga
county, Obfo. Hh early yean were spent In the performance
of such labour as fell to the lot of every farmer's son in the new
states, and in the acquisition of such education as could be had
in the district schools held for a few weeks each winter. But life
on a farm was not to his liking, and at sixteen he left home and
set off to make a living in some other way. A book of stories
of adventure on the sea, which he read over and over again when
a boy, had filled him with a longing for a seafaring life. He
decided, therefore, to become a sailor, and, in 1848, tramping
across the country to Cleveland, Ohio, he sought employment
from the captain of a lake schooner. But the captain drove him
from the deck, and, wandering on in search of work, he fell in
with a canal boatman who engaged him. During some months
young Garfield served as bowsman, deck-hand and driver of a
canal boat. An attack of the ague sent him home, and on
recovery, having resolved to attend a high school and fit himself
to become a teacher, he passed the next four years in a hard
struggle with poverty and in an earnest effort to secure an educa-
tion, studying for a short time in the Geauga Seminary atChester,
Ohio. He worked as a teacher, a carpenter and a farmer;
studied for a time at the Western Reserve Eclectic Institute
at Hiram, Ohio, which afterward became Hiram College, and
finally entered Williams College. On graduation, in 1850,
Garfield became professor of ancient languages and literature
in the Eclectic Institute at Hiram, and within a year had risen
to the presidency of the institution.
Soon afterwards he entered political life. In the early days
of the Republican party, when the shameful scenes of the Kansas
struggle were exciting the whole country, and during the cam-
paigns of 1857 and 1858, he became known as an effective
speaker and ardent anti-slavery man. His reward for his services
was election in 1859 to the Ohio Senate as the member from
Portage and Summit counties. When the " cotton states "
seceded, Garfield appeared as a warm supporter of vigorous
measures. He was one of the six Ohio senators who voted
against the proposed amendment to the Federal Constitution
(Feb. 28th, 1 861) forbidding any constitutional amendment
which should give Congress the power to abolish or interfere
with slavery in any state; he upheld the right of the government
to coerce seceded states; defended the " Million War Bill "
appropriating a million dollars for the state's military expenses;
and when the call came for 75,000 troops, he moved that Ohio
furnish 20,000 soldiers and three millions of dollars as her share.
He had just been admitted to the bar, but on the outbreak of
war he at once offered his services to the governor, and became
lieutenant -colonel and then colonel of the 42nd Ohio Volunteers,
recruited largely from among his former students. He served
in Kentucky, was promoted to the rank of brigadier-general
of volunteers early in 1862; took part in the second day's
fighting at the battle of Shiloh, served as chief of staff under
Rosecrans in the Army of the Cumberland in 1863, fought at
Chickamauga, and was made a major-general of volunteers for
gallantry in that battle. In 1862 he was elected a member of
Congress from the Ashtabula district of Ohio, and, resigning his
military commission, took his seat in the House of Representatives
in December 1863. In Congress he joined the radical wing of
the Republican party, advocated the confiscation of Confederate
property, approved and defended the Wade-Davis manifesto
denouncing the tameness of Lincoln, and was soon recognized
as a hard worker and ready speaker. Capacity for work brought
him places on important committees— he was chairman sue-
cessively of the committee on military affairs, the committee on
banking and currency, and the committee on appropriations,—
and his ability as a speaker enabled him to achieve distinction
on the floor of the House and to rise to leadership. Between
1863 and 1873 Garfield delivered speeches of importance on
" The Constitutional Amendment to abolish Slavery," " The
Freedman's Bureau," "The Reconstruction of the Rebel States,"
" The Public Debt and Specie Payments," " Reconstruction,"
" The Currency," " Taxation of United States Bonds," " Enforc-
ing the 14th Amendment," " National Aid to Education,"
and " the Right to Originate Revenue Bills." The year 1874
was one ol d\*aa\tt \a Vta ^*vu\&<:vft, ?ikv|. TV* ^»ft*s.V
GAR-FISH— GARGANEY
465
, the troubles growing out of reconstruction in the South,
the Credit Mobitier and the " Salary Grab," disgusted thousands
of independent voters and sent a wave of Democracy over the
country. Garfield himself was accused of corruption in con-
nexion with the Credit Mobilier scandal, but the charge was
never proved. A Republican convention in his district demanded
his resignation, and re-election seemed impossible; but he
defended himself in two pamphlets, *' Increase of Salaries"
and " Review of the Transactions of the Credit Mobilier Com*
pany," made a village-to-village canvass, and was victorious.
In 1876 Garfield for the eighth time was chosen to represent his
district; and afterwards as one of the two representatives of
the Republicans in the House, he was a member of the Electoral
Commission which decided the dispute regarding the presidential
election of 1876. When, in 1877, James G. Blaine was made
a senator from Maine, the leadership of the House of Repre-
sentatives passed to Garfield, and he became the Republican
candidate for speaker. But the Democrats had a majority in
the House, and he was defeated. Hayes, the new president,
having chosen John Sherman to be his secretary of the treasury,
an effort was made to send Garfield to the United States Senate
in Sherman's place. But the president needed his services
in the House, and he was not elected to the Senate until
1880.
The time had now come (1880) when the Republican party
must nominate a candidate for the presidency. General Grant
had served two terms (1869-1877), and the unwritten law of
custom condemned his being given another. But the " bosses "
of the Republican party in three great States — New York,
Pennsylvania and Illinois — were determined that he should be
renominated. These men and their followers were known as
the " stalwarts." Opposed to them were two other factions,
one supporting James G. Blaine, of Maine, and the other John
Sherman, of Ohio. When the convention met and the balloting
began, the contest along these factional lines started in earnest.
For eight-and-twenly ballots no change of any consequence was
noticeable. Though votes were often cast for ten names, there
were but two real candidates before the convention, Grant and
Blaine. That the partisans of neither would yield in favour of
the other was certain. That the choice therefore rested with the
supporters of the minor candidates was manifest, and with the
cry " Anything to beat Grant I " an effort was made to find
some man on whom the opposition could unite. Such a man
was Garfield. His long term of service in the House, his leader-
ship of his party on its floor, his candidacy for the speakership,
and his recent election to the United States Senate, marked him
out as the available man. Between the casting of the first and
the thirty-third ballot, Garfield, who was the leader of Sherman's
adherents in the convention, had sometimes received one or two
votes and at other times none. On the thirty-fourth he received
seventeen, on the next fifty, and on the next almost the entire
vote hitherto cast for Blaine and Sherman, and was declared
nominated. During the campaign Garfield was subject to
violent personal abuse; the fact that he was alleged to have
received $329 from the Credit Mobilier as a dividend on stock
led his opponents to raise the campaign cry of " 329," and this
number was placarded in the streets of the cities and printed
in flaring type in partisan newspapers. The forged " Morey
letter," in which he was made to appear as opposed to the ex-
clusion of the Chinese, was widely circulated and injured his
candidacy in the West. That the charges against Garfield were
not generally o-cdited, however, is shown by the fact that he
received 214 electoral votes to his opponent's 155. He was
inaugurated on the 4th of March 1881.
Unfortunately, the new president was unequal to the task of
composing the differences in his party. For his secretary of state
he chose James G. Blaine, the bitterest political enemy of Senator
Roscoe Conkling (q.v.) the leader of the New York " stalwarts."
Without consulting the New York senators, Garfield appointed
William H. Robertson, another political enemy of Conkling's, to
the desirable post of Collector of the Port of New York, and
thereby destroyed all prospects of party harmony. On the and of
July, while on bis way to attend the commencement exercises at
Williams College, the new president was shot in a Washington
railway station by a disappointed office-seeker named Charles
J. Guiteau, whose mind had no doubt been somewhat faflwrarA
by the abuse lavished upon the president by his party opponents;
and on the 19th of September x88x, he died at Elberon, New
Jersey, whither he had been removed on the 6th. He was buried
in Cleveland, Ohio, where in 1800 a monument was erected by
popular subscription to his memory.
In 1858 Garfield had married Miss Lucretia Rudolph, by whom
he had seven children.. His son, Harry Augustus Gartield
(b. 1863). graduated at Williams College in 1885, practised law in
Cleveland, Ohio, in 1888-1003, was professor of politics at
Princeton University in 1903-1908, and in 100S became president
of Williams College. .Another son, James Rudolph Garfield
(b. 1865), also graduated at Williams College in 1885 and practised
law in Cleveland] he was a Republican member of the Ohio
Senate in 1806-1899, was commissioner of corporations, Depart-
ment of Commerce and Labour, in 1903-1907, attracting wide
attention by his reports on certain large industrial organizations,
and was secretary of the interior (1 007-1009) in the cabinet of
President Roosevelt.
President Garfield's, writings, edited by Burke A Hinsdale, were
published at Boston, in two volumes, in 1882. (J. B» McM.)
GAR-FISH, the name given to a genus of fishes (Belonc) found
in nearly all the temperate and tropical seas, and readily recog-
nized by their long, slender, compressed and silvery body, and by
their jaws being produced into a long, pointed, bony and sharply-
toothed beak. About fifty species are known from different
parts of the globe, some attaining to a length of 4 or 5 f L One
species is common on the British coasts, and is well known by the
names of " long-nose," " green-bone," &c. The last name is
given to those fishes on account of the peculiar green colour of
their bones, which deters many people from eating them, although
their flesh is well flavoured and perfectly wholesome. The
skipper {Scombcrtiox) and half-beak (H emir ham phus), in which
the lower jaw only is prolonged, are fishes nearly akin to the
gar-pikes.
GARGANEY 1 (North-Italian, CargatuUo), ox Summer-Teal,
the Auas qturquedulo and A. circia of Linnaeus (who made, as
did Willughby and Ray, two species out of one), and the type of
Stephens's genus Querquedula. This bird is one of the smallest of
the Artafidac, and has gained its common English name from
being almost exclusively a summer-visitant to England where
nowadays it only regularly resorts to breed in some of the East-
Norfolk Broads, though possibly at one time it was found at the
same season throughout the great Fen-district. Slightly larger
than the common teal ( A. crccca), the male is readily distinguished
therefrom by its peculiarly-coloured head, the sides of which are
nutmeg-brown, closely freckled with short whitish streaks, while
a conspicuous white curved line descends backwards from the
eyes. The upper wing-coverts are bluish grey, the scapulars
black with a white shaft-stripe, and the wing-spot (speculum)
greyish green bordered above and below by white. The female
closely resembles the hen teal, but possesses no wing-spot. In
Ireland or Scotland the garganey is very rare, and though it
is recorded from Iceland, more satisfactory evidence of its
occurrence there is needed. It has not a high northern range,
and its appearance in Norway and Sweden is casual. Though it
breeds in many parts of Europe, in none can it be said to be
common; but it ranges far to the eastward in Asia — even to
Formosa, according to Swinhoe— and yearly visits India in
winter in enormous numbers. Those that breed in Norfolk
arrive somewhat late in spring and make their nests in the vast
rccd-beds which border the Broads — a situation rarely or never
chosen by the teal. The labyrinth or bony enlargement of the
trachea in the male garganey differs in form from that described
in any other drake, being more oval and placed nearly in the
The word was introduced by Willughby from Gesner (Om., lib.
iii. p. 127), but, though generally adopted by authors, seems never to
have become other than a book-name in English, the bird being in-
variably known in the parts of this island where it is indigenous as
+66
GARGANO— GARIBALDI
median line of the windpipe, instead of on one side, as is usually
the case.
GARGANO, HONTB (anc Cargaums lions), a massive
mountainous peninsula projecting £. from the N. coast of Apulia,
Italy,, and belonging geologically to the opposite Dalmatian
coast; it was indeed separated from the rest of Italy by an arm
of the sea as late as the Tertiary period. The highest point
(Monte Calvo) is 346s ft. above sea-level. The oak forests
for which it was renowned in Roman times have entirely
disappeared.
GARGOYLE, or Gurgoyle (from the Fr. gargoviUe, originally
the throat or gullet, cf. Lat. gurgulio, guia, and similar words
derived from root gar, to swallow, the word representing the
gurgling sound of water; Ital. doccia di gronde; Ger. Ausguss),
in architecture, the carved termination to a spout which conveys
away the water from the gutters. Gargoyles are mostly grotesque
figures. The term is applied more especially to medieval work,
but throughout all ages some means of throwing the water off the
roofs, when not conveyed in gutters, has been adopted, and in
Egypt there are gargoyles to eject the water used in the washing
of the sacred vessels which would seem to have been done on the
flat roofs of the temples. In Greek temples the water from the
roof passed through the mouths of lions whose heads were carved
or modelled in the marble or terra-cotta cymatium of the cornice.
At Pompeii large numbers of terra-cotta gargoyles have been
found which were modelled in the shape of various animals.
GARHWAL, or Gurwal. x. A district of British India, in the
Kumaon division of the United Provinces. It has an area of
5629 sq. m., and consists almost entirely of rugged mountain
ranges running in all directions, and separated by narrow valleys
which in some cases become deep gorges or ravines. The only
level portion of the district is a narrow strip of waterless forest
between the southern slopes of the hills and the fertile plains
of Rohilkhand. The highest mountains are in the north, the
principal peaks being Nanda Devi (25,661 ft.), Kamet (25,413),
Trisul (23,382), Badrinath (23,2x0), Dunagiri (23,181) and
Kedarnath (22,853). The Alaknanda, one of the main sources of
the Ganges, receives with its affluents the whole drainage of tho
district. At Dcvaprayag the Alaknanda joins the Bhagirathi,
and thenceforward the united streams bear the name of the
Ganges. Cultivation fa principally confined to the immediate
vicinity of the rivers, which are employed for purposes of irriga-
tion. Garhwal originally consisted of 52 petty chieftainships,
each chief with his own independent fortress dark). Nearly
500 years ago, one of these chiefs, A jai Pal, reduced all the minor
principalities under his own sway, and founded the Garhwal
kingdom. He and his ancestors ruled over Garhwal and the
adjacent state of Tchri, in an uninterrupted line till 1803, when
the Gurkhas invaded Kumaon and Garhwal, driving the Garhwal
chief into the plains. For twelve years the Gurkhas ruled the
country with a rod of iron, until a series of encroachments by
them on British territory led to the war with Nepal in 18x4.
At the termination of the campaign, Garhwal and Kumaon were
converted into British districts, while the Tehri principality
was restored to a son of the former chief. Since annexation,
Garhwal has rapidly advanced in material prosperity. Pop.
(xoox) 429,000. Two battalions of the Indian army (the 39th
Garhwal Rifles) are recruited in the district, which also contains
the military cantonment of Lansdowne. Grain and coarse cloth
are exported, and salt, borax, live stock and wool are imported,
the trade with Tibet being considerable. The administrative
headquarters are at the village of Pauri, but Srinagar is the
largest place. This is an important mart, as is also Kotdwara,
the terminus of a branch of the Oudh and Rohilkhand railway
from Najibabad.
3. A native state, also known as Tehri, after its capital; area
4180 sq. m.; pop. (xoox) 268,885. It adjoins the district
mentioned above, and its topographical features are similar.
It contains the sources of both the Ganges and the Jumna,
which are visited by thousands of Hindu pilgrims. The gross
revenue is about £28,000, of which nearly halt is derived from
forests. No tribute is paid to the British government.
GARIBALDI, GIUSEPPE (1 807-1 882), Italian patriot, was
born at Nice on the 4th of July 1807. As a youth he fled from
home to escape a clerical education, but afterwards joined his
father in the coasting trade. After joining the " Giovine Italia "
he entered the Sardinian navy, and, with a number of companions
on board the frigate V Euridice," plotted to seize the vessel and
occupy the arsenal of Genoa at the moment when Mazzini's
Savoy expedition should enter Piedmont. The plot being
discovered, Garibaldi fled, but was condemned to death by
default on the 3rd of June 1834. Escaping to South America
in 1836, he was given letters of marque by the state of Rio
Grande do Sul, which bad revolted against Brazil. After a series
of victorious engagements he was taken prisoner and subjected to
severe torture, which dislocated his limbs. Regaining liberty, he
renewed the war against Brazil, and took Porto Allegro. During
the campaign he met his wife, Anita, who became his inseparable
companion and mother of three children, Anita, Ricciotti and
Mcnotti. Passing into the service of Uruguay, he was sent to
Corrientes with a small flotilla to oppose Rosas's forces, but
was overtaken by Admiral Brown, against whose fleet he fought
for three days. When his ammunition was exhausted be burned
his ships and escaped. Returning to Montevideo, he formed the
Italian Legion, with which he won the battles of Cerro and Sant*
Antonio in the spring of 1846, and assured the freedom of
Uruguay. Refusing all honours and recompense, be prepared to
return to Italy upon receiving news of the incipient revolutionary
movement. In October 1847 he wrote to Pius IX., offering his
services to the Church, whose cause he for a moment believed to
be that of national liberty.
Landing at Nice on the 24th of June 1848, he placed his sword
at the disposal of Charles Albert, and, after various difficulties
with the Piedmontese war office, formed a volunteer army 3000
strong, but shortly after taking the field was obliged, by the
defeat of Custozza, to flee to Switzerland. Proceeding thence to
Rome, he was entrusted by the Roman republic with the defence
of San Pancrazio against the French, where he gained the victory
of the 30th of April 1849, remaining all day in the saddle, although
wounded in the side at the beginning of the fight. From the 3rd
of May until the 30th of May he was continuously engaged
against the Bourbon troops at Palestrina, Velletri and elsewhere,
dispersing an army of 20,000 men with 3000 volunteers. After
the fall of Rome he left the city at the head of 4000 volunteers,
with the idea of joining the defenders of Venice, and started on
that wonderful retreat through central Italy pursued by the
armies of France, Austria, Spain and Naples. By his consummate
generalship and the matchless endurance of his men the pursuers
were evaded and San Marino reached, though with a sadly
diminished force. Garibaldi and a few followers, including his
devoted wife Anita, after vainly attempting to reach Venice,
where the tricolor still floated, took refuge in the pine forests of
Ravenna; the Austrians were seeking him in all directions, and
most of his legionaries were captured and shot. Anita died near
Comacchio, and he himself fled across the peninsula, being assisted
by all classes of the people, to Tuscany, whence he escaped to
Piedmont and ultimately to America. At New York, in order to
earn a living, he became first a chandler, and afterwards a trading
skipper, returning to Italy in 1854 with a small fortune, and
purchasing the island of Caprera, on which he built the house
thenceforth his home. On the outbreak of war in 1859 he was
placed in command of the Alpine infantry, defeating the
Austrians at Casale on the 8th of May, crossing the Ticino on the
23rd of May, and, after a series of victorious fights, liberating
Alpine territory as far as the frontier of Tirol. When about to
enter Austrian territory proper his advance was, however,
checked by the. armistice of Villafranca.
Returning to Como to wed the countess Raimondi, by whom
he had been aided during the campaign, he was apprised,
immediately after the wedding, of certain circumstances which
caused him at once to abandon that lady and to start for central
Italy. Forbidden to invade the Romagna, be returned in*
dignantly to Caprera, where with Crispi and Bertani he planned
tbs invasion ol Skaly. Assured by Sir James Hudson of the
GARIN LE LOHERAIN
467
sympathy of England, he began active preparations lor the
expedition to Marsala. At the last moment he hesitated, but
Crispi succeeded in persuading him to sail from Genoa on the
5th of May i860 with two vessels carrying a volunteer corps of
1070 strong. Calling at Talamone to embark arms and money,
he reached Marsala on the nth of May, and landed under the
protection of the British vessels " Intrepid " and " Argus."
On the x 2th of May the dictatorship of Garibaldi was proclaimed
at Salemi, on the 15th of May the Neapolitan troops were routed
at Calatafimi, on the 25th of May Palermo was taken, and on the
6th of June 20,000 Neapolitan regulars, supported by nine
frigates and protected by two forts, were compelled to capitulate.
Once established at Palermo, Garibaldi organized an army to
liberate Naples and march upon Rome, a plan opposed by the
emissaries of Cavour, who desired the immediate annexation of
Sicily to the Italian kingdom. Expelling Lafarina and driving
out Depretis, who represented Cavour, Garibaldi routed the
Neapolitans at Milazro on the 20th of July. Messina fell on the
20th of July, but Garibaldi, instead of crossing to Calabria,
secretly departed for Arand Bay in Sardinia, where Bertani was
fitting out an expedition against the papal states. Cavour,
however, obliged the expedition to sail for Palermo. Returning
to Messina, Garibaldi found a letter from Victor Emmanuel II.
dissuading him from invading the kingdom of Naples. Garibaldi
replied asking " permission to disobey." Next day he crossed
the Strait, won the battle of Reggio on the 21st of August,
accepted the capitulation of 9000 Neapolitan troops at San
Giovanni and of 11,000 more at Soveria. The march upon
Naples became a triumphal progress, which the wiles of Francesco
II. were powerless to arrest. On the 7th of September Garibaldi
entered Naples, while Francesco fled to Gaeta. On the 1st
of October he routed the remnant of the Bourbon army 40,000
strong on the Volturno. Meanwhile the Italian troops had
occupied the Marches, Umbria and the Abrurzi, a battalion of
Bersaglieri reaching the Volturno in time to take part in the
battle. TTieir presence put an end to the plan for the invasion
of the papal states, and Garibaldi unwillingly issued a decree for
the pltbisciU which was to sanction the incorporation of the Two
Sicilies in the Italian realm. On the 7th of November Garibaldi
accompanied Victor Emmanuel during his solemn entry into
Naples, and on the morrow returned to Caprera, after disbanding
his volunteers and recommending their enrolment in the regular
army.
Indignation at the cession of Nice to France and at the neglect
of his followers by the Italian government induced him to return
to political life. Elected deputy in 186 1, his anger against
Cavour found violent expression. Bixio attempted to reconcile
them, but the publication by Cialdini of a letter against Garibaldi
provoked a hostility which, but for the intervention of the king,
would have led to a duel between Cialdini and Garibaldi. Return-
ing to Caprera, Garibaldi awaited events. Cavour*s successor,
Ricasoli, enrolled the Garibaldians in the regular army; Rattazzi,
who succeeded Ricasoli, urged Garibaldi to undertake an ex-
pedition in aid of the Hungarians, but Garibaldi, finding his
followers ill-disposed towards the idea, decided to turn his arms
against Rome. On the 29th of June 1862 he landed at Palermo
and gathered an army under the banner " Roma o morte."
Rattazzi, frightened at the prospect of an attack upon Rome,
proclaimed a state of siege in Sicily, sent the fleet to Messina, and
instructed Cialdini to oppose Garibaldi. Circumventing the
Italian troops, Garibaldi entered Catania, crossed to Melito with
3000 men on the 25th of August, but was taken prisoner and
wounded by Cialdini's forces at Aspromonte on the 27th of
August. Liberated by an amnesty, Garibaldi returned once
more to Caprera amidst general sympathy.
In the spring of 1864 he went to London, where he was accorded
an enthusiastic reception and given the freedom of the city.
From England he returned again to Caprera. On the outbreak of
war in 1866 he assumed command of a volunteer army and, after
the defeat of the Italian troops at Custozza, took the offensive
in order to cover Brescia. On the 3rd of July he defeated the
AiatriMB* Mt Monte SmcUo, on the 7th Mt Lodroae, 00 the 10th at
Darso, on the x6th at Condino, on the 19th at Ampola, on the
21st at Bezzecca, but, when on the point of attacking Trent, he
was ordered by General Lamarmora to retire. His famous
reply " Obbedisco " (" I obey ") has often been cited as a classical
example of military obedience to a command destructive of a
successful leader's hopes, but documents now published (cf.
Corriere ddla sera, oth of August 1006) prove beyond doubt that
Garibaldi had for some days known that the order to evacuate
the Trentino would shortly reach him. The order arrived on the
oth of August, whereas Crispi had been sent as early as the 16th
of July to warn Garibaldi that, owing to Prussian opposition,
Austria would not cede the Trentino to Italy, and that the
evacuation was inevitable. Hence Garibaldi's laconic reply.
From the Trentino he returned to Caprera to mature his designs
against Rome, which had been evacuated by the French in
pursuance of the Franco-Italian convention of the 15th of
September 1864. Gathering volunteers in the autumn of 1867,
he prepared to enter papal territory,but was arrested at Sinalunga
by the Italian government and conducted to Caprera. Eluding
the surveillance of the Italian cruisers, he returned to Florence,
and, with the complicity of the second Raltazzi cabinet, entered
Roman territory at Passo Corcse on the 23rd of October. Two
days later he took Monterotondo, but on the 2nd of November
his forces were dispersed at Mentana by French and aapai troops.
Recrossing the Italian frontier, he was arrested at Figline and
taken back to Caprera, where he eked out his slender resources by
writing several romances. In 1870 he formed a fresh volunteer
corps and went to the aid of France, defeating the German troops
at Chatillon, Autun and Dijon. Elected a member of the
Versailles assembly, he resigned his mandate in anger at French
insults, and withdrew to Caprera until, in 1874, he was elected
deputy for Rome. Popular enthusiasm induced the Conservative
Minghetti cabinet to propose that a sum of £40,000 with an
annual pension of £2000 be conferred upon him as a recompense
for his services, but the proposal, though adopted by parliament
(27th May 1875), was indignantly refused by Garibaldi. Upon the
advent of the Left to power, however, he accepted both gift and
pension, and worked energetically upon the scheme for the Tiber
embankment to prevent the flooding of Rome. At the same time
he succeeded in obtaining the annulment of his marriage with the
countess Raimondi (with whom hehadncvcrlived) and contracted
another marriage with the mother of his children, Clclia and
Manlio. In 1880 he went to Milan for the inauguration of the
Mentana monument, and in 1882 visited Naples and Palermo,
but was prevented by illness from being present at the 600th
anni\ id of June 1882
his d<
Sec >!*-, Milan, 1885).
and J Eng. translation
by A 1 vol. iii. of 1888
ed.); ice, 1882); Jessie
Whin G. M. Trevclyan,
Garib mi, 1907), which
coma cer, of the events
leadii Republic, and a
pictu « the defence of
Rom< ibliography; also
Trev< . (H.W.S.)
QARIN LB LOHERAIN, French epic hero. The 12th century
chanson de geste of Garin le Loherain is one of the fiercest and
most sanguinary narratives left by the trouveres. This local
cycle of Lorraine, which is completed by Hervis de Metz, Girbers
de Metz, Ans&s, fils de Girbert and Yon, is obviously based on
history, and the failure absolutely to identify the events recorded
docs not deprive the poems of their value as a picture of the
savage feudal wars of the x ith and 1 2th centuries. The episodes
are evolved naturally and the usual devices adopted by the
trowvbres to reconcile their inconsistencies are absent. Neverthe-
less no satisfactory historical explanation of the story has yet
been offered. It has been suggested by a recent critic (F.
Settegast, QucHenstudien tur gaUo-romaniscken Epik, 1004) that
these poems resume historical traditions going back to the
Vandal irruption of 408 and the battle fought by the Romans
and the Weil Go\^a«aM^V\A^a«A\Tw^\. ThavCfefc-sfcaMsv
468
GARLAND— GARLIC
see ia Kornans ae uarui le i*oncra*u, ca. r. rans (tans, 103;
Hist. lilt, de la France, vol. xxii. (1852); J. M. Ludlow, Poptu
fpics of the Middle Ages (London and Cambridge, 1865); F. L
tudes d'histoire du moyen Age (Pari*. 1&96); F. Scttegast, QuelU
three wars against hosts of heathen invaders. In the first of
these Charles Mart el and his faithful vassal Hervis of Mete fight
by an extraordinary anachronism against the Vandals, who have
destroyed Reims and besieged other cities. They are defeated in
a great battle near Troyes. In the second Hervis is besieged in
Mete by the " Hongres." He sends first for help to Pippin, who
defers his assistance by the advice of the traitor Hardre. Hervis
then transfers his allegiance to Anseis of Cologne, by whose help
the invaders are repulsed, though Hervis himself is slain. In the
third Thierry, king of Moriane 1 sends to Pippin for help against
four Saracen kings. He is delivered by a Prankish host, but
falls in the battle. Hervis of Mctx was the son of a citizen to
whom the duke of Lorraine had married his daughter Aelis,'and
his sons Garin and Begue arc the heroes of the chanson which
gives its name to the cycle. The dying king Thierry had desired
that his daughter Blancheflcur should marry Garin, but when
Garin prefers his suit at the court of Pippin, Fromont of Bordeaux
puts himself forward as his rival and Hardre, Fremont's father, is
■lain by Garin. The rest of the poem is taken up with the war
that ensues between the Lorrainers and the men of Bordeaux.
They-iinally submit their differences to the king, only to begin
their disputes once more. Blanchcfleur becomes the wife of
Pippin, while Garin remains her faithful servant. One of the
most famous passages of the poem is the assassination -of Begue
by a nephew of Fromont, and Garin, after laying waste his
enemy's territory, is himself slain. The remaining songs con-
tinue the feud between the two families. According to Paulin
Paris, the family of Bordeaux represents the early dukes of
Aquitaine, the last of whom, Waifar (745-768) was dispossessed
and slain by Pippin the Short, king of the Franks; but the
trouveres had in mind no doubt the wars whioh marked the end of
the Carolingian dynasty.
See Li Romansde Garin le Loherain, ed. P. Paris (Paris,! 833);
" »/>«7cir
, I«ot,
_ „ , Quellen-
ttudien tur gaUo-romanischtn Epih (Leipzig, 1904). A complete
edition of the cycle was undertaken by E. Stengel, the first volume of
which, Hervis at J/es(Gescllschaf t fur roman. Lit. .Dresden), appeared
in 1903.
GARLAND, JOHN (fl. 1202-1252), Latin grammarian, known
as Johannes Garlandius, or, more commonly, Johannes dc
Garlandia, was born in England, though most of his life was
spent in France. John Bale in his Catalogus, and John Pits,
following Bale, placed him among the writers of the nth century.
The main facts of his life, however, are stated in a long poem De
iriumphis ccclesiae contained in Cotton MS. Claudius A x in the
British Museum, and edited by Thomas Wright for the Roxburghe
Club in 1856. Garland narrates the history of bis time from the
point of view of the victories gained by the church over heretics
at home and infidels abroad. He studied at Oxford under a
certain John of London, whom it is difficult to distinguish from
others of the same name; but he must have been in Paris in or
before 1 202, for he mentions as one of his teachers Alain de Lisle,
who died in that year or the next. Garland was one of the pro-
fessors chosen in 1229 for the new university of Toulouse, and
remained in the south during the Albigcnsian crusade, of which
he gives a detailed account in books iv.-vi. In 1232 or 1233 the
hatred of the people made further residence in Toulouse unsafe
for the professors of the university, who had been installed by the
Catholic party. Garland was one of the first to fly, and the rest
of his life was spent in Paris, where he finished his poem in 1252.
Garland's grammatical works were much used in England, and
were often printed by Richard Pynson and Wynkyn dc Worde.
He was also a voluminous Latin poeL Works on mathematics
and music have also been assigned to him, but the ascription may
have arisen from confusion of his works with those of Gerlandus,
ft canon of Besancon in the 12th century. The treatise on
alchemy, Compendium alckimioe, often printed under his name,
was by a 14th-century writer named Mart in Ortolan, or Lortholain.
The best known of his poems beside the "De Triumphis
' s.r. Meurieaae, oowm district and diocese (St Jean de Maurienne)
afSmvoy.
Ecclesiae " is " Epithalamium beatae Mariae Virginis/'conuiaed
in the same MS. Among his other works are his " Dictionarius,"
a Latin vocabulary, printed by T.Wright in the Library of Natiomd
Antiquities (vol. L, 1857); Compendium totius grammaiicts . . .,
printed at Deventer, 1489; two metrical treatises, entitled
Synonyma and Equivoca, frequently printed at the dose of the
1 5th century.
For further bibliography
catalogue; J. A. Fabnciu
aetatis .... vol. iii. (1754
See also Histoire lilt, de U
the prefaces to the editio
Meyer, La Chanson de la
xxi-xxiii. (Paris, 1875); Dr
el du XIII* siecles (Leipzig
the Did. Nat. Biog., jjivir
mathematics and music, ri
Sandys, Hist, of doss. Sch
GARUC (O. Eng. gdri
Lat. allium; ItaL aglio; Fr. ail; Gcr. Knoblauch), AUitrn
sativum, a bulbous perennial plant of the natural order Lfliaceac,
indigenous apparently to south-west Siberia. It has Ion*
narrow, flat, obscurely keeled leaves, a deciduous spatbe, and a
globose umbel of whitish flowers, among which are small bulbik
The bulb, which is the only part eaten, has membranous scales,
in the axils of which are 10 or 1 2 cloves, or smaller bulbs. From
these new bulbs can be procured by planting out in February or
March. The bulbs are best preserved hung in a dry place. If of
fair size, twenty of them weigh about 1 lb. To prevent the plant
from running to leaf, Pliny (Nat. Hist. xix. 34) advises to bend
the stalk downward and cover with earth; seeding, be observes,
may be prevented by twisting the stalk.
Garlic is cultivated in the same manner as the shallot (tj.r.).
It is stated to have been grown in England before the year i $48.
The percentage composition of the bulbs is given by E. Solly
(Trans. Horl. Sac. Lena'., new scr., iii. p. 60) as water 84 00.
organic matter 13*38, and inorganic matter 153 — that of the
leaves being water 87*14, organic matter 11*27 and inorganic
matter 1*59. The bulb has a strong and characteristic odour
and an acrid taste, and yields an offensively smelling oil, essence
of garlic, identical with allyl sulphide (C,H»)jS (see Hofmann
and Cahours, Jo urn. Chcm. Soc. x. p. 320). This-, when garlic
has been eaten, is evolved by the excretory organs, the activity
of which it promotes. From the earliest limes garlic has bets
used as an article of diet. It formed part of the food of the
Israelites in Egypt (Numb. xi. 5) and of the labourers employed
by Cheops in the construction of his pyramid, and is still grown in
Egypt, where, however, the Syrian is the kind most esteemed
(sec Rawlinson's Herodotus, ii. 1 25). It was largely consumed by
the ancient Greek and Roman soldiers, sailors and rural classes
(cf. Virg. Eel. ii. 11), and, as Pliny tells us (N.H. xix. 32), by
the African peasantry. Galen eulogizes it as the rustic's ikeriu
(sec F. Adams's Paulus Acgincta, p. 00), and Alexander Neckam,
a writer of the 12th century (see Wright's edition of his works,
p. 473, 1863), recommends it as a palliative of the heat of the suo
in field labour. " The people in places where the simoon is
frequent," says Mountstuart Elphinstone (An Account of tkt
Kingdom of Caubul, p. 140, 181 5), " cat garlic, and rub their lips
and noses with it, when they go out in the heat of the summer,
to prevent their suffering by the simoon." " O dura messorum
ilia," exclaims Horace (Epod. iii.), as he records his detestation
of the popular esculent, to smell of which was accounted a sign
of vulgarity (cf. Shakespeare, CorioL iv. 6, and Meas.Jor Mem.
iii. 2). In England garlic is seldom used except as a seasoning,
but in the southern countries of Europe it is a common ingredient
in dishes, and is largely consumed by the agricultural population.
Garlic was placed by the ancient Greeks on the piles of stones at
cross-roads, as a supper for Hecate (Theophrastus, Characters,
Atiatoainovtas); and according to Pliny garlic and onions
were invocated as deities by the Egyptians at the taking of oaths
The inhabitants of Pelusium in lower Egypt, who worshipped the
onion, are said to have held both it and garlic in aversion as food.
Garlic possesses stimulant and stomachic properties, and was of
oAd, u ttia\ tJWttaMf* tout tw^o^A. **a **>*«M&tfnal remedy.
GARNET
4.69
Pliny (N.H. xx. 93) gives an exceedingly long list of complaints
in which it was considered beneficial. Dr T. Sydenham valued
it as an application in confluent smallpox, and, says Cullcn
(Mai. Med. ii. p. 174, 1789), found some dropsies cured by it
alone. In the United States the bulb is given in doses of $-2
drachms in cases of bronchiectasis and phthisis pulmonalis.
Garlic may also be prescribed as an extract consisting of the
inspissated juice, in doses of 5-10 grains, and as the syrupus
atlii acetic us, in doses of 1-4 drachms. This last preparation has
recently been much extolled in the treatment of pulmonary
tuberculosis or phthisis.
The wild " crow garlic " and " field garlic " of Britain are the
species Allium rineale and A. oleraceum respectively.
GARNET, or Garne;tt, HENRY (1555-1606), English Jesuit,
son of Brian Garnett, a- schoolmaster at Nottingham, was edu-
cated at Winchester and afterwards studied law in London.
Having become a Roman Catholic, he went to Italy, joined the
Society of Jesus in 1575, and acquired under Bcllarmine and
others a reputation for varied learning. In 1586 he joined the
mission in England, becoming superior of the province on the
imprisonment of William Weston in the following year. In the
dispute between the Jesuits and the secular clergy known as the
"Wisbech Stirs" (1 595-1 596) he zealously supported Weston
in his resistance to any compromise with the civil government.
His antagonism to the secular clergy was also shown later, when
in 1603 he, with other Jesuits, was the means of betraying to
the government the " Bye Plot," contrived by William Watson,
a secular priest. In 1598 he was professed of the four vows.
Garnet supervised the Jesuit mission for eighteen years with
conspicuous success. His life was one of concealment and dis-
guises; a price was put on his head; but he was fearless and
indefatigable in carrying on his propaganda and in ministering
to the scattered Catholics, even in their prisons. The result was
that he gained many converts, while the number of Jesuits in
England increased during his tenure of office from three to forty.
It is, however, in connexion with the Gunpowder Plot that he is
best remembered. His part in this, for which he suffered death,
needs discussion in greater detail.
In 1602 Garnet received briefs from Pope Clement VIII.
directing that no person unfavourable to the Catholic religion
should be allowed to succeed to the throne. About the same time
he was consulted by Catcsby, Tresham and Winter, all afterwards
involved in the Gunpowder Plot, on the subject of the mission to
be sent to Spain to induce Philip HI. to invade England. Accord-
ing to his own statement he disapproved, but he gave Winter a
recommendation to Father Creswell, an influential person at
Madrid. Moreover, in May 1605 he gave introductions to Guy
Fa w Ices when he went to Flanders, and to Sir Edmund Baynham
when he went to Rome (see Gunpowder Plot). The prepara-
tions for the plot had now been actively going forward since the
beginning of 1604, and on the 9th of June 1605 Garnet was
asked by Catcsby whether it was lawful to enter upon any
undertaking which should involve the destruction of the innocent
together with the guilty, to which Garnet answered in the
affirmative, giving as an illustration the fate of persons besieged
in a town in time of war. Afterwards, feeling alarmed, according
to his own accounts, he admonished Catesby against intending the
death of " not only innocents but friends and necessary persons
for a commonwealth," and showed him a letter from the pope
forbidding rebellion. According to Sir Everard Digby, however,
Garnet, when asked the meaning of the brief, replied " that they
were not (meaning the priests) to undertake or procure stirs, but
yet they would not hinder any, neither was it the pope's mind
they should, that should be undertaken for Catholic good. . . .
This answer, with Mr Catesby's proceedings with him and me,
gave me absolute belief that the matter in general was approved,
though every particular was not known." Both men were en-
deavouring to exculpate themselves, and therefore both state-
ments are subject to suspicion. A few days later, according to
Garnet, the Jesuit, Oswald Tesemond, known as Greenway,
informed him of the whole plot " by way of confession," when,
as he declares, he expressed horror at the design and urged Green-
way to do his utmost to prevent its execution. Subsequently,
after his trial, Garnet said he " could not certainly affirm " that
Greenway intended to relate the matter to him in confession.
Garnet's conduct in now keeping the plot a secret has been a
matter of considerable controversy not only between Roman
Catholics and Protestants, but amongst Roman Catholic writers
themselves. Father Martin del Rio, a Jesuit, writing in 1600,
discusses the exact case of the revelation of a plot in confession.
Almost all the learned doctors, he says, declare that the confessor
may reveal it, but he adds, " the contrary opinion is the safer and
better doctrine, and more consistent with religion and with the
reverence due to the holy rite of confession." According to
Bellarmine, Garnet's zealous friend and defender, " If the person
confessing be concealed, it is lawful for a priest to break the seal
of confession in order to avert a great calamity "; but he justifies
Garnet's silence by insisting that it was not lawful to disclose a
treasonable secret to a heretical king. According to Garnet's own
opinion a priest cognizant of treason against the state " is bound
to fihd all lawful means to discover it salvo sigilio confessionis."
In this connexion it is worth pointing out that Garnet had not
thought it his duty to disclose the treasonable intrigue with the
king of Spain in 1602, though there was no pretence in this case
that he was restricted by the seal of confession, and his inactivity
now tells greatly in his disfavour; for, allowing even that he
was bound by confessional secrecy from taking action on Green-
way's information, be had still Catesby's earlier revelations to
act upon. He appears to have taken no steps whatever to prevent
the crime, beyond writing to Rome in vague terms that " he
feared some particular desperate courses," which aroused no
suspicions in that quarter. At the same time he wrote to Father
Parsons on the 4th of September that " as far as he could now see
the minds of the Catholics were quieted."
His movements immediately prior to the attempt were
certainly suspicious. In September, shortly before the expected
meeting of parliament on the 3rd of October, Garnet organized a
pilgrimage to St Winifred's Well in Flintshire, which started
from Got hurst (now Gay hurst), Sir Everard Digby 's house in
Buckinghamshire, included Rokcwood, and stopped at the
houses of John Grant and Robert Winter, three others of the
conspirators. During the pilgrimage Garnet asked for the
prayers of the company " for some good success for the Catholic
cause at the beginning of parliament." After his return he went
on the 29th of October to Coughton in Warwickshire, near which
place it had been settled the conspirators were to assemble after
the explosion. On the 6th of November, Bates, Catesby's
servant and one of the conspirators, brought him a letter with the
news of the failure of the plot and desiring advice. On the 30th
Garnet addressed a letter to the government in which he pro-
tested his innocence with the most solemn oaths, " as one who
hopeth for everlasting salvation."
It was not till the 4th of December, however, that Garnet and
Greenway were, by the confession of Bates, implicated in the
plot; and on the same day Garnet removed from Coughton to
Hindlip Hall, near Worcester, a house furnished with cleverly-
contrived hiding-places for the use of the proscribed priests.
Here he remained some time in concealment in company with
another priest, Oldcorne alias Hall, but at last on the 30th of
January 1606, unable to bear the close confinement any longer,
they surrendered and were taken up to London, being well
treated during the journey by Salisbury's express orders. He was
examined by the council on the 13th of February and frequently
questioned during the following days, but refused to incriminate
himself, and a threat to inflict torture had no effect upon his
resolution. Subsequently Garnet and Oldcorne having been
placed in adjoining rooms and enabled to communicate with one
another, their conversations were overheard on several separate
occasions and considerable information obtained. Garnet at
first denied all speech with Oldcorne, but subsequently on the 8th
of March confessed his connexion with the plot. He was tried at
the Guildhall on the 28th.
Garnet was clearly guilty of misprision of treason, i.e. of having
concealed nvs k*o*V*&cb <A \Y» otant , ** d&Kwst ^ss3* <a^R**&.
47<>
GARNET
him to perpetual imprisonment and forfeiture of his property;
for the law of England took no account of religious scruples or
professional etiquette when they permit the execution of a
preventable crime. Strangely enough, however, the government
passed over the incriminating conversation with Grcenway, and
relied entirely on the strong circumstantial evidence to support
the charge of high treason against the prisoner. The trial was
not conducted in a manner which would be permitted in more
modern days. The rules of evidence which now govern the pro*
cedure in criminal cases did not then exist, and Garnet's trial,
like many others, was influenced by the political situation, the
case against him being supported by general political accusations
against the Jesuits as a body, and with evidence of their com*
plicity in former plots against the government. The prisoner
himself deeply prejudiced his cause by his numerous false state-
ments, and st ill more by his adherence to the doctrine of equivoca-
tion. Garnet, it is true, claimed to limit the justification of
equivocation to cases " of necessary defence from injustice and
wrong or of the obtaining some good of great importance when
there is no danger of harm to others," and he could justify his
conduct in lying to the council by their own conduct towards him,
which included treacherous eavesdropping and fraud, and also
threats of torture. Moreover, the attempt of the counsel for the
crown to force the prisoner to incriminate himself was opposed to
the whole spirit and tradition of the law of England. He was
declared guilty, and it is probable, in spite of the irregularity and
unjudicial character of his trial, that substantial justice was
done by his conviction. His execution took place on the 3rd of
May 1606, Garnet acknowledging himself justly condemned for
his concealment of the plot, but maintaining to the last that he
had never approved it. The king, who had shown him favour
throughout and who had forbidden his being tortured, directed
that he should be hanged till he was quite dead and that the
usual frightful cruelties should be omitted.
Soon after his death the story of the miracle of "Garnet's Straw"
wascirculalcdall over Europe, according to which a blood-stained
straw from the scene of execution which came into the hands of
one John Wilkinson, a young and fervent Roman Catholic, who
was present, developed Garnet's likeness. In consequence of the
credence which the story obtained, Archbishop Bancroft was
commissioned by the privy council to discover and punish the
impostors. Garnet's name was included in the list of the 353
Roman Catholic martyrs sent to Rome from England in 1880, and
in the 2nd appendix of the Menology of England and Wales
compiled by order of the cardinal archbishop and the bishops of
the province of Westminster by R. Stanton in 1887, where he is
styled " a martyr whose cause is deferred for future investigation."
The passage in Macbeth (Act n. Scene iii.) on equivocators no
doubt refers especially to Garnet. His aliases were Farmer,
Marchant,Whalley,Darcey Meaze,Phillips,Humphreys, Roberts,
Fulgeham, Allen. Garnet was the author of a letter on the
Martyrdom of Godfrey Maurice, alias John Jones, in Diego
Yepres's His tor ia particular de la persecution de Inglottrra(isw) \
a Treatise of Schism, a MS. treatise in reply to A Protestant
Dialogue between a Gentleman and a Physician; a translation of
the Stemma Christi with supplements (1622); a treatise on the
Rosary; a Treatise of Christian Renovation or Birth (1616).
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GARNET, a name applied to a group of closely-related
minerals, many of which are used as gem-stones. The name
probably comes from the Lat. granaticus, a stone so named from
its resemblance to the pulp of the pomegranate an colour, or to its
seeds in shape; or possibly from granum, " cochineal/' in allusion
to the colour of the stone. The garnet was included, with other
red stones, by Theophrastus, under the name of a>0pa£, while
the common garnet seems to have been his ivdpkKtop. Pliny
groups several stones, including garnet, under the term carbun-
cuius. The modern carbuncle is a deep red garnet (almandine)
cut en cabochon, or with a smooth convex surface, frequently
hollowed out at the back, in consequence of the depth of colour,
and sometimes enlivened with a foil (see Almakdine). The
Hebrew word nophek, translated Avfpaf in the Scptuagint, seems
to have been the garnet or carbuncle, whilst bareheth (ff/capcntfoi
of the Septuagint), though also rendered " carbuncle," was prob-
ably either beryl or, in the opinion of Professor Flinders Petrie,
rock-crystal. Garnets were used as beads in ancient Egypt.
Though not extensively employed by the Greeks as a material for
engraved gems, it was much used for this purpose by the Romans
of the Empire. Flat polished slabs of garnet are found inlaid
in mosaic work in Anglo-Saxon and Merovingian jewelry, the
material used being almandine, or " precious garnet."
Garnets vary considerably in chemical composition, but the
variation is limited within a certain range. All areorthosilkates,
conformable to the general formula R'sR'" t (SiO<)s, where R'-
Ca, Mg, Fe, Mn, and R'"« Al, Fe, Cr. Although there are many
kinds of garnet they may be reduced to the following sue types,
which may occur intermixed isomorphously: —
1. Calcium-aluminium garnet (Grossularile), CaiAtsSijOk*
a. Calcium-ferric garnet (Andradite), CaaFejSi^Oit,
3. Calcium-chromium garnet (Uvarovite), CajCrsSijOtt*
4. Magnesium-aluminium garnet (Pyrope), MgiAUSijOuv
5. Ferrous-aluminium garnet (Almandine), FcjAUSixOi*.
6. Manganous-aluminium garnet (Spessartine), MnsAltSijObs.
These are frequently called respectively: — (1) Lime-alumina garnet;
(2) lime-iron garnet; (3) lime-chrome garnet; (4) magncsia-aTumioa
garnet; (5) iron-alumina garnet; (6) manganese-alumina garnet.
The types are usually modified by isomorphous replacement of
some of their elements.
All garnets crystallize in the cubic system, usually in rhombic
dodecahedra or in icositetrahedra, or in a combination of the two
forms (see fig.). Octahedra and cubes are rare, but the six-faced
octahedron occurs in some of the com-
binations. Cleavage obtains parallel
to the dodecahedron, but is imperfect.
The hardness varies according to com-
position from 65 to 7 5, and the specific
gravity in like manner has a wide
range, varying from 34 in the calcium-
aluminium garnets to 4-3 in the ferrous-
aluminium species. Sir Arthur H.
Church found that many garnets when
fused yielded a product of lower
density than the original mineral. The
colour is typically red, but may be brown, yellow, green or even
black , while some garnets are colourless. Being cubic the garnets
are normally singly refracting, but anomalies frequently occur,
leading some authorities to doubt whether the mineral is really
cubic. The refractive power of garnet is high, so that in micro-
scopic sections, viewed by transmitted light, the mineral stands
out in relief.
Garnets are very widely distributed, occurring in crystalline
schists, gneiss, granite, metamorphic limestone, terpentine, and
occasionally in volcanic rocks. With omphacite ana smaragdhe,
garnet forms the peculiar rock called eclogue. The garnets used for
industrial purposes are usually found loose in detrital deposits,
weathered from the parent rock, though In some important workings
the rock is quarried. The garnets employed as genvstooes are
described under their respective headings (see Almandik*, Cikka-
in this article are of scientific rather than commercial interest.
Grossularite or " gooseberry-stone." is typically a brownish-green
garnet from Siberia, known also as wiluite (a name applied aim to
vesuvianite, $.».), from the river Wilul where it occurs. It is related
lohfeiaomVttOxunnatDM^sVat*. K Metkaa variety occurs in toss*
GARNETT— GARNIER, GERMAIN
47 *
pink dodecahedra. Romanzovite is a brown garnet, of grossularia-
type, from Finland, taking its name from Count Romanzov. Andra-
dite was named by J. D. Dana after B. J. d'Andrada e Silva, who
described, in 1800, one of its varieties allochroite, a Norwegian
garnet, so named from its variable colour. This species includes
most of the common garnet occurring in granular and compact
masses, sometimes forming garnet rock. To andradite may be
referred melanite, a black garnet well known from the volcanic
tuffs near Rome, used occasionally in the 18th century for mourning
jewelry. Another black garnet, in small crystals from the Pyrenees,
is called pyreneite. Under andradite may also be placed topazolite,
a honey-yellow garnet, rather like topaz, from Piedmont; colo
phonite, a brown resin-like garnet, with which certain kinds of
idocrase have been confused; aplome, a green garnet from Saxony
and Siberia; and jdletite, a green Swiss garnet named after the
Rev. J. H. Jellet. Here also may be placed the green Siberian
mineral termed demantoid (9.?.), sometimes improperly called
olivine by jewellers. Uvarovite, named after a Russian minister.
Count S. S. Uvarov, is a rare green garnet from Siberia and Canada,
but though of fine colour is never found in crystals large enough for
gem-stones. Spessartite, or spessartine, named after Spessart, a
German locality, is a fine aurora-red garnet, cut for jewelry when
sufficiently clear, and rather resembling, cinnamon-stone. It is
found In Ceylon, and notably in the mica-mines in Amelia county,
Virginia, United States. A beautiful rose-red garnet, forming a
fine gem-stone, occurs in gravels in Macon county, N.C., and has
been described by W. E. Hidden and Dr J. H. Pratt under the name
of rhodolite. It seems related to both almandine and pyrope, and
shows the absorption-spectrum of almandine. The Bohemian garnets
largely used in jewelry belong to the species pyrope (0*.).
Garnets are not only cut as gems, but are used for the bearings of
pivots in watches, and are in much request for abrasive purposes.
Garnet paper is largely used, especially in America, in place of sand-
paper for smoothing woodwork and for scouring leather in the boot-
trade. As an abrasive agent it is worked at several localities in the
United States, especially in New York State, along the borders of
the Adirondacks, where it occurs in limestone and in gneiss. Much
of the garnet used as an abrasive is coarse almandine. Common
garnet, where abundant, has sometimes been used as a fluxing agent
in metallurgical operations. Garnet has been formed artificially,
and is known as a furnace-product.
It may be noted that the name of white garnet has been given to
the mineral leucite, which occurs, like garnet, crystallized in icosi-
tetrahedra. (F.W.R.*)
GARNETT, RICHARD (183 5- 1006), English librarian and
author, son of the learned philologist Rev. Richard Garnett
(1 789-1850), priest-vicar of Lichfield cathedral and afterwards
keeper of printed books at the British Museum, who came of a
Yorkshire family, was born at Lichfield on the 27th of February
1835. His father was really the pioneer of modern philological
research Sn England; his articles in the Quarterly Review (183s,
1836) on English lexicography and dialects, and on the Celtic
question, and his essays in the Transactions of the Philological
Society (reprinted 1859), were invaluable to the later study of
the English language. The son, who thus owed much to his
parentage, was educated at home and at a private school, and in
1851, just after his father's death, entered the British Museum as
an assistant in the library. In 1875 he rose to be superintendent
of the reading-room, and from 1890 to 1899, when he retired, he
was keeper of the printed books. In 1883 he was given the
degree of LL.D. at Edinburgh, an honour repeated by other
universities, and in 1895 he was made a C.B,
His long connexion with the British Museum library, and the
value of his services there, made him a well-known figure in the
literary world, and he published much original work in both
prose and verse. His chief publications in book-form were:
in verse, Primula (1858), lo in Egypt (1859), Idylls and Epigrams
(1869, republished in 1892 as A Chapletfrom the Greek Anthology),
The Queen and other Poems (1902), Collected Poems (1893); in
prose, biographies of Carlyle (1887), Emerson (1887), Milton
(1890), Edward Gibbon Wakefield (1898); a volume of re-
markably original and fanciful tales, The Tvnlight of the Cods
(i888)j a tragedy, Iphigenia in Delphi (1890); A Short History
of Italian Literature (1898); Essays in Librarianship and Biblio-
phily (1899); Essays of an Ex-librarian (1901). He was an
extensive contributor to the Encyclopaedia BrUannica and the
Dictionary of National Biography, editor of the International
Library of Famous Literature, and co-editor, with E. Gosse, of the
elaborate English Literature: an illustrated Record. So multi-
frrk*a was bis output, however, In coatiibutiota to reviews, fcc,
and as translator or editor, that this list represents only a small
part of his published work. He was a member of numerous
learned literary societies, British and foreign. His facility as an
expositor, and his gift for lucid and acute generalization, together
with his eminence as a bibliophile, gave his work an authority
which was universally recognized, though it sometimes suffered
from his relying too much on his memory and his power of
generalizing— -remarkable as both usually were— in cases
requiring greater precision of statement in matters of detail. But
as an interpreter, whether of biography or belles Idircs, who
brought an unusually wide range of book-learning, in its best
sense, interestingly and comprehensibly before a large public, and
at the same time acceptably to the canons of careful scholarship,
Dr Garnett 's writing was always characterized by clearness,
common sense and sympathetic appreciation. His official
career at the British Museum marked an epoch in the manage-
ment of the library, in the history of which his place is second
only to that of Panizai. Besides introducing the " sliding press "
in 1887 he was responsible for reviving the publication of the
general catalogue, the printing of which, interrupted in 1841 , was
resumed under him in 1880, and gradually completed. The anti-
podes of a Dryasdust, his human interest in books made him aa
ideal librarian, and his courtesy and helpfulness were outstanding
features in a personality of singular charm. The whole bookish
world looked on him as a friend. Among his M hobbies " was a
study of astrology, to which, without associating his name with
i t in public, he devoted prolonged inquiry. Under the pseudonym
of " A. G. Trent " he published in 1880 an article (in the Uni-
versity Magaxine) on " The Soul and the Stars "—quoted in
Wilde and Dodson's Natal Astrology. He satisfied himself that
there was more truth in the old astrology than modern criticism
supposed, and he bad intended to publish a further monograph
on the subject, but the intention was frustrated by the ill-health
which led up to his death on the 13th of April 1006. He married
(1863) an Irish wife, Olivia Narney Singleton (d. 1903), and had a
family of six children; his son Edward (b. 1868) being a well-
known literary man, whose wife translated Turgencff's works
into English. (H. Ch.)
GARNIER, CLEMENT JOSEPH (18x3-1881), French econo-
mist, was born at Beuil (Alpes maritime*) on the 3rd of October
1813. Coming to Paris he studied at the £cole de Commerce, of
which he eventually became secretary and finally a professor.
In 1842 he founded with Gilbert-Urbain Guillaumin (1 801-1864)
the Societe d' Economic politique, becoming its secretary, a post
which he held till his death; and in 1846 he organized the
Association pour la Libcrte des fchanges. He also helped to
establish and edited for many years the Journal des tconomistes
and the Annuaire de Vtconomi* politique. Of the school of
laissexfaire, he was engaged during his whole life in the advance-
ment of the science of political economy, and in the improve-
ment of French commercial education. In 1873 he became a
member of the Institute, and in 1876 a senator for the depart-
ment in which he was born. He died at Paris on the 25th of
September x88i. Of bis writings, the following are the more
important: Traiti a" economic politique (1845), Richard Cobden
el la Ligue (1846), Traiti des finances (1862), and Principes du
population (1857).
GARNIER, GERMAIN, Marquis (1754-1821), French poli-
tician and economist, was born at Auxerre on the 8th of November
1754. He was educated for the law, and obtained when young
the office of procureur to the Chatelet in Paris. On the calling of
the states-general he was elected as one of the diputes suppliants
of the city of Paris, and in 1791 administrator of the department
of Paris. After the xoth of August 1792 he withdrew to the
Pays de Vaud, and did not return to France till 1 795. In public
life, however, he seems to have been singularly fortunate. In
1797 he was on the list of candidates for the Directory; in 1800
he was prefect of Seiae-et-Oise; and in 1804 he was made senator
and in z 808 a count. After the Restoration he obtained a peerage,
and on the return of Louis XVII I., after the Hundred Days, be
became minister of state and tomdAkx eA vgwj wjwd.wA^.
1*17 wis aeaUd m uutxepoa. To* $aA «. , **ria» <». >fc*. s^*sV
GARNIER, J. L. C— GARNIER, R.
472
October 1821. At court he was, when young, noted for his facile
power of writing society verse, but his literary reputation depends
rather on his later works on political economy, especially his
admirable translation, with notes and introduction, of Smith's
Wealth of Nations (1805) and his Histoire de la monnait (2 vols.,
1819), which contains much sound and well-arranged material.
His Abrtgi des principes de Vicon. polit. (1706) is a very clear and
instructive manual. The valuable Description geographique,
physique, ei politique du diportemetd de Seine-et-Oise (1802) was
drawn up from his instructions. Other works are De la proprUU
(1702) and Histoire des hanques d'escomptc (1806).
GARNIER, JEAN LOUIS CHARLBS (1825-1898), French
architect, was born in Paris on the 6th of November 1825. He
was educated in a primary school, and it was intended that he
should pursue his father's craft, that of a wheelwright. His
mother, however, having heard that with a little previous study
he might enter an architect's office and eventually become a
measuring surveyor (tiriftcoteur), and earn as much as six francs
a day, and foreseeing that in consequence of his delicate health
he would be unfit to work at the forge, sent him to learn drawing
and mathematics at the Petite £co!c de Dcssin, in the rue de
Mldecine, the cradle of so many of the great artists of France.
His progress was such as to justify his being sent first into an
architect's office and then to the well-known atelier of Lebas,
where he began his studies in preparation for the examination of
the £cole des Beaux Arts, which he passed in 1842, at the age of
seventeen. Shortly after his admission it became necessary that
he should support himself, and accordingly he worked during the
day in various architects' offices, among them in that of M.
Viollct-Ie-Duc, and confined his studies for the ficole to the
evening. In 1848 be carried off, at the early age of twenty-three,
the Grand Prix de Rome, and with his comrades in sculpture,
engraving and music, set off for the Villa de Mcdicis. His
principal works were the measured drawings of the Forum of
Trajan and the temple of Vesta in Rome, and the temple of
Serapis at PozzuoH. In the fifth year of his travelling student-
ship he went to Athens and measured the temple at Aegina,
subsequently working out a complete restoration of it, with its
polychromatic decoration, which was published as a monograph
in 1877. The elaborate set of drawings which he was com-
missioned by the due de Luynes to make of the tombs of the
house of Anjou were not published, owing to the death of his
patron; and since Garnier's death they have been given to the
library of the £cole des Beaux Arts, along with other drawings he
made in Italy. On bis return to Paris in 1853 he was appointed
surveyor to one or two government buildings, with a very
moderate salary, so that the commission given him by M. Victor
Baltard to make two water-colour drawings of the HAtel dc
Ville, to be placed in the album presented to Queen Victoria in
1855, on the occasion of her visit to Paris, proved very acceptable.
These two drawings are now in the library at Windsor.
In i860 came, at last, Garnier's chance: a competition was
announced for a design for a new imperial academy of music, and
out of 163 competitors Garnier was one of five selected for a
second competition, in which, by unanimous vote, he carried off
the first prize, and the execution, of the design was placed in his
hands. Begun in 1861, but delayed in its completion by the
Franco-German War, H was not till r87s that the structure of the
present Grand Opera House of Paris was finished, at a cost of
about 35,000,000 francs (£1 420,000). During the war the build-
ing was utilized as the municipal storehouse of provisions. The
staircase and the magnificent hall are the finest portion of the
interior, and alike in conception and realization have never been
approached. Of Garnier's other works, the most remarkable are
the Casino at Monte Carlo, the Bischoffsheim villa at Bordighcra,
the H6td du Cercle de la Librairie in Paris; and, among tombs,
those of the musicians Bizet, Offenbach, Masse* and Duprato. In
1874 he was elected a member of the Institute of France, and
after passing through the grades of chevalier, officer and com-
mander of the Legion of Honour, received in 1895 the rank of
grand aJficer, m high dis t in ct ion that had never before been
mated to mo mrchitect Cbarfcs Garnier's reputation was not
confined to France; it was recognized by all the countries of
Europe, and in England he received, in 1886, the royal gold medal
of the Royal Institute of Architects, given by Queen Victoria.
Besides his monograph on the temple of Aegina, he wrote
several works, of which Le Nouvel Optra de Paris is the most
valuable. For the International Exhibition of 1889 he designed
the buildings illustrating the " History of the House " in all
periods, and a work on this subject was afterwards published by
him in conjunction with M. Ammann. Not the least of his
claims to the gratitude of his country were the services which he
rendered on the various art juries appointed by the state, the
Institute of France, and the £cole des Beaux-Arts, services whkh
in France are rendered in an honorary capacity. Garnier died
on the 3rd of August 1898. (R. P. S.)
GARNIER, MARIE JOSEPH FRANCOIS [Francis] (1839-
1873), French officer and explorer, was born at St fcienne on the
25th of July 1839. He entered the navy, and after voyaging
in Brazilian waters and the Pacific he obtained a post on the
staff of Admiral Charncf, who from i860 to 1862 was campaign-
ing in Cochin-China. After some time spent in France be
returned to the East, and in 1862 he was appointed inspector of
the natives in Cochin-China, and entrusted with the administra-
tion of Cho-Ion, a suburb of Saigon. It was at his suggestion
that the marquis de Chasseloup-Laubat determined to send a
mission to explore the valley of the Mekong, but as Gamier was
not considered old enough to be put in command, the chief
authority was entrusted to Captain Doudart dc Lagree. In the
course of the expedition — to quote the words of Sir Roderick
Murchison addressed to the youthful traveller when, in 1870, he
was presented with the Victoria Medal of the Royal Geographical
Society of London— from Kratic in Cambodia to Shanghai
5392 m. were traversed, and of these 3625 m., chiefly of country
unknown to European geography, were surveyed with care, and
the positions fixed by astronomical observations, nearly the whole
of the observations being taken by Garnier himself. Voluntccricf
to lead a detachment to Talifu, the capital of Sultan Suleiman,
the sovereign of the Mahommedan rebels in Yunnan, he success-
fully carried out the more than adventurous enterprise. When
shortly afterwards Lagree died, Garnier naturally assumed the
command of the expedition, and he conducted it in safety to the
Yang-tsze-Kiang, and thus to the Chinese coast. On his return
to France he was received with enthusiasm. The preparation of
his narrative was interrupted by the Franco-German War, and
during the siege of Paris he served as principal staff officer to the
admiral in command of the eighth " sector." His experiences
during the siege were published anonymously in the feuilletonof
Le Temps, and appeared separately as Le Siege de Paris, journal
d'vn qfficier de marine (187 1). Returning to Cochin-China he
found the political circumstances of the country unfavourable
to further exploration, and accordingly he went to China, and in
1873 followed the upper course of the Yang-tsze-Kiang to the
waterfalls. He was next commissioned by Admiral Dupri,
governor of Cochin-China, to found a French protectorate or a
new colony in Tongking. On the 20th of November 1873 he took
Hanoi, the capital of Tongking, and on the 21st of December he
was slain in fight with the Black Flags. His chief fame rests on
the fact that he originated the idea of exploring the Mekong, and
carried out the larger portion of the work.
The narrative of the principal expedition appeared in 1873. as
Voyage d'explorulion en Indo-Ckine ejfeclui pendant Us annfes 1S66,
1807 tt 1868, publii sous la direction de M. Francis Gamier, avec
le concours de M. DelaporU ei de MM. Joubert et Thord (2 vols.).
An account of the Yang-tsze-Kiang from Garnier's pen in givm in
the Bulletin de la Soc. de Giog. (1874). His Chronica* royale du
Cambodky was reprinted from the Journal Asiatique in 1872. See
Ocean Highways (1874) for a memoir by Colonel Yule; and Hugh
Clifford, Further India, in the Story of Exploration series (1904).
GARNIER, ROBERT (c. 1545-C.1600), French tragic poet, was
born at Ferte" Bernard (Le Maine) in 1545. He published his
first work while still a law-student at Toulouse, where he won a
prize (1565) in the jcux jloraux. It was a collection of lyrical
pieces, now lost, entitled Pinnies amoureuses de Robert Garnier
1 (,i$fr$V Mfen some ?***&* **■ v>a * ^wsi^W,\*\*aoa*
GARNIER-PAGfcS— GARONNE
eonsriller du roi an siege presidial ct slnechaussee of Le Maine,
his native district, and later lieutenant-general criminel. His
friend Lacroiz du Maine says that be enjoyed a great reputation,
as an orator. He was a distinguished magistrate, of considerable
weight in his native province, who gave his leisure to literature,
and whose merits as a poet were fully recognized by his own
generation. He died at Le Mans probably in i$oo or x6oo.
In his early plays he was a dose follower of the school of
dramatists who were inspired by the study of Seneca. In these
productions there is little that is strictly dramatic except the
form. A tragedy was a series of rhetorical speeches relieved by a
lyric chorus. His pieces in this manner are Porde (published
1568, acted at the hotel de Bourgogne in 1573), CornHie and
HippolyU (both acted in 1573 and printed in 1574)* In Porde
the deaths of Cassius, Brutus and Portia are each the subject of
an eloquent recital, but the action is confined to the death of the
nurse, who alone is allowed to die on the stage. His next group
of IngtAics—Morc-Antoitie (1578), La Troade (1579)* Antigone
(acted and printed 1580) — shows an advance on the theatre of
£uenne Jodelle and Jacques Grevin, and on his own early plays,
in so much that the rhetorical element is accompanied by abund-
ance of action, though this is accomplished by the plan of joining
together two virtually independent pieces in the same way.
In 1582 and 1583 he produced his two masterpieces Brada-
manie and Les Juives. In Br adamant*, which alone of his plays
has no chorus, he cut himself adrift from Senecan models, and
sought his subject in Ariosto, the result being what came to be
known later as a tragi-comedy. The dramatic and romantic
story becomes a real drama in Garnier's hands, though even
there the lovers, Bradamante and Roger, never meet on the stage.
The contest in the mind of Roger supplies a genuine dramatic
interest in the manner of Corncille. Les Juives is the pathetic
story of the barbarous vengeance of Nebuchadnezzar on the
Jewish king Zedekiah and his children. The Jewish women
lamenting the fate of their children take a principal part in this
tragedy, which, although almost entirely elegiac in conception,
is singularly well designed, and gains unity by the personality of
the prophet. M. Faguet says that of all French tragedies of the
16th and 17th centuries it is, with Alkalic, the best constructed
with regard to the requirements of the stage. Actual representa-
tion is continually in the mind of the author; his drama is, in
fact, visually conceived.
Gamier must be regarded as the greatest French tragic poet of
his century and the precursor of the great achievements of the
next.
The best edition of his works is by Wendclin Foerster (Heilbronn,
4 vols., 1882-1883). A detailed criticism of his works is to be found
in Eraile Faguet, La Tragidie frameaite am XVI* siecl* (1883, pp.
183-307).
GAROTER-PAGES, BTIENNE JOSEPH LOUIS (1801-1841),
French politician, was born at Marseilles on the 27th of December
1 801. Soon after his birth his father Jean Francois Gamier, a
naval surgeon, died, and his mother married Simon Pages, a
college professor, by whom she had a son. The boys were brought
up together, and took the double name Garnier-Pages. Etienne
found employment first in a commercial house in Marseilles, and
then in an insurance office in Paris. In 1825 he began to study,
law, and made some mark as an advocate. A keen opponent of
the Restoration, he joined various democratic societies, notably
the Aide-lot, le del t' aider 0, an organization for purifying the
elections. He took part in the revolution of July 1830; became
secretary of the Aide-tot, le del foidcra, whose propaganda he
brought into line with his anti-monarchical ideas; and in 183 1
was sent from Isere to the chamber of deputies. He was con-
cerned in the preparation of the Contpie rendu of 1832, and
advocated universal suffrage. He was an eloquent speaker, and
his sound knowledge of business and finance gave him a marked
influence among all parties in the chamber. He died in Paris on
the 23rd of June 1841.
His half-brother, Louis Antotne Gakktce-Packs (1803-
1878), fought on the barricades during the revolution of July
1830, and after £tienne J s death was elected to the chamber of
♦73
deputies (1842). He was a keen promoter of reform, and was a
leading spirit in the affair of the reform banquet fixed for the
22nd of February 1848. He was a member of the provisional
government of 1848, and was named mayor of Paris. On the
5th of March 1848 he was made minister of finance, and incurred
great unpopularity by the imposition of additional taxes. He
was a member of the Constituent Assembly and of the Executive
Commission. Under the Empire he was conspicuous in the
republican opposition and opposed the war with Prussia, and
after the fall of Napoleon III. became a member of the Govern^
ment of National Defence. Unsuccessful at the elections for the
National Assembly (the 8th of February 187 1), he retired into
private life, and died in Paris on the 31st of October 1878. He
wrote Histoire de la revolution de 1848 (1860-1862); Histoire de
la commission executive (1860-1872) ; and V Opposition et V empire
(i«7a).
GARNISH, a word meaning to fit out, equip, furnish, now
particularly used of decoration or ornament. It is formed from
the O. Fr. garnisomt or guamissant, participle oi garnir, guarmr,
to furnish, equip. This is of Teutonic origin, the base being
represented in O. Eng. wormian, to take warning, beware, and
Ger. women , to warn, Eng. warn; the original sense would be to
guard against, fortify, hence equip or fit out. The meaning of
" warn " is seen in the law term " garnishee," a person who owes
money to or holds money belonging to another and is " warned "
by order of the court not to pay it to bis immediate creditor but
to a third person who has obtained final judgment against that
creditor. (See Attachment; Execution; Bankruptcy.)
GARO HILLS, a district of British India, in the hills division of
Eastern Bengal and Assam. It takes its name from the Garos, a
tribe of doubtful ethnical affinities and peculiar customs, by whom
it is almost entirely inhabited. The Garos are probably a section
of the great Bodo tribe, which at one time occupied a large part of
Assam. According to the census of 1001 they numbered 1 28,1 17.
In the 18th century they are mentioned as being frequently in
conflict with the-inhabitants of the plains below their hills, and in
1700 the British government first tried to reduce them. No
permanent success was achieved. In 1852 raids by the Garos
were followed by a blockade of the hills, but in 1856 they were
again in revolt. Again a repressive expedition was despatched in
i86x, but in 1866 there was a further raid. A British officer was
now posted among the hills; this step was effective; in 1869 the
district was constituted, and though in 1871 an outrage was
committed against a native on the survey staff, there was little
opposition when an expedition was sent in 187 2-1873 to bring the
whole district into submission, and there were thereafter no
further disturbances.
The district consists of the last spurs of the Assam hills, which
here rundown almost to the bank of the Brahmaputra, where that
river debouches upon the plain of Bengal and takes its great
sweep to the south. The administrative headquarters are at
Tura. The area of the district is 3140 sq. m. In xooi the
population was 138,274, showing an increase of 14% in the
decade. The American missionaries maintain a small training
school for teachers. The public buildings at Tura were entirely
destroyed by the earthquake of June 12, 1897, and the roads in
the district were greatly damaged by subsidence and fissures.
Coal in large quantities and petroleum are known to exist.
The chief exports are cotton, timber and forest products. Trade
is small, though the natives, according to their own standard,
are prosperous. They are fair agriculturists. Communications
within the district are by cart-roads, bridle-paths and native
tracks.
GARONNE (Lat. Garvmnc), a river of south-western France,
rising in the Maladetta group of the Pyrenees, and flowing in a
wide curve to the Atlantic Ocean. It is formed by two torrents,
one of which has a subterranean course of 2§ m., disappearing in
the sink known as the Trou du Taureau (" bull's hole ") and
reappearing at the Goueil de Joucou. After a course of 30 m. in
Spanish territory, during which it flows through the fine gorge
called the Vallee d'Aran, the Garonne enters France in the
department ol Hsuve Qaxrosa. tarot>tat taxw« fe5ta.<&.'fefc
474
GARRET— BARRETT
Pont du Rot, mad at once becomes navigable for rafts. At
Montrejeau it receives on the left the Neste, and encountering at
this point the vast plateau of Lannemezan is forced to turn
abruptly east, flowing in a wide curve to Toulouse. At Saint
Martory it gives off the irrigation canal of that name. At this
point the Garonne enters a fertile plain, and supplies the motive
power to several mills. It is joined on the right by various
streams fed by the snows of the Pyrenees. Such are the Salat, at
whose confluence river navigation proper begins, and the Arize
and the Aricge (both names signifying " river ") . From Toulouse
the Garonne flows to the north-west, now skirting the northern
border of the plateau of Lannemezan which here drains into it, the
principal streams being the Save, the Gers and the Babe. On its
right hand the Garonne is swelled by its two chief tributaries, the
Tarn, near Moissac, and the Lot, below Agen; farther down it is
joined by the Drot (or Dropt), and on the left by the Ciron.
Between Toulouse and Castets, 33$ m. above Bordeaux, and the
highest point to which ordinary spring-tides ascend, the river is
accompanied at a distance of from a y to 3 m. by the so-called
" lateral canal " of the Garonne, constructed in 1838-1856.
This canal is about x 20 m. long, or 133 m. including its branches,
one of which runs off at right angles to Montauban on the Tarn.
From Toulouse to Agen the main canal follows the right bank of
the Garonne, crossing the Tarn on an aqueduct at Moissac, while
another magnificent aqueduct of twenty-three arches carries it at
Agen from the right to the left bank of the river. It has a fall of
420 ft. and over fifty locks, and is navigable for vessels having the
maximum dimensions of 08) ft. length, 19 ft. breadth and 6) fL
draught. The carrying trade upon it is chiefly in agricultural
produce and provisions, building materials, wood and industrial
products. At Toulouse the canal connects with the Canal du
Midi, which runs to the Mediterranean. After passing Castets the
Garonne begins to widen out considerably, and from being 160
yds. broad at Agen increases to about 650 yds. at Bordeaux, its
great commercial port. From here it flows with ever increasing
width between two flat shores to the Bee d'Ambes (15! m.),
where, after a course of 357 m., it unites with the Dordogne to
form the vast estuary known as the Girond . The triangular
peninsula lying between these two great tidal rivers is called
Entre-deux-mers (" between two seas ") and is famous for its
wines. The drainage area of the Garonne is nearly 33,000 sq. m.
Floods are of common occurrence, and descend very suddenly.
The most disastrous occurred in 1875, 1856 and in 1770, when the
flood level at Castets attained the record height of 42} ft. above
low-water mark.
GARRET (from the O. Fr. sortie, modern gueriic, a watch-
tower, connected ultimately with " guard " and " ward "),
properly a small look-out tower built on a wall, and hence the
name given to a room on the top storey of a building, the sloping '
ceiling of which is formed by the roof.
GARRETT, JOlO BAPTISTA DA 8ILVA LEITIo DB
ALMEIDA, Visconde de Almexda-Garkett (1709-1854),
perhaps the greatest Portuguese poet since Camoens, was of
Irish descent. Born in Oporto, his parents moved to the Quinta
do Castello at Gaya when he was five years old. The French
invasion of Portugal drove the family to the Azores, and Garrett
made his first studies at Angra, beginning to versify at an early
age under the influence of his uncle, a poet of the school of
Bocage. Going to the university of Coimbra in 1816, he soon
earned notoriety by the precocity of his talents and his fervent
Liberalism, and there he gained his first oratorical and literary
successes. His tragedy Lucrecia was played there in February
18:9, and during this period he also wrote Merope as well as a
great part of Colo, all these plays belonging to the so-called
classical school. Leaving Coimbra with a law degree, he pro-
ceeded to Lisbon, and on the nth of November 1822 married
D. Luiza Midosi; but the alliance proved unhappy and a formal
separation took place in 1S39.
The reactionary movement against the Radical revolution of
1820 reached its height in 1823, and Garrett had to leave Portugal
by order of the Absolutist ministry then in power, and went
to Eagkad He bcauac Mcqwintid with the masterpiece* of
the English and German romantic movements during his stay
abroad.
Imbued with the spirit of nationality, he wrote in 2824 at
Havre the poem " Camoes," which destroyed the influence of the
worn-out classical and Arcadian rhymers, and in the following
year composed the patriotic poem " D. Branca," or " The
Conquest of the Algarve," He was permitted to return to
Portugal in 1826, and thereupon devoted himself to journalism.
With the publication of O Portugua, he raised the tone of the
press, exhibiting an elevation of ideas and moderation of language
then unknown in political controversy, and be introduced the
" feuilleton." But his defence of Liberal principles brought him
three months' imprisonment, and when D. Miguel was proclaimed
absolute king on the 3rd of May 1828, Garrett had again to leave
the country. In London, where he sought refuge, he continued
bis adhesion to romanticism by publishing Adozindc and BcmeJ-
Franca, expansions of old folk-poems, which met with the
warmest praise from Southey and were translated by Adamsoa.
He spent the next three years in and about Birmingham,
Warwick and London, engaged in writing poetry and political
pamphlets, and by these and by his periodicals he did much to
unite the Portuguese tmigris and to keep up their spirit amid
their sufferings in a foreign land. Learning that an expedition
was being organized in France for the liberation of Portugal,
Garrett raised funds and joined the forces under D. Pedro as a
volunteer. Sailing in February 183 2, he disembarked at Tercrira,
whence he passed to S. Miguel, then the seat of the Liberal
government. Here he became a co-operator with the statesmaa
Mousinho da Silveira, and assisted him in drafting those laws
which were to revolutionize the whole framework of Portuguese
society, this important work being done far from books and
without pecuniary reward. In his spare time he wrote some of
the beautiful lyrics afterwards collected into Flora set* FruUo.
He took part in the expedition that landed at the Mindello on the
8th of July 1832, and in the occupation of Oporto. Early in the
siege be sketched out, under the influence of Walter Scott, the
historical romance Arco de San? Anna, descriptive of the city ia
the reign of D. Pedro I.; and, in addition, he organized the
Home and Foreign offices under the marquis of Palmclla, drafted
many important royal decrees, and prepared the criminal and
commercial codes. In the following November he was de*
spatched as secretary to the marquis on a diplomatic mission to
foreign courts, which involved him in much personal hardship.
In the next year the capture of Lisbon enabled him to return
home, and he was charged to prepare a scheme for the reform of
public instruction.
In 1834-1835 he served as consul-general and charge* d'affaires
at Brussels, representing Portugal with distinction under most
difficult circumstances, for which he received no thanks and
little pay. When he got back, the government employed him to
draw up a proposal for the construction of a national theatre and
for a conservatoire of dramatic art, of which he became the
head. He instituted prizes for the best plays, himself revising
nearly all that were produced, and a school of dramatists and
actors arose under his influence. To give them models, he
proceeded to write a series of prose dramas, choosing his subject!
from Portuguese history. He began in 1838 with the Ante de
Gil Vicente, considering that the first step towards the re-
creation of the Portuguese drama was to revive the memory of its
founder, and he followed this up in 1842 by the Aljogcmt ie
Sanlarem, dealing with the Holy Constable, and in 1843 by
Fret Luix de Sousa, one of the few great tragedies of the 19th
century, a work as intensely national as The Lusicds. The story,
which in part is historically true, and has the merit of being
simple, like the action, is briefly as follows. D. Joao de Portugal,
who was supposed to have died at the battle of Alcacer, returns,
years afterwards, to find his wife married to Manoel de Sousa and
the mother of a daughter by him, named Maria. Thereupon the
pair separate and enter religion, and Manoel becomes the famous
chronicler, Frei Luiz de Sousa (q.v.). The characters live and
move, especially Telmo, the old servant, who would never believe
tnVb*6jc^oih»forjxrcma*texD.IoiA«^
GARRETTING— GARRICK, DAVID
475
child Maria, who helps Tetao to create the atmoaphere of impend-
ing disaster; while the episodes, particularly those of the return
of D. Jofto and the death of Maria, are full of power, and the
language is Portuguese of the best.
Entering parliament in 1837, Garrett soon made his mark as
an orator. In that year he delivered many notable discourses in
defence of liberal ideas. He also brought in a literary copyright
bill, which, when it became law in 1851, served as a precedent for
similar legislation in England and Prussia. In 1840 he made his
famous speech known as Porto Pyreu, in which be skilfully turned
the well-known anecdote of the " mad Athenian " against his
opponents. While attending with assiduity to his duties as a
deputy, he wrote, about this time, the drama D. Pilippa de
Viikmoy founded on an incident in the revolution of 1640, for
representation by the pupils of the conservatoire, and the
session of 1841 saw another of his oratorical triumphs in his
speech against the law of tithes. In July 1843 an excursion to
Santarem resulted in his prose masterpiece Viagens no minho
krra, at once a novel and a miscellany of literary, political and
philosophic criticism, written without plan or method, easy,
jovial and epigrammatic He took no part in the civil war that
followed the revolution of Maria da Fonte, but continued his
literary labours, producing in 1848 the comedy A Sohrinha do
Mar qua, dealing with the times of Pombal, and in 1849 an
historical memoir on Mousinho da Silveira. He spent much of
the year 1850 in finishing his Romonceiro, a collection of folk-
poetry of which he was the first to perceive the value; and in
June 1851 he was created a viscount. In the following December
he drew up the additional act to the constitutional charter, and
his draft was approved by the ministers at a cabinet meeting in
his house. Further, he initiated the Constlho Ultramarino; and
the Law of the Misericordias, with its preamble, published in 1852,
was entirely from his pen. In the same year he became for a
short time minister of foreign affairs. In 1853 he brought out
Polkas Cakidas, a collection of short poems ablaze with passion
and exquisite in form, of which his friend Hcrculano said:
" if Camoens had written love verses at Garrett's age, be could
not have equalled him." His final literary work was a novel,
Helena, which he left unfinished, and on the xoth of February
1854 be made his last notable speech in the House. He died on
the oth of December 1854, and on the 3rd of May 1903 his re-
mains were translated to the national pantheon, the Jeronymos
at Belem, where they rest near to those of Camoens. As poet,
novelist, journalist, orator and dramatist, he deserves the remark
of Rebello da Silva: " Garrett was not a man of letters only but
an entire literature in himself."
Besides his strong religious faith, Garrett was endowed with a
deep sensibility, a creative imagination, rare taste and a singular
capacity for sympathy. Thus, though a learned man and an able
jurist , he was bound to be first and always an artist. His artistic
temperament explains his many-sided activity, his expansive
kindliness, his seductive charm, especially for women, his patriot-
ism, his aristocratic pretensions, his huge vanity and dandyism,
and the ingenuousness that absolves him from many faults in an
irregular life. From his rich artistic nature sprang his profound,
sincere, sensual and melancholy lyrics, the variety and perfection
of his scenic creations, the splendour of his eloquence, the truth of
his comic vein, the elegance of his lighter compositions. Two
books stand out in bold relief from among his writings: Polkas
Cakidas, and that tragedy of fatality and pity, Prei Luix de
Sousa, with its gallery of noble figures incarnating the truest
realism in an almost perfect prose form. The complete collection
of his works comprises twenty-four volumes and there are several
editions.
Authorities.— Gome* de Amorim, Garrett, memories biographic**
r vols., Lisbon. 1881-1888): D. Romero Ortu, La LUieratura
Jortuguesa en el siglo XIX (Madrid, 1869), pp. 165-aii; Dr
Theophilo Braga. Garrett e o romautismo (Oporto, 1904), and Garrett
a 0$ dramas romantieos (Oporto, 1909), with a full bibliography;
Innocencio da Silva, Diccionario btbhographico Portugues, vol. in.
PP- 309-316, and vol. x. pp. 180-185. See Revue eucycleptdiaue
Larousu, No. 384, for a bibliography of the foreign translations of
Garrett. Prei Luts de Sousa was translated by Edgar Prestage under
the th)e Jrg&rr Lite * Sdmsm (London, rooo). (E. Pi.)
ft
GARRRTIHO, properly Galletttng, a term in architecture
for the process in which the " gallets " or small splinters of stone
are inserted in the joints of coarse masonry to protect the
mortar joints; they are stuck in while the mortar is wet.
OARRICK, DAVID (17 17-1779), English actor and theatrical
manager, was descended from a good French Protestant family
named Garric or Garrique of Bordeaux, which had settled in
England on the revocation of the Edict of Nantes. His father,
Captain Peter Garrick, who had married Arabella Clough, the
daughter of a vicar choral of Lichfield cathedral, was on a re-
cruiting expedition when his famous third son was born at Here-
ford on the xoth of February 1717. Captain Garrick, who had
made his home at Lichfield, where be had a large family, in 1731
rejoined his regiment at Gibraltar. This kept him absent from
home for many years, during which letters were written to him
by " little Davy," acquainting him with the doings at Lichfield.
When the boy was about eleven years old he paid a short visit
to Lisbon where his uncle David had settled as a wine merchant.
On his father's return from Gibraltar, David, who had previously
been educated at the grammar school of Lichfield, was, largely by
the advice of Gilbert Walmesley, registrar of the ecclesiastical
court, sent with his brother George to the "academy" at Edial just
opened in June or Jury 1736 by Samuel Johnson, the senior by
seven years of David, who was then nineteen. This seminary
was, however, closed in about six months, and on the and of
March 1736/7 both Johnson and Garrick left Lichfield for
London— Johnson, as he afterwards said, "with twopence
halfpenny in his pocket," and Garrick " with three-halfpence in
his." Johnson, whose chief asset was the MS. tragedy of Irene,
was at first the host of his former pupil, who, however, before the
end of the year took up his residence at Rochester with John
Colson (afterwards Lucasian professor at Cambridge). Captain
Garrick died about a month after David's arrival in London.
Soon afterwards, his uncle, the wine merchant at Lisbon, having
left David a sum of £1000, he and his brother entered into
partnership as wine merchants in London and Lichfield, David
taking up the London business. The concern was not prosperous
—though Samuel Foote's assertion that he bad known Garrick
with three quarts of vinegar in the cellar calling himself a wine
merchant need not be taken literally— and before the end of 1741
he had spent nearly hah* of his capital.
His passion for the stage completely engrossed him ; he tried
his hand both at dramatic criticism and at dramatic authorship.
His first dramatic piece, Lethe, or Aesop in the Shades, which he
was thirty-seven years later to read from a splendidly bound
transcript to King George III. and Queen Charlotte, was played
at Drury Lane on the 15th of April 1740; and he became a well-
known frequenter of theatrical circles. His first appearance on
the stage was made in March 1741, incognito, as harlequin at
Goodman's Fields, Yates, who was ill, having allowed him to take
his place during a few scenes of the pantomime entitled Harlequin
Student, or The Pall of Pantomime with the Restoration of the
Drama. Garrick subsequently accompanied a party of players
from the same theatre to Ipswich, where he played his first part
as an actor under the name of Lyddal, in the character of Aboan
(in Southerne's Oroonoko). His success in this and other parts
determined his future career. On the 19th of October 1741 he
made his appearance at Goodman's Fields as Richard III. and
gained the most enthusiastic applause. Among the audience
was Macklin, whose performance of Shy lock, early in the same
year, had pointed the way along which Garrick was so rapidly to
pass in triumph. On the morrow the latter wrote to bis brother
at Lichfield, proposing to make arrangements for his withdrawal
from the partnership, which, after much distressful complaint on
the part of his family, met by him with the Utmost consideration
were ultimately carried into effect. Meanwhile, each night had
added to his popularity on the stage. The town, as Gray (who,
like Horace Walpole, at first held out against the furore) declared,
was " horn-mad " about him. Before his Richard had exhausted
its original effect, he won new applause as Aboan, and soon
afterwards as Lear and as Pierre in Ctway's Venice Preserved^,
as weu as in i*rer*\ cook. ekaxwaMEi <fcw&s*^fca*<k , ***av*
47»
GARRISON, W. L.
deeply impressed by the good Quaker's zeal and devotion, and he
resolved to join him and devote himself thereafter to the work of
abolishing slavery.
Iu pursuance of this plan he went to Baltimore in the autumn
of 1 8*o, and thenceforth the Genius was published weekly,
under the joint editorship of the two men. It was understood,
however, that Garrison would do most of the editorial work,
while Lundy would spend most of his lime in lecturing and
procuring subscribers. On one point the two editors differed
radically, Lundy being the advocate of gradual and Garrison of
immediate emancipation. The former was possessed with the
idea that the negroes, on being emancipated, must be colonised
somewhere beyond the limits of the United States; the latter
held that they should be emancipated on the soil of the country,
with all the rights of freemen. In view of this difference it was
agreed that each should speak on his own individual responsibility
in the paper, appending his initial to each of his articles for the
information of the reader. It deserves mention here that Garrison
was then in utter ignorance of the change previously wrought in
the opinions of English abolitionists by Elizabeth Hey rick's
pamphlet in favour of immediate, in distinction from gradual
emancipation. The sinfulness of slavery being admitted, the
duty of immediate emancipation to his clear ethical instinct was
perfectly manifest. He saw that it would be idle to expose and
denounce the evils of slavery, while responsibility for the system
was placed upon former generations, and the duty of abolishing
it transferred to an indefinite future. His demand for immediate
emancipation fell like a tocsin upon the ears of slaveholders.
For general talk about the evils of slavery they cared little, but
this assertion that every slave was entitled to instant freedom
filled them with alarm and roused them to anger, for they saw
that, if the conscience of the nation were to respond to the
proposition, the system must inevitably fall. The Genius, now
that it had become a vehicle for this dangerous doctrine, was a
paper to be feared and intensely hated. Baltimore was then one
of the centres of the domestic slave trade, and upon this traffic
Garrison heaped the strongest denunciations. A vessel owned in
Newburyport having taken a cargo of slaves from Baltimore to
New Orleans, he characterized the transaction as an act of
"domestic piracy," and avowed his purpose tot "cover with
thick infamy " those engaged therein. He was thereupon
prosecuted for libel by the owner of the vessel, fined $50, mulcted
in costs, and, in default of payment, committed to gaol. His
imprisonment created much excitement, and in some quarters,
in spite of the pro-slavery spirit of the time, was a subject of
indignant comment in public as well as private. The excitement
was fed by the publication of two or three striking sonnets,
instinct with the spirit of liberty, which Garrison inscribed on the
walls of his cell. One of these, Freedom of Mini, is remarkable
for freshness of thought and terseness of expression.
John G. Whittier, the Quaker poet, interceded with Henry
Clay to pay Garrison's fine and thus release him from prison.
To the credit of the slaveholding statesman it must be said that
he responded favourably, but before he had time for the requisite
preliminaries Arthur Tappan, a philanthropic merchant of New
York, contributed the necessary sum and set the prisoner free
after an incarceration of seven weeks. The partnership between
Garrison and Lundy was then dissolved by mutual consent, and
the former resolved to establish a paper of his own, in which,
upon his sole responsibility, he could advocate the doctrine of
immediate emancipation and oppose the scheme of African
colonization. He was sure, after his experiences at Baltimore,
that a movement against slavery resting upon any less radical
foundation than this would be ineffectual. He first proposed to
establish his paper at Washington, in the midst of slavery, but on
returning to New England and observing the state of public
opinion there, he came to the conclusion that little could be done
at the South while the non-slaveholding North was lending her
influence, through political, commercial, religious and social
channels, for the sustenance of slavery. He determined, therefore,
to publish his paper in Boston, and, having issued his prospectus,
set bSmscH to the task of awakening an interest in the subject by
means of lectures in some of the principal cities and towns of the
North. It was an up-hill work. Contempt for the negro and
indifference to his wrongs were almost universal. In Boston,
then a great cotton mart, he tried in vain to procure a church or
vestry for the delivery of his lectures, and thereupon announced in
one of the daily journals that if some suitable place was not
promptly offered he would speak on the common. A body of
infidels under the leadership of Abner Kneeland (1774-1844),
who had previously been in turn a Baptist minister and the editor
of a Universalist magazine, proffered him the use of their small
hall; and, no other place being accessible, he accepted it gratefully,
and delivered therein (in October 1830) three lectures, in which
he unfolded his principles and plans. He visited privately many
of the leading citizens of the city, statesmen, divines and
merchants, and besought them to take the lead in a national
movement against slavery; but they all with one consent made
excuse, some of them listening to his plea with manifest im-
patience. He was disappointed, but not disheartened. Ha
conviction of the righteousness of his cause, of the evils and
dangers of slavery, and of the absolutCrteccssity of the coatea-
plated movement, was intensified by opposition, and he resolved
to go forward, trusting in God for success.
On the 1st of January 183 1, without a dollar of capital, and
without a single subscriber, he and his partner Isaac Knasp
( 1 804-1 843) issued the first number of the Liberator, avowing their
" determination to print it as long as they could subsist on bread
and water, or their hands obtain employment." Its motto was,
" Our country is the world— our countrymen arc mankind M ; and
the editor, in his address to the public, uttered the words which
have become memorable as embodying the whole purpose and
spirit of his life: " I am in earnest — I will not equivocate — I wfll
not excuse — I will not retreat a single inch-— and I wBl be
heard." Help came but slowly. For many months Garrison
and his brave partner, who died long before the end of the
conflict, made their bed on the floor of the room, " dark, un-
furnished and mean," in which they printed their paper, tad
where Mayor Harrison Gray Otis of Boston, in compliance with
the request of Governor Robert Y. Hayne of South Carolina,
11 ferreted them out " in " an obscure hole," " their only visible
auxiliary a negro boy." But the paper founded under such
inauspicious circumstances exerted a mighty influence, and KVed
to record not only President Lincoln's proclamation of emancipa-
tion, but the adoption of an amendment to the constitution of the
United States for ever prohibiting slavery; It was the beginning
and the nucleus of an agitation that eventually pervaded and
filled every part of the country. Other newspapers were after-
wards established upon the same principles; anti-slavery
societies, founded upon the doctrine of immediate emancipation,
sprang up on every hand; the agitation was carried into political
parties, into the press, and into legislative and ecclesiastical
assemblies; until in 1861 the Southern states, taking alarm from
the election of a president known to be at heart opposed to
slavery though pledged to enforce all the constitutional safe-
guards of the system, seceded from the Union and set up a
separate government.
Garrison sought the abolition of slavery by moral means alone.
He knew that the national government had no power over the
system in any state, though it could abolish it at the national
capital, and prohibit it in the territories. He thought it should
bring its moral influence to bear in favour of abolition; bat
neither he nor bis associates ever asked Congress to exercise any
unconstitutional power. His idea was to combine the moral
influence of the North, and pour it through every open channel
upon the South. To this end he made his appeal to the Northern
churches and pulpits, beseeching them to bring the power of
Christianity to bear against the slave system, and to advocate the
rights of the slaves to immediate and unconditional freedom.
He was a man of peace, hating war not less than be did slavery;
but he warned his countrymen that if they refused to abolish
slavery by moral power a retributive war must sooner or later
ensue. The conflict was irrepressible. Slavery must be over-
thrown, if not by peaceful means, then in blood. The first society
GARRISON, W. L.
479
organized under Garrison's auspices, and in accordance with his
principles, was the New England Anti-Slavery Society, which
adopted its constitution in January 1832. In the spring of this
year Garrison issued his Thoughts on African Colonization, in
which he showed by ample citations from official documents that
the American Colonization Society was organised in the interest of
slavery, and that in offering itself to the people of the North as a
practical remedy for that system it was guilty of deception.
His book, aided by others taking substantially the same view,
smote the society with a paralysis from which it never recovered.
Agents of the American Colonization Society in England having
succeeded in deceiving leading Abolitionists there as to its
character, and tendency, Garrison was deputed by the New
England Anti-Slavery Society to visit England for the purpose of
counteracting their influence. He went in the spring of 1833,
when he was but twenty-seven years of age, and was received
with great cordiality by British Abolitionists, some of whom had
heard of his bold assaults upon American slavery, and had seen a
few numbers of the Liberator. The struggle for emancipation in
the West Indies was then at the point of culmination; the leaders
of the cause, from all parts of the kingdom, were assembled in
London, and Garrison was at once admitted lo their councils and
treated with distinguished consideration. He took home with
him a " protest " against the American Colonization Society,
signed by Wilbcrforce, Zachary Macaulay, Samuel Gurney,
William Evans, S. Lushington, T. To well Buxton, James Cropper,
Daniel O'ConncU and others, in which they declared their de-
liberate judgment that " its precepts were delusive," and " its
real effects of the most dangerous nature." He also received
assurances of the cordial sympathy of British Abolitionists with
him in his efforts to abolish American slavery. He gamed a
hearing before a large popular assembly in London, and won the
confidenceof those whom be addressed by hisevident earnestness,
sincerity and ability.
Garrison's visit to England enraged the pro-slavery people
and press of the United States at the outset, and when he re-
turned home in September with the " protest " against the
Colonization Society, and announced that he had engaged the
services of George Thompson as a lecturer against American
slavery, there were fresh outbursts of rage on every hand. The
American Anti-Slavery Society was organized in December of
that year (1S33), putting forth a masterly declaration of its
principles and purposes from the pen of Garrison. This added
fresh fuel to the public excitement, and when Thompson came
over in the next spring, the hostility to the cause began to mani-
fest itself in mobs organized to suppress the discussion of the
slavery question. Now began what Harriet Martineau called
" the martyr age in America." In the autumn of 1835 Thompson
was compelled, in order to save his life, to embark secretly for
England. Just before his departure the announcement that
he would address the Woman's Anti-Slavery Society of Boston
created " a mob of gentlemen of property and standing," from
which, if he had been present, he could hardly have escaped with
his life. The whole city was in an uproar. Garrison, almost
denuded of his clothing, was dragged through the streets with a
rope by infuriated men. He was rescued with great difficulty,
and consigned to the gaol for safety, until he could be secretly
removed from the city.
Anti-slavery societies were greatly multiplied throughout the
North, and many men of influence, both in the church and in
the state, were won to the cause. Garrison, true to his original
purpose, never faltered or turned back. The Abolitionists of
the United States were a united body until 1830-1840, when
divisions sprang up among them. Garrison countenanced the
activity of women in the cause, even to the extent of allowing
them to vote and speak in the anti-slavery societies, and
appointing them as lecturing agents; moreover, he believed
in the political equality of the sexes, to which a strong party was
opposed upon social and religious grounds. Then there were
some who thought Garrison dealt too severely with the churches
and pulpits for their complicity with slavery, and who accused
.him of a want of religious orthodoxy; indeed, according to the
standards of his time he was decidedly heterodox, though he had
an intensely religious nature and was far from being an infidel,
as he was often charged with being. He was, moreover, not only
a non-resistant but also an opponent of all political systems
based on force. " As to the governments of this world," he
said, " whatever their titles or forms we shall endeavour to prove
that in their essential elements, as at present administered,
they are all anti-Christ ; that they can never by human wisdom
be brought into conformity with the will of God; that they
cannot be maintained except by naval and military power to
carry them into effect; that all their penal enactments, being
a dead letter without any army to carry them into effect, are
virtually written in human Mood; and that the followers of
Jesus should instinctively shun their stations of honor, power,
and emolument — at the same time 'submitting to every
ordinance of man for the Lord's sake' and offering no physical
resistance to any of thcirmandates, however unjust ortyrannical."
These views were very distasteful to many, who, moreover, felt
that Garrison greatly injured abolitionism by causing it to be
associated in men's minds with these unpopular views on other
subjects. The dissentients from his opinions determined to
form an anti-slavery political party, while he believed in working
by moral rather than political party instrumentalities. These
differences led to the organization of a new National Anti-
Slavery Society in 1840, and to the formation of the " Liberty
Party " (q.v.) in politics. (See Bibney, James G.) The two
societies sent their delegates to the World's Anti-Slavery Con-
vention in London in 1840, and Garrison refused to take his seat
in that body, because the women delegates from the United
States were excluded. The discussions of the next few years
served to make clearer than before the practical workings of the
constitution of the United States as a shield and support of
slavery; and Garrison, after a long and painful reflection, came
to the conclusion that its pro-slavery clauses were immoral, and
that it was therefore wrong to take an oath for its support. The
Southern states had greatly enlarged representation In Congress
on account of their slaves, and the national government was
constitutionally bound to* assist in the capture of fugitive slaves,
and to suppress every attempt on their part to gain their free-
dom by force. In view of these provisions, Garrison, adopting a
bold scriptural figure of speech, denounced the constitution as
" a covenant with death and an agreement with hell," and chose
as his motto, " No union with slaveholders."
One class of Abolitionists sought to evade the difficulty by
strained interpretations of the clauses referred to, while others,
admitting that they were immoral, felt themselves obliged,
notwithstanding, to support the constitution in order to avoid
what they thought would be still greater evils. The American
Anti-Slavery Society, of which Garrison was the president
from 1843'to the day of emancipation, was during all this period
the nucleus of an intense and powerful moral agitation, which
was greatly valued by many of the most faithful workers in the
field of politics, who respected Garrison for his fidelity to his
convictions. On the other hand, he always had the highest
respect for every earnest and faithful opponent of slavery,
however far their special views might differ. When in 1861 the
Southern states seceded from the Union and took up arms against
it, ho saw clearly that slavery would perish in the struggle, that
the constitution would be purged of its pro-slavery clauses, and
that the Union henceforth would rest upon the sure foundations
of liberty, justice and equality to all men. He therefore ceased
from that hour to advocate disunion, and devoted himself to
the task of preparing the way for and hastening on the inevitable
event. His services at this period were recognized and honoured
by President Lincoln and others in authority, and the whole
country knew that the agitation which made the abolition of
slavery feasible and necessary was largely due to his uncompro-
mising spirit and indomitable courage.
In 1865 at the close of the war, he declared that, slavery being
abolished, his career as an abolitionist was ended. He counselled
a dissolution of the American Anti-Slavery Society, insisting
that it had beroitte functus ojvcu*, vc& >fo*x h»Y*\«w \**£*&.
480
GARRISON— GARY
to be done for the protection of the freedmen could best be
Accomplished by new associations formed for that purpose. The
Liberator was discontinued at the end of the same year, after an
existence of thirty-five years. He visited England for the second
time in 1846, and again in 1867, when he was received with
distinguished honours, public as well as private. In 1877, when
he was there for the last time, he declined every form of public
recognition. He died in New York on the 24th of May 1879, in
the seventy-fourth year of bis age, and was buried in Boston,
after a most impressive funeral service, four days later. In
1843 a small volume of his Sennets and other Poems was published,
and in 1852 appeared a volume of Selections from his Writings
and Speeches. His wife, Helen Eliza Benson, died in 1876.
Four sons and one daughter survived them.
Garrison's son, William Lloyd Garrison (1838-1009), was a
prominent advocate of the single tax, free trade, woman's
suffrage, and of the repeal of the Chinese Exclusion Act, and an
opponent of imperialism; another son, Wendell Phillips
Garrison (1840-1907), was literary editor of the New York
Nation from 1865 to 1906.
The above article, with certain modifications, reproduces the
account given in the 9th edition of this work by Oliver Johnson
(reprinted from his Garrison: an Outline of his Life, New York,
1879). The writer (1809-1889) was a prominent Abolitionist,
editor, and an intimate friend of Garrison; he edited the Liberator
during Garrison's absence in England in 1833, and later was an editor
or an associate editor of various journals, including, after the Civil
War, the New York Tribune and the New York Evening Post. He
also published an excellent brief biography in William Lloyd Garrison
and his Times (Boston. 1880).
The great authority on the life of Garrison is the thorough and
candid work of his sons, W. P. and F. J. Garrison, William Lloyd
Garrison i8o$-i87Q: The Story of his Life told by his Children (4
vols.. New York, 1885-1889), which is indispensable for the student
of the anti-slavery struggle in America. Goldwin Smith's The Moral
Crusader: a Biographical Essay on William Lloyd Garrison (New
York, 1893) is al>nlliant sketch.
GARRISON, originally a term for stores or supplies, also a
defence or protection, now confined in meaning to a body of
troops stationed in a town or fortress for the purpose of defence.
In form the word is derived from "O. Fr. garison, modern
guerison, from guerir, to famish with stores, to preserve, but in
its later meaning it has been confused with the Fr. garnison, the
regular word for troops stationed for purposes of defence. In
English " garnison " was used till the 16th century, when " gar-
rison " took its place. In the British army " garrison troops,"
especially " garrison artillery," arc troops trained and employed
for garrison work as distinct from field operations.
OARROTB (Spanish for "cudgel"), an appliance used in
Spain and Portugal for the execution of criminals condemned
to death. The criminal is conducted to the place of execution
(which is public) on horseback or in a cart, wearing a black
tunic, and is attended by a procession of priests, &c He is
seated on a scaffold fastened to an upright post by an iron collar
(the garrole), and a knob worked by a screw or lever dislocates
his spinal column, or a small blade severs the spinal column at
the base of the brain. (See Capital Punishment.) Originally a
stout cord or bandage was tied round the neck of the criminal,
who was seated in a chair fixed to a post. Between the cord and
the neck a stick was inserted (hence the name) and twisted till
strangulation ensued.
" Garrotting " is the name given in England to a form of
robbery with violence which became rather common in the
winter of 1862-1863. The thief came up behind his victim,
threw a cord over his head, and tightened it nearly to strangula-
tion point, while robbing him. An act of 1863, imposing the
penalty of flogging in addition to penal servitude for this offence,
had the effect of stopping garrotting almost entirely. At any
rate, the practice was checked; and, though the opponents of
any sort of flogging refuse to admit that this was due to the
penalty, that view has always been taken by the English judges
who had experience of such cases.
GARRUCHA, a seaport of south-eastern Spain, in the province
of Almeria; on the Mediterranean Sea and on the right bank of
the river Ant as. Pop. (1900) 4461. The harbour of Garrucha,
which is defended by an ancient castle, affords shelter to large
ships, and is the natural outlet for the commerce of a thriving
agricultural and mining district. Despite its small sue and the
want of railway communication, Garrucha has thus a consider-
able trade in lead, silver, copper, iron, esparto grass, fruit, kc.
Besides sea-going ships, many small coasters enter in ballast, and
dear with valuable cargoes. In 1902, 135 vessels of 390,000 tons
entered the harbour, the majority being British or Spanish; and
in the same year the value of the exports reached £478,000, and
that of the imports £1 38,000. Both imports and exports trebled
their value in the ten years 1892-1902.
GARSTON, a seaport in the Widnes parliamentary division of
Lancashire, England, on^tbe Mersey, 6 m. S.E. of Liverpool.
Pop. (1891) 13,444; (1901) 17,289. The docks, belonging to the
London & North Western railway company, employ most of the
working population. There is about a mile of quayage, with
special machinery for the shipping of coal, which forms the chief
article of export.
GARTH. SIR SAMUEL (1661-1719), English physician and
poet, was born of a good Yorkshire family in 1661. He entered
Pctcrhouse, Cambridge, in 1676, graduating B.A. in 1679 and
M.A. in 1684. He took his M.D. and became a member of the
College of Physicians in 1 69 1 . In 1697 he delivered the Harvrian
oration, in which he advocated a scheme dating from some tea
years back for providing dispensaries for the relief of the skk
poor, as a protection against the greed of the apothecaries, la
1699 be published a mock-heroic poem, The Dispensary, in six
cantos, which had an instant success, passing through three
editions within a year. In this he ridiculed the apothecaries and
their allies among the physicians. The poem has little interest at
the present day, except as a proof that the heroic couplet was
written with smoothness and polish before the days of Pope,
Garth was a member of the Kil-Kat Club, and became the kadis*
physician of the Whigs, as Radcliffc was of the Tories. In 17 14
he was knighted by George I. and be died on the 18th of January
1 7 19. He wrote little besides his best-known work The Dispen-
sary and Clarcmont, a moral espistle in verse. He made a Latin
oration (1700) in praise of Dryden and translated the Lift of
Olho in the fifth volume of Drydcn's Plutarch. In 1 7 1 7 he edited
a translation of Ovid's Metamorphoses, himself supplying the
fourteenth and part of the fifteenth book.
GARTOK, a trade-market of Tibet, situated on the bank of the
Indus on the road between Shigatse and Leh, to the east of Simla.
In accordance with the Tibet treaty of 1904, Gartok, together
with Yatung and Gyantse, was thrown open to British trade.
On the return of the column from Lhasa in that year Gartok was
visited by a party under Captain Ryder, who found only a few
dozen people in winter quarters, their bouses being in the midst
of a bare plain. In summer, however, all the trade betwcea
Tibet and Ladikh passes through this place.
GARY, a city of Lake county, Indiana, U.S.A., at the southern
end of Lake Michigan, about 25 m. S.E. of Chicago, 111. Pop.
(1910 census) 16302. Gary is served by the Baltimore k
Ohio, the Lake Shore & Michigan Southern, the Michigan Central,
the Pennsylvania, the Wabash, and (for freight only) the
Chicago, Lake Shore & Eastern, and the Indiana Harbor Belt
railways, and by several steamship lines plying the Great Lakes.
There are about 21 sq. m. within the municipal limits, but the
city lies chiefly within a tract of about 8000 acres composed at the
time of its settlement mainly of sand dunes and swamps inter-
sected from east to west by the Grand Calumet and the little
Calumet rivers, small streams respectively about 1 and 3 m. S.
of the lake shore. In 1906 the United States Steel Corporation
bought this tract to establish on it a great industrial community,
as direct water connexion with the Lake Superior ore region was
possible, and it was comparatively accessible to West Virginia
coal and Michigan limestone, with unusual railroad facilities.
The Steel Corporation began the actual building of the town in
June 1906, the first step being the installation of an elaborate
system of sewers, and of mains and conduits, for the distribution
of water, gas and electricity . The water-supply is taken from the
lake at a point 2 m. offshore by means of a tunnel. These public
GAS
481
utilities the Steel Corporation controls, and it has built about
500 dwellings, two hotels, a bank, and its own plant. A small
patch of land, now within the limits of the city, has been from the
beginning in the hands of private owners, but the remainder of
the lots (except those already sold) are owned by the Steel
Corporation, and are sold under certain restrictions intended to
prevent real estate speculation, to guarantee bona fide improve-
ment of the property, and to restrict the sale of intoxicating
drinks. Between the Grand Calumet river (which has been
dredged out into a canal) and the lake lies the plant of the Steel
Corporation, covering about 1200 acres. All the machinery in
this great plant is driven by electricity from generators whose
motive power is supplied by the combustion of gases from the
blast furnaces. From the same sources is also supplied the
electricity for lighting the city. The rail mill is operated by
three-phase induction motors of from 2000 to 6000 horse-power
capacity. The city was chartered in 1006 and was named in
honour of Elbert Henry Gary (b. 1846), chairman of the board of
directors and chairman of the finance committee of the United
States Steel Corporation.
GAS, a general term for one of the three states of aggregation
of matter; also more specifically applied to coal-gas, the gaseous
product formed in the destructive distillation of coal or other
carbonaceous matter (see below, section Gas Manufacture; for
gas engines see the separate heading Gas Engine).
The Gaseous State. — Matter is studied under three physical
phases — solids, liquids and gases, the latter two being sometimes
grouped as " fluids." The study of the physical properties of
fluids in general constitutes the science of hydromechanics, and
their applications in the arts is termed hydraulics; the special
science dealing with the physical properties of gases is named
pneumatics.
The gaseous fluid with which we have chiefly to do is our
atmosphere. Though practically invisible, it appeals in its
properties to other of our senses, so that the evidences of its
presence are manifold. Thus we feel it in its motion as wind,
and observe the dynamical effects of this motion in the quiver
of the leaf or the motion of a sailing ship. It offers resistance to
the passage of bodies through it, destroying their motion and
transforming their energy— as is betrayed to our hearing in the
whu of the rifle bullet, to our sight in the flash of the meteor.
The practically obvious distinction between solids and fluids
may be slated in dynamical language thus: — solids can sustain
a longitudinal pressure without being supported by a lateral
pressure; fluids cannot. Hence any region of space enclosed
by a rigid boundary can be easily filled with a fluid, which then
takes the form of the bounding surface at every point of it. But
here we distinguish between fluids according as they are gases
or liquids. The gas will always completely fill the region, however
small the quantity put in. Remove any portion and the re-
mainder will expand so as to fill the whole space again. On. the
other hand, it requires a definite quantity of liquid to fill the
region. Remove any portion and a part of the space will be
left unoccupied by liquid. Part of the liquid surface is then
otherwise conditioned than by the form of the wall or bounding
surface of the region; and if the portion of the wall not in con-
tact with the liquid is removed the form and quantity of the
liquid are in no way affected. Hence a liquid can be kept in an
open vessel; a gas cannot so be. To quote the differentia of
Sir Oliver Lodge: " A solid has volume and shape; a liquid
has volume, but no shape; a gas has neither volume nor shape."
It is necessary to distinguish between a gas and a " vapour."
The latter possesses the physical property stated above which
distinguishes a gas from a fluid, but it differs from a gas by being
readily condensible to a liquid, either by lowering the temperature
or moderately increasing the pressure. The study of the effects
of pressure and temperature on many gases led to the introduction
of the term " permanent gases " to denote gases which were
apparently not liquefiablc. The list included hydrogen, nitrogen
and oxygen; but with improved methods these gases have been
liquefied and even solid i tied, thus rendering the term meaningless
(see Liquid Gases). The term " perfect gas " is applied to an
imaginary substance in which there is no frictional retardation
of molecular motion; or, in other words, the time during which
any molecule is influenced by other molecules is innnitesimally
small compared with the time during which it traverses its mean
free path. It serves as a means of research, more particularly
in mathematical investigations, the simple laws thus deduced
being subsequently modified by introducing assumptions in
order to co-ordinate actual experiences.
The gaseous state was well known to the ancients; for in-
stance, in Greek cosmology, " air " (irwCyta) was one of the funda-
mental elements. The alchemists used such terms as sptritus,
fiatus, halitus, aura, emanalio nubUa, &c, words implying a
" wind " or " breath." The word " gas " was invented by
J. B. van Helmont in hisOrtus medicinae, posthumously published
in 1648, in the course of his description of the gas now known
as carbon dioxide. He found that charcoal on burning yielded
a " spirit," which he named sptritus syhestris on account of its
supposed untamable nature (" Gas sylvestre sive incoerabile,
quod in corpus cogi non potest visibile "); and he invented
the word " gas " in the expression: " . . . this spirit, hitherto
unknown, ... I call by a new name gas " (" hunc spiritum,
incognitum hactenus, novo nomine gas voco "). The word was
suggested by the Gr. x*o*t chaos, for he also writes: " I have
called this spirit gas, it being scarcely distinguishable from the
Chaos of the ancients " (" halitum ilium Gas vocavi, non longe
a Chao veterum secretum "). The view that the word was
suggested by the Dutch geest, spirit, is consequently erroneous.
Until the end of the 18th century the word " air," qualified by
certain adjectives, was in common use for most of the gases known
— a custom due in considerable measure to the important part
which common air played in chemical and physical investigations.
The study of gases may be divided into two main branches:
the physical and the chemical. The former investigates essen-
tially general properties, such as the weight and density, the
relation between pressure, volume and temperature (piezometric
and tbermometric properties), calorimetric properties, diffusion,
viscosity, electrical and thermal conductivity, &c, and generally
properties independent of composition. These subjects are
discussed in the articles Density; Thermometry; Calori-
metky; Diffusion ; Conduction of Heat; and Condensa-
tion of Gases. The latter has for its province the preparation,
collection and identification of gases, and the volume relations
in which they combine; in general it deals with specific pro-
perties. The historical development of the chemistry of gases-
pneumatic chemistry— is treated in the article Chemistry; the
technical analysis of gaseous mixtures is treated below under
Gas A nalysis. Connecting the experimental study of the physical
and chemical properties is the immense theoretical edifice
termed the kinetic theory of gases. This subject, which is dis-
cussed in the article Molecule, has for its purpose (1) the deriva-
tion of a physical structure of a gas which will agree with the
experimental observations of the diverse physical properties,
and (2) a correlation of the physical properties and chemical
composition.
Cos Analysis. — The term "gas analysis" is given to that
branch of analytical chemistry which has for its object the
quantitative determination of the components of a gaseous
mixture. The chief applications are found in the analysis of flue
gases (in which much information is gained as to the complete-
ness and efficiency of combustion), and of coal gas (where it is
necessary to have a product of a definite composition within
certain limits). There arc, in addition, many other branches
of chemical technology in which the methods are employed.
In general, volumetric methods are used, i.e. a component is
absorbed by a suitable reagent and the diminution in volume
noted, or it is absorbed in water and the amount determined
by titration with a standard solution. Exact analysis is difficult
and tedious, and consequently the laboratory methods are not
employed in technology, where time is an important factor and
moderate accuracy is all that is necessary. In this article an
outline of the technical practice will be given.
The apparatus consists of (1) a measuring vess*l % sod C>\ v
482
GAS
aeries of absorption pipettes. A convenient form of measuring
vessel is that devised by W Hempel. ft consists of two
vertical tubes provided with feet and connected at the bottom
by flexible rubber tubing. One tube, called the " measuring
tube/' is provided with a capillary stopcock at the top and
graduated downwards; the other tube, called the " level tube,"
is plain and open. To use the apparatus, the measuring tube
is completely filled with water by pouring water into both tubes,
raising the level tube until water overflows at the stopcock,
which is then turned. The test gas is brought to the stopcock,
by means of a fine tube which has been previously filled with
water or in which the air has been displaced by running the gas
through. By opening the stopcock and lowering the level tube
any desired quantity of the gas can be aspirated over. In cases
where a large quantity of gas, i.e. sufficient for several tests, is
to be collected, the measuring tube is replaced by a large bottle.
The volume of the gas in the measuring tube is determined by
bringing the water in both tubes to the same level, and reading
the graduation on the tube, avoiding parallax and the other errors
associated with recording the coincidence of a graduation with a
(By pcrmiMioa of Mcuft Datrd IcTallock.)
Fig. i. Fie. a.
meniscus. The temperature and atmospheric pressure are simul-
taneously noted. If the tests be carried out rapidly, the tem-
perature and pressure may be assumed to be constant, and any
diminution in volume due to the absorption of a constituent may
be readily expressed as a percentage. If, however, the tem-
perature and pressure vary, the volumes are reduced to o° and
760 mm. by means of the formula V « V(P— f )/(i+ -00366/) 760,
in which V is the observed volume, P the barometric pressure, p
the vapour tension of water at the temperature / of the experi-
ment. This reduction is facilitated by the use of tables.
Some common forms of absorption pipettes are shown in figs.
1 and 2. The simpler form consists of two bulbs connected
at the bottom by a wide tube. The lower bulb is provided with
a smaller bulb bearing a capillary through which the gas is led to
the apparatus, the higher bulb has a wider outlet tube. The
arrangement is mounted vertically on a stand. Sometimes the
small bulb on the left is omitted. The form of the pipette varies
with the nature of the absorbing material. For solutions which
remain permanent in air the two-bulbed form suffices; in other
cases a composite pipette (fig. 2) is employed, in which the
absorbent is protected by a second pipette containing water. In
the case of solid reagents, e.g. phosphorus, the absorbing bulb
has a tubulure at the bottom. To use a pipette, the absorbing
liquid is brought to the outlet of the capillary by tilting or by
squeezing a rubber ball fixed to the wide end, and the liquid is
maintained there by closing with a clip. The capillary is con-
nected with the measuring tube by a fine tube previously filled
with water. The dip is removed, the stopcock opened, and the
level tube of the measuring apparatus raised, so that the gas
passes into the first bulb. There it is allowed to remain, the
pipette being shaken from time to time. It is then run back into
the measuring tube by lowering the level tube, the stopcock is
closed, and the volume noted. The operation is repeated until
there k no further Mbsorptiou.
The choke of absorbents and the order in which the gases ate
to be estimated is strictly limited. Confining ourselves to casts
where titration methods are not employed, the general order a
as follows: carbon dioxide, defines, oxygen, carbon monoxide,
hydrogen, methane and nitrogen (by difference). This scheme is
particularly applicable to coal-gas Carbon dioxide is absorbed
by a potash solution containing one part of potash to betweei
two and three of water; the stronger solution absorbs about 40
volumes of the gas. The olefines— ethylene, &c. — are generaly
absorbed by a very strong sulphuric acid prepared by adding
sulphur trioxide to sulphuric acid to form a mixture whki
solidifies when slightly cooled. Bromine water is also employed
Oxygen is absorbed by stick phosphorus contained in a tubulated
pipette filled with water. The temperature must be above i«°;
and the absorption is prevented by ammonia, olefines, alcohol,
and some other substances. An alkaline solution of pyrogaDal
is also used; this solution rapidly absorbs oxygen, becoming
black in colour, and it is necessary to prepare the solution
immediately before use. Carbon monoxide is absorbed by a
solution of cuprous chloride in hydrochloric acid or, better, in
ammonia. When small in amount, it is better to estimate at
carbon dioxide by burning with oxygen and absorbing in potash;
when large* in amount, the bulk is absorbed in ammoniac*!
cuprous chloride and the residue burned. Hydrogen may be
estimated by absorption by heated palladium contained in a
capillary through which the gas is passed, or by exploding (under
reduced pressure) with an excess of oxygen, and measuring the
diminution in volume, two-thirds of which is the volume of
hydrogen. The explosion method is unsatisfactory when the gas
is contained over water, and is improved by using mercury.
Methane cannot be burnt in this way even when there is mack
hydrogen present, and several other methods have been pro-
posed, such as mixing with air and aspirating over copper oxide
heated to redness, or mixing with oxygen and burning in a
platinum tube heated to redness, the carbon dioxide formed
being estimated by absorption in potash. Gases soluble in water,
such as ammonia, hydrochloric acid, sulphuretted hydrogen,
sulphur dioxide, &c, are estimated by passing a known volume cf
the gas through water and titrating the solution with a standard
solution. Many types of absorption vessel are in use, and the
standard solutions are generally such that x c.c. of the solution
corresponds to 1 c.c. of the gas under normal conditions.
Many forms of composite gas-apparatus are in use. One of the
commonest is the Orsat shown in fig. 3. The gas is measured in
the graduated cylinder on the right, which is surrounded by a
water jacket and provided with a levelling bottle. At the top it is
connected by a capillary tube bent at right angles to a series of
absorbing vessels, the connexion
being effected by stopcocks. These
vessels consist of two vertical
cylinders joined at the bottom
by a short tube. The cylinder
in direct communication with the
capillary is filled with glass tubes so
as to expose a larger surface of the
absorbing solution to the gas. The
other cylinder is open to the air
and serves to hold the liquid
ejected from the absorbing cylin-
der. Any number of bulbs can be
attached to the horizontal capillary;
in the form illustrated there are
four, the last being a hydrogen
pipette in which the palladium is
heated in a horizontal tube by .
a spirit lamp. At the end of the
horizontal tube there is a three-
way cock connecting with the air or an aspirator. To use
the apparatus, the measuring tube is completely filled with
water by raising the levelling bottle. The absorbing vessels
are then about half filled with the absorbents, and, by
opening the cocks and sspuatini, the liquid is brought so at
Fig. 3.
MANUFACTURE)
GAS
483
completely to fill the bulbs nearer the capillary. The cocks
arc then closed. By opening the three-way cock to the supply of
the test gas and lowering the levelling bottle, any desired amount
can be drawn into the measuring tube. The absorption is effected
by opening the cock of an absorbing vessel and raising the level*
ling bottle. The same order of absorption and general directions
pertaining to the use of Hempel pipettes have to be adopted.
Although the earliest attempts at gas analysis were made by
Scheele, Priestley, Cavendish, Lavoisier, Dalton, Gay-Lussac and
others, the methods were first systematized by R. Bunsen, who
began his researches in 1 838. He embodied his results in his classical
Gasometriscke Melhoden (1857, second edition 1877), a work trans-
lated into English by H. Koacoe. Clemens Winkler contributed
two works, A nUitung swr ckemiuken Untersuckung der Industriegase
(1876-1877) and Lehrbuch der Uckniscken Gasanalyse (and ed., 1892).
both of which are very valuable for the commercial applications of
the methods. W. Hempel 's researches are given in his ifeue Method*
sur Analyse der Case (1880) and Casanalyttuke Metkoden (1890, 3rd
. 1900;. Gas Manufacture
1. Illuminating Gas. — The first practical application of gas
distilled from coal as an illuminating agent is generally as-
cribed to William Murdoch, who between the years
of 179a and 1802 demonstrated the possibility of
making gas from coal and using it as a lighting agent on
a large scale. Prior to 1691, however, Dr John Clayton,
dean of Kildare, filled bladders with inflammable gas obtained
by the distillation of coal, and showed that on pricking the
bladders and applying a light to the escaping gas it burnt
with a luminous flame, and in 1726 Stephen Hales published
the fact that by the distillation of 158 grains of Newcastle
coal, 180 cub. in. of inflammable air would be obtained. Jean
Pierre Minckelers, professor of natural philosophy in the
university of Louvain, and later of chemistry and physics at
Maestricht, made experiments on distilling gas from coal with
the view of obtaining a permanent gas sufficiently light for
filling balloons, and in 1785 experimentally lighted his lecture
room with gas so obtained as a demonstration to his students,
but no commercial application was made of the fact. Lord Dun-
do nald, in 1787, whilst distilling coal for the production of tar and
oil, noticed the formation of inflammable gas, and even used it
for lighting the hall of Culross Abbey. It is clear from these
facts that, prior to Murdoch's experiments, it was known that
illuminating gas could be obtained by the destructive distillation
of coal, but the experiments which he began at Redruth in 1792,
and which culminated in the lighting of Messrs Boulton, Watt &
Co.'s engine works at Soho, near Birmingham, in 1802, un-
doubtedly demonstrated the practical possibility of making the
gas on a large scale, and burning it in such a way as to make
coal-gas the most important of the artificial illuminants. An im-
pression exists in Cornwall, where Murdoch's early experiments
were made, that it was a millwright named Homblower wfep
first suggested the process of making gas to Murdoch, but, as
has been shown, the fact that illuminating gas could be obtained
from coal by distillation was known a century before Murdoch
made his experiments,
and. the most that can
be claimed for him is
that he made the first
successful application of
it on a practical scale.
In 1709 a Frenchman
named Philippe Lebon
took out a patent in Paris for making an illuminating gas from
wood, and gave an exhibition of it in 1802, which excited a con-
siderable amount of attention on the European continent It was
seen by a German, F. A. Winsor, who made Lebon an offer for his
secret process for Germany. This offer was, however, declined,
and Winsor returned to Frankfort determined to find out how
the'gas could be made. Having quickly succeeded in discovering
this, he in 1803 exhibited before the reigning duke of Brunswick
a series of experiments with lighting gas made from wood and
from coal. Looking upon London as a promising field for
enterprise, he came over to England, and at the commencement
0/ 1804 took the Lyceum theatre, where be gave demonstrations
of his process. He then proceeded to float a company, and in
1807 the first public street gas lighting took place in Pall Mall,
whilst in 1809 he applied to parliament to incorporate the National
Heat and Light Company with a capital of half a million sterling.
This application was opposed by Murdoch on the ground of
his priority in invention, and the bill was thrown out, but coming
to parliament for a second time in 1810, Winsor succeeded in
getting it passed in a very much curtailed form, and, a charter
being granted later in 18 12, the company was called the Chartered
Gas Light and Coke Company, and was the direct forerunner of
the present London Gas Light and Coke Company. During this
period Frederick C. Accum (1 760-1838), Dr W. Henry and
S. Clcgg did so much by their writings and by the improvements
they introduced in the manufacture, distribution and burning of
coal gas, that their names have become inseparably connected
with the subject.
In 1813 Westminster Bridge, and in the following year the
streets of Westminster, were lighted with gas, and in 1816 it
became common in London. After this so rapid was ^to
the progress of this new mode of illumination that in gnwtk
the course of a few years it was adopted by all the •'J"
principal towns in the United Kingdom for lighting ^*****
streets as well as shops and public edifices. In private houses it
found its way more slowly, partly from an apprehension of
danger attending its use, and partly from the discomfort which
was experienced in many cases through the gas being distributed
without purification, and to the careless and imperfect manner
in which the service pipes were first fitted. It was during the
last four decades of the xoth century that the greatest advance
was made, this period having been marked net only by many
improvements in the manufacture of illuminating gas, but by a
complete revolution in the methods of utilizing it for the pro-
duction of light. In 1875 the London Argand, giving a duty of
3- 2 candles illuminating power per cubic foot of ordinary 16 candle
gas, was looked upon as the most perfect burner of the day,
and little hope was entertained that any burner capable of
universal adoption would surpass it in its power of developing
light from the combustion of coal gas; but the close of the
century found the incandescent mantle and the atmospheric
burner yielding six times the light that was given by the Argand
for the consumption of an equal volume of gas, and to-day,
by supplying gas at an increased pressure, a light of ten times
the power may be obtained. Since the advent of the incandescent
mantle, the efficiency of which is dependent upon the heating
power of the gas more than on its illuminating power, the manu-
facture of coal gas has undergone considerable modifications.
Coal, the raw material from which the gas is produced by a
process of destructive distillation, varies very widely in composition
(see Coal), and it is only the class of coals rich in hydrogen, £b . __„
known as bituminous coal, that can with advantage be ZT^T^
utilized in gas manufacture. Coals of this character are ^Jt^l
obtained inEngland from the Newcastleand Durham field, "***>*
South Yorkshire, Derbyshire and Barnsley districts, and an idea of
their ultimate composition may be derived from the following table:-
Carbon.
Hydrogen.
Sulphur.
Nitrogen.
Oxygen.
Ash.
Moisture.
Newcastle gas coal .
Durham gas coal
South Yorkshire silkstone
Derbyshire silkstone
Barnsley gas coal
8216
8434
8046
7696
75-64
483
5-30
5-09
504
494
1 00
S3
2-39
2-84
123
1-73
167
i-77
1-65
682
429
679
6*92
725
320
2-42
330
3»8
428
0-76
I- 14
103
3*64
3-40
Our knowledge of the composition of coal is limited to the total
amount of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen and foreign materials
which it contains; and at present we know practically but little of
the way in which these bodies arc combined. This being so, the
ordinary analysis of a coal affords but little indication of its value
for gas-making purposes, which can only be really satisfactorily
arrived at by extended use on a practical scale. . Bituminouscoal,
however, may be looked upon as containing carbon and also simple
hydrocarbons, such as some of the higher members of the paraffin
series, and likewise organic bodies containing carbon, hydrogen,
nitrogen, oxygen and sulphur.
On submitting a complex substance of this character to destructive
distillation, it will be found that the yield and quality of the product*
will vary very cons\deraV>Vj ^XvYv \Yv* xmavettfun* «hs*»«i vcv^*.
retorts, wAth lY« sue oA \Y» Ooat^ tA <s^>x^^^\\*fc>a*x*w^>M*
484
GAS tMANUFACTWU
in the retort, with the length of time the distillation has been going
on, and with an infinity of other factors of a more or less complex
^^ nature. If bituminous coal is distilled at a low tempera-
f™J? ture, the tar is found to contain considerable quantities of
"HZjfJT light paraffin oils; and there is no doubt that paraffin
"?■*"? hydrocarbons are present in the original coal. These
^^ paraffins, under the influence of heat, split up into simpler
members of the same series and into olefincs; and if we imagine the
action in its simplest form, we should have the gases, as they were
evolved, consisting of (say) ethane and ethylene. These have now
to pass down the heated retort on their way to the ascension pipe,
ana the contact with the heated sides of the retort, and the baking
from the radiant heat in the retort, set up an infinity of changes.
Ethane, when heated to this degree, splits up into ethylene and
hydrogen, whilst ethylene decomposes to metnane and acetylene,
and the acetylene at once polymerizes to benzene, styrolene, retene,
&c. A portion also condenses, and at the same time loses some
hydrogen, becoming naphthalene; and the compounds so formed
by interactions amongst themselves build up the remainder of the
hydrocarbons present in the coal tar, whilst the organic substances
containing oxygen in the coal break down, and cause the formation
of the phenols in the tar.
There
positions
the acth
instead <
in the cc
in practi
vapours
to such i
retort at
formed i
former 11
of definii
pose it
and, by
secondax
such idc;
pound, a
If the
coal is pi
Blhctot
. . the products which come in contact with the sides of the
J"JV" *"• retort are heated to iooo°C, whilst the gas near the coal
nwu £ 8 probably. heated to only 6oo°C. Moreover, the gases
and vapours in the retort are subjected to a period of heating which
varies widely with the distance from the mouth of the retort of the
coal that is undergoing carbonization. The gas developed by the
coal near the mouth of the retort is quickly washed out into the
ascension pipe by the push of the gas behind, and the period for
which it has been exposed to the radiant heat from the walls of the
retort is practically nil ; whilst the gas evolved in the portion of the
retort farthest from the mouthpiece has only its own rate of evolution
to drive it forward, and has to traverse the longest run possible in
the retort, exposed during the whole of that period to radiant heat
and to contact with the highly heated surface of the retort itself.
Hence we find that the tar is formed of two distinct sets of products,
the first due to incomplete decomposition and the second to secondary-
reactions due to the products of the decomposition being kept too
long in the zone of heat.
Of the first class, the light paraffin oils and pitch may be taken as
examples; whilst benzene, naphthalene and retort carbon represent
the second. The formation of the second class of bodies is a great
loss to the gas manufacturer, as, with the exception of the trace of
benzene carried with the gas as vapour, these products are not only
useless in the gas, but one of them, naphthalene, is a serious trouble,
because any trace carried forward by the gas condenses with sudden
changes of temperature, and causes obstructions in the service pipes,
whilst their presence in the tar means the loss of a very large pro-
portion of the illuminating constituents of the gas. Moreover, these
secondary products cannot be successfully reduced, by further heat-
ing, to simpler hydrocarbons of any high illuminating value, and
such bodies as naphthalene and anthracene have so great a stability
'that, when once formed, they resist any efforts again to decompose
them by heat, short of the temperature which breaks them up into
methane, carbon and hydrogen.
The ammonia is derived from the nitrogen present in the coal
combining with hydrogen during destructive distillation, the nitrogen
becoming distributed amongst all three classes of products. The
following table will give an approximate idea of the proportions
which go to each : —
Per cent.
Nitrogen as ammonia ... 1450
„ as cyanogen 1*56
„ free in gas and combined in tar . . &5* 2 6
„ remaining in coke ..... 48-68
100-00
MANUFACTURE)
GAS
485
The liquid products of the destructive distillation of coal are tar
and ammoniacal liquor. Tar derived from ordinary bituminous
Uf«M Coal a * buck, somewhat viscid liquid, varying in specific
jiiis^iri gravity from i*i to 1*2. The ultimate composition of
tar made in the London Gas Works is approximately
as follows.' —
Carbon 7753
Hydrogen 6-33
Nitrogen 103
Sulphur o-6i
Oxygen 1450
t up into an enormous number of
I its value as a by-product may be
ractional distillation it yields — (1)
1 which aniline, the source of most
rived ; (2) carbolic acid, from which
ful explosive, and to give the bitter
» made, also many most valuable
ted for disinfecting, and also as the
mriching burner for gas; (4) pitch,
from which such bodies as anthra-
ted.
the destructive distil
which consists of wa
ammonia salts in solution, partly condensed from th<
partly added to wash the gas in the scrubbers. It o
principal constituents, ammonia, partly combined
acid and sulphuretted hydrogen to form compoum
decomposed on boiling, with evolution of ammonia tp
combined with stronger acids to form compounds wh
be acted upon by a strong alkali before the ammonii
them can be liberated: The ammonia in the first class
is technically spoken of as " free "; that present in
" fixed." The following analysis by L. T. Wright wil
of the relative quantities in which these compounds exist in the
liquor: —
Grammes per litre.
Ammonium sulphide 3*03
Ammonium carbonate . .... 39*16
Ammonium chloride 14*23
'Ammonium thiocyanatc . i*8o
Ammonium sulphate
Ammonium thiosulphate
Ammonium ferrocyanidc .
From a scientific point of view, the term
correct, and in using it the fact must be clearly borne in mind that
in this case it merely stands for ammonia, which can be liberated on
simply boiling the liquor.
The gas which is obtained by the destructive distillation of coal,
and which we employ as our chief illuminant, is not a definite com-
pound, but a mechanical mixture of several gases, some
of which arc reduced to the lowest limit, in order to
develop as fully as possible the light-giving properties
Free -
Fixed-
0*19
2-80
0*41
' free " is absolutely in-
made
. -. • ught-givmg propertK
of the most important constituents of the gas. The following a naly si
g'ves a fair idea of the composition of an average sample of gas mad
om coal, purified but without enrichment : —
Hydrogen 52*22
Unsaturated hydrocarbons 3*47
Saturated hydrocarbons 34*76
Carbon monoxide 4-23
Carbon dioxide .... 0-60
Nitrogen 4-23
Oxygen 0*49
M.P.E.Bcrthelot came to the conclusion that the illuminating value of
the Paris coal gas was almost entirely due to benzene vapour. But
here again another mistaken idea arose, owing to a faulty method of
estimating the benzene, and there is no doubt that methane is one
of the most important of the hydrocarbons present, when the gas
is burnt in such a way as to evolve from it the proper illuminating
power, whilst the benzene vapour, small as the quantity is. comes
next in importance and the ethylene last. It is the combined action
of the hydrocarbons which gives the effect, not any one of them
acting alone.
The series of operations connected with the manufacture and
distribution of coal gas embraces the processes of distillation, con-
densation, exhaustion, wet purification by washing and scrubbing,
dry purification, measuring, storing and distribution to the mains
whence the consumer's supply is drawn.
The choice of a site for a gas works is necessarily governed by local
circumstances; but it is a necessity that there should be a ready
means of transport available, and for this reason the works Kltm .
should be built upon the banks of a navigable river or ~*^f*"*
canal, and should have a convenient railway siding. By W9ruMt
this means coal may be delivered direct to the store or retort-
house, and in the same way residual products may be removed.
The fact that considerable area is required and that the works do
not improve the neighbourhood are important conditions, and
although economy of space should be considered, arrangements
should be such as to allow of extension. In the case of a works
whose daily make of gas exceeds four to five million cub. ft., it is
usual to divide the works into units, there being an efficiency limit
to the size of apparatus employed. Under these conditions the gas
is dealt with in separate streams, which mix wheji the holder is
reached. From the accompanying ground plan of a works (fig. 4)
cTetHi
sir. { ~ss 1}
i
Fie. 4.— Plan of Works.
it will be possible to gain an idea of the order in which the operations
in gas manufacture are carried out and the arrangement of the plant.
The retorts in which the coal is carbonized arc almost universally
made of fire-clay t and in all but small country works the old single-
ended retort, which was about 9 ft. in length, has given autofe.
way to a more economical construction known as doubles, •*•*•"•»
double-ended, or " through " retorts. These are from 18 to 22 ft.
long, and as it is found inconvenient to produce this length in one
piece, they are manufactured in three sections, the jointing together
of which demands great care. The two outer pieces are swelled at
one end to take an iron mouthpiece. The cross sections generally
employed for retorts are known as " D-shaped," " oval " and
" round " (fig. 5). The " D " form is mostly adopted owing to its
power of retaining its shape after long exposure to heat, and the
large amount of heating surface it presents at its base. The life of
this retort is about thirty working months. A cast iron mouthpiece
and lid is bolted to the
exterior end of each retort,
the mouthpiece carrying a
socket, end to receive the
ascension pipe, through
which the gas passes on
leaving the retort. The
retorts are heated exter-
nally and are set in an arch,
the construction depending
upon the number 01 retorts,
which varies from three to
twelve. The arch and its
retorts is termed a bed or
setting, and a row of beds
constitutes a bench. It is
Fio. 5.— Cross Section of Retorts.
usual to have a separate furnace for each setting, the retorts resting
upon walls built transversely in the furnace.
The heating of the retorts is carried out either by the " direct
firing " or by the " regenerative " system, the latter affording
4 86
GAS
(MANUFACTUR2
marked advantages over the former method, which is now becoming
extinct. In the regenerative system of firing, a mixture of carbon
monoxide and nitrogen is produced by passing air through incan-
descent gas coke in a generator placed below the bench of retorts,
and the heating value of the gases so produced is increased in most
cases by the admixture of a small proportion of steam with the
primary air supply, the steam being decomposed by contact with
the red-hot coke in the generator into water gas, a mixture of carbon
monoxide and hydrogen (see Fuel: Caseous). The gases so formed
vary in proportion with the temperature of the generator and the
amount of steam, but generally contain 3a to 38% of combustible
gas, the remainder being the residual nitrogen ot the air and carbon
dioxide. These gases enter the combustion chamber around the retorts
at a high temperature, and are there supplied with sufficient air to
complete their combustion, this secondary air supply being heated bv
the hot products of combustion on their way to the exit flue. This
method of firing results in the saving of about one-third the weight
of coke used in the old form of furnace per ton of coal carbonized,
and enables higher temperatures to be obtained, the heat being also
more equally distributed.
There are a great number of methods of applying the regenerative
principle which vary only in detail. Fig. 6 gives an idea of the general
arrangement. The furnace A is built of fire-brick, coke is charged
at the top through the iron door B, and near the bottom are placed
fire bars C, upon which the fuel lies. The primary air necessary for
the partial combustion of the coke to " producer "gas enters between
these bars. The gases are conducted from the furnace to the com-
bustion chamber £ through the nostrils D D, and the secondary air is
the mechanical appliances involved have so far prevented its very
general adoption.
The vertical retort was one of the first forms experimented with
by Murdoch, but owing to the difficulty of withdrawing the coke,
the low illuminating power of the gas made in it, and the damage
to the retort itself, due to the swelling of the charge during distil-
F10. 6.— Regenerative Setting.
admitted at the inlet F a little above, this air having been already
heated by traversing the setting. Complete combustion takes place
at this point with the production of intense heat, the gases on rising
are baffled in order to circulate them in every direction round the
retorts, and upon arriving at the top of the setting they arc conducted
down a hollow chamber communicating with the main flue and shaft.
The amount of draft which is necessary to carry out the circulation
of the gases and to draw in the adequate amount of air is regulated
by dampers placed in the main flue. By analysis of the " producer "
and " spent gases this amount can be readily gauged.
Retorts are set in either the horizontal, inclined or vertical position ,
and the advantages of the one over the other is a question upon which
almost every gas engineer has his own views.
The introduction of labour-saving appliances into gas works has
rendered the difficult work of charging and discharging horizontal
n I, retorte comparatively simple. Formerly it was the
^Z7 w ^ m practice to carry out such operations entirely by hand,
iu of shovel or
withdrawn with
rorks adhere to
riven by either
irst two cases a
carried by the
is turned over;
? is turned over
a position that
the heated side
■chines feed the
f about ijcwt.,
aid, so that the
Mir to six hours
required. The
: the lids of the
The charging
and the power
e. A device of
irging machine,
volving at high
he velocity is
ngth of a 20-ft.
layer is formed
lation, it was quickly abandoned. About the beginning of the sots
century, however, the experiments of Messrs Settle and Padfield at
Exeter, Messrs Woodall and Duckham at Bournemouth, and Dr
Bueb in Germany showed such encouraging results that the idea
of the vertical retort again came to the front, and several system
were proposed and tried. The cause of the failure of Murdoch's
original vertical retort was undoubtedly that it was completely
filled with coal during charging, with the result that the gas liberated
from the lower portions of the retort had to pass through a deep
bed of red-hot coke, which, by over-baking the gas, destroyed the
illuminating hydrocarbons. There is no doubt that the question of
rapidly removing the gas, as soon as it is properly formed, from the
influence of the highly-heated walls of the retort and residual coke,
is one of the most important in gas manufacture.
In the case of horizontal retorts the space between the top of the
coal and the retort ft of necessity considerable in order to permit the
introduction of the scoop and rake; the gas has therefore a fret
channel to travel along, but has too much contact with the highly
heated surface of the retort before it leaves the mouthpiece. la
the case of inclined retorts this disadvantage b somewhat reduced,
but with vertical retorts the ideal conditions can be more nearly
approached. The heating as well as the illuminating value of the
gas per unit volume is lowered by over-baking, and Dr Bueb gives
the following figures as to the heating value of gas obtained from the
same coal but by different methods of carbonization: —
Vertical Retorts, 604 British thermal units per cub. ft.
Inclined „ 584 „ „ „
Horizontal „ 570 „ „ „
Of the existing forms of vertical retort it remains a matter to be
decided whether the coal should be charged in bulk to the retort
or whether it should be introduced in small quantities at regular
and short intervals: by this latter means (the characteristic feature
of the Settle- Pad field process) a continuous layer of coal is io process
of carbonization on the top, whilst the gas escapes without contact
with the mass of red-hot coke, a considerable increase in volume
and value in the gas and a much denser coke being the result.
From the retort the gas passes by the ascension pipe to the hy-
draulic main (fig. 7). This is a long reservoir placed in a horiaooul
position and supported by columns upon the top of the
retort stack, and through it is maintained a slow .but
constant flow of water, the level of which is kept uniform.
The ascension pipe dips about 2 in. into the liquid, and so makes a
seal that allows of any retort bring charged singly without the risk
of the gas produced from the other retorts in the bench < *
MANUFACTURE!
through the open retort. Coal j — ■"'-
vm^ours of liquids having very v
amnty undergo physical changes
Vapours of liquids of high boili
quickly tl
^t points, but
-p X^ take place
P"0*\ oftemptfai
GAS
4»7
the boiling
1. 1
formed.
F10. 7.— Hydraulic
Main.
Sseousmt
posit co
decrease in
place in th
leading to
greater exl
where the
Ascensio
frequently
" auger," \
hand hota
cleared in c
of the co
ammonia,
in one voli
ture and
hydraulic 1
tity of th
helps to f 01
although tl
bubbling O
from liquo
liquor is run off at a- constant rai
store tank, and the gas passes froi
the foul main.
The gas as it leaves the hydrai
of from 130* to 150* F.. and si
, possible to the tempera t
The operation of efficien
simple as might be supp
densed have a dissolving action on
atituentsof the gas, which in the or
by the lowering of temperature. 1
and especially that produced in tl
contact with the gas as little as |
take place slowly.
The main difficulty which the <
upon which its efficiency should <i
lene; this c
cooling to a
and the troi
the district
carbonizatk
gas manage
gas a difficu
to whether
of the gas.
to the point
troublesome
Gas leaves 1
for holding
of water va
water vapoi
apart from
temperature.
Condensers are either air-coolec 1
former case the gas traverses pi pi
so placed that the resulting product
at the lowest point. Water is a m
air, owing to its high specific heat,
more easily regulated by its use.
usual to arrange that the water \
small pipes contained in a larger
and as it constantly happened th
by naphthalene, the so-called re
stream of gas may be altered from
pipes cleaned by pumping tar ovc
The solubility of naphthalene bj
to put in naphthalene washers, in
with a heavy tar oil or certain fra
being previously mixed with som<
in the gas those illuminating vap
and by fractional distillation of
and volatile hydrocarbons are aft<
The exhauster is practically a r
purpose of drawing the gas from
Dskmwttf condensers, and then I
vessels to the holder,
voder a slight vacuum, the amoi
my about 13%, mad h of better qwuoy.
heated retort more quickly. A horizontal compound steam-engine
is usually employed to drive the exhauster.
At this .point in the manufacturing, process the gas has already
undergone some important changes in its composition, but there yet
remain impurities which must be removed, these being ammonia,
sulphuretted hydcogen, carbon disulphide and carbon dioxide.
Ammonia is of considerable marketable value, and even in places
where the local Gas Act does not prescribe that it shall be removed,
it is extracted. Sulphuretted hydrogen is a noxious impurity, and
its complete removal from the gas la usually imposed by parlia-
ment. As nearly as possible all the carbon dioxide is extracted,
but most gas companies are now exempt from having to purify the
gas from sulphur compounds other than sulphuretted hydrogen.
Cyanogen compounds also are present in the gas, and in large works,
where the total quantity is sufficient, their extraction is effected
for the production of either prussiate or cyanide of soda.
Atkinson Butterfield gives the composition of the gas at thia
point to be about
per cent, by voL
. from 4a
3»
3
a-3
Hydi _
Methane .
Carbon monoxide
Hydrocarbons-
Gases
Light condensable
vapours „ 0*5
Carbon dioxide. „ 11
Nitrogen ..... i-o
Sulphuretted hydrogen ,. 10
Ammonia M 0*5
Cyanogen . . . „ 0*05
Carbon disulphide . „ o-oa
Naphthalene .. 0-005
to 55
M 39
.. 10
.. 4*5
* ■**
.. 1*
•• 30
.. a-o
.. 0-95
.. 0*12
w 0-033
.. 0013
It happens that ammonia, being a strong base, will effect the ex*
traction of a certain propor t ion olsuch compounds as sulphuretted
hydrogen, carbon dioxide and hydrocyanic acid, and the irssnsrs
gas is now washed with water and ammoniacal liquor.
The process is termed washing or scrubbing, and is carried out In
various forms of apparatus, the efficiency of which is dependent
upon the amount of contact the apparatus allows between the finely
divided gas and water in a unit area and the facility with which
it may be cleared out. The " Livcsey " washer, a well-known type,
is a rectangular cast iron vessel. The gaa enters in the centre, and
to make its escape again it has to pass into lone wrought iron
inverted troughs through perforations one-twentieth of an inch in
diameter. A constant flow of liquor is regulated through the washer,
and the gas. in order to pass through the perforations, drives the
liquor up into the troughs. The liquor foams up owing to agitation
by the finely divided streams of gas, and is brought into close contact
with it. Two or three of these washers are connected in series
according to the quantity of gas to be dealt with.
The final washing for ammonia is effected in an apparatus termed
a " scrubber," which is a cylindrical tower packed with boards J in.
thick by 11 in. broad, placed on end and close together; gaubbtia.
water is caused to flow down over the surface of these
boards, the object being to break up the gas as much as possible
and bring it into close contact with the water. In this wet purifying
apparatus the gas is almost wholly freed from ammonia and from
part of the sulphuretted hydrogen, whilst carbon dioxide and carbon
disulphide are also partially extracted.
The final purification is carried out in rectangular vessels, known
as " dry purifiers " (fig. 8). Internally, each purifier is filled with
ranges of wooden trays or sieves A, made in the form of p^rmWa.
grids (fig. 9), and covered with the purifying material B
to a depth of about 6 in., the number of tiers and size of purifier boxes
being proportional to the quantity of gas to be purified. The gaa
-1 — i-V
Fie. 8.— Purifier.
enters at the bottom by the pipe C, the inlet being protected from
any falling material by the cover D; it forces its way upwards
through all the trays until, reaching the lid or cover E.it descends
by the exit tube F, which leads to the next purifier. The edges of the
lid dip into aa external water seal ox taut C, '•Vento, ve*. ^ptS*
prevented trom eica\aa%.
4 88
GAS
fMANUFACTUtt
When the gas had to be purified from carbon disulphide as well aa
from sulphuretted hydrogen, slaked lime was employed for the re-
moval of carbon dioxide
compounds, whilst a catc
remove the last traces o
four lime purifiers were
Fig. 9.— Purifier Cr
power of breaking up th
so that until all carbon
calcium carbonate, the w
proceed, whilst since it is
of sulphuretted hydrogen
of carbon disulphide, pur
f>lishcd after the necessai
oul gas leaving the sen
grains of sulphuretted 1
and 200 grains of carbon
first purifier, which conb
Dictations of calcium and
hydrogen and disulphide
material, but the carbon
thiocarbonate, forming <
carbon disulphide vapour
second box. In the conn
the gas is found to con
and So grains of carbon <
carbon dioxide. In the 1
carbonate takes place by
calcium sulphide with <
which is carried over to tl
pipe between the second
400 grains of sulphurett
sulphide. The contents <
slaked lime, take up sulph
and practically remove th
ing 20 grains of sulphur*
sulphide per 100 cub. ft., whilst the catch box of oxide of iron then
removes all traces of sulphuretted hydrogen. It will be noticed
that in the earlier stages the quantity of sulphur impurities is
actually increased between the purifiers— in fact, the greater amount
of sulphiding procures the ready removal of the carbon disulphide, —
but it is the carbon dioxide in the gas that is the disturbing clement,
inasmuch as it decomposes the combinations of sulphur and calcium ;
consequently it is a paramount object in this system to prevent this
Utter impurity finding its way through the first box of the series.
The finding of any traces of carbon dioxide in the gas between the
first two boxes is generally the signal for a new clean purifier being
put into action, and the first one shut off, emptied and recharged with
fresh lime, the impregnated material being sometimes sold for
dressing certain soils.
The action of oxide of iron, which has now partly replaced the
lime purification, depends on its power of combining with sulphuretted
hydrogen to form sulphide of iron. Such is the affinity of the oxide
for this impurity that it may contain from 50 to 60% by weight of
free sulphur after revivification and still remain active. Upon re-
moving the material from the vessel and exposing it to the atmo-
sphere the sulphide of iron undergoes a revivifying process, the oxygen
of the air displacing the sulphur from the sulphide as free sulphur,
and with moisture converting the iron into hydrated oxide of iron.
This revivification can be carried on a number of times until the
material when dry contains about 40% of free sulphur and even
occasionally 60% and over; it is then sold to manufacturers of
sulphuric acid to be used in the sulphur kilns instead of pyrites (sec
Sulphuric Acid).
Apart from the by-products coke, coke-breeze, tar and retort
carbon, which are sold direct, gas companies are now in many cases
preparing from their spent purifying material pure chemical pro-
ducts which are in great demand. The most important of these is
sulphate of ammonia, which is used for agricultural purposes as a
manure, and is obtained by passing ammonia into sulphuric acid
and crystallizing out the ammonium sulphate produced. Todo this,
saturated ammoniacal liquor is decomposed by lime in the presence
of steam, and the freed ammonia is passed into strong sulphuric acid,
the saturated solution of ammonium sulphate being carefully
crystallized. The market value of the salt varies, but an average
figure is £12 per ton, whilst the average yield is about 24 lb of salt
per ton of coal carbonized. In large works the sulphuric acid is
usually manufactured on the spot from the spent oxide, so that the
sulphuretted hydrogen, which in the ga* is considered an undesirable
impurity, plays a valuable part in the manufacture of an important
by-product.
Cyanogen compounds are extracted either direct from the gu,
from the spent oxide or from ammoniacal liquor, and some large gu
works now produce sodium cyanide, this being one of the latest
developments in the gas chemical industry.
The purified gas now passes to a gasholder (sometimes known u
a gasometer), which may be either single lift, ijt. a simple bell in-
verted in a tank of water, or may be constructed on the #w ^^
telescopic principle, in which case much ground space is '^ ■""*
saved, as a holder of much greater capacity can be contained in the
same-sized tank. The tank for the gasholder is usually made by
Fig. 10.— Gasholder.
excavating a circular reservoir somewhat larger in diameter thai
the proposed holder. A banking is allowed to remain in the centre,
as shown in fig. 10, which is known as the " dumpling," this arrange-
ment not only saving work and water, but acting as a support for
the long post of a trussed holder when the holder is empty. The
tank must be water-tight, and the precaution necessary to be takes
in order to ensure this is dependent upon the nature of the toil;
it is usual, however, for the units to be lined with concrete. Where
the conditions of soil arc very bad, steel tanks are built above ground,
but the cost of these is much greater. The holder is made of sheet
iron riveted together, the thickness depending upon the size of tkr
holder. The telescopic form consists of two or more lifts which slide
in one another, and may be described as a single lift holder encircled
by other cylinders of slightly larger diameter,
but of about the same length. Fig. 10 shows n
the general construction. Gas on entering
at A causes the top lift to rise; the bottom of
this lift being turned up all round to form a
cup, whilst the top of the next lift is turned
down to form a so-called grip, the two interlock
(kcc fig. 11), forming what is known as the
hydraulic cup. Under these conditions the
cup will necessarily be filled with water, and
a seal will be formed, preventing the escape
of gas. A guide framing is built round the
holder, and guide rollers are fixed at various
intervals round the grips of each lift, whilst at
the bottom of the cup guide rollers arc also
fixed (fig. n). In the year 1892 the largest
existing gasholder was built at the East
Greenwich works of the South Metropolitan
Gas Company; it has six lifts, its diameter is
203 ft., and when filled with gas stands 180 ft.
high. The capacity for gas is 12 million cub. ft.
The governor consists usually of a bell Boat-
ing in a cast iron tank partially filled with
water, and is in fact a small gas- guvwrmaii
holder, from the centre of which is *
suspended a conical valve controlling the gas
inlet and doting it as the bell fills. Any
deviation in pressure will cause the floating
bell to be lifted or lowered, and the size of the inlet will be
decreased or increased, thus regulating the flow.
The fact that coal gas of an illuminating power of from 14 to 16
candles can be made from the ordinary gas coal at a fairly low rate,
while every candle nomec added to the gas tncremnes the cost in a*
A rap&y fjrawaa% cauA.^sssVranx^Dsi «»&c*4s*sv«l
Fig. 11.— Cup
and Grip.
MANUFACTURE!
GAS
489
(he gas industry, caused the attention of inventors to be turned to
the enrichment of coal gas. Formerly; cannel coal was used for
Earlcb* producing a very rich gas which could be mixed with the
meaL ordinary gas, thereby enriching it, but as the supply
became limited and the price prohibitive, other methods
were from time to time advocated to replace its use in the enrich-
ment of illuminating gas. These may be classified as follows: —
1. Enriching the gas by vapours and permanent gases obtained
by decomposing the tar formed at the same time as the gas.
2. Mixing with the coal gas oil gas, obtained by decomposing
he rich portions of coal have distilled
c retort has reached its highest point,
id in the oil.
ess which has been proposed for the
xl in the enrichment of coal gas is the
cess, which depends on (he principle
at a moderate temperature by mean
ndergo decomposition, because in this
ensible vapours, and only permanent
> the purifiers. In the course of this
ties of the ethylenes and other fixed
to loss takes place, as these are again
: subsequent^ retorting. The gas ob-
* » bui
crude oils by heat.
■ 3. The carburet ting of low-power gas by impregnating it with
the vapours of volatile hydrocarbons.
4. Mixing the coal gas with water gas, which has been highly , when tested by itself in the
carburetted by passing it with the vapours of various hydrocarbons 1, gives on the photometer aa illumin-
through superheaters in order to give permanency to the hydro- to 60 candle-power, but it is claimed,
carbon gases. and quite correctly, that the enriching power of the gas is considcr-
. fc Very many attempts have been made to utilize tar for ably greater. This is accounted for by the fact that it is impossible
, " the production and enrichment of gas, and to do this to construct a burner which will do justice to a gas of such illu-
mtat *y two n^h^ n^y fy adopted: — minating power.
ur * (fl) Condensing the tar in the ordinary way.and afterwards The fundamental objections to oil gas for the enrichment of coal
using the whole or portions of it for cracking into a permanent gas. gas are, first, that its manufacture is a slow process, requiring as
(b) Cracking the tar vapours before condensation by passing the much plant and space for retorting as coal gas; and, secondly, that
gas and vapours through superheaters. although on a small scale it can be made to mix perfectly with coal
If the first method be adopted, the trouble which presents itself gas and water gas, great difficulties are found in doing this on the
is that the tar contains a high percentage of pitch, which tends urge scale, because in spite of the fact that theoretically gases of
rapidly to choke and clog up all the pipes. A partly successful such widely different specific gravities ought to form a perfect
attempt to make use of certain portions of the liquid products of mixture by diffusion, layering ofihe gas is very apt to take place in
distillation of coal before condensation by the second method was the holder, and thus there is an increased liability to wide variations
the Dinsmorc process, in which the coal gas and vapours which, in the illuminating value of the gas sent out.
if allowed to cool, would form tar, were made to pass through a The wonderful carburctting power of benzol vapour is well known,
heated chamber, and a certain proportion of otherwise condcnsiblc a large proportion of the total illuminating power of coal gas being
hydrocarbons was thus converted into permanent gases. Even with due to the presence of a minute trace of its vapour carried
a poor class of coal it was claimed that 9800 cub. ft. of 20-to2i<andIc in suspension. For many years the price of benzol has
gas coukj be made by this process, whereas by the ordinary process been falling, owing to the large quantities produced in
9000 cub. ft. of 15-candle gas would have been produced. This the coke ovens, and at its present price it is by far the
process, although strongly advocated by the gas engineer who cheapest enriching material that can be obtained. Hence
experimented with it. was never a commercial success. The final at many gas-works where it is found necessary to do so
solution of the question of enrichment of gas by hydrocarbons dc- it is used in various forms of carlxirettor, in which it is volatilized
rived from tar may be arrived at by a process which prevents the and its vapour used for enriching coal gas up to the requisite
formation of part of the tar during the carbonization of the coal, illuminating power.
or by the process devised by C. B. Tully and now in use at Truro, in # One of the most generally adopted methods of enrichment now
which tar is injected into the incandescent fuel in a water-gas gencr- is by means of carburet tea water gas mixed with poor coal gas.
ator and enriches the water gas with methane and other hydro- When steam acts upon carbon at a high temperature the a artaim
carbons, the resulting pitch and carbon being filtered off by the resultant action may be looked upon as giving a mixture m0al ^
column of coke through which the gas passes. *rf mih.iI vaIihum ri kwtmuM 9i»f nftwtii mi« n *u« k«iK **
Enrich-
ment by
voimtllc
hydro-
CMfboau
The earliest attempts at enrichment by oil gas consisted in spray-
1 the red hot mass in the retort during carbonization;
of equal volumes of hydrogen and carbon monoxide, both .. .
„ . , of which arc inflammable but non-luminous gases. This SiJJJTJJIJ;
ing oil upon the red hot mass in the retort during carbonization; water gas is then carburetted, i.e. rendered luminous by *^
but experience soon showed that this was not an econo- passing it through chambers in which oils are decomposed by heat.
roical method of working, and 1 the' mixture being made so as to give an illuminating value of 22
"|? -< ** decompose the liquid hydrocarb to 25 candles. This, muted with the poor coal gas, brings up its
**&** diluents which are to mingle wit " * ~
since, if this were done, a higher tempers
and more of the heavier portions of the oil
out at the same time breaking down tli
too much. In carburetting poor coal gas
mineral oil it must be borne in mind tha
distillation, a rich gas is given off in the a
the end of the operation the gas is very
methane disappearing with the other hydrocarbon*, and the increase
in hydrogen being very marked. Lewis T. Wright employed a coal
requiring six hours for its distillation, and took samples of the gas
at different periods of the time. On analysis these yielded the
following results: —
Time after beginning Distillation.
10
1 hour
3 hours
5 hours
minutes.
30 minutes.
25 minutes.
35 minutes.
Sulphuretted hydrogen
130
142
049
O-II
Carbon dioxide ....
2-21
2-09
t-40
150
Hydrogen
20IO
*$&
5* -68
67-12
Carbon monoxide . .
6- 19
57\J8
6-21
6- 12
Saturated hydrocarbons
Unsaturated „
4403
3354
22-58
IO62
5-98
304
1-79
Nitrogen
2-2Q
247
=•55
078
This may be regarded as a fair example of the changes which take
ace in the quality of (he gas during the distillation of the coal.
n carburetting *uch a cas by injecting mineral oil into the retort,
place in the quality of (he gas during the distillation of the coal.
in carburetting Mich a cas by injecting mineral oil into the retort,
many of the products of the decomposition of the oil being vapours.
it would be wasteful to do so for the first two hours, as a rich gas
is being given off which has not the power of carrying in suspension
a much larger quantity of hydrocarbon vapours without being
supersaturated with them. Consequently, to make it carry any
further Quantity in a condition not easily deposited, the oil would
have to be completely decomposed into permanent gases, and the
temperature necessary to do this would seriously affect the quality
of the gas given off by the coal. When, however, the distillation
illuminating value to the required limit. Coke or anthracite is
heated to incandescence by an air blast in a generator lined with
fire-brick, and the heated products of combustion as they leave the
~ic superheaters are supplied with more air,
tnistton of carbon monoxide present in the
up the fire-brick baffles with which the super-
the necessary temperature of the fuel and
cached, the air blast is cut off, and steam is
erator, forming water gas, which meets the
>f the first superheater, called the carburettor,
rs with it through the main superheaters,
hydrocarbons takes place. The chief advan-
is that a low temperature can be used for
hxtng owing to the enormous surface for super-
heating, and thus to a great extent the deposition
of carbon is avoided. This form of apparatus has
been very generally adopted in Great Britain as
well as in America, and practically all carburetted
water-gas plants arc founded upon the same set
of actions. Important factors in the use of car-
buretted water gas for enrichment are that it can
be made with enormous rapidity and with a mini-
mum of labour; and not only is the requisite
increase' in illuminating power secured, but the
volume of the enriched gas is increased by the
bulk of carburetted water gas added, which in
ordinary English practice amounts to from 25 to
50%. The public at first strongly opposed its introduction on
the ground of the poisonous properties of the carbon monoxide,
which is present in it to the extent of about 28 to 30% Still
when this comes to be diluted with 60 to 75% of ordinary coal ga*,
containing as a rule only 4 to 6% of carbon monoxide, the per-
centage of poisonous monoxide in the mixture falls to below 10%,
which experience has shown to be a fairly safe limit.
A rise in the price of oil suitable for carburetting has caused the
gas industry to consider other methods by which the volume of gas
obtainable from coal can be increased by admixture with blue or non-
luminous water gas. In Germany, at several important gas-works,
non-luminous water gu is passed \t&v> Vwt taa\ xcaLvcw w ,v v
49°
GAS
(MANUFACTURE
the retorts in the desired proportion, and the mixture «f water gas
and coal gas is then carburet ted to the required extent by benzol
vapour, a process which at the present price of oil and benzol is
distinctly more economical than the use of carburetted water gas.
In 1896 Karl Dcllwik introditced a modification in the process of
hich entirely altered the whole aspect o( the
attempts to make water
the incandescence of the
incd by " blowing " so
tat carbon monoxide and
1 of the air formed the
mixture being known as
In the Dellwik process.
oint is the adjustment of
the fuel in the generator
in such a that carbon dioxide is formed
instead 31 monoxide. Under these
conditions producer gas ceases to exist as a
by-product, and the gases of the blow consist
merely of the incombustible products of com-
plete combustion, carbon dioxide and nitrogen,
the result being that more than three times
the heat is developed for the combustion of
the same amount of fuel, and nearly double
the quantity of water gas can be made jper
pound of fuel than was before possible. The
runs or times of steaming can also be con-
tinued for longer periods. The possibility of
making from 60.000 to 70,000 cub. ft. of water
gas per ton of coke used in the Dcllwik
generator as against 34.000 to 45,000 cub. ft.
per ton made by previous processes reduces
the price of water gas to about 3$d. per
thousand, so that the economic value of using
it in admixture with coal gas and then enriching the mixture by
any cheap carburet ting process b manifest. The universal adoption
of the incandescent mantle for lighting purposes has made it evident
that the illuminating value of the gas is a secondary consideration,
and the whole tendency now is to do away with enrichment and
produce a gas of low -candle power but good heating power at a
cheap rate tor fuel purposes and incandescent lighting. (See also
Lighting: Cos.) (V. B. L.)
2. Cos for Fuel and Power. — The first gas-producers, which
were built by Faber du Faur at Wasscralfingcn in 1836 and
by C. 0. C. Bischof at Magdesprung (both in Germany), con-
sisted of simple perpendicular shafts of masonry contracted
at the top and the bottom, with or without a grate for the
coal. Such producers, frequently strengthened by a wrought
iron casing, are even now used to a great extent. Some-
times the purpose of a gas-producer is attained in a very
simple manner by lowering the grate of an ordinary fireplace
so much that a layer of coal 4 or 5 ft. deep is maintained in the
fire. The effect of this arrangement is that the great body of
coal reaches a higher temperature than in an ordinary fireplace,
and this, together with the reduction of the carbon dioxide formed
immediately above the grate by the red-hot coal in the upper
part of the furnace, leads to the formation of carbon monox-
ide which later on, on the spot where the greatest heat is re-
quired, is burned into dioxide by admitting fresh air, preferably
pre-beated. This simple and inexpensive arrangement has the
further advantage that the producer-gas is utilized immediately
after its formation, without being allowed to cool down. But it
is not very well adapted to large furnaces, and especially not to
those cases where all the space round the furnace is required
for manipulating heavy, white-hot masses of iron, or for similar
purposes. In these cases the producers are arranged outside the
iron-works, glass-works, &c, in an open yard where all the
manipulations of feeding them with coal, of stoking, and of re-
moving the ashes are performed without interfering with the
work inside. But care must always be taken to place the
producers at such a low level that the gas has an upward tendency,
in order to facilitate its passage to the furnace where' it is to be
burned. This purpose can be further promoted by various
means. The gas-producers constructed by Messrs Siemens
Brothers, from 1856 onwards, were provided with a kind of brick
chimney; on the top of this there was a horizontal iron tube,
continued into an iron down-draught, and only from this the
underground flues were started which sent the gas into the single
furnaces. This arrangement, by which the gas was cooled down
by the action 0/ the Mir, acted as a gas-siphon for drawing the
gas out of the producer, but it has various drawbacks and
has been abandoned in ail modern constructions. Where the
" natural draught " is not sufficient, it is aided either by blowiag
air under the grate or else by suction at the other end.
Wo shall now describe a few of the very large number of gas-
Fic. 12.' — Siemens Producer (Sectional Elevation).
producers constructed, selecting some of the most widely applied
in practice.
The Siemens Producer in its original shape, of which hundreds
have been erected and many may be still at work, is showa in
fig. 12. A is the charging-
holc; B, the inclined Front
wall, consisting of a cast
iron plate with fire-brick
lining; C, the equally in-
clined "step-grate"; D, a
damper by which the pro-
ducer may be isolated in
case of repairs; E, a water-
pipe, by which the cinders
at the bottom may be
quenched before taking
away; the steam here
formed rises into the pro-
ducer where it forms some
" semi-water gas " (sec
Fuel: Gaseous). Openings
like that shown at G serve
for introducing a poker in
order to dean the brick-
work from adhering slags.
H is the gas flue; 1, the perpendicularly ascending shaft. 10 or 12 ft.
h .'gh; J J, the horizontal iron tube; K, the descending* branch men-
tioned above, for producing a certain amount of suction by means
of the gas-siphon thus formed. In the horizontal branch J J much
Fig. 13.— LUrraann's Producer.
Figs. 14 and 15.— Liegcl's Producer,
of the tar and flue-dust is also condensed, which is of importance
where bituminous coal is employed for firing.
1 Figs. 12. 13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 19, 20, 21 of this article are from
Lunge s Coat-tar and Ammonia, by permission of Friedr. Vteweg u,
Sohn.
MANUFACTURE] GAS 4QI
This as well as most other descriptions of fas-producers, is not
adapted to being worked with such coal aa softens in the heat and
where it is to be used. The retort E is charted with ordinary
bituminous coal which is submitted to destructive distillation
by the heat communicated through the flues *t fit, and is thus
converted into coke. The gases lormed during this process pass
into the upper portion of V and get mixed with the producer-
gas formed in the lower portion. From time to time, as the level
of the coke in V goes down, some of the freshly formed coke in E la
Fic. 16.— Taylor's Producer. Fio. 17.— Dowson Gas Plant.
forms cakes, impenetrable to the air and impeding the regular sink- I pushed into V, whereby the level of the coke In V should assume
ing of the charge in the producer. The fuel employed should be | the shape shown by the dotted line / ... in. If the level became
non-bituminous coal anthracite or coke, or at least so
much of these materials should be mixed with ordinary
coal that no semi-solid cakes of the kind just described
are formed. Where it is unavoidable to work with coal
softening in the. fire, Lurmann's producer may be
employed, which is shown in fig 13. V shows a gas-
producer of the ordinary kind, which during regular
work is filled with the coke formed in the horizontal
retort E. The door b serves for removing the slags
and ashes from the bottom of V, as far as they do not
fall through the grate. The hot producer-gas formed
in V is passed round the retort E in the flues *t *i,
and ultimately goes away through K to the furnace
Flo. 18.— Mond Gas Plant.
4-9*
GAS
(MANUFACTURE
too low, MJch as ts shown by the dotted line * ... y, the working
of the producer would be wrong, as in this case the layer of coke
at the front side would be too low, and carbon dioxide would be
formed in lieu of monoxide.
Figs. 14 and 15 show Liegcl's producer, the special object of
which is to deal with any fuel (coal or coke) giving a tough, pasty
slag on combustion. Such slags act very prejudicially by impeding
the up-draught of the air and the sinking of the fuel; nor can they
holes B t to B«, passing through the brick lining M. F is the con*
tracted part, leading to the closed ash-pit, accessible through the
doors D. An injector I, worked by means of ihe steam-pipe J.
forces air through K into F. The circular grate G can be turned
round K by means of the crank E from the outside. This is done,
without interfering with the blast, in order to keep the fuel at the
proper level in L, according to the indications of the burning zone,
as shown through the peep-holes B ( to B«. The ashes collecting at
the bottom are from time to time removed
by the doors D. As the steam, introduced
by J, is decomposed in the producer, ve
here obtain a " semi-water gas," with about
27% CO and 12% H,.
-6F-
Fig. 20.— Blass' Gas Plant.
be removed by falling through a grate, like ordinary coal-ashes.
To obviate these drawbacks the producer A is kept at a greater heat
than is otherwise usual, the air required for feeding the producer
being pre-hcatcd in the channels e, e. The inside shape of the pro-
ducer is such that the upper, less hot portion cannot get stopped,
as it widens out towards the bottom; the lower, hotter portion,
where the ashes are already fluxed, is contracted to a slit a, through
which the air ascends. The grate b retains any small pieces of fuel,
but allows the liquid cinder to pass through. The lateral flues c, c
prevent the brickwork from being melted.
One of m the best-known gas-producers for working with com-
pressed air from below is Taylor's, shown in fig. 16. A is the
feeding-hopper, on the same principle as is used in blast-
furnaces. L is the producer-shaft, with an iron casing B and pcep-
Steam to the gas-producer; q, the weight
which actuates the lever automatically by
the rise or fall of the bell of the gas-holder.
In practical work about } lb ol steam b
decomposed for each pound of anthracite
consumed, and no more than 5% of carbon
dioxide is found in the resulting gas. The
latter has an average calorific power of
1732 calorics per cubic metre, or 161 B.T.U.
per cubic foot, at o° and 760 mm.
The Mond plant is shown in figs. 18 and
10. The gases produced in the generators
G are passed through pipes r into washvrs
W, in which water is kept in violent motion
by means of paddle-wheels. The spray of
water removes the dust and part of the tar
and ammonia from the gases, much steam
being produced at the same time. This
water is withdrawn from time to time and
worked for the ammonia it contains. The
gases, escaping from W at a temperature of
about too* C, and containing much steam,
pass though g and a into a tower, fed with
an acid -absorbing liquid, coming from the
tank s, which is spread into many drops
by the brick filling of the tower. This
liquid is a strong solution of ammonium
sulphate, containing about 2-5% free sul-
phuric acid which absorbs nearly all the
ammonia from the gases, without dissolving
much of the tarry substances. Most of the
liquor arriving at the bottom, after mechani-
cally separating the tar, is pumped bark
into 5, but a portion is always withdrawn
and worked for ammonium sulphate. When
escaping from the acid tower, the gas con-
tains about 0013% NHj, and has a tem-
perature of about 8o° C. and is saturated
with aqueous vapour. It is passed through
c into a second tower B, filled with blocks
of wood, where it meets with a stream of
comparatively cold water. At the bottom
of this the water runs away, its temperature
being 78 C. ; at the top the gas passes away through d into the dis-
tributing main. The hot water from B, freed from tar, is pumped
into a third tower C, through which cold air is forced by means of a
Roots blower by the pipe t». This air, after being heated to 76 C.
and saturated with steam in the tower C, passes through / into -the
generator G. The water in C leaves this tower cold enough to be
used in the scrubber B. Thus two-thirds of the steam originally
employed in the generator is reintroduced into it, leaving only om-
third to be supplied by the exhaust steam of the steam-engine. TV
gas-generators G have a rectangular section, 6X12 ft., several of
them being erected in scries. The introduction of the air and the
removal of the ashes takes place at the narrower ends. The bottom
is formed by a water-tank and the ashes are quenched here. The
1 a\T enters )u*& above vY*e> ira\«K<\em\, «. v ^reuuse of 4 in. The
GASCOIGNE, G.
493
Mood gas in the dry state contains 15% carbon dioxide, 10%
monoxide, 23% hydrogen, 3% hydrocarbons, 49% nitrogen.
The yield of ammonium sulphate is 75 tb from a ton of coal (slack
with 11-5% ashes and 55% fixed carbon).
One of the best plants for the generation of water-gas is that
constructed by £. Blass (fig. 20). Steam enters through the
valve V at D into the generator, filled with coke, and passes
away at the bottom through A. The pressure of the gas should
not be such that it could get into the pipe conveying the air-
blast, by which an explosive mixture would be formed. This is
per S, which always closes the
id vice versa. Below the entry
valve d which is closed as soon
; thus a second security against
nd gas is afforded. The water-
bottom outlet of the generator
hat they can be easily removed,
xtcd, in which case the cinders
K the fuel is lying in a conical
pc. During the period of hot-
hat the air-blast communicates
pen; g (the damper connected
1. During the period of gas-
loses the air-blast and connects
is opened, and the gas passes
ler, the inlet w being under a
changes in the opening of the
valves and dampers arc automatically performed in the proper order
by means of a hand-wheel H, the shaft m resting on the standards /
and shaft v. This hand- wheel has merely to be turned one way for
starting the hot- blowing, and the opposite way for gas-making, to
withoi
ic feeding-] ..
that, when the cone e* opens, e\ is shut, and vice versa, thus no more
open and shut all the connexions, without any mistake being possible
on the part of the attendant. The feeding-hopper £ is so arranged
t
gas can escape, on feeding fresh coke into the generator, than that
which is contained in E. C is the pipe through which the blowing-up
gas (Siemens gas) is carried away, either into the open air (where it
is at once burned) or into a prc-heater for the blast, or into some
place where it can be utilized as fuel. This gas, which is made for
10 or 11 minutes, contains from 23 to 32% carbon monoxide, 7
to 1 «5% carbon dioxide, 2 to 3% hydrogen, a little methane, 64
to 66% nitrogen, and has a heating value of 950 calories per
cub. metre. The water-gas itself is made for 7 minutes, and has an
average composition of 3*3 % carbon
dioxide, 44% carbon monoxide,
o*4% methane, 48-6% hydrogen,
3-7% nitrogen, and a heating value
of 2970 calories per cub. metre. 1
kilogram coke yields 1*13 cub. metre
-~..- - — . .«. { .... cr. — ns g a9
alories)
alue as
•ns gas.
of the
*r (fig.
A are
If-hour,
in the
t. deep.
C the
ing the
inlet of
Gi the
s which
op and
outside
Jmittcd
lowing-
tes, the
i. The
(sure of
. The
I i-5%
iter-gas
08 %
!«5 cub.
1889);
by the
tmischa
lof
editi
L.)
GASCOIGME, GEORGE (c. 153 5-1577), English poet, eldest
son of Sir John Gascoigne of Cardington, Bedfordshire, was born
probably between 1530 and 1535. He was educated at Trinity
College, Cambridge, and on leaving the university is supposed to
bave joined the Middle Temple. He became a member of Gray's
Inn in 1555. He has been identified without much show of
evidence with a lawyer named Gastone who was in prison in
Y548 under very discreditable circumstances. There is no doubt
that his escapades were notorious, and that he was imprisoned
for debt. George Whetstone says that Sir John Gascoigne
disinherited his son on account of his follies, but by his own
account he was obliged to sell his patrimony to pay the debts
contracted at court. He was M.P. for Bedford in 1557-1558
and 1 5 58- 1 5 59, but when he presented himself in 1572 for election
at Midhurst he was refused on the charges of being " a defamed
person and noted for manslaughter," " a common Rymer and
a deviser of slaunderous Pasquelles," " a notorious ruffianne,"
an atheist and constantly in debt. His poems, with the exception
of some commendatory verses, were not published before 1572,
but they were probably circulated in MS. before that date. He
tells us that his friends at Gray's Inn importuned him to write
on Latin themes set by them, and there two of his plays were
acted. He repaired his fortunes by marrying the wealthy widow
of William Breton, thus becoming step-father to the poet,
Nicholas Breton. In 1568 an inquiry ir.to the disposition of
William Breton's property with a view to the protection of the
children's rights was instituted before the lord mayor, but the
matter was probably settled in a friendly manner, for Gascoigne
continued to hold the Walthamstow estate, which he had from
his wife, until his death. He sailed as a soldier of fortune to the
Low Countries in 1572, and was driven by stress of weather to
Brill, which luckily for him had just fallen into the hands of the
Dutch. He obtained a captain's commission, and took an active
part in the campaigns of the next two years, during which he
acquired a profound dislike of the Dutch, and a great admiration
for William of Orange, who had personally intervened on his
behalf in a quarrel with his colonel, and secured him against
the suspicion caused by his clandestine visits to a lady at the
Hague. Taken prisoner after the evacuation of Valkenburg
by the English troops, he was sent to England in the autumn
of 1574. He dedicated to Lord Grey of Wilton the story of his
adventures, " The Fruitcs of Warres " (printed in the edition
of 1575) and '* Gascoignc's Voyage into Hollande." In 1575
he had a share in devising the masques, published in the next
year as The Princely Pleasures at the Courte at Kcndwcrih, which
celebrated the queen's visit to the Earl of Leicester. At Wood-
stock in 1575 he delivered a prose speech before Elizabeth, and
presented her with the Pleasant Tale of Hemetes Ike Heremite 1
in four languages. Most of his works were actually published
during the last years of his life, after his return from the wars.
He died at Bernack, near Stamford, where be was the guest of
George Whetstone, on the 7th of October 1577. George Whet-
stone wrote a long dull poem in honour of his friend, entitled " A
Remembrance of the wel-imploycd life and godly end of George
Gaskoigne, Esquire."
His theory of metrical composition is explained in a short
critical treatise, " Ccrtayne Notes of Instruction concerning the
making of verse or ryme in English, written at the request of
Master Edouardo Donati,"* prefixed to bis Posies (1575). He
acknowledged Chaucer as his master, and differed from the
earlier poets of the school of Surrey and Wyatt chiefly in the
added smoothness and sweetness of his verse. His poems were
published in 1572 during his absence in Holland, surreptitiously,
according to his own account, but it seems probable that the
" editor " who supplied the running comment was none other
than Gascoigne himself. A hundreth Sundrie Flourcs bound up
in one small Posie. Gathered partely {by translation) in the fyne
outlandish Gardens of Euripides, Ovid, Petrarke, Ariosto and
others; and partely by Invention out of our ownc fruitfuU Orchardes
in Englandc, Y tiding Sundrie Savours of tragical, comical and
moral discourse, bothe pleasaunt and profitable, to the well-smelling
1 Printed in 1570 in a pamphlet called The Paradoxe, the
author of which, Abraham Fleming, does not mention Gascoigne's
name.
1 Reprinted in vol. ii. of J. Haslewood's Ancient Critical Essays
(1811-1815), and in Gregory Smith's El&absthan Critical Essays
(1904).
49+ GASCOIGNE, SIR W.— GASCONY
GAS ENGINE
submission in 819, and the Carolingians were able to establish
Frankish dukes in the country. Three of these are known:
Seguin (Sighivinus), William (GuiUaume),and Arnaud(Arnaldus).
They were at the same time counts of Bordeaux, and succumbed
to the Normans. After the death of Arnaud in 864 the history of
Gascony falls into the profoundest obscurity. The lists of the
10th-century dukes prepared by ancient and modern historians
can only be established by means of hypotheses based in many
cases on spurious documents (e.g. the charter of Alaon), and little
confidence can be placed in them. During this troubled period
Gascony was from time to time attached tooneor other of the other
Vascon states which had been formed on the southern slope of the
Pyrenees, but in the reign of Hugh Capet it was considered as
forming part of France, from which it has never been separated.
Disputed in the nth century by the counts of Poitiers, who were
also dukes of Aquitaine, and by the counts of Armagnac, the
duchy finally passed to the house of Poitiers in 1073, when the
title of duke of Gascony was merged in that of duke of Aqui-
taine and disappeared. In the feudal period Gascony comprised
a great number of countships (including Armagnac, Bigorre,
Fezensac, Gaure and Pardiac), viscountships (including Beam,
Lomagne, Dax, Juliac, Soule, Marsan, Tartas, Labourd and
Maremne), and seigneuries (e.g. Albret, &c). From the ecclesi-
astical point of view, it corresponded nearly to the archbishopric
of Audi.
From about 1073 to 1 137 Gascony was governed by the dukes of
Aquitaine and counts of Poitiers, one of whom, William IX., gave
the first charter of privileges to the town of Bayonne; but the
duchy was weakened by the increasing independence of its great
feudatories, especially the viscounts of Beam and the counts of
Armagnac. In 1137, the year of her father's death, Eleanor,
the daughter and heiress of Duke William X., married the king of
France, Louis VII., and with the rest of Aquitaine Gascony
passed under his direct rule. In 1 1 5 1 , however, this marriage was
annulled, and almost at once Eleanor married Henry of Anjou,
who three years later became king of England as Henry II. Thus
was the house of Plantagenet introduced into Gascony and a fresh
bone of contention was thrown between the kings of England and
of France. Having established himself in the duchy by force of
arms, Henry handed it over to his son Richard, against whom
many of the great Gascon lords revolted, and from Richard it
passed to his brother John. The crusade against the Albigenses
was carried into Gascony, and this warfare gave a new impetus
to the process of disintegration which was already at work in the
duchy. King John and his successor Henry 111. were weak: the
neighbouring counts of Toulouse were powerful and aggressive;
and the house of Beam was growing in strength. Gascony
served Henry III. as headquarters during his two short and
disastrous wars (1230 and 1242) with Louis IX., and in 1259 he
did homage for it to this king; his son, Edward I., lost and then
regained the duchy.
During the Hundred Years' War Gascony was obviously a
battle-field for the torccs of England and of France. The French
seized the duchy, but, aided by the rivalry between the powerful
houses of Foix and Armagnac, Edward III. was able to recover it,
and by the treaty of Bretigny in 1360 John II. recognized the
absolute sovereignty of England therein. Handed over as a
principality by Edward to his son, the Black Prince, it was used
by its new ruler as a base during his expedition into Spain, in
which he received substantial help from the Gascon nobles.
The renewal of the war between England and France, which took
place in 1369, was due in part to a dispute over the sovereignty of
Gascony, and during its course the position of the English was
seriously weakened, the whole of the duchy save a few towns and
fortresses being lost; but the victories of Henry V. in northern
France postponed for a time the total expulsion of the foreigner.
This was reserved for the final stage of the war and was one result
of the efforts of Joan of Arc, the year 1451 witnessing the capture
of Bayonne and the final retreat of the English troops from the
duchy. During this time the inhabitants of Gascony suffered
severely from the ravages of both parties, and the nobles ruled or
misruled without restraint.
495
ngs, especially Louis XI., managed to restore the
in the duchy, although this was not really
til the close of the 1 5th century when the house of
verthrown. It was by means of administrative
lese kings attained their object. Gascony was
same lines as other parts of France and from the
L y who was prince of Beam, and who united his
with the crown, its history differs very slightly
rest of the country. The Renaissance inspired
A educational institutions and the Reformation
>ted in Beam, but not in other parts of Gascony.
ion swept over the land, which was the scene of
ary exploits of Henry IV., and Louis XIV. made
ges in its government. As may be surmised the
iscony varied from time to time, but just before
the Revolution they were the Atlantic Ocean,
doc and the Pyrenees, and from east to west the
itest extent measured 170 m.
f the ancien rigime Gascony was united with
1 great military government. After the division
departments, Gascony, together with Bearn,
and the Basque country, formed the depart-
Pyrenees, Landcs, Hautes-Pyrenees and Gers.
r also now form arrondisscments and cantons of
of Lot-et-Garonne, Haute-Garonnc, Ariegc and
henart, Notilia utriusque Vasconiae, tarn Iberkas
('637); L'Abbe* Monlezun, Histoire de la Gastogm
prising a number of useful but uncritically edited
lean de Jaurgain, La Vasconie, itudc historique *t
igjnes . . . du duchi de Gauogne . . . et des grands
Gascogne (1808-1002), a learned and ingenious
erized by unbridled genealogical fancy. This last
d by Ferdinand Lot in his Etudes sur le regne
(1003; see especially appendix x.). See also
L* Gascogne," a bibliography of manuscript sources
>rks published in the Rants de synlhtse historians
(C. B.»)
A gas engine is a heat engine in which the work-
ipheric air and the fuel an inflammable gas. It
t-air or a steam engine in that the heat is given
Quid by combustion within the motive power
st gas engines— in fact, in all those at present on
working fluid and the fuel that supplies it with
with each other before the combustion of the
-which in the steam and in most hot-air engines
urate furnace — is, in the gas engine, introduced
lotor cylinder and burned there; it is, indeed,
ng fluid. A gas engine, therefore, is an internal
le using gaseous fuel.
I history of the gas engine dates from 1876, when
atented the well-known engine now in extensive
c that year inventors had been at work, attempting
iroductng motive power. The first proposal made
1 found in Street's Patent No. 1983 of 1794, where
ine is suggested, the explosion to be caused by
of turpentine on a heated metal surface, mixing
lir in a cylinder, firing the mixture, and driving a
losion produced. Most of the early engines were
fact that a mixture of an inflammable gas and
ives an explosion when ignited — that is, produces
in be applied in a cylinder to propel a piston.
, proposed a gas engine in which the gas and air
>ressurc above that of the atmosphere before use
t he did not appear to be clear in his ideas,
g particulars of early experiments are given in a
Cambridge Philosophical Society in 1820 entitled,
ion of Hydrogen Gas to produce a Moving Power
th a description of an Engine which is moved by
he Atmosphere upon a Vacuum caused by Ex-
)gen Gas and Atmospheric Air." In that paper
1 describes an engine of his invention constructed
explosion vacuum method. This engine was stated
t regularity at 60 revolutions per minute, consum-
hydrogen gas per hour. The hydrogen explosion,
t seem to liavc been noiseless, because Mr Cecil
ilding a larger engine "... to remedy the noise
d by the explosion, the lower end of the cylinder
le buried in a well or H ma^ be ««cVni«Av»>'K\»x^
49&
GAS ENGINE
Cambridge by Prof. Farish, who exhibited at his m lectures on
mechanics an engine actuated by the explosion of a mixture of gas
and air within a cylinder, the explosion talcing place from atmo-
spheric pressure. Prof. Farish is also stated to have operated an
engine by gunpowder. These engines of Farish and Cecil appear
to be the very earliest in actual operation in the world.
Samuel Brown, in patents dated 1823 and 1826, proposed to fill
a closed chamber with a gas flame, and so expel the air; then he
condensed the flame by injecting water, and operated an- air engine
by exhausting into the partial vacuum so obtained. The idea was
evidently suggested by Watt's condensing steam engine, flame being
employed instead of steam to obtain a vacuum. Brown's engine io
said to have been actually employed to pump water, drive a boat
on the Thames, and propel a road carriage. L. W. Wright in 1 833
described an explosion engine working at atmospheric pressure
and exploding on both sides of the piston. The cylinder is shown
as water-jacketed. In William Barnctt's engine of 1838 two great
advances were made. The engine was so constructed that the mix-
ture of gas and air was compressed to a considerable extent in the
motor cylinder before ignition. The method of igniting the com-
Sressed charge was also effective. The problem of transferring a
ame to the interior of a cylinder when the pressure is much in excess
of that of the external air was solved by means of a hollow plug cock
having a gas jet burning within the hollow. In one position the
hollow was opened to the atmosphere, and a gas jet issuing within
it was lit by an external flame, so that it burned within the hollow.
The plug was then quickly rotated, so that it closed to the external
air and opened to the engine cylinder; the flame continued to burn
with the air contained in the cock, until the compressed inflammable
mixture rushed into the space from the cylinder and ignited at the
flame. This mode of ignition is in essentials the one adopted by Otto
about thirty years later. To Barnctt belongs the credit of being the
first to realize clearly the great idea of compression before explosion in
gas engines, and to show one way of carrying out the idea in practice.
Barnctt appears to have constructed an engine, but he attained no
commercial success. Several attempts to produce gas engines were
made between 1838 and i860, but they were all failures. Several
valuable ideas were published in 18^5. Drake, an American, de-
scribed a mode of igniting a combustible gaseous mixture by raising
a thimble-shaped piece of metal to incandescence. In 1857 Barsanti
and Matteucci proposed a free-piston engine, in which the explosion
propelled a Irce piston against the atmosphere, and the work was
done on the return stroke by the atmospheric pressure, a partial
vacuum being produced under the piston. The engine never
came into commercial use, although the fundamental idea was
good.
Previous to i860 the gas engine was entirely in the experimental
stage, and in spite of many attempts no practical success was
attained. E. Lenoir, whose patent is dated i860, was the inventor
of the first gas engine that was brought into general use. The
piston, moving forward for a portion of its stroke by the energy
stored in the fly-wheel, drew into the cylinder a charge of gas and
air at the ordinary atmospheric pressure. At about half stroke
the valves closed, and an explosion, caused by an electric spark,
propelled the piston to the end of its stroke. On the return stroke
the burnt gases were discharged, just as a steam engine exhausts.
These operations were repeated on both sides of the piston, and
the engine was thus double-acting. Four hundred of these engines
were said to be at work in Paris in 1865. and the Reading Iron Works
Company Limited built and sold one hundred of them in Great
Britain. They were quiet, and smooth in running; the gas con-
sumption, however, was excessive, amounting to about 100 cub.
ft. per indicated horse-power per hour. The electrical ignition
also gave trouble. Hugon improved on the engine in 1865 by the
introduction of a flame ignition, but no real commercial success
was attained till 1867, when Otto and Langcn exhibited their free-
piston engine in the Paris Exhibition of that year. This engine
was identical in principle with the Barsanti and Matteucci, out
Otto succeeded where those inventors failed. He worked out the
engine in a very perfect manner, used flame ignition, and designed
a practical clutch, which allowed the piston free movement in one
direction but engaged with the fly-wheel shaft when moved in the
other; it consisted of rollers and wedge-shaped pockets'— the same
clutch, in fact, as has since been so much used in Irec-wheel bicycle*.
This engine consumed about 40 cub. ft. of gas per brake horse-power
per hour — less than half as much as the Lenoir. Several thousands
were made and sold, but its strange appearance and unmcchanical
operation raised many objections. Several inventors meanwhile
again advocated compression of the gaseous mixture before ignition,
among them being Schmidt, a German, and Million, a Frenchman,
both in 1861.
To a Frenchman, Alph. Beau de Rochas, belongs the credit of
proposing, with perfect clearness, the cycle of operations now
widely used in compression gas engines. In a pamphlet published
in Paris in 1862, he stated that to obtain economy with an ex|>losion
engine four conditions arc requisite: (1) The greatest possible
Oriindcr volume with the least possible cooling surface; (2) the
greatest possible rapidity of explosion; (3) the greatest possible
expansion; and (4) the greatest possible pressure at the beginning
V the expansion. The toie arrangement capable of satisfying
Found in aui engine operating
tire outstroke of the piston;
instroke; (3) ignition at tbt
third stroke; (4) forcing out
mi the fourth and last return
y contemplated, in theory at
fourteen years later. He did
actice, and probably had a*
overcome before realizing his
- Otto belongs the honour of
cle, now correctly known *-.
overcoming all practical diffj-
world-wide appfication. Thi,
_ ne very rapidly surpassed aU
others, so that now the Otto-cycle engine is manufactured over the
whole world by hundreds of makers. In 1876 Dr Otto used lot
compression, only about 30 lb per sq. in. above atmosphere. Year
by year compression was increased and greater power and economy
were obtained, and at present compressions of more than loo lb
per sq. in. are commonly used with most satisfactory results.
The history of the subject since 1876 is one of gradual improve-
ment in detail of construction, enabling higher compressions to
be used with safety, and of gradual but accelerating increase in
dimensions and power. In the same period light and heavy oil
engines have been developed, mostly using the Otto cycle (see
Oil Engine).
Gas engines may be divided, so far as concerns their working
process, into three well-defined types: —
(1) Engines igniting at constant volume, but without previous
compression.
(2) Engines igniting at constant pressure, with previous
compression.
(3) Engines igniting at constant volume, with previous
compression.
For practical purposes engines of the first type may be dis-
regarded. Gas engines without compression are now considered
to be much too wasteful of gas to be of commercial importance
Those of the second type have never reached the stage of extended
commercial application; they are scientifically interesting,
however, and may take an important place in the future develop-
ment of the gas engine. The expectations of Sir William Siemens
with regard to them have not been realized, although he spent
many years in experiments. Of other engineers who also
devoted much thought and work to this second type may be
mentioned Brayton (1872); Foulis (1878); Crowe (1883);
Hargrcavcs (188S); Clerk (1880); and Diesel (1892). Diesel's
engines are proving successful as oil engines but have not been
introduced as gas engines.
The working cycles of the three types are as follows: —
First Type.— Four operations.
(a) Charging the cylinder with explosive mixture at atmo-
spheric pressure.
(6) Exploding the charge.
(c) Expanding after explosion.
(d) Expelling the burnt gases.
Second Type. — Five operations.
(c) Charging the pump cylinder with gas and air mixture at
atmospheric pressure. (
lb) Compressing the charge into an intermediate receiver.
(c) Admitting the charge to the motor cylinder, in a state of
flame, at the pressure of compression.
(d) Expanding after admission.
(c) Expelling the burnt gases.
Third Tyfe.— Five operations.
(a) Charging the cylinder with gas and air mixture at atmo-
spheric pressure.
(b) Compressing the charge into a combustion space.
(c) Exploding the charge.
(d) Expanding after explosion.
(e) Expelling the burnt gases.
In all these types the heating of the working fluid is accomplished
by the rapid method of combustion within the cylinder, and for
the cooling necessary in all heat engines is substituted the complete
rejection of the working fluid with the heat it contains, and its re-
placement by a fresh portion taken from the atmosphere at atmo-
spheric temperature. This is the reason why those cycles can be
repeated with almost indefinite rapidity, while the old hot-air
engines had to run slowly in order to give time for the working
fluid to heat or cool through metal surfaces.
Four-cycle Engines. — Otto-cyde engines belong to the third
type, being cxp\o*iou tAcLnes in which the combustible rnixim
GAS ENGINE
497
is compressed previous to explosion. Fig. i is a side elevation,
fig. a is a sectional plan, and fig. 3 is an end elevation of an engine
built about 1891 by Messrs Crossley of Manchester! who were
the original makers of Otto engines in Great Britain. In external
appearance it- somewhat resembles a modern high-pressure
Fig. i.— Side Elevation of Otto Cycle Engine.
steam engine, of which the working parts are exceedingly strong.
In its motor and only cylinder, which is horizontal and open-
ended, works a long trunk piston, the front end of which carries
the crosshead pin. The crank shaft is heavy, and the fly-wheel
large, considerable stored energy being required to carry the
piston through the negative part of the cycle. The cylinder is
considerably longer than the stroke, so that the piston when full
in leaves a space into which it docs not enter. This is the com-
bustion space, in which the charge is first compressed and then
burned. On the forward stroke, the piston A (fig. 2) takes into
the cylinder a charge of mixed gas and air at atmospheric
pressure, which is compressed by a backward stroke into the space
Z at the end of the cylinder. The compressed charge is then
ignited, and so the charge is exploded with the production of a
high pressure. The piston now makes a forward stroke under
the pressure of the explosion, and on its return, after the exhaust
valve is opened, discharges the products of combustion. The
engine is then ready to go through the same cycle of operations.
It thus takes four strokes or two revolutions of the shaft to
complete the Otto cycle, the cylinder being used alternately
as a pump and a motor, and the engine, when working at full
load, thus gives one impulse for every two
revolutions. The valves, which are all of the
conical-seated lift type, are four in number —
charge inlet valve, gas inlet valve, igniting
valve, and exhaust valve. The igniting valv">
is usually termed the timing valve, because it
determines the time of the explosion. Since
the valves have each to act once in every two
revolutions, they cannot be operated by cams
or eccentrics placed directly on the crank
shaft. The valve shaft D is driven at half
the rate of revolution of the crank shaft C by
means of the skew or worm gear E, one wheel
of which is mounted on the crank shaft and the
other on the valve shaft. Ignition is accom-
plished by means of a metal tube heated to
incandescence by a. Bunsen burner. At the
proper moment the ignition or timing valve ia
opened, and the mixed gas and air under pressure being admitted
to the interior of the tube, the inflammable gases come into con-
tact with the incandescent metal surface and ignite; the flame
at once spreads back to the cylinder and fires its contents, thus
producing the motive explosion.
The working parts are as follows:— A the piston, B the conne cting
rod, C the crank shaft, D the side or valve shaft, E the tfcew gearing,
XX. 9
F the exhaust valve, G the exhatnt valve lever, H the exhaust valve
cam, I the charge inlet valve, J the charge inlet valve lever, K the
charging valve cam, L the gas inlet val
lever and link operating gat valve. O
timing valve cam, Q tuning valve lever
S governor, T water jacket and cylinder,
1 ignition tube. On th-
stroke the charge of 1
the inlet valve 1, whic
from the cam K, on tl
supply is admitted to
valve L. which is also
link N from the cam
the centrifugal governor s. 1 he governor operates
either to admit gas wholly, or to cut it off com-
pletely, so that the variation in power is obtained
by varying the number of the explosions.
Since the engine shown in figs. 1 to 3 was built
further modifications have been made, principally
in the direction of dispensing with or diminishing
port space, that is, so arranging the ports that
the compression space is not broken up into
several separate chambers. In this way the cooling
surface in contact with the intensely hot gases is
reduced to a minimum. This is especially im-
portant when high compressions are used, as then
the compression space being small, the port spaces
form a urge proportion of the total space. For
maximum economy it is necessary to get rid of
port space altogether; this is done by making the
lift valves open directly into the compression
space. This arrangement can be readily made
in small and medium-sized engines, but in the larger engines it
becomes necessary to provide ports, so as to allow the valves to be
more easily removed for cleaning.
The construction of pressure gas plant in 1878 by J. E. Dowson
for the production of inflammable gas from anthracite and coke
by the action of air mixed with steam, soon led to the develop-
ment of larger and larger Otto cycle engines. The gas obtained
consisted of a mixture of carbon monoxide, hydrogen, nitrogen and
some carbon dioxide and oxygen, having a lower heating value
of about 150 British thermal units per cubic foot. With this gas
these engines used about 1 lb of anthracite per b.h.p. per hour.
From the pressure producer sprang the suction producer first
placed on the market in practical form by M. Benier of Paris in
1804, but then presenting many difficulties which were not re- -
moved till about nine years later when Dowson and others
placed effective suction plants in use in considerable numbers.
Such suction plants are now built by all the leading gas engine
constructors for powers varying from xo to 500 i.h.p.
Dr Ludwig Mond and Crossley Bros, also attacked the problem
of the bituminous fuel producer, of which many examples are
now at work for powers as large as 2000 i.h.p. In 1895 B. H.
Fig. 2.— Plan of Otto Cycle Engine.
Thwaite demonstrated that the so-called waste gas from blast
furnaces could be used in gas engines, and this undoubtedly
led to the design and construction of the very large gas engines
now becoming common both in Europe and in America. It
appears from Thwaite's experiments that the surplus gas from
the blast furnaces of Great Britain b capable of supplying at
least three-quarters of ft mfllkm horse -p o w er continuously day
+98
GAS ENGINE
and night, and it is calculated that in America nearly three
million horse-power is available from this source. Thwaite's
system was put into operation in 1805 at the Glasgow Iron Works,
and it was also successfully applied near Barrow-in-Furness.
For many reasons the system did not take immediate root in
England, but in 1898 the Socilte* Cockcrill of Scraing near Liege
applied an engine designed by Delamere-Debouttcville to utilize
blast furnace gas. This engine indicated 213 h.p. running at
105 revolutions per minute. This was followed in 1899 by an
engine giving 600 b.h.p. at 90 revolutions per minute used for
driving a blowing cylinder for a blast furnace. It had a single
cylinder of 51-2 in. diameter and a piston stroke of 55-1 in.
About 1000 the Gasmotoren Fabrik Dcutz built an Otto cycle
engine of xooo b.h.p. having four cylinders each 33 in. diameter
and 39*3 in. stroke, speed 135 revolutions per minute: It was
coupled direct to a dynamo. Crossley Bros. Ltd. took up the
Fig. 3. — End Elevation of Otto Cycle Engine
large gas engine at an early date, and a 400 h.p. engine by them
was at work at Brunner, Mond & Co.'s works, Winnington, in
1900; it had two cylinders of 26 in. diameter and 36 in. stroke,
and it ran at 150 revolutions per minute.
Gas engines operating on the Otto cycle are usually of the single
acting open cylinder type up to about 200 b.h.p., but for the
larger engines closed cylinders of the double acting type are used.
The engine then closely resembles a double acting steam engine.
It has a cylinder cover with packing box of a special type, and,
in addition to the water jacket surrounding the cylinder and
combustion spaces, the piston and piston rod are hollow and
cooling water is forced through them by a pump. Such a double
acting cylinder gives two succeeding power impulses and then
two charging strokes so that one revolution of the crank shaft
is occupied in charging and compression, while the succeeding
revolution gets two power impulses. For still larger engines
two such double acting cylinders are arranged in tandem, so that
one piston rod runs through two pistons and connects to a slide
in front and to one crank pin by a connecting rod. Such an
(engine gives two power impulses for every revolution of the crank
shaft. The greatest power developed in one double acting
cylinder is claimed by Ehrhardt and Schmcr for a cylinder of
45 J in. diameter by 51 J in. stroke, which at 94 revolutions per
minute gives nooi.h.p.
Two-Cycle Engine.— While the Otto or four-cyde engine %u
developing as above described, inventors were hard at work an
the two-cycle engine. In Britain this work feU mostly upon
Clerk, Robson and Atkinson, while on the continent of Europe
the most persevering and determined worker was Koertrng.
Dugald Clerk began work on the gas engine at the end of 1876
His first patent was dated 1877 and dealt with An engine of the
air pressure vacuum type. His next patent was No. 3045 of
1 87 8, and the engine there described was exhibited at the Royal
Agricultural Show at Kilburn, London, 1879. In it a pump
compressed a mixture of air and gas into a reservoir, from which
it entered the motor cylinder during the first part of its stroke.
After cut-off ignition was caused by a platinum igniter, the piston
was driven forward, and exhausting was performed on the
return stroke. This engine gave three b.h.p., and it was the first
compression explosion engine ever run giving one impulse for
each revolution of the crank shaft. It had
difficulties, however, which prevented it from
reaching the market.
The particular type of engine now widely
known as operating on the Clerk cycle was
patented in 1881 (Brit. Pat. No. 1089). One
of the earliest of these engines was set up at
Lord Kelvin's laboratory at the Glasgow
university and used for the purpose of driving
a Siemens dynamo and supplying his house
with electric light. The engine was first ex-
hibited in the Paris Electrical Exhibition of
1 88 1 and the London Smoke Abatement Ex-
hibition of the same year. In this engine the
charge was not compressed by a separate
pump. A pumping cylinder, it is true, was
used, but its function was to act merely as a
displaccr to take in a mixture of gas and air
and transfer it to the motor cylinder at as few
a pressure as possible, in such a way that the
entering charge displaced the exhaust gases
through ports which were opened by the over-
running of the piston. The motor piston thus
timed and controlled the exhaust discharge, and
gave a power impulse for every revolution of
the crank. Engines of the Clerk type were
built largely by Messrs Sterne & Co. of Glasgow,
the Clerk Gas Engine Co. of Philadelphia,
U.S.A., the Campbell Gas Engine Co., and a
modification was made and sold in consider-
able numbers by the Stockport Company.
The lapsing of the Otto patent, however, in
1876 caused engineers to neglect the two cycle for a time,
although a little later it was introduced for small engines in an
ingenious and simple modification known as the Day engine.
This two-cycle engine later became very popular, especially for
motor launch work. The Clerk cycle is now much in use for
large gas engines up to' about 2000 horse as modified by Messrs
Koerting of Hanover.
The Clerk cycle engine, as built in 1881, is shown in sectional plaa
at fig. 4. The engine contains two cylinder* — a power cylinder A
and a displaccr cylinder B. The function of the displacer cyliader
is to take in a combustible charge of gas and air and transfer it
to the power cylinder, displacing as it enters the exhaust gases of
the previous explosion. A compression space G is formed at the end
of toe motor cylinder A. It is of conical shape and communicates
with the displaccr cylinder B by means of a large automatic lift
valve which opens into the compression space from a chamber
communicating by a pipe with the displacer cylinder. At the out-
end of the motor cylinder are placed V-shaped ports E which open
to the atmosphere by an exhaust pipe. The outward travel of the
motor piston C causes it to overrun these ports, as seen in fig. 4. and
allows the pressure in the cylinder to fall to atmosphere. The action
of the engine is as follows: — The displacer piston D on its forward
movement draws in its charge of gas and air, and it b so timed with
reference to the motor piston C that ft has returned a small portion
of its stroke just when the motor piston overruns the exhaust ports,
The overrunning of the exhaust ports at once causes the pressure
in the cylinder to fall to atmosphere, and then the pressure is the
displacer overcomes the pressure in the motor cylinder and opens
GAS ENGINE
499
the lift valve, when the charge flows in to the motor cylinder through
the conical compression space and displace* the exhaust gases
through the ports E, while it fills up the cylinder A with the in-
flammable charge. The exhaust gases are sufficiently displaced
and the fresh charge introduced into the cylinder by the time the
motor piston has opened the exhaust ports E on the out-stroke and
closed them on the return stroke. The two cylinders are so propor-
Fig. 4— Sectional Plan of Clerk Cycle Engine, 1881.
tinned that the exhaust gases are expelled as completely as possible
and replaced by fresh explosive mixture without any material part
of this mixture escaping with the exhaust. Unless the proportions
are carefully made such an escape is possible. The relative operations
of the motor piston C and the displacer piston D are secured by
advancing the crank of the displacer about a right angle compared
to the motor crank. The motor piston on its in-stroke compresses
the mixed charge into the conical space G: and, when com pr e s s i on
is complete, the mixture is ignited by the slide valve F. This
produces the power explosion which forces the piston forward
until the exhaust ports are opened again. By this cycle of opera-
tions one power impulse is given for every revolution of the crank.
The motor cylinder is surrounded by a water jacket in the usual
manner, but it is u n n e c e s sar y to water-jacket the displacer, as the
gases are never hot.
Robson also invented two-cycle engines. His first patent was
taken out in 1077 (No. 2334). The engines described in his patents
of 1879-1880 were of the two-cycle type, and in them no second
cylinder was used. The front end of the motor cylinder was enclosed
by a cover and packing box, and was used as a pump to force gas
and air into a reservoir at a few lb above atmosphere. The motor
piston was arranged to overrun ports in the side of the cylinder, but
the exhaust discharge was not timed in that way. A separate lift
valve controlled the overrun ports and determined when the ex-
haust should be discharged. When the exhaust was discharged at
the end of the stroke the pressure from the gas and air reservoir was
admitted by a lift valve to the cylinder to displace the remaining
exhaust gases and fill the cylinder with charge. This mixture was
compressed
two impulses per revolution. Messrs Mather & PbU build a
Koerting engine of a modified type in England; an engine of
their construction with a power cylinder of about 29 in. and
40} in. stroke gives 700 b.h.p.
Fig. s shows in longitudinal section the power and pump cylinders
of a Mather & Piatt Koerting engine on the Clerk cycle: the power
cylinder section u shown above that of the
pump cylinders, but it is to be understood that
both cylinders are in the same horizontal plana
as in the Clerk engine shown at fig. 4. The
Koerting engine, however, is double sxtmps*
whereas the Clerk engine was single acting. The
power cylinder A has a power piston A* and
compression spaces A*A». At the centre of the
cylinders are exhaust ports E which open to the
atmosphere and are overrun by the piston A 1
at both ends of the stroke. A 4 and A* are inlet
valves for eas and air. The single acting pump
cylinders BB l supply the air required for the
charge, and the double acting gas cylinder CO
supplies the gas. Both gas and air are led from
these cylinders by separate passages to the inlet
valves A 4 A*. The air pump pistons are lettered
B*B» and the gas pump piston C*. The main
crank D connects as usual to the piston rod of
the power piston A 1 , and the pump crank P
to the trunk air pump piston a* which drives
the other air pump piston B a and the gas
ssed into a space at the end of the cylinder and ignited by
of a flame ignition device. Robson s engine was built fn
considerable numbers by Messrs Tangye of Birmingham, the first
exhibited by them at Bingley Hall at the end of 1880. The modern
Day engine closely resembles the Robson engine
so far as its broad operations are concerned.
Atkinson's work on the gas engine was begun
in 1878, his first patent being No. 3212 of 1879.
The engine described in that patent somewhat
resembled the 1878 engine of Clerk as exhibited at
Kilburn. Atkinson was ingenious and persever-
ing in the invention of two-cycle engines. Two
of his engines were made in considerable numbers.
The first was known as the " Differential "
engine, exhibited at the Inventions Exhibition,
London, in 1885. A later engine produced by
him was called the " Cycle engine, and it
proved to be the most economical of all the
motors tested at the Society of Arts trials of
motors for electric lighting in 1 888-1889.
Atkinson joined Crossley Bros., and many of his
ingenious contrivances are now at work on the
well-known engines of that firm. p I0 - Loneiti
Four-cycle engines now practically mono- Messrs Mather 8 I
polize the field of the smaller internal com-
bustion engines, and very large engines are also constructed
on this plan. The two-cycle, or Clerk cycle engines, how-
ever, compete strongly with the four-cycle for large gas
engines using blast furnace gas. Koerting engines on the
Clerk cycle are now built giving 1000 i.h.p. per double acting
motor cylinder, and one power cylinder on this method gives
pump piston O by a piston rod passing through all three,
gas mixture is not made until the inlet valves A*A* are reached, so
that no explosive mixture exists until it is formed within the cylinder
A. The air is first introduced into the power cylinder to discharge
some of the hot gases, and when the gas is also admitted the con-
tents of the cylinder are cooled to some extent. The action of the
engine is exactly as described with regard to the Clerk cycle, and
the arrangement of the two cranks at about right angles to each
other is also similar. The exhaust is discharged through the ports
E, and the incoming charge fills the cylinder In the same way as in
the Clerk engine.
Another large continental gas engine, known as the Oechethluser,
operates on a modified Clerk cycle and is shown in sectional plan
at fig. 6. The motor cylinder A has two pistons A'A*. A 1 being
operated by a centre and A* by two outside cranks, side rods, and
cross head ; the pistons A 1 A' thus move in opposite directions and
give an effective stroke of double that doe to one crank. B is the
air and gas pump dealing with air on one side of its piston and gas
on the other. A chamber C opens to an air reservoir supplied from
the pump and to the power cylinder by ports C 1 ; a simitar chamber
D opens to a gas reservoir supplied from the pump and to the power
cylinder by ports D l . The exhaust ports E are provided at the other
end of the cylinder. When the front piston overruns the exhaust
ports E the pressure within the power cylinder falls to atmosphere}
the back piston then opens the air ports O and air under slight
pressure flows in, to be followed a little later by gas under slight
treasure from the gas ports D*. In this way the power cylinder A
■ charged with gas and air mixture at each stroke, and when the
pistons A*A" approach each other the charge is compressed into the
space between and then ignited by the electric spark. The pistons
are then forced apart and perform their power stroke. The Oechel-
hauscr engine, which is built in Great Britain by Messrs Beardraore
udinal Section of Two-Cycle Engine (Koerting- Clerk), new type, by
Piatt, Ltd.
of Glasgow, has attained considerable success In driving' blowing
pumps for blast furnaces, in producing electric light, and in driving
iron rolling mills.
Large gas engines are undoubtedly making great progress, as will be
seen from the following interesting particulars prepared in I008 by Ms
R. E. Mathot of Brussels giving the numbers and horse power of large
gas engines which had then been tecealty tnsjw^^vax^VsOkw^^v—
500
GAS ENGINE
Messrs Crossley Brothers, Limited, 57 motor*, with an aggregate
of 23,660 h.p.; Messrs Ehrhardt & Sehmcr, 59 motors, total 69,790
h.p.; the Otto Gasmotoren Fabrik, 82^ total 47,400 h.p.; Gebruder
Koerting, 198, total
Soci£t6 Alsacienne, 55, total
165,760 h.p.;
23410 h.p.; Societe John Cockenll, 148, total 102,9.25 h.p.; Societe
Suisse, Winterthur, 67, total 8620 h.p,; Vereinigte Maschinen-
Arrangemcnt of Oechelhauser Gas Engine.
fabriken, Augsburg and Nurnberg, 215, total 356, 240 h.p. The mean
power of each gas engine made by Messrs Ehrhardt & Schmcr and
the Augsburg and Nurnberg companies is in each case 1200 h.p.
It is stated that in one factory there are gas engines representing
a total output of 35,000 h.p. These European large gas engines thus
give nearly 575,000 h.p. between them.
The installation of large gas engines has made considerable pro-
gress in America. Mr E. L. Adams estimated that 350,000 h.p.
was at work or in construction in the United States in 1908. The
first large engines were installed at the works of the Lackawanna
Steel Co., Buffalo, New York. They were of the Koerting-Clerk
type, and were built by the De La Vergne Co. of New York. They
included 16 blowing engines, each of 2000 h.p., and 8 engines of
1000 h.p. each, driving dynamos to produce electric light. This
large power plant was started in 1902. The Westinghouse Co. of
Pittsburg have also built large engines, several of which arc in
operation at the various works of the Carnegie Steel Co. These
Westinghouse engines are of the horizontal twin tandem type, having
two cranks and four double-acting cylinders in each unit, the
S Under* b and the stroke 54 in. The Snow
earn Pun r horizontal tandem engines with
cylinders
£4 in. strol Table \.— Indicated and Brake Thermal Efficiency of Four-Cycle Engines from 188a to igoS.
inghouse C
pistons were not
been displaced by electrical ignition of both high and low t
types; all large gas engines are ignited electrically and generally
by more than one igniter per cylinder.
The governing of large gas engines, too, is now effected so at
to keep up continuity of impulses- by the method either of
throttling the charge inlet or by varying the
point of admission of gas alone or air and gas
mixed.
It may be said, indeed, without exaggera-
tion, that the whole world is now alive to
the possibilities of the intemal-combusuoa
motor, and that progress will be more and
more rapid. This motor has almost fulfilled
the expectations of those engineers who
have devoted a large part of their lives to
its study and advancement. They are look*
ing forward now to the completion of the
work begun so many years ago, and expect,
at no distant date, to find the internal-com-
bustion motor competing with the steam
engine even in its latest form, the steam turbine, on sea at
vigorously as it does at present on land.
Thermal Efficiency of Four-Cycle Engines.— The Otto and Clerk
type engines arc usually designated respectively four-cycle and
two-cycle, because in the Otto type four strokes are necessary to
complete the power-producing cycle of the engine and in the (Jerk
engine two strokes complete the cycle.
Indicated thermal efficiency may be defined as the propor ti on of
the total heat of combustion which appears as work done by the
explosion and expansion upon the piston. Brake thermal efficiency
may be defined as the proportion of the total heat of combustion
which appears as work given out by the engine available for over-
coming external resistances; that is, brake thermal efficiency is the
effective efficiency of the engine for doing work. In the early gas
engines the indicated thermal efficiency was only 16%, as shown by
tests of Otto engines from about 1877 to 1882, but now indicated
thermal efficiencies of from 35% to 37 % are often obtained. Son*
experimenters claim even higher efficiencies, but even 37% is higher
than ordinary best practice of 1009. Table I. has been prepared
to show this advance. It shows, in addition to indicated therms!
I a v
multiple cyl
lag four cr
acting cyli
tandem, a
Exhibition
h.p., and the
watered.
Over two million horse-power
of the smaller gas engines are
now at work in the world, and
certainly above one million horse-
power of petrol motors.
The application of large gas
engines to marine work, the
compounding of the gas engine,
and many other matters are being strenuously pursued.
Capitaine of Frankfort-on-Main has built several vessels
used for towing purposes in which the vessel is driven by
gas engines operated by means of suction gas-producers con-
suming anthracite. Messrs Thornycroft and Messrs Beardmore
in Great Britain have adopted, the Capitaine designs, and
both firms have applied them to sea-going vessels, Thorny-
croft to a gas launch which has been tested in the Solent,
and Beardmore to an old gunboat, the "Rattler." The
" Rattler " was fitted with five-cylinder Otto cycle engines and
suction gas-producers giving 506 i.h.p., and has sailed some
1500 m. under gas power only. There are many difficulties to
be overcome before large light and sufficiently slow-moving gas
engines can be installed on board ship, but progress is being
made, and without doubt all difficulties will be ultimately
surmounted and gas power successfully applied to ships for
both large and small power.
The £uue sod incAadetctai tube methods of ignition have
efficiency, the brake thermal efficiency and the mechanical e ffici ency,
together with other particulars such as engine dimensions, types
engines in effective work available for all motive power purposes.
Thermal Efficiency of Tyco-Cycle Engines. — It has been found that
two-cycle engines present greater practical difficulties in regard to
obtaining high indicated and brake thermal efficiencies, but the
thermodynamic considerations are not affected by the practical
difficulties. As shown by Table II., these engines im p ro v ed in
indicated thermal efficiency from the value of 16*4% attained in
1884 to 38% in 1903, while the brake thermal efficiency rose in the
same period from 14% to 29%. The numbers in Table II. are not
- T *?%.
so well established as those in Table I. The four-cycle engines have
been so far subjected to much more rigid and authoritative tests
than those of the two-cycle. It is interesting to see from the table
> The value 35% b deduced by the author from the Inst.CE
Committee's values.
This value is, in the author's view, too high; probably due to
GASKELL
501
that the mechanical efficiency of the early Clerk engines was 84%,
while in the later large engines of the same type it has fallen to 75 %.
Standards of Thermal Efficiency.— To set up an absolute standard
of thermal efficiency it is necessary to know in a complete manner
the physical and chemical properties and occurrences in a gaseous
explosion. A great deal of attention has been- devoted to gaseous
explosions by experimenters in England and on the continent of
Europe, and much knowledge has been obtained from the work of
Mallard and Le Chafclicr, Clerk, Langen, Petavcl, Hopkinson and
Bairstow and Alexander. From these and other experiments it is
possible to measure approximately the internal energy or the specific
beats of the gases of combustion at very high temperatures, such
as 300o° C. ; and to advance the knowledge on the subject a com-
mittee of the British Association was formed at Leicester in 1907.
Recognizing, in 1882, that it was impossible to base any standard
cycle of efficiency upon the then existing knowledge of gaseous
explosions Dugald Clerk proposed what is called the air standard.
This standard has been used for many years, and it was officially
adopted by a committee of the Institution of Civil- Engineers ap-
pointed in 1903, this committee's two reports, dated March 1905
and December 1905, definitely adopting the air-standard cycle as
the standard of efficiency for internal combustion engines. This
standard assumes that the working fluid is air, that its specific heat
is constant throughout the range of temperature, and that the
Table II.— Indicated and Brake Thermal Efficiency of Twhcyde Engines from 1884 to /90J.
Mechanical
Efficiency.
Name of
Experimenter.
Year.
Dimensions
of Motor
Cylinders.
Indicated
Thermal
Efficiency.
Brake
Thermal
Efficiency.
Type of Engine.
Per cent.
«4
aa
75
* 75
Garrett . . .
Stockport Co.
Clerk ....
Atkinson . . .
Meyer
Mather & PUtf .
1884
1884
1887
1885
1903
1907
Diam. Stroke.
9' X 20'
# x *
2(.;'X(2 r X37i)
Per cent.
164
20-2
30 6
Per cent.
14
ill
16*9
15
29
*3
Clerk-Sterne
Andrews & Co.
CIcrk-Tangye
Atkinson
Occhclhauser-
Kocrting
value of the ratio between the specific heat at constant volume and
constant pressure is 1-4. The air-standard efficiency for different
cycles will be found fully discussed in the report of that committee,
but space here only allows of a short discussion of the various cycles
using compression previous to ignition.
For such engines there are three symmetrical thermodynamic
cycles, and each cycle has the maximum thermal efficiency possible
for the conditions assumed. The three types may be denned as
cycles of (1) constant temperature, (2) constant pressure, and (3)
constant volume.
The term constant temperature indicates that the supply of heat
is added at constant temperature. In this cycle adiabatic compres-
sion is assumed to raise the temperature of the working fluid from
the lowest to the highest point. The fluid then expands at constant
temperature, so that the whole of the heat is added at a constant
temperature, which is the highest temperature of the cycle. The
heat supply is stopped at a certain period, and then the fluid adia-
batfcally expands until the temperature falls to the lowest tempera-
ture. A compression operation then takes place at the lowest
temperature, so that the necessary heat is discharged by isothermal
compression at the lower temperature. It will be recognized that
this is the Carnot cycle, and the efficiency E is the maximum possible
between the temperature limits in accordance with the well-known
second law of thermo-dynamics. This efficiency iiE- (T -T')/T -
1 — TTT, where T is the absolute temperature at which heat is sup-
plied and T* the absolute temperature at which heat is discharged.
It is obvious that the temperatures before and after compression
arc here the same as the lower and the higher temperatures, so that
if t be the temperature before compression and t 4 the temperature
after compression, then E « t -///«. This equation in effect says that
thermal efficiency operating on the Carnot cycle depends upon the
temperatures before and after compression.
The constant pressure cycle is so called because heat is added to
the working fluid at constant pressure. In this cycle adiabatic
compression raises the pressure — not the temperature — from the
lower to the higher limit. At the higher limit of pressure, heat is
added while the working fluid expands at a constant
The temperature thus increases in proportion to increase <
adiabatic compres s ion raises the pressure and temperature of the
working fluid through a certain range; the heat supply is added
while the volume remains constant, that is, the volume to which
the fluid is diminished by compression. Adiabatic expansion re-
duces the pressure and temperature of the working fluid until the
volume is the same as the original volume before compression, and
the necessary heat is discharged from the cycle at constant volume
during falling temperature. Here also it can be shown that the
thermal efficiency depends on the ratio between the temperature
before compression and the temperature after compression. It
is as before E - 1 -///* Where t is the temperature and v the volume
before compression, and t, the temperature and »« the volume after
adiabatic c om pres si on, it can be shown that (- ) *~ - -, 10 that E
may be written
and if tr«/c- i/r, the compression ratio, then
«-.-<*)*■
Thus in all three symmetrical cycles of constant temperature,
constant pressure and constant volume the thermal efficiency
depends only on the ratio of the
maximum volume before com-
pression to the volume after com-
pression; and. given this ratio,
called i/r, which docs not depend
>n temperature
t only upon the
valve-setting of
ivc a means of
ifficicncy proper
r engine. Any
ciency may be
y of the cycle*
1 tabic comprcs-
III., giving the
theoretical thermal efficiency for „ ctriral cycles of
constant temperature, pressure and volume, extends from a
compression ratio of J to tJ»Ui. . Such compression ratios as
Table III.— Theoretical Thermal Efficiency for the Three Symmetrical
Cycles of Constant Temperature, Pressure and Volume.
I/r ... .
E
0246
0-36
048
055
061
0-70
085
100 are, of course, not used in practice. The ordinary value
in constant volume engines ranges from Jth to 4th. In the
Diesel engine, which is a const jiu pressure engine, the ratio U
usually f'.th. As the value of i/r increases beyond certain limits,
the effective power for given cylinder dimensions diminishes.
because the temperature
maximum temperature possible by explosion
compression is rapidly approaching the
"on; thus a compression
1 at a constant pressure.
-_ m in proportion to increase of volume.
When the heat supply ceases, adiabatic expansion proceeds and
reduces the pressure of the working fluid from the higher to the Tower
?»nt. Again here we are dealing with pressure and not temperature,
he heat in this case is discharged from the cycle at rnc lower
pressure but at diminishing temperature. It can be shown in this
case also that E-i-f//„ that is, that although the maximum
temperature of the working fluid is higher than the temperature of
compression and the temperature at the end of adiabatic expansion
is higher than the lower temperature, yet the proportion of heat
convertible into work is determined here also by the ratio of the
temperatures before and after compression.
The constant volume cycle Is so called because the heat required
it added to the working fluid at constant volume, la this cycle
of 1 i 6 th raises the temperature of air from 17 C. to about 1600° C. t
and as 2000° C. is the highest available explosion temperature for
ordinary purposes, it follows that a very small amount of work
would be possible from an engine using such compressions, apart
from other mechanical considerations. I
that constant pressure and constant volu
thermal efficiency for similar range of
but Prof. H. L. Callcndar first pointed 01
a Carnot cycle engine is equally depend
temperature licfore and after compression
a given compression ratio is the same as
constant pressure and constant volume
demonstrated this at a meeting of the Ins
Committee on thermal standards in 1904
mittcc, together with Clerk's investigate
gas-engines up to to 50 h.p. it may lw 1
(XKsibUr in practice is given by multiply:
>y -7. For instance, an engine with a con .
has an air-standard efficiency of 0-36, and the actual indicated
efficiency of a well-designed engine should be -36 multiplied by -7 =
0-23. If, however, the compression ratio be raised to one-fifth, then
the air-standard value -48 multiplied by 7 gives -336. The ideal
efficiency of the real working fluid can be proved to oe about 20%
short of the air-standard values given. (D. C.)
GASKELL, ELIZABETH CLEOHORN (1810-1865), English
novelist and biographer, was born on the 29th of September 1810
in Lindsay Row, Chelsea, London, since destroyed to make- way
for Cheyne Walk. Her father, William Stevenson (1772-1829),
came from Berwick-on-Tweed, and had been successively Uni-
tarian minister, farmer, boarding-bouse keeper for students at
Edinburgh, editor of the SctU Jfagnmv, and contributor to tb*
502
GASKELL
Edinburgh Review, before he received the post of Keeper of the
Records to the Treasury, which he held until his death. His first
wife, Elizabeth Holland, was Mrs Gaskell's mother. She was a
Holland of Sandlebridge, Knutsford, Cheshire, in which county
the family name had long been and is still of great account. Mrs
Stevenson died a month after her daughter was born, and the
babe was carried into Cheshire to Knutsford to be adopted by her
aunt, Mrs Lumb. Thus her childhood waa spent in the pleasant
environment that she has idealized in Cranford% At fifteen years
of age she went to a boarding-school at St'ratford-on-Avon, kept
by Miss Bycrlcy, where she remained until hex seventeenth year.
Then came occasional visits to London to see her father and his
second wife, and after her father's death in 1829 to her uncle,
Swinton Holland. Two winters seem \o have been spent in
Ncwcastle-on-Tync in the family of William Turner, a Unitarian
minister, and a third in Edinburgh On the 30th of August 183a
she was married in the parish church of Knutsford to William
Gaskcll, minister of the Unitarian chapel in Cross Street, Man-
chester, and the author of many treatises and sermons in support
of his own religious denomination. Mr Gaskell held the chair of
English history and literature in Manchester New College.
Henceforth Mrs Gaskell's life belonged to Manchester. Sbeand
her husband lived first in Dover Street, then in Rumford Street,
and finally in 1850 at 84 Plymouth Grove. Her literary life
began with poetry. She and her husband aspired to emulate
George Crabbeand write the annals of the Manchester poor. One
poetic " Sketch," which appeared in Blackwood's Magawine for
January 1837, seems to have been the only outcome of this
ambition. Henceforth, while in perfect union in all else, husband
and wife were to go their separate literary ways, Mrs Gaskell to
become a successful novelist, whose books were to live side by side
with those of greater masters, Mr Gaskell to be a distinguished
Unitarian divine, whose sermons, lectures and hymns arc now all
but forgotten. In her earlier married life Mrs Gaskell was mainly
occupied with domestic duties — she had seven children — and
philanthropic work among the poor. Her first published prose
effort was probably a letter that she addressed to William
Howitt on hearing that he contemplated a volume entitled
Visits to Remarkable Places. She then told the legend of Clopton
Hall, Warwickshire, as she had heard it in schooldays, and
Howitt incorporated the letter in that book, which was published
in 1840. Serious authorship, however, does not seem to have been
commenced until four or five years later. In 1844 Mr and Mrs
Gaskcll visited North Wales, where their only son " Willie "
died of scarlet fever at the age of ten months, and it was, it is
said, to distract Mrs Gaskell from her sorrow that her husband
suggested a long work of fiction, and Mary Barton was begun.
There were earlier short stories in Hewitt's Journal, where
" Libbie Marsh 'sThree Eras " and "The Sexton's Hero*' appeared
in 1 847. But it was Mary Barton : A Tale of Manchester Life that
laid the foundation of Mrs Gaskell's literary career. It was
completed in 1847 and offered to a publisher who returned it
unread. It was then sent to Chapman & Hall, who retained the
manuscript for a year without reading it or communicating with
the author. A reminder, however, led to its being sought for,
considered and accepted, the publishers agreeing to pay the
author £100 for the copyright. It was published anonymously
in two volumes in 1848. This story had a wide popularity, and
its author «ecured first the praise and then the friendship of
Carlyle, Landor and Dickens. Dickens indeed asked her in 1850
to become a contributor to his new magazine Household Words,
and here the whole of Cranford appeared at intervals from
December 1 851 to May 1853. exclusive of one sketch, reprinted
in the " World's Classics " edition (1907), that was published in
All the Year Round for November 1863. Earlier than this,
indeed, for the very first number of Household Words she had
written " Lizzie Leigh." Mrs Gaskell's second book.however, was
The Moorland Cottage, a dainty little volume that appeared at
Christmas 1850 with illustrations by Birket Foster. In the
Christmas number of Household Words for 1853 appeared " The
Squire's Story," reprinted in Lime Leigh and other Tales in 1865.
In 1853 appeared another long novel, Ruth, and the incomparable
Cranford. This last— now the most popular of her books—is aa
idyll of village life, largely inspired by girlish memories of Knuts-
ford and its people. In Ruth, which first appeared in three
volumes, Mrs Gaskell turned to a delicate treatment of a girl's
betrayal and her subsequent rescue. Once more we are intro-
duced to Knutsford, thinly disguised, and to the liule Unitarian
chapel in that town where the author had worshipped in early
years. In 1855 North and South was published. It had previously
appeared serially in Household Words. Then came — in J857—
the Life of Charlotte Bronle, in two volumes. Miss Bronte, who
had enjoyed the friendship of Mrs Gaskell and had exchanged
visits, died in March 1855. Two years earlier she had begged her
publishers to postpone the issue of her own novel Vtllettein order
that her friend's Ruth should not sutler. This biography, by its
vivid presentation of the sad, melancholy and indeed tragic
story of the three Bronte sisters, greatly widened the interest in
their writings and gave its author a considerable place among
English biographers. But much matter was contained in the
first and second editions that was withdrawn from, the third.
Certain statements made by the writer as to the school of
Charlotte Bronte's infancy, an identification of the " Lowood " of
Jane Eyre with the existing school, and the acceptance of the
story of Brum well Bronte's ruin having been caused by the
woman in whose house he had lived as tutor, brought threats of
libel actions. Apologies were published, and the third edition of
the book was modified, as- Mrs Gaskcll declares, by " another
hand." The book in any case remains one of the best biographies
in the language. An introduction by Mrs Gaskell to. the then
popular novel, Mabel Vaughan, was also included in her work of
this year 1857, but no further book was published by her until
1859, when, under the title of Round the Sofa, the collected many of
hercontribut ions to periodical literature. RoundtkcSofa*ppc*xt&
in two volumes, the first containing only " My Lady Ludlow,"
the second five short stories. These stories reappeared the same
year in one volume as My Lady Ludlow and other Tales. In the
next year i860 appeared yet another volume of short stories,
entitled Right at Last and other Tales. The title story had
appeared two years earlier in Household Words as " The Sin of a
Father." In 1862 Mrs Gaskell wrote a preface to a tittle book by
Colonel Vecchj, translated from the Italian— Garibaldi and
Caprera, and in 1863 she published her last long novel, Sylvia's
Lovers, dedicated " to My dear Husband by her who best knows
his Value." After this we have — in 1863 — a one-volume story,
A Dark Night's Worh, and in the same year Cousin Phyllis and
other Tales appeared. Reprinted short stories from All the
Year Round, Comhilt Magazine, and other publications, tend 10
lengthen the number of books published by Mrs Gaskell during
her lifetime. The Grey Woman and other Tales appeared in 1865.
Mrs Gaskell died on the 12th of November 1865 at Holyburn,
Alton, Hampshire, in a house she had just purchased with the
profits of her writings as a present for her husband. She was
buried in the little graveyard of the Knutsford Unitarian church.
Her unfinished novel Wives and Daughters was published in two
volumes in 1866.
Mrs Gaskcll has enjoyed an ever gaining popularity since her
death. Cranford has been published in a hundred forms and
with many illustrators. It is unanimously accepted as a cjassk.
Scarcely less recognition is awarded to the Life of Charlotte
Bronte, which is in every library. The many volumes of novelsand
stories seemed of less secure permanence until the falling in of their
copyrights revealed the fact that a dozen publishers thought them
worth reprinting. The most complete editions,, however, are the
" Knutsford Edition/' edited with introductions by A. W Ward, in
eight volumes (Smith, Elder), and the " World's Classics " edition,
edited by Clement Shorter, in 10 volumes (Henry Froude, 1908).
There is no biograpny of Mrs Gaskell, she having forbidden the
"" y nutsford " Mary Barton "L ...
. . ,t.J.l..
second stries; H. B. StouvtLtfe and LeUrrs.edked by Annie Fields;
Ry of Mrs Gaskell, she having forbidden the
her letters. See. however, the biographical
Knutsford" Mary Barton byA/W. ftard;
Hamihoa,
publication of aay 1
introduction to the " Knutsford " Mary
the Letters of Charles Dickens ; Women Writers, by C
Autobiography of Mrs Fletcher; Mrs GasheU and Knutsford, by
G. A. Fsyne; Cranford. with a preface by Anno Thackeray Ritchie;
Ecrwains modern** de VA nglolerre. by Earite Mootegut. (C. K. SJ
GASSENDI
5°3
GASSENDI 1 (Gassemd], PIERRE (1591-1655), French philo-
sopher, scientist and mathematician, was born of poor parents
at Champtercier, near Digne, in Provence, on the 22nd of January
1502. At a very early age he gave indications of remarkable
mental powers and was sent to the college at Digne. He showed
particular aptitude for languages and mathematics, and it is
said that at the age of sixteen he was invited to lecture on
rhetoric at the college. Soon afterwards he entered the university
of Air, to study philosophy under P. Fesaye. In 161 2 he was
called to the college of Digne to lecture on theology. Four
years later he received the degree of doctor of theology at Avignon,
and in 1617 he took holy orders. In the same year he was
called to the chair of philosophy at Aix, and seems gradually to
have withdrawn from theology. He lectured principally on the
Aristotelian philosophy, conforming as far as possible to the
orthodox methods. At the same time, however, he followed
with interest the discoveries of Galileo and Kepler, and became
more and more dissatisfied with the Peripatetic system. It was
the period of revolt against the Aristotelianism of the schools,
and Gassendi shared to the full the empirical tendencies of the
age. He, too, began to draw up objections to the Aristotelian
philosophy, but did not at first venture to publish them. In
1624, however, after he had left Aix for a canonry at Grenoble,
be printed the first part of his Exercitationes paradoxicae adversus
AristoieUas. A fragment of the second book was published
later at La Haye (1659), but the remaining five were never
composed, Gassendi apparently thinking that after the Discus*
stones Peripaieticae of Francesco Patriazi little field was left
for his labours.
After 1628 Gassendi travelled in Flanders and Holland.
During this time be wrote, at the instance of Mersenne, his
examination of the mystical philosophy of Robert Fludd (Epis-
tolica disserlatio in qua praecipua priucipia pkiiosophiae R:
Pluddi dtteguntur, 1631), an essay on parhelia (Epistola it
parkdiis), and some valuable observations on the transit of
Mercury which had been foretold by Kepler. He returned to
France in 1631, and two years later became provost of the
cathedral church at Digne. Some years were then spent in
travelling through Provence with the duke of Angouleme,
governor of the department. The only literary work of this
period is the Life of Peiresc, which has been frequently reprinted,
and was translated into English. In 1642 be was engaged by
Mersenne in controversy with Descartes. His objections to the
fundamental propositions of Descartes were published in 1642;
they appear as the fifth in the series contained in the works
of Descartes. In these objections Gassendi 'a tendency towards
the empirical school of speculation appears more pronounced
than in any of his other writings. In 1645 he accepted the chair
of mathematics in the College Royal at Paris, and lectured for
many years with great success. In addition to controversial
writings on physical questions, there appeared during this period
the first of the works by which he is known in the history of
philosophy. In 1647 he published the treatise De tit a, moribus,
ei doctrina Epicuri libri 9cto. The work was well received, and
two years later appeared his commentary on the tenth book of
Diogenes La&tius, De vita, moribus, et placitis Epicuri, sem
A nimadver stones tn X. librum Diag. Lair. (Lyons, 1649; last
edition, 1675). In the same year the more important Syntagma
pkiiosophiae Epicwi (Lyons, 1649; Amsterdam, 1684) was
published.
In 1648 ill-health compelled him to give up his lectures at the
College Royal. He travelled in the south of France, spending
nearly two years at Toulon, the climate of which suited him.
In 1653 he returned to Paris and resumed his literary work,
publishing in that year lives of Copernicus and Tycho Brahe.
The disease from which he suffered, lung complaint, had, how-
ever, established a firm hold on him. His strength gradually
failed, and he died at Paris on the 24th of October 1655. A
1 It was formerly thought that Gassendi was really the genitive
of the Latin form Gassendns. C. Guttler, however, holds that it is
a modernised form of the a Fr. Gassmmfy (see paper quoted m
bibliography).
bronze statue of him was erected by subscription at Digne in
1852.
His collected works, of which the most important is the Syn-
tagma philosopkicum {Opera, i. and ii), were published in 1658
by Montmort (6 vols., Lyons). Another edition, also in 6 folio
volumes, was published by N. Averanius in 1727. The first
two are occupied entirely with his. Syntagma philosopkicum;
the third contains bis critical writings on Epicurus, Aristotle,
Descartes, Fludd and Lord Herbert, with some occasional
pieces on certain problems of physics; the fourth, his Inslitmiio
astronomica, and his Commentarii de rebus cdestibus; the
fifth, his commentary on the tenth book of Diogenes Laertius,
the biographies of Epicurus, N. C. F. de Peircsc, Tycho Brahe.
Copernicus, Georg von Pcuerbach, and Rcgiomontanus, with
some tracts on the value of ancient money, on the Roman
calendar, and on the theory of music, to all which js appended
a large and prolix piece entitled Nottiia ecclesiae Diniensis;
the sixth volume contains his correspondence. The Lives,
especially those of Copernicus, Tycho and Peiresc, have been
justly admired. That of Peiresc has been repeatedly printed;
it has also been translated into English. Gassendi was one of
the first after the revival of letters who treated the literature
of philosophy in a lively way. His writings of this kind, though
too laudatory and somewhat diffuse, have great merit; they
abound in those anecdotal details, natural yet not obvious
reflections, and vivacious turns of thought, which made Gibbon
style him, with some extravagance certainly, though it was true
enough up to Gassendi's time — " le meilleur philosophe des
litterateurs, et k meilleur litterateur des philosophes.*'
Gassendi holds an honourable place in the history of physical
iman knowferigi',
in which he, like
^search, were of
what extent any
ly is more doubt -
ive excited more
itlk or nothing
Aristotle. The
the evil effect* of
iysical and phuo-
f the anti-Aristo*
> usual ignorance
lich contains the
t Raraist in tone
I which at least,
ixx of objections
peculative value.
empiricism. His
, but the want of
ed on Epicurean*
long with strong
triors absolutely
hile he maintains
constantly his favourite maxim " that there is nothing in the intellect
which has not been in the senses " (nihil in iuteUectu quod non prims
nuti), while be contends that the imaginative faculty
is the counterpart of sense— that, as it has to do with
lages, it » itself, like sense, material, and essentially the
he at the same time admits that the
i immaterial and immortal— the most
inanity — attains notions and truths of
imagination can give us the slightest
le instances the capacity of forming
conception of universality itself (tb.
who partake as truly as men in the
attain ; the notion of God, whom he
says we may imagine to be corporeal, but understand to be in-
corporeal; and lastly, the reflex action by which the mind makes its
own phenomena and operations the objects of attention.
The Syntagma philosophicum, in fact, is one of those eclectic
tapoftitton, irreconcilable
t is divided, according to
;ic (which, with <*au>endi
s and ethics. The logic,
portion, a sketch of the
ry of right apprehension
(bene proponere), theory
of right method (bene
rialTy empirical positions
es out of account. The
apposed to yield us inv
504.
GASTEIN— GASTRIC ULCER
takes to be material in nature) reprodu
standing compares these ideas, which arc
general ideas. Nevertheless, he at the sai
senses yield knowledge — not of things— b«
holds that we arrive at the idea of thing of
He holds that the true method of research is
lower to higher notions; yet he sees clear
ductive reasoning, as conceived by Bacon,
position not itself proved by induction, r
disputing with Descartes he did apparentl)
of the senses is the only convincing evidenc
from his special mathematical training it
maintain, that the evidence of reason is
The whole doctrine of judgment, syllogism
of Aristotelian and Ramist notions.
In the second part of the Syntagma, the physics, there is more
that deserves attention ; but here, too, appears in the most glaring
manner the inner contradiction between Gassendi's fundamental
principles. While approving of the Epicurean physics, he rejects
altogether the Epicurean negation of God and particular providence.
He states the various proofs for the existence of an immaterial,
infinite, supreme Being, asserts that this Being is the author of the
visible universe, and strongly defends the doctrine of the fore-
knowledge and particular providence of God. At the same time he
holds, in opposition to Epicureanism, the doctrine of an immaterial
rational soul, endowed wrth immortality and capable of free deter-
mination. It is altogether impossible to assent to the supposition
of Lange (Gesch. des Malerialtsmus, 3rd ed., L 233), that all this
Krtion of Gassendi's system contains nothing of his own opinions,
t is introduced solely from motives of setf-defencc. The positive
exposition of atomism has much that is attractive, but the hypothesis
of the color vilalis (vital heat), a species of cnima mundi (world-soul)
which is introduced as physical explanation of physical phenomena,
does not seem to throw much light on the special problems which
it is invoked to solve. Nor is his theory of the weight essential
to atoms as being due to an inner force impelling them to motion
in any way reconcilable with his general doctrine of mechanical
causes.
In the third part, the ethics, over and above the discussion on
freedom, which on the whole is indefinite, there is little beyond
a milder statement of the Epicurean moral code. The final end of
life is happiness, and happiness b harmony of soul and body
(tranquilities animi el indoienlia corporis). Probably, Gassendi
thinks, perfect happiness is not attainable in this life, but it may
be in the life to come.
The Syntagma is thus an essentially unsystematic work, and
clearly exhibits the main characteristics of Gassendi's genius. He
was critical rather than constructive, widely read and trained
thoroughly both in languages and in science, but deficient in specu-
lative power and original force. Even in the department of natural
science he shows the same inability steadfastly to retain principles
and to work from them: he wavers between the systems of Brahe
and Copernicus. That his revival of Epicureanism had an important
ay be ad-
thflosophy
l the first
«K(i737:
B3?). A*
celebrated
oh., 1678;
1 work are
*). Buhlc
(Aremmres
F.Thomas
GtsckkhU
Phil. 90*
Irkenntms-
Gassendi'a
. ,_. . . M Gasschd
oder Gassendi?" in Archio f. Gtsck. d. PhUos. x. (1897), pp. 238-
?4>- (R.Ao.jX.)
GASTETH, in the duchy of Sabburg, Austria, a side valky of
the Pongau or Upper Salzach, about 25 m. long and 1} m.
broad, renowned for its mineral springs. It has an elevation
of between 3000 and 3500 ft. Behind it, to the S., tower the
mountains Mallniu or Nassfeld-Tauern (7007 ft.) and Ankogel
(10,673 ft-)» and from the right and left of these mountains twe
smaller ranges run northwards forming its two side walls. The
river Ache traverses the valley, and near Wildbad-Gastein forms
two magnificent waterfalls, the upper, the Kesselfall (106 ft.),
and the tower, the Barenfall (296 ft.). Near these falls is the
Schleierfall (250 ft.), formed by the stream which drains the
Bockhart-see. The valley is also traversed by the so-called
Tauern railway (opened up to Wildbad-Gastein in September
'90s), "bicb gon 40 AUllwtM, piercing che Tauern range by 1
tunnel 0.260 yds, in length, The principal villages of the .valley
are Hof-Gastein, Wildbad-Gastein and Bdckstein. .
Hof-Gastuin, pop, (1000) 840, the capital of the valley, is
also a watering-place, the thermal waters being conveyed here
from Wildbad-Gastein by a conduit 5 m. long, constructed in
1828 by the emperor Francis L of Austria. Hof-Gastein was,
after Salzburg, the richest place in the duchy, owing to its gold
and silver mines, which were already worked during the Roman
period. During the 16th century these mines were yielding
annually 1 180 lb of gold and 9500 lb of silver, but since the
17th century they have been much neglected and many of them
are now covered by glaciers.
Wildbad-Gastein, commonly called Bod-GasUin, one of
the most celebrated watering-places in Europe, is picturesquely
situated in the narrow valley of the Gastetner Ache, at an
altitude of 3480. ft. The thermal springs, which issue from
the granite mountains, have a temperature of 77°-i2©° F., and
yield about 880,000 gallons of water daily. The water contains
only 0-3 s to 1000 of mineral ingredients and is used for bathing
purposes. The springs are resorted to in cases of nervous
affections, senile and general debility, skin diseases, gout and
rheumatism. Wildbad-Gastein is annually visited by over
8500 guests. The springs were known as early as the 7th century,
but first came into fame by a successful visit paid to them by
Duke Frederick of Austria in 1436. Gastein was a favourite
resort of William I. of Prussia and of the Austrian imperial
family, and it was here that, on the 14th of August 1865, was
signed the agreement known as the Gastein Convention, which
by dividing the administration of the conquered provinces of
Schlcswig and Holstein between Austria and Prussia postponed
for a while the outbreak of war between the two powers. It
was also here (August-September 1879) that Prince Bismarck
negotiated with Count Julius Andrfssy the Austro-German
treaty, which resulted in the formation of the Triple Alliance.
See Proll, Gastrin, Its Springs and QimaU (Vienna, 5th ed,
1893).
GASTRIC ULCER (ulcer of the stomach), a disease of mock
gravity, commonest in females, and especially in anaemic
domestic servants. It is connected in many instances with
impairment of the circulation in the stomach and the formatioa
of a dot in a small blood-vessel (thrombosis). It may be due
to an impoverished state of the blood (anaemia), but it may also
arise from disease of the blood-vessels, the result of long-continued
indigestion and gastric catarrh.
When clotting takes place in a blood-vessel the nutrition of
that limited area of the stomach is cut off, and the patch under-
goes digestion by the unresisted action of the gastric juices, an
ulcer being formed. The ulcer is usually of the size of a silver
threepence or sixpence, round or oval, and, eating deeply, is apt
to make a hole right through the coats of the stomach. Its
usual site is upon the posterior wall of the upper curvature, near
to the pyloric orifice. It may undergo a healing process at any
stage, in which case k may leave but little trace of its existence;
while, on the other hand, it may in the course of cicatrizing
produce such an amount of contraction as to lead to stricture
of the pylorus, or to a peculiar hour-glass deformity of the stomach.
Perforation is in most cases quickly fatal, unless previously
the stomach has become adherent to some neighbouring organ,
by which the dangerous effects of this occurrence may beaverted,
or unless the condition has been promptly recognized and as
operation has been quickly done. Usually there is but one ulcer,
but sometimes there are several ulcers.
The symptoms of ulcer of the stomach are often indefinite and
obscure, and in some cases the diagnosis has been first made on
the occurrence of a fatal perforation. First among the symptoms
is pain, which is present at all times, but is markedly increased
after food. The pain is situated either at the lower end of the
breast-bone or about the middle of the back. Sometimes it ii
felt in the sides. It is often extremely severe, and is usually
accompanied with localized tenderness and also with a sense of
oppression, and by an inability to wear tight clothing. The pais
is due lo the movements of the stomach set up by the presence
GASTRITIS
505
of the food, as well, as to the irritation of the inflamed nerve
filaments in the floor of the ulcer. Vomiting is a usual symptom.
It occurs cither soon after the food is swallowed or at a later
period, and generally relieves the pain and discomfort. Vomiting
of blood (hacmatcmesis) is a frequent and important symptom.
The blood may show itself in the form of a brown or coffee-like
mixture, or as pure blood of dark colour and containing clots.
It comes from some vessel or vessels which the ulcerative process
has. ruptured. Blood is also found mixed with the discharges
from the bowels, rendering them dark or tarry-looking. The
general condition of the patient with gastric ulcer is, as a rule,
that of extreme ill-health, with pallor, emaciation and debility.
The tongue is red, and there is usually constipation. In most
of the cases the disease is chronic, lasting for months or years;
and in those cases where the ulcers are large or multiple, in*
complete healing may lake place, relapses occurring from time
to time. But the ulcers may give rise to no marked symptoms,
and there have been instances where fatal perforation suddenly
look place, and where post-mortem examination revealed the
existence of long-standing ulcers which had given rise to no
suggcsiivc symptoms. While gastric ulcer is to be regarded as
dangerous, its termination, in the great majority of cases, is
in recovery. It frequently, however, leaves the stomach in a
delicate condition, necessitating the utmost care as regards diet.
Occasionally the disease proves fatal by sudden haemorrhage,
but a fatal result is more frequently due to perforation and the
escape of the contents of the stomach into the peritoneal cavity,
in which case death usually occurs in from twelve to forty-eight
hours, cither from shock or from peritonitis. Should the stomach
become adherent to another organ, and fatal perforation be
thus prevented, chronic " indigestion " may persist, owing to
interference with the natural movements of the stomach.
Stricture of the pylorus and consequent dilatation of the stomach
may be caused by the cicatrization of an ulcer.
The patient should at once be sent to bed and kept there, and
allowed for a uhile nothing stronger than milk and water or
milk and lime water. But if bleeding has recently taken place
ho food whatever should be allowed by the stomal h, and the
feeding should l>e by nutrient encmata. As the symptoms
quiet down, eggs may be given beaten up with milk, and later,
bread and milk and home-made broths and soups. Thus the
diet advances to chicken and vegetables rubbed through a
sieve, to custard pudding and bread and butler. As regards
medicines, iron is the most useful, but no pills of any sort should
be given. Under the inlluencc of rest and diet most gastric
ulcers get well. The presence of healthy-looking scars upon the
surface of the stomach, which arc constantly found in operating
upon the Interior of the abdomen, or as revealed in post-mortem
examinations, are evidence of the truth of this statement. It
is unlikely that under the treatment just described perforation
of the stomach will take place, and if the surgeon is called in
to assist he will probably advise that operation is inadvisable.
Moreover, he knows that if he should open the abdomen to search
for an ulcer of the stomach he might fail to find it; more than
that, his search might also be in vain if he opened the stomach
itself and examined the interior. Serious haemorrhages, however,
may make it necessary that a prompt and thorough search should
be made in order that the surgeon may endeavour to locate the
ulcer, and, having found it. secure the damaged vessel and save
the patient from death by bleeding.
Perforation of a gastric ulcer having taken place, the septic
germs, which were harmless whilst in the stomach, escape with
the rekt of the contents of the stomach into the general peritoneal
cavity. The immediate effects of this leakage are sudden and
severe pain in the upper part of the abdomen and a great shock
to the system (collapse). The muscles of the abdominal wall
become hard and resisting, and as peritonitis appears and
the intestines are distended with gas, the abdomen is distended
and becomes greatly increased in size and ceases to move,
the respiratory movements being short and quick. At first.
most likely, the temperature drops below normal, and the
pulse quickens. Later, the temperature rises. If nothing is
done, death from the septic poisoning of peritonitis is almost
certain.
The treatment of ruptured gastric ulcer demands immediate
operation. An incision should be made in the upper pari of
the middle line of the abdomen, and the perforation should be
looked for. There is not, as a rule, much difficulty in finding it,
as there arc generally deposits of lymph near the spot, and 01 her
signs of local inflammation; moreover, the contents of the
stomach may be seen escaping from the opening. The ulcer is
to be closed by running a " purse-string " suture in the healthy
tissue around it, and the place is then buried in the stomach by
picking up small folds of the stomach-wall above and below it
and fixing them together by suturing. This being done, the
surface of the stomach, and the neighbouring viscera which have
been soiled by the leakage, are wiped clean and the abdominal
wound is closed, provision being made for efficient drainage. A
large proportion of cases of perforated gastric ulcer thus treated
recover. (E. O.*)
GASTRITIS (Cr. yaarljp, stomach), an inflammatory affection
of the stomach, of which the condition of catarrh, or irritation of
its mucous membrane, is the most frequent and most readily
recognized. This may exist in an acute or a chronic form, and
depends upon some condition, cither local or general, which pro-
duces a congested state of the circulation in the walls of the
stomach (see Digestive Organs: Patlwlogy).
Acufe Gastritis may arise from various causes. The most
intense forms of inflammation of the stomach arc the toxic
conditions which follow the swallowing of corrosive poisons,
such as strong mineral acids of alkalis which may extensively
destroy the mucous membrane. Other non-corrosive jmisons
cause acute degeneration of the stomach wall (see Poisons).
Acute inflammatory conditions may be secondary to zymotic
diseases such as diphtheria, pyaemia, typhus fever and others.
Gastritis is also caused by the ingestion of food which has begun
to decompose, or may result from eating unsuitable articles
which themselves remain undigested and so excite acute catarrhal
conditions. These give rise to the symptoms well known as
characterizing an acute " bilious attack," consisting in loss of
appetite, sickness or nausea, and headache, frontal or occipital,
often accompanied with giddiness. The tongue is furred, the
breath foetid, and there is pain or discomfort in the region of the
stomach, with sour eructations, and frequently vomiting, first of
fowl and t hen of bilious matter. An attacjt of this kind tends to
subside in a few days, especially if the exciting cause be removed.
Sometimes, however, the symptoms recur with such frequency
as to lead to the more serious chronic form of the disease.
The treatment bears reference, in the first place, to any known
source of irritation, which, if it exist, may be expelled by an
emetic or purgative (except in cases due to poisoning). This,
however, is seldom necessary, since vomiting is usually present.
For the relief of sickness and pain the sucking of ice and counter-
irritation over the region of the stomach are of service. Further,
remedies which exercise a soothing effect upon an irritable
mucous membrane, such as bismuth or weak alkaline fluids, and
along with these the use of a light milk diet, arc usually sufficient
to remove the symptoms.
Chronic Gastric Catarrh may result from the acute or may arise
independently. It is not infrequently connected with antecedent
disease in other organs, such as thejungs, heart, liver or kidneys,
and it is especially common in persons addicted to alcoholic
excess. In this form the texture of the stomach is more altered
than in the acute form, except in the toxic and febrile forms above
referred to. It is permanently in a state of congestion, and its
mucous membrane and muscular coat undergo thickening and
other changes, which markedly affect the function of digestion.
The symptoms arc those of dyspepsia in an aggravated form
(see Dyspepsia), of which discomfort and pain after food, with
distensiori and frequently vomiting, are the chief; and the
treatment must be conducted in reference to the causes giving
rise to it. The careful regulation of the diet, alike as to the
amount, the quality, and the intervals between meals, demands
special attention. Feeding on artificially soured milk may in
506
GASTROPODA
the topographically right kidney. The transformation has beta
actually shown to take place in the development of Patudtna. In
q dcxtral Gastropod the shell is coiled in a right-handed spiral from
apex to mouth, and the spiral also
projects to the right of the median
plane of the animal.
When the shell is sinistral the
asymmetry of the organs is usually
reversed, and there is a complete situs
inversus vistentm, the direction of the
spiral of the shell corresponding to
the position of the organs of the
body. Trijoris, Pkyta, Clausitia arc
examples of sinistral Gastropods, but
reversal also occurs as an individual
variation among forms normally dcx-
tral. But there are forms in which
the involution is " hyperstrophic,"
FromL&akmrr** Tre*l(it om Z—'fa-
Fig. j. — Four stages in the
development of a Ca&tropod
showing the process of body
torsion. (After Robert.)
A, Embryo without flexure,
B, Embryo with ventral flex-
ure of the intestine.
C, Embryo with ventral flex-
ure and exogastric shell
D, Embryo with lateral tor-
sion and an ccdogastric
shelL
a. /
/.
Foot.
Mouth.
Mantle.
in sinistral shells.
The problem of the causes of the P*' --—. m . .
torsion of the Gastropod body has P*c,P*l\nl cavity,
been much discussed. E. R. Lan- •», Velum,
kester in the ninth edition of this
{ the shell and visceral hump
also to the nautiloid shell of
lese are two distinct processes.
Evdoped which is coiled exo-
e pallia! cavity is posterior or
fore resembles Nautilus in the
II then rotates towards the left
ventral or endogastric (fig. 2. .
;ans, is by this torsion moved
orsal surface, and thus the left
In the subsequent growth of
r
'*.
Fig. 3.— Sketch of a model designed so as to show the effect of
hump in Streptoneurous Gastro-
the sub-intestinal) visceral
ganglion.
Cerebral ganglion.
Pleural ganglion.
Pedal ganglion.
Abdominal ganglion.
Buccal mass.
Wooden arc rep r esen ting
the base-line of the wall
torsion or rotation of the visceral
puda.
A, Unrotatcd ancestral condi-
tion.
B, Quarter-rotation.
C, Complete semi-rotation(the
limit).
an % Anus.
In. m. Primarily left nephrtdlum
and primarily right neph-
ridium.
Primarily-left (subsequently
the sub-intestinal) visceral *« x*.
pit.
P°k.
abg,
bucc,
ganglion.
, Prfro "
of the visceral hump.
Pins fastening the elastic
cord (representing the vis-
rvg, Primarily right (subsequently ccral nerve loop) to W
the shell the spire comes to project on the right side, which was
originally the loft. Neither the rotation of the shell as a whole nor
its nelicoid spiral coiling is the immediate cause of the torsion of the
body in the individual, for the direction of the torsion is indicated
in the segmentation of the ovum, in which there ia • compktt
STREPTONEURA]
GASTROPODA
507
reversal of the cleavage planet in ainistral as compared with dextral
forms. The facts, however, strongly suggest that the original cause
of the torsion was the weight of the exogastric shell and visceral
hump, which in an animal creeping on its ventral surface necessarily
fell over to one side. It is not certain that the projection of the spire
to the originally left side of the shell has anything to do with the
falling over of the shell to that side. The facts do not support such
a suggestion. In the larva there is no projection at the time the
torsion takes place. In some forms the coiling disappears in the
adult, leaving the shell simply conical as in Patellidae, Fissurellidac,
&c, and in some cases the shell is coiled in one plane, e.g. Planorbis. In
all these cases the torsion and asymmetry of the body arc unaffected.
The characteristic torsion attains its maximum effect among the
majority of the Streptoncura. It is followed in some specialized
Hetcropoda and in the Euthyncura by a torsion in the opposite
direction, or detorsion, which brings the anus farther back and un-
twists the visceral commissure (see Euthyncura, below). This con-
clusion has shown that the Euthyncura do not represent an archaic
form of Gastropoda, but are themselves derived from strcptoncurous
forms. The difference between the two sub-classes has been shown
to be slight; certain, of the more archaic Tcctibranchia (Aclaeon)
and Pulmonala (Chilina) still have the visceral commissure long
and not untwisted. The fact that all the Euthyncura are hcrma-
f)hroditc is not a fundamental difference; several Streptoneura are so,
ikewise Valvata, Oncidiopsis, hiarunina, Odosiomia % Batkysciadium,
Entoconcfuy.
Classification.— -The class Gastropoda is subdivided as follows:
Sub-class 1. Streptoncura.
Order !. Aspklobranchia.
Sub-order 1. Docog1os*a.
2. Rhipidoglossa.
Order 2. IVctinibranchia.
Sub-order 1. Tacnioglossa.
Tribe 1. Platypoda.
,, 2. Hetcropoda.
Sub-order 2. Stcnogfossa.
Tribe 1. Rachiglossa.
Sub-cla«s II.
Order 1.
Su
Su
Order 2. Pulmonata.
Sub-order 1. Basommatophora.
„ 2. Stylommatophora.
Tribe 1. Holognatha.
„ 2. Agnatha.
„ 5. Elasmognatha.
„ 4. Ditremala.
Sub-Class I.— Stsepionbuia
In this division the torsion of the visceral mass and visceral
commissure is at its maximum, the latter being twisted into a
figure of eight. The right half of the commissure with its ganglion
is supra-intestinal, the left half with its ganglion infra-intestinaL
In some cases each pleural ganglion is connected with the opposite
branch of the visceral commissure by anastomosis with the
pallial nerve, a condition which is called dialyneury; or there
may be a direct connective from the pleural ganglion to the
[visceral ganglion cf the opposite side, which is called zygoneury.
The head bears only one pair of tentacles. The radular teeth are
of several different kinds in each transverse row. The heart is
usually posterior to the branchia (proso-branchiate). The sexes
are usually separa.< .
The old division into Zygobranchia and Azygobranchia must
be abandoned, for the Azygobranchiate Rhipidoglossa have
much greater affinity to the Zygobranchiate Haliolidac and
Fissurdlidac than to the Azygobranchia in general. This is
shown by the labial commissure and pedal cords of the nervous
system, by the opening of the gonad into the right kidney, and by
ot her points. Further, the Phnrotomariidac have been discovered
to possess two branchiae. The sub-class is now divided into two
orders: the Aspidobranchia in which the branchia or ctenidium
is bipectinate and attached only at its base, and the Peel in i-
branchia in which the ctenidium is monopectinate and attached
to the mantle throughout its length.
Order 1. AsrioosRAWCiOA.— These are the most primitive Gastro-
pods, retaining to a great degree the original symmetry of the
Fig. 4.— The Common Limpet (PaltUa nlgato) in its shell, seen from
the pedal surface. (Lankestcr.)
;y, The median antero-posterior
Cephalic tentacle.
Plantar surface of the foot.
Free edge of the shell.
The branchial efferent vessel
carrying aerated blood to the
auricle, and here interrupting
the circlet of gill lamellae.
Margin of the mantis-skirt.
Gill lamellae (pot ctentdia, but
special pallial growths, com-
parable with those of Pleuro-
phyllidia).
The branchial efferent vessel.
Factor of the branchial ad-
vehent vessel.
Interspaces between the mus-
cular bundles of the root of
the foot, causing the separata
areae seen in fig. 5, c.
organs of the pallial complex, having two kidneys, in some casta
two branchiae, and two auricles. The gonad has no accessory
organs and except In Neri-
tidae no duct, but discharges
into the right kidney.
Forms adapted to terres-
trial life and to aerial re-
Spiration occur in various
ivisions of Gastropods, and
do not constitute a single
homogeneous group. Thus
the Rdicinidae, which are
terrestrial, are now placed
among the Aspidobranchia.
In these there are neither
branchia nor osphradium,
and the pallial chamber
which retains its large open-
ing serves as a lung. De-
generation of the shell
occurs in some members of
the order. It is largely
covered by the mantle in
some FissuriUidae. is en- Fic ^Do^i 8Ur f ace of the
tirely internal in PujhUa Limpet removed from its shell and dc-
and absent in Tttiseaniidae. - v g of its bUck pi gmcntcd - epitnu .
The common limpet is a (j thc internal organs are seen
specially interesting and through thc transparent body-wall,
abundant example of the {JLu £ M „ m) *~
Muscular bundles forming thc root
of the foot> and adherent to thc
shell.
Free mantle-skirt. [same.
Tentaculifcrous margin of the
Smaller (left) nephridium.
Larger (right) nephridium.
Pericardium. [cardium.
Fibrous septum, behind thc peri-
Liver.
Intestine.
Anterior area of the mantle-skirt
over-hanging the head (cephalic
more primitive Aspido-
branchia. Thc foot of thc c 1
limpet is a nearly circular
disk of muscular tissue; in
front, projecting from and
raised above it, arc thc head
and neck (figs. 4, 13). The
visceral hump form* a low
conical dome above thc sub-
circular foot, and standing
out all round the base of this
dome so as completely to
overlap thc head and foot,
is the circular mantle-skirt. ..
The depth of free mantle- noooj.
skirt si greatest in front, where the head and neck are covered
in by it. Uoom th* »«ub» <* ^ nmbbesV »j«mu vo& *cft>xtt»s^
5o8
GASTROPODA
fSTRKPTONEUtA
to the edge of the five mantle-skirt, is the conical shell. When
the shell is taken away (best effected by immersion in hot
water) the surface of the visceral dome is found to be covered by a
black-coloured epithelium, which may be removed, enabling the
observer to note the posi-
tion of some organs lying
below the transparent in-
tegument (fig. 5). The
muscular columns (c) at-
taching the foot to the
shell form a ring incom-
plete in front, external to
which is the free mantle-
skirt. The limits of the
large area formed by the
flap over the head and
neck {tcr) can be traced,
and we aotc the anal
papilla showing through
Fie. 6.— Anterior portion of the same and opening on the right
Limrxt, with the overhanging cephalic shoulder, so to speak, of
hood removed. (Lankcster.) the animal into the large
a. Cephalic tentacle. anterior region of the
6, Pool. sub-paHial space. Close
t. Muscular substance forming the root to thi * the small renal
of the foot. <*&* («. mediad) and the
d, The capito-pcdal organs of Lankcster l2P5J"J n ii.J M 3KJv^!S
( = rudimentary ctenidia).
e, Mantle-skirt.
/, Papilla of the larger nephridiurn.
{, Anus.
, Papilla of the smaller nephridiurn.
i, Smaller nephridiurn.
a totally distinct series of Junctional gills, which are not derived
from the modification of the typical molluscan ctenidium. These gills
are in the form of delicate lamellae (fig. 4. J), which form a series
extending completely round the inner face of the depending naotk>
the right and posteriorly)
arc seen, also the peri-
Larger nephridiurn.
Pericardium.
Cut edge of the mantle-skirt.
Liver.
n.
p, Snout.
cardium (') and a coil of
the intestine (mi/) em-
bedded in the compact
liver.
On cutting away the
anterior part of the
mantle-skirt so as to
expose the sub-pallial
chamber in the region
of the neck, we find the
by Lankcster in 1867) on
but no gills. If a similar
1 Fissurdla (fig. 17, d), we
tures a right and left gilt-
'laliotis and Plenrotomaria
In Patella no such plumes
;cn a pair of minute oblong
ally described by Lankcster
racuation of the generative
they were termed by htm
near the junction of head
in a most ingenious way
itatrves of the typical pair
ment. Near to each rudi-
rcd an olfactory patch or
thclium) and an Olfactory
mbered that, according to
definitely and intimately
ang always placed near the
Base of that organ; fur-
ther, Spcngcl has shown
that the nerve-supply of
this olfactory organ is
always derived from the
visceral loop. Accord-
ingly, the nerve-supply
affords a means of test-
ing the conclusion that
we have in Lankester's
capito-pcdal bodies the
rudimentary ctenidia.
The accompanying dia-
grams (figs. 9, to) of
the nervous systems of
Patella and of tlaliotis,
c as determined by
Fie. 7.— The same specimen viewed Spcngcl. show the jden-
from the left front, so as to show the sub- l,t y in tne pnRjn of the
anal tract iff) of the larger nephridiurn, nerves passing from the
by which it communicates with the peri- visceral loop to Spcngcl s
cardium. e. Mouth; other letters as in d-actory ganglion ofthe
fr 6, Limpet, and that of the
. .. „ nerves which pass from
the visceral loop or Hahotis to the olfactory patch or osphradium,
which lies in immediate relation on the right and on the left side
to the right and left gill-plumes (ctenidia) respectively. The same
diagrams serve to demonstrate the streptoncurous condition of the
visceral loop in Aspidobranchia.
Thus, then, we find that the limpet possesses a symmetrically
disposed pair of ctenidia in a rudimentary condition, and justifies
Its position among Aspidobranchia." At the same time it possesses
Fig. 8. — A, Section in a plane vertical to the surface of the neck
of Patella through 0, the rudimentary ctenidium (Lankester's organ),
and b, the olfactory. epithelium (osphradium); c, the olfactory
(osphradial) ganglion. (After SpcngeL)
B, Surface view of a rudimentary ctenidium of Patella excised
and viewed as a transparent object. (Lankestcr.)
jvier to class the limpets
lentification of them with
dia of Chiton, to associate
gill-lamellae of Patella are
the plait-like folds often
mber in other Gastropoda
of lamellae.
The heart in Patella consists of a single
auricle (not two as in JUliolis and
Fissuretla) and a ventricle; the former
receives the blood from the branchial
vein, the latter distributes it through a
large aorta which soon leads into irregular
blood-lacunae. _.• XT
The existence of two renal organs in ' pl °; *£~" v! eTV0 V* ■*!*"'
Patella, and their relation to the peri-* tern of ratella; thevw-
cardium (a portion of the coclom), is «*«} . ^^P » i* * 1 ?
important. Each renal organ is a sac shaded; the buccal
lined with glandular epithelium (ciliated f| n *' ,,a c *re omitted,
cell, with concretions) communicating (Alter Spengel.)
with the exterior by its papilla, and by ce, Cerebral ganglia,
a narrow passage with the pericardium, t'e, Cerebral commissure.
The connexion with the pericardium of pi. Pleural ganglion,
the smaller of the two renal organs was Pe, Pedal ganglion,
demonstrated by Lankcster in 1867, at a p'e, Pedal nerve,
time when the fact that the renal organ ' **'
of the Moltusca, as a rule, opens into the
pericardium, and is therefore a typical o,
nephridiurn, was not known. Subsequent
investigations carried on under the direc-
tion of the same naturalist have shown
that the larger as wdl as the smaller renal
sac h in communication with the pericardium. The walls of the renal
sacs arc deeply plaited and thrown into ridges. Below the surface these
walls are excavated with blood* vessels, so that the sac is practically
a series of blood-vessels covered with renal epithelium, and forming
Nerves (right- and
left) to the mantle.
Olfactory ganglion,
connected oy nerve
to the streptoncur-
ous visceral loop.
rONEURA]
ork within a
GASTROPODA
509
ting with the exterior. The
that which t> aborted in other
—Nervous system of Haliotis; the visceral loop is lightly
d; the buccal ganglia are omitted. (After Spengel.)
oebral
bralganglic
Fusedpleura
pnqlia.
le right pedal nerve,
le ccrebro-pleural con-
lective. [tive.
le cerebro-pcdal conncc-
ab,
Right and left mantle
nerves. [of same.
Abdominal ganglion or site
Right and left olfactory
ganglia and osphradia re-
ceiving nerve from vis-
ceral nop.
lira) extends between the liver and the internment of the
fame very widely. It also bends round the fiver as shown
J
I. — Nervous system of
ft. (From Gegenbaur,
minal ganglia in the strep-
urous visceral commissure,
supra- and sub-intestine
$on on each side,
tl ganglia,
rebral ganglia.
«al commissure.
«ts attached to the cere-
Fio. 12. — Diagram of the two
renal organs (nepnridia), to show
their relation to the rectum and
to the pericardium. (Lankester,)
/, Papilla of the larger neph-
ridium.
g. Anal papilla with rectum lead-
ing from it.
k. Papilla of the smaller neph-
ridium, which is only repre-
sented by dotted outlines.
I, Pericardium indicated by a
dotted outline— at hs right
side are seen the two reno-
pericardbl pores.
ff. The sub-anal tract of tho large
nephridium given off near its
papilla and seen through the
unshaded smaller nephri-
dium.
ks.a. Anterior superior lobe of
the large nephridium.
ksJ, Left lobe of same.
ks.p t Posterior lobe of same.
hsi Inferior sub-visceral lobe
of
in fig. la, and forms a large sac on half of the upper surface of the
muscular mass of the foot. Here it lies close upon the genital body
(ovary or testis), and u* such intimate relationship with it that,
when ripe, the gonad bursts into the renal sac, and its products are
carried to the exterior by the papilla on the right aide of the anus
Fig. 13.— Diagram of a vertical antero-postero median section
of a Limpet, Letters as in figs. 6, 7, with following additions.
(Lankcster.)
f. Intestine in transverse sec-
tion,
r, Lingual sac (raduhr sac).
rd, Radula.
s, Lamellated stomach.
I, Salivary gland.
u. Duct of same.
9, Buccal cavity
w, Gonad.
brui, Branchial advehent vessel
(artery).
ftr.t, Branchial efferent vessel
(vein).
Be, Blood-vessel.
odm, Muscles and cartilage of
the odontophore.
cor, Heart within the pericar-
dium.
Fig. 14. — Vertical section in a plane running right and left through
the anterior part of the visceral hump of Pama to show the two renal
organs and their openings into the pericardium. (J. T. Cunningham.)
ab,
Large or external or right
renal organ.
Narrow process of the same
running below the intestine
and leading by k into the
pericardium.
Small or median renal organ.
Pericardium.
Rectum.
Liver.
/, Manyplics.
g, Epithelium of the dorsal sur-
face.
k. Renal epithelium lining the
renal sacs.
*, Aperture connecting the
small sac with the peri-
cardium.
k. Aperture connecting the large
sac with the pericardium.
which secretesa slimy cord is found upon the inner wall of the intestine.
The general structure of the MoHuscan intestine has not been
sufficiently investigated to render any comparison of this structure
of PaUlla with that of other Mollusc* possible. The eyes of the
limpet deserve mention as examples of the most primitive land of
eye in the Molluscan series. They are found one on each cephalic
tentacle, and are simply minute open pita prdaprest ioos of the
epidermis, the epidermic cells lining them being pigmented and
onrtn e ued with nerves (compare fig. 14, art. Csra*iovooA).
5io
GASTROPODA
ISTREPTOFEURA
The limpet breeds upon the southern English coast in the early
part of April, but its development has not ocen followed. It has
simply been traced as far as the formation of a diblastula which
acquires a ciliated band, and becomes a nearly spherical trochosphere.
It is probable that the limpet takes several years to attain full
growth, and during that period it frequents the same spot, which
becomes gradually sunk below the surrounding surface, especially
if the rock be carbonate of lime. At low tide the limpet (being a
strictly intertidal organism) is exposed to the air, and (according to
trustworthy observers) quits its attachment and walks away in
search of food (minute encrusting algae), and then once more returns
to the identical spot, not an inch in diameter, which belongs, as it
were, to it. Several million limpets — twelve million ill Berwickshire
eury.
radia
idula
icart
ersed
side,
with
croua
circle
ming
istro-
©dial
ipted
anteriorly, British.
Fam. 4. — Lcpdida*. Neither ctcnidia nor pallial branchiae.
Lepeta, without eyes. PUidium. Propilidium.
Fam. 5. — Bathysctadidae. Hermaphrodite; head with append-
age on right side; radula without central tooth. Bathysctadium,
abyssal.
Suborder 2. Rbifidoglossa. — Aspidobranchia with a pallio
vlsceral anastomosis (dialyneurous) ; eye-vesicle closed, with
crystalline lens; ctcnidia, osphradia and hypobranchial glands
paired or single. Radula with very numerous marginal teeth ar-
ranged like the rays of a fan. Heart with two auricles; ventricle
traversed by the rectum, except in the Hdicinidae. An epipodial
ridge on each side of the foot and cephalic expansions between the
tentacles often present.
Fam. 1. — Pleurotomariidae. Shell spiral; mantle and shell with
an anterior fissure; two ctcnidia; a horny operculum. PUuro-
tomaria. eptpodium without tentacles. Genus includes several
hundred extinct species ranging from the Silurian to the Ter-
tiary. Five living species from the Antilles. Japan and the
. Moluccas. Moluccan species is 19 cm. in height.
Fam. 2.—Bdkropho7ilidae. 300 species, all fossa, from Cambrian
to Trias.
Fam. 3. — Euomphalidae. Also extinct, from Cambrian to Creta-
ceous.
Fam. j.. — Haliotidae. Spire of shell much reduced; two bi-
pectinate ctenidia, the right being the smaller; no operculum.
Haliotis.
Fam. 5. — VclainuUidae, an extinct family from the Eocene.
Fig. 15. — Halio Ustuberculata. d. Foot; *, tentacular
of the mantle. (From Owen, after Cuvier.)
Fam. 6. — FissurcMdac. Shell conical; slit or hole in anterior
part of mantle; two symmetrical ctcnidia; no operculum.
EtnargtHuU, mantle and shell with a slit, British.. Scutum*
mantle split anteriorly and reflected over shell, which has no
slit. PunctureUa, mantle and shell with a foramen in front of
the apex, British. FismreUa, mantle and shell perforated at
apex, British.
Fam. 7. — Cocculinida*. Shell conical, symmetrical, without slit
• or perforation. Couulina, abyssal.
Fam. S.—Trockida*. Shell spirally coiled; a single ctentdiam;
eyes perforated ; a horny operculum; lobes between the
tentacles. Trodna, shell umbiltcated. spire pointed and pro-
minent, British. Monotonia, no jaws, spire not pcosmiaeat,
no umbilicus, columella toothed. Gibbuta, with jaws, three
giirs of epipodial cirri without pigment spots at their bases,
ritish. Margarita, five to seven pain of epipodial cirri with s
pigment spot at base of each.
Fam. Q.—SLomalellidae. Spire of shell much reduced; a single
ctenidium. Sl om atdla, loot truncated posteriorly, an oper-
Fig. 16. — Scutum,
seen from the pedal
surface. (Lankestcr.)
o, Mouth.
T, Cephalic tentacle.
br, One of the two
symmetrical gills
placed on the neck.
Fig. 17.— Dorsal aspect of
a specimen of Fissurma from
which the shell has been re-
moved, whilst the anterior
area of the mantle-skirt baa
been longitudinally slit and its
sides reflected. (Lankeeter.)
a, Cephalic tentacle.
b, Foot. [plume.
d, Left (archaic right) f»-
e. Reflected mantle-flap.
fi, The fissure or hole in the
mantle-flap traversed by
the longitudinal incision.
/, Right (archaic left) nephri-
dium's aperture.
1, Anus.
a, Left (archaic right) i ,
ture of nephridium.
P, Snout.
cuhim present, no epipodial tentacles. Coma, foot eJoojated
posteriorly, no operculum. *
Fam. 10. — Delpkinmidae. Shell spirally coiled; opercuhan
horny; intertentacular lobes absent. Dclpkinula,
Fam. 1 1. — Liotiidae, shell globular, margin of aperture thickened.
Liolia.
Fam. 12.— Cydosirematidae. Shell flattened, umbilkasted; foot
anteriorly truncated with angles produced into lobes. Cydo-
strtma. Tainostbma,
Fam. 13. — TrockontwuxHdee. All extinct, Cambrian to Cretaceous.
Fam. 14. — Turbinidae. Shell spirally coiled; epipodial ten tacks
present; operculum thick and calcareous. Turbo. Ajtralium.
Motieria. Cydonema.
Fam. \S.—Phasiandlidae. Shell not nacreous, without um-
bilicus, with prominent spire and polished surface. Phasia-
Fam. 16.— Umboniidac. Shell flattened, not umbilicated, gener-
ally smooth; operculum horny. Umbonium. Isanda.
Fam. 17. — Neritopsidae. Shell semi-globular, with short spire;
operculum calcareous, not spiral Iferitopsis. Naticopsis, ex-
tinct.
Fam. l&.—MaduriUdae. Extinct, Cambrian and Silurian.
Fam. 19.— Ntritida*. Shell with very low spire, without um-
bilicus, internal partitions frequently absorbed; a single
ctenidium; a cephalic penis present. Ncrita, marine. Ntri-
tin*, freshwater, British. Septaria, shell boat-shaped.
Fam. 20. — Titiscaniidat. Without shell and operculum* bet
with pallial cavity and ctenidium. Titiscanio, Pacific.
Fam. 21. — Hdidmdaa. No ctenidium, but a pulmonary cavity;
heart with a single auricle, not traversed by the rectum. Htii-
osjo, EuirockateUa. Stoastoma. Bourceria.
Fam. 22. — Hydrounidae. No ctenidium, but a pulmonary
cavity; operculum with an apophysis. Hydroceua, Dalmatia.
Fam. 2$.—Proserpinid<u. No operculum. JVsjtrpsM, Central
America.
Order 2. Pectikibramchia. — In this order there is no longer any
trace of bilateral symmetry in the circulatory, respiratory and
excretory organs, the topographically right half of the pallial com-
plex having completely disappeared, except the right kidney, whkh is
INEURA]
GASTROPODA
5"
d by the genital duct. There U usually a penis to the male. I movement. The " introvert " in these Gastropods is not the pharynx
lium is monopectinate and attached to the mantle along | a* in the Chaetopod worms, but a prac-oral structure, its apical
limit being fanned by the true lips and jaws,
whilst the apical limit of the Chactopod's
introvert is formed by the jaws placed at the
junction of pharynx and oesophagus, so that
the Chactopod's introvert is part of the atomo-
daeum or fore-gut, whilst that of the Gastropod
is external to the alimentary canal altogether,
being in front of the mouth, not behind it, as
is the Chaetopod'*. Further, the Gastropod's
introvert is pleurembolic (and therefore acrcc-
bolic), and is limited both in evcrsion and in
introversion; it cannot be completely everted
owing to the muscular bands (fig. 19, G), nor
can it be fully introverted owing to the bands
(fig. 19, F) which tie the axial pharynx to the
adjacent wall of the apical part of the intro-
vert. As in all such intro- and e-versible
organs, eversion of the Gastropod proboscis is
effected by pressure communicated by the
muscular body-wall to the liquid contents
(blood) of the body-space, accompanied by
the relaxation of the muscles which directly
pull upon either the sides or the apex of the
tubular organ. The inversion of the proboscis
is effected directly by the contraction of these
muscles. In various members of the Pectini-
Fic. 18.— Animal and shell of Pyrmla laevigata. (From Owen.)
d, The foot, expanded as in crawling.
tf
atades. *. The mantle-skut reflected over the aides branchia the mouth-bearing cylinder is in-
le letter placed near the right eye. of the shell troversible («.*. Is a proboscis)— with rare
exceptions these forms have a siphonate
mgth, except in Adeori
inate. There is a sing
0. The eye is always
rtensive. In the radu
ner classification into
nochlamyda has been
haractcrs not always
ow divided into two
e are three teeth on ea
1 the Stcnoglossa, in wl
: median tooth. In t
proboscis and an unpa
the former they arc
\y tubular outgrowth
lned in a correspond:
1. and serving to condi
Jltion usually spoken <
m the condition of a s
Miiity) by the process
rum. There is no re;
*y the term " probosc
Dversiblc and eversibU
vet such is a very cusfc
be may be completely
worms, or it may ha
ile oesophagus, as in tl
4e pharynx of the pi
lere introduced (fig. 1
distinctions which ob
itro-and e-versible tub
ipposing the tube to
its eversion, we then I
, forward movement o
% as in the proboscis of
ods and the eye-tcntai
of the inverted apex <
ococl Planarians, and
3n. The former case
, I, K), the latter " an
\ G). It i* clear that
n of the tube and wal
hat the pleurecbolic >
• sinking inwards; it
the acrccbolic tubes
Nigh that the process c
: may be arrested at i
ecting the wall of the
or with an axial strut
and, the ranee of mow
sd or complete. Thi
: the Nemertinc worms
pharynx of Chactopoc
that point where the j
. So too the acre m be
inge of movement, and
jcoel prostoma. The i
tropods presents in cc
Fig. 19.— Diagrams explanatory of the nature of so-called
proboscides or " introverts." (Lankester.)
t completely introverted,
ially everted by evcrsion of the sides, as in the
and Gastropod eye-tentacle - pleurecbolic
everted.
nple introvert in course of eversion by the for-
of its sides, but of its apex, as in the probos-
■acrecbolic.
Icurembolic) introvert, formed by the snout of
Gastropod, of, alimentary canal; d t the true
rt is not a simple one with complete range both
•version, but is arrested in introversion by the
fibrous bands at c, and similarly in eversion by the fibrous bands at b.
G, The acrccbolic snout of a proboscidiferous Gastropod, arrested
short of complete evcrsion by the fibrous band b.
H, The acrcmbolic (■* pleurecbolic) pharynx of a Chaetopod fully
introverted. «/. alimentary canal; at d, the jaws; at a, the mouth:
therefore a to d is stomodaeum, whereas in the Gastropod (F) a to 4
is inverted body-surface. •
I, Partial evcrsion of H. K, Complete eversion of H.
mantle-skirt. On the other hand, many which have a siphonate
mantle-skirt are not provided with an btrovenibls mouth-bearing
5**
GASTROPODA
fSXREPTONEOIA
cyEndef, but have a simple non-Introversible rostrum, as It
las been termed, which is also the condition presented by the
mouth-bearing region in nearly all other Gastropoda. One of
the best examples of the introversible mouth-cylinder or proboscis
which can be found is that of the common whelk (Buccinum
undaium) and its immediate allies. In fig. 23 the proboscis is
seen in an everted state; it is only so earned when feeding, being
withdrawn when the animal is at rest. Probably its use is to enable
FlG. 20.— Male of LitlorinaliUoralis,
Lin., removed from its shell; the
mantle-skirt cut along its right line of
attachment and thrown over to the
left side of the animal so as to expose
the organs on its inner face.
a, Anus.
*, Intestine.
r. Nephridium (kidney).
r, Aperture of the nephridium.
c, Heart.
br, Ctenidium (gill-plume).
pbr, Parabranchia (-the osphradium
or olfactory patch).
x, Glandular lamellae of the inner
face of the mantle-skirt.
y, Adrectal (purpuriparous) gland.
I, Testis.
vd t Vas deferens.
p. Penis.
mc, Columella muscle (muscular pro-
cess grasping the shell).
t, Stomach.
A. Liver.
N.B. — Note the simple snout or
rostrum not introverted as a " pro-
boscis."
Fig. 21. — Nervous
system of Paludina
as a type of the
streptoneurous con-
dition. (From Gcgen-
baur, after Ihcnng.)
B, Buccal (subocso-
phageal) gan-
glion.
C, Cerebral gan-
glion.
Co % Pleural ganglion.
P, Pedal ganglion
with otocyst at-
tached.
P, Pedal nerve.
A, Abdominal gan-
glion at the ex-
tremity of the
twisted visceral
" loop."
sp, Supra -intestinal
visceral gan-
glion on the
course of the
right visceral
cord.
sb, S u b - intestinal
ganglion on the
course of the
left visceral
cord*
the animal to introduce its rasping and licking apparatus into very
narrow apertures for the purposes of feeding, e.g. into a small hole
bored in the shell of another mollusc
The very large assemblage of forms com
prises the most highly developed predaci
vegetarian species, a considerable nurobei
terrestrial forms. The partial dissection <
common periwinkle, Littorina liltoralis, di
to exhibit the disposition of viscera whk
The branchial chamber formed by the
the head has been exposed by cutting alo
ward from the letters srf to the base of the columella muscle mc,
the wbol
Che anin
organs n
has been
show th
resting c
rostrum,
is an eyi
raised u(
head is si
deferens
position
Side is th
these secrete free sulphuric add (as m uch a* a ft is p resent i n the
1 the animal in boring hosca by ■senna of stt
wese icane iree
secretion), which 1
GASTROPODA
STREPTONEURA]
rasping tongue through the thefts of other molluscs upon which It
preys. A crop-like dilatation of the gut and a recurved intestine,
embedded in the compact yellowish-brown liver, the ducts of which
open into it, form the rest of the digestive tract and occupy a large
bulk of the visceral hump. The buccal region presents a pair of
shelly jaws placed laterally upon the lips, and a wide range of
variation in the form of the denticles of the lingual ribbon or radula
Well-developed glandular invaginations occur in different positions
on the foot in Pectinibranchia. The most important of these opens
by the ventral pedal pore, situated in the median line in the anterior
half of the foot. Thus organ is probably homologous with the bysso-
genous gland of Lamellibranchs. The aperture, which was formerly
supposed to be an aquiferous pore, leads into an extensive and often
ramified cavity surrounded by glandular tubules. The gland has
been found in both sub-orders of the Pectinibranchia. in Cyelostoma
and Cypraea among the Taenioglossa, in Hemtfusus, Cassis. Nassa.
Munx, Fasctolantdae, TurbincUuiae, (Htvtdae. MarnneUtdae and
Contdat among the Stenoglossa. It was discovered by J T Cunning-
ham that in Buccunm the egg-capsules are formed by this pedal
eland and not by any accessory organ of the generative system
Such horny egg-capsules doubtless have the same origin in all other
species in which tncy occur, ej'. Fusus, Pynda, Purpura, Murex.
Nassa, Trophon, Volute, &c The Aoat of the pelagic Janlhtna. to
which the egg-capsules are attached, probably is also formed by the
secretion of the pedal gland.
Other glands opening on or near the foot are. (i) The supra
pedal gland opening in the middle Une between the snout and the
anterior border of the foot. It is moat commonly found in sessile
5*3
mcll-sac or shell-gland Zs well marked at this stage, and the pharynx
is seen as a new ingrowth (the stomodaeum), about to fuse with and
jpen into the primitively invaginated arch-entcron (fig 26. F)
In other Pectinibranchia (and such variations are representative
For all Mollusca, and not characteristic only of Pectinibranchia) we
find that there is a very unequal division of the egg-cell at the com-
mencement of embryonic development, as in Nassa. Consequently
Fie. 23. — A, Triton variegatum, to show the proboscis or buccal
introvert (e) in a state of evcrsion.
Siphonal notch of the shell e, Everted buccal introvert (pro-
occupied by the siphonal
fold of the mantle-skirt
(Siphonocblamyda) .
b, Edge of the mantle-skirt rest-
ins cm the shell.
e, Cephalic eye.
d. Cephalic tentacle.
boscis).
/. Foot.
{. Operculum.
, Penis.
i, Under surface of the mantle-
skirt forming the roof of the
. sub-pallial chamber.
B, Sole of the foot of Pyrula tuba, to show a, the pore usually said
to be " aquiferous " but probably the orifice of a gland; », median
line of foot.
forms and in terrestrial genera such as Cytlostoma ; (2) the anterior
pedal gland opening into the anterior groove of the foot, generally
present In aquatic species; (3) dorsal posterior mucous glands in
certain Cydostamatidae.
The foot of the Pectinibranchia, unlike the simple muscular disk
of the Isopteura and Aspidobranchia, is very often divided into
lobes, a fore, middle and hind lobe (pro-, meso- and mcta-podiura,
see figs. 24- and 25). Very usually, but not universally, the mela-
podium carries an operculum. The division of the foot into lobes is
a simple case of that much greater elaboration or breaking up into
Fie 24 —Animal and shell of Phorus exulus.
a. Snout ^not introvcrsiblc). i. Pro- and meso-podium ; to the right
b. Cephalic tentacles. of this is seen the metapodium
c. Right eye. bearing the sculptured operculum.
there is, strictly speaking, no invagination (cmboly), but an over-
growth (epiboly) of the smaller cells to enclose the larger. The
general features of this process and of the relation of the blastopore
to mouth and anus have been explained in treating of the develop-
ment of Mollusca generally. In such cases the blastopore may
entirely close, and both mouth and anus develop as new ingrowths
(stomodaeum and proctodaeum), whilst, according to the observa-
tions of N Bobrctzky, the closed blastopore may coincide in
position with the mouth in some instances (Nassa, Ac.), instead of
with the anus. But in these epibolic forms, just as in the embolic
Paludtna. the embryo proceeds to develop its ciliated band and shell-
gland, passing through the earlier condition of a trochosphere to
that of the veliger. In the vcliger stage many Pectinibranchia
{Purpura, Nassa, Sec.) exhibit, in the dorsal region behind the head,
a contractile area of the body-wall. This acts as a larval heart, but
ceases to pulsate after a time. Similar rhythmically contractile
of lateral lobes, the parapodia, whilst there are many Pectini-
branchia. on the other hand, in which the foot has a simple oblong
form without any trace of lobes.
The development of the Pectinibranchia has been followed in
several examples, e.g. Paludtna, Purpura, Nassa, Vermetus, Nerilina.
As in other Molluscan groups, we find a wide variation in the early
process of the formation of the first embryonic cells, and their
arrangement as a diblastula, dependent on the greater or less amount
of food-yolk which is present in the egg-cell when it commence*
its embryonic changes. In fig. 26 the early stages of Paludina
vtvipara are represented. There is but very little food-material in
the egg of this recti ntbraneh, and consequently the diblastula forma
by invagination ; the blastopore or orifice of invagination coincide!
with the anus, and never closes entirety. A well-marked trocho-
sphere is formed by the development of an equatorial ciliated band ;
and subsequently, by the disproportionate growth of the lower
hemisphere, the trochosphere becomes a veuger. The primitive
Fig. 25.— Animal and shell of Roslellario rectirostris. (From
Owen.)
a. Snout or rostrum. /, Operculum.
b. Cephalic tentacle. A '.Prolonged si phonal notch of the
c, Eye. shell occupied by the siphon,
d, Propodium and mesopodium. or trough-like process of the
c, Metapodium. mantle-skirt.
areas are found on the foot of the embryo Pulmonale IAmax and oa
the yolk-sac (distended foot-surface) of the Cephalopod Lotit*.
The preconchylian invagination or shell-gland is formed in the
embryo behind the velum, on the surface opposite the blastopore.
It is surrounded by a ridge of cells which gradually extends over the
visceral sac and secretes the shell. In forms which are naked in the
adult state, the shell falls off soon after the reduction of the velum,
but in Cenia, Runcina and Vaginula the shell-gland and shell are not
developed, and the young animal when hatched has already the
naked form of the adult.
5*4
GASTROPODA
{STREPTONEUIA
One further feature of the development of the Pcctinibranchia
deserves special mention. Many Gastropoda deposit their eggs, after
fertilization, enclosed in capsules; others, as Paludina, are vivi-
parous; others, again, as the Zygobranchia, agree with the Lamclli-
branch Conchifcra (the bivalves) in having simple exits for the ova
without glandular walls, and therefore discharge their eggs unen-
closed in capsules freely into the sea-water; such unencapsuled
eggs are merely enclosed each in its own delicate chorion. When
mes, Rudiments of the
skcleto-trophic tissues.
pi, The pedicle of invagina-
tion, the future rectum.
skff. The primitive shell-sac
or shell-gland.
m. Mouth.
am. Anus.
FlG. 26.— Development of the River-Snail, Paludina, vivipara.
(After Lankester, 17.)
dc, Directive corpuscle (outcast cell). /, Foot.
at, Arch-enteron or cavity lined by
the enteric cell-layer or endo-
derm.
W, Blastopore.
vr, Velum or circlet of ciliated cells.
do. Velar area or cephalic dome.
sm, Site of the as yet unformed
mouth.
A, Diblastula phase (optical section).
B, The diblastula has become a trochosphcre by the development
of the ciliated ring vr (optical section).
C, Side view of the trochosphcre with commencing formation of the
foot.
D, Further advanced trochosphcre (optical section).
E, The trochosphere passing to the veliger stage, dorsal view
showing the formation of the primitive shell-sac.
F, Side view of the same, showing foot, shell-sac (shgt), velum (vr),
mouth and anus.
N.B. — In this development the blastopore is not elongated; it
persists as the anus. The mouth and stompdaeum form independ-
ently of the blastopore.
egg-capsules arc formed they arc often of large size, hare tough
walls, and in each capsule are several eggs floating in a viscid fluid.
In some cases all the eggs in a capsule develop ; in other cases one
egg only in a capsule {NcrUina), or a small proportion {Purfntra^
Buccinum), advance in development; the rest are arrested either
after the first process of cell-division (cleavage) or before that process.
The arrested embryos or eggs are then swallowed and digested by
those in the same capsule which have advanced in development.
This is clearly the same process in essence as that of the formation
of a viteUogenous gland from part of the primitive ovary, or of the
feeding of an ovarian egg by the absorption of neighbouring potential
eggs ; but here the period at which the sacrifice of one egg to another
takes place u somewhat late. What it is that determines the arrest
of some eggs and the progressive development of others in the sane
capsule is at present unknown.
In the tribe of Pcctinibranchia called Heteropoda the foot take*
the form of a swimming organ. The nervous system and seme
organs are highly developed. The odontophore also is remarkabh
developed, its lateral teeth being mobile, and it serves as an emcirnt
organ for attacking the other pelagic forms on which the Hetero-
poda prey. The sexes are distinct, as in all Streptoneura; and
genital ducts and accessory glands and pouches are present, as is
all Pcctinibranchia. The Heteropoda exhibit a series of modi-
fications in the form and proportions of the visceral mass and foot,
leading from a condition readily comparable with that of a typical
Pectimbranch such as Rosteilana, with the three regions of the foot
strongly marked and a coiled visceral hump of the usual proportions.
Zto a condition in which the whole body is of a tapering cylindrical
pe, the foot a plate-like vertical fin, and the visceral hump almost
completely atrophied. Three steps of this modification may he
Fig. 27. — Oxygynu Keraudreniu .
(From Owen.)
a, Mouth and odontophore. n, Dorsal surface overhung by
6, Cephalic tentacles. the mantle-skirt; the letter
c, Eye. is dose to the salivary gkad.
d, Propodium (B) and meso- 0; Rectum and anus.
podium. p, Liver.
e, Metapodium. q, Renal organ (nephridium).
/, Operculum. s. Ventricle.
h, Mantle-chamber. «, The otocyst attached to the
t. Ctenidium (gill-plume). cerebral ganglion.
k, Retractor muscle of foot. v, Testis.
/, Optic tentacle. s, Auricle of the heart.
m. Stomach. y, Vesicle on genital duct.
s, Penis.
distinguished as three families: — Atiantidae, Carinariida* and
Pterolrachatidae. They arc true Pectinibranchia which have taken
to a pelagic life, and the peculiarities of structure which they exhibit
are strictly adaptations consequent upon their changed mode of
life. Such adaptations are the transparency and colourlessness of
the tissues, and the modifications of the foot, which still shows in
Atlanta the form common in Pectinibranchia (compare fig. 27 aad
fig. 24). The cylindrical body of PUroUaduua is paralleled by the
slug-like forms of E > shown that the
visceral loop of the Special to the
Heteropoda is the h bbon, and, as an
agreement with son thyneura, but as
a difference from tl otocysts closely
attached to the cerel ess of a difference
than it was at one 1 been shown by
H. Lacaac-Duthiers the otocysts of
Pectinibranchia eve rial ganglion (as
in fig. 21) yet rccer an sometimes be
readily isolated) fro g. 11). Accord-
ingly the difference st and not of its
nerve-supply. The able for the high
development of the . jXR*** character
of their osphradium (Spcngel's olfactory organ). This is a groove,
the edges of which are raised and ciliated, lying near the branchial
plume in the genera which possess that organ, whilst in FircMda*
which has no branchial plume, the osphradium occupies a corre-
sponding position. Beneath the ciliated groove is placed an elongated
ganglion (olfactory ganglion) connected by a nerve to the supra*
intestinal (therefore the primitively dextral) gangfioa of the long
STREPT0NEUKA1
GASTROPODA
5i5
visceral nerve-loop, the strand* of whleh cross one another — this
being characteristic of Streptoneura (Spengel).
The Heteropoda belong to the " pelagic fauna " occurring near
the surface in the Mediterranean ana great oceans in company with
the Pteropoda, the Siphonophorous Hydroxoa, Salpae, Leptocephali,
and other specially-modified transparent swimming representatives
f-
A, The animal. B, The shell removed. C, D, Two views of the shell of Cardiopoda.
. Mouth and odontophorc.
b, Cephalic tentacles.
c, Eye.
d, The fin-like mesopodium.
<f. Its tucker.
#, Metapodlum.
/, Salivary glands.
... Border of the mantle-flap.
1, Ctcnidium (gill-plume).
m, Stomach.
», Interline.
0, Anus.
p. Liver. (ventricle.
/, Aorta, springing from the
phibious. Amputtaria, shell dextral, coiled. Lanistes, shell
sinistral, spire snort or obsolete. Meladomus.
Fam. 4. — LtUoriuidae. Oesophageal pouches present; pedal
nerve-centres concentrated; a pedal penis near the right
tentacle. Liliorina, shell not umbilicated, littoral habit.
Lacuna, foot with two posterior appendages, marine, entirely
aquatic. Cremnoconthuj, entirely
aerial, Indian. Risetta. Ttctarius.
D Fam. 5. — Fossaridae. Head with two
lobes in some Rhipidoglossa. Fos-
saria.
Fam. 6.—Purpurmidatt extinct.
Fam. 7—Pl*uaxida4. Shell with
pointed spire; a short pallial
siphon. Ptamaxis.
Fam. S.—Cyctotkmotida*. Pallial
cavity transformed Into a rang;
pedal centre* concentrated; a den
pedal groove Cy d o stoma , shell
turbinated, operculum calcareous,
British. OmpkaUtropis.
Fam. 9.—Ackutida*. Pallial cavity
transformed Into a lung; oper-
culum horny; shell narrow and
elongated. Ackuia.
Fam. 10. — Vahatidoe. Ctenidium bi-
pectinate, free; hermaphrodite;
fluviatile. Valvata, British.
Fam. lit — Rissoidae. Eptpodial fila-
ments present; one or two pallial
tentacles. Riuoa. Missoina. Sihm.
Fam. 12. — LUiopida*. An epipodium
bearing three pairs of tentacles and
an opcrculigerous lobe with two
appendages ; inhabitants of the
Sargasso weed. Liliopa.
Fam. 13. — Adeorbiidae. Mantle with
two posterior appendages; ctenidium
large and capable of protrusion from
pallial cavity. Adeorbis, British.
. . Cerebral ganglion.
r, Pleural and pedal ganglion
w. Testis.
x. Visceral ganglion.
y, Vcaicula seminalia.
s, Penis.
Fam.
. H.~-Jefreysiidae.
two long labial palps;
of various groups of the animal kingdom. In development they pass
through the typical trochosphere and veliger stages provided with
boat-like shell.
Sub-order 1.— Taemoglossa. Radula with a median tooth and
three teeth on each side of it. Formula 3:1 : 3.
Tribe 1. — Platyfoda. Normal Tacnioglossa of creeping habit.
The foot is flattened vcntrally, at all events in Its anterior part
(StromHdae). Otorysts situated close to the pedal nerve -cent res.
Accessory organs are rarely found on the genital ducts, but occur
in PaJudina, Cydostoma. Naticidat, Calyptraeidao, Ac. Mandibles
usually present. This is the largest group of MoHusca, including
nearly sixty families, some of which are insufficiently known from
the anatomical point of view.
Fam. t . — Paludinidae. Pedal centres in the form of gangKonatcd
cords: kidney provided with a ureter: viviparous; fluviatile.
Paludina. Neothauma, from Lake Tanganyika. Tyiopoma,
extinct, Tertiary.
Fam. a. — Cyclophoridae. No ctenidium, pallial cavity trans-
formed into a lung; aperture of shell circular; terrestrial.
FlC. 29. — Pterotrachta mulica seen from the right side.
(After Keferstein.)
Pouch for reception of the
snout when retracted.
t. Pericardium.
ph. Pharynx.
f* , Cephalic eye.
g. Cerebral ganglion.
i, Pleuro-pedal ganglion.
pr. Foot (mesopodium).
. Stomach.
1, Intestine.
n, So-called nucleus.
br. Branchial plume (ctenidium)
sv, Osphradium.
mt, Foot (mctapodium).
s. Caudal appendage
Pomalias, shell turriculated. Dtplommatina ilybocysHs Cydo-
pkorus, shell umhiluated. with a short spire and horny oper-
culum. Cydosurus, shell uncoiled. Deruuitoctra, foot with a
born-shaped protuberance at its posterior end. Spiraculum.
Fam. ^—AmpuUariidar. To the left of the ctenidium a pul-
monary sac, separated from it by an incomplete septum, am-
Head with
„ _.__.__. shell ovoid;
operculum horny, semicircular, car-
inatcd. Jeffreysia.
Fam. iS—HotfuHofyridat. Shell flattened ; no cephalic tentacles.
Howtatogyra, British. Ammonueras.
Fam. ib.—Skeneidae. Shell depressed, with rounded aperture;
cephalic tentacles long. Skctuo, British.
Fam. 17.— ChorisHdae. Shell spiral; four cephalic tentacles;
eyes absent; two pedal appendages. Ckoristes.
Fam. iB.—Assimintidae. Eyes at free extremities of tentacles.
Assimtnea, estuarine, British.
Fam. 19. — TrttncalcUidot. Snout very long, bilobed ; foot short.
Truncatdla.
Fam. 20.—Hydrobiidat. Shell with prominent spire; penis
distant from right tentacle, generally
appendiculated; brackish water or
fluviatile. Hydrobio, British. Baik-
alia, from Lake Baikal. Pomatiopsis.
BitkyndJa. Litkoglypkus^ Speitia,
Tanganyika.
rochtts, from
Chytfa. Lit-
ritish, fluvia-
Fa Spire of shell
nantle-border
fluviatile.
Paludomus.
, Bythoctras,
0, Mouth.
Fs Foot wide; op, Operculum.
th carinatcd br, Ctenidium (branchial
LKTCulated or plume).
kanalia, from x. Filiform appendage (r
rudimentary Hem-
Pi dae. Like dium)
Mdamidae, but mantle-border not The freely projecting
fringed and reproduction oviparous, ctcnidium. of typical form
Pleurotrra. Anculotus. not having its axis fused
Fam. 24.— Pseudomdaniidae. All ex- to the roof of the branchial
tinct. chamber is the notable
Fam. 2$.—Subulitubu. All extinct, character of this genus.
Fam. 26. — Nrrtnndae. All extinct.
Fam. 27 — Certlhudaf. Shell with numerous tubcrcubted whorls;
aperture canaliculated anteriorly . short pallial Ktphon. Cert-
tkium. Bittium. Potamides. Tnfons. Laeocothlis. Cert-
Ihtopsu.
Fam. 2*.—AfodvIidat. Shell with short spire; no siphon.
Modulus.
Fig. 30.— Valrcia cristata,
MUI1.
5««
Fi
. Fj
GASTROPODA
he last whorls
>t small; two
roiled, in one
large; foot
Fi ure slightly
lolaria.
Ft ire expanded;
siphon very short.
CJunafus, British.
Alarta, Spinigera,
DiarUma, extinct.
Fam. 34. — Slrombidae.
Foot narrow, com-
Sressed, without sole.
trombus. Pteroceras.
Rostdlaria. Torebel-
lum,
Fam. 35. — Xenopkori-
dae. Foot trans-
versely divided into
two parts. Xeno-
thorns. Eotrochus,
SUurian.
Fam. 36. — Copulidae.
Shell conical, not
FIG. 3 l.-Shell of Crucibulum, seen S^iSSSrlJ"
from below soasto show the inner whorl 5 t Z.XS
♦.concealedbythecap-Ukeouterwhorlo. ^fiSffitSlK
and foot. Capulus. Thyca, parasitic on astcrids. Platyceras,
extinct.
Fam. 37. — HiPponycidae. Shell conical ; foot secreting a ventral
calcareous plate; animal fixed. Hiptxmyx. Mitrularia.
Fam. 38. — Calyptraeidae. Shell with short spire; lateral cervical
lobes present; accessory genital glands, Colyptraea, British.
Crepiaulo. Crucibulum.
Fam. 39. — Naricidae. Foot divided into two, posterior half
bearing the operculum; a wide epipodial velum; shell tur-
binated. Nartca.
Fam. 40—Naticidae. Foot large, with aquiferous system;
propodium reflected over head; eyes degenerate; burrowing
habit. Naiica, British. Amaura. Sigaretus.
Fam. 41. — LamtUariidae. Shell thin, more or less covered by the
mantle; no operculum. Lamcllaria. Veluiina. Marsenina,
Oncidiopsis, hermaphrodite.
Fam. 42. — Trichotropidae. Shell with short spire, carinate and
pointed. Trichotropis.
Fam. 43.— Seguenuidae. Shell trochiform, with canaliculatcd
aperture and twisted columella. Seguenata. abyssal.
Fam. 44. — Janthintdae. Shell thin; operculum absent; ten-
tacles bifid; foot secretes a float; pelagic. Janthina. Reduzia.
Fam. 45. — Cypraeidae. Shell inrollcd, solid, polished, aperture
very narrow in adult; short siphon; anus posterior; os-
?h radium with three lobes; mantle reflected over shell. Cypraca.
'ustularia. Ooula. Pedicularia, attached to corals. Erato.
Fam. 46.— Tritonidae. Shell turriculated and siphonated. thick,
each whorl with varices; foot broad and truncated anteriorly,
pallial siphon well
developed; proboscis
present. Triton. Per-
sona, Ranetta.
Fam. 47.— Columbel-
Untdae. All extinct.
Fam. 48. — Casstdtdae.
Shell ventricose.with
elongated aperture,
and short spire; pro-
boscis ana siphon
long operculum with
marginal nucleus.
Cassis. Cassidaria.
Oniscia.
Fam .49 — Oocorythidae.
Shell m globular and
Fig. 32.— Animal and shell of (hula,
b, Cephalic tentacles.
d. Foot.
k. Mantle-skirt, which is naturally
carried in a reflected condition so as
to cover the sides of the shell.
ventneose; aperture
oval and canaliculatcd; operculum spiral. Oocorys, abyssal.
Fam. 50. — Dolisdae. Shell ventricose, with short spire, and wide
aperture: no varices and no operculum; foot very broad, with
projecting anterior angles: siphon long. DoHum. Pyrula.
Fam. 51.— Solariidae. Solarium. Torima. Fhtxtna.
Fam. $T.—Scalantdae. Shell turriculated, with elongated spire;
proboscis short; siphon rudimentary. Scalaria. Egltiia.
Crossea. Aclis.
The three following families have neither radula nor Jaws, and
are therefore called Aglossa. They have a well-developed proboscis
which is used as a suctorial organ; some are abyssal, but the majority
are either commensals or parasites of Echinoderms.
{STREPTOMEtnU
of spire hetcrostrophic; a
head and foot; operculum
the operculum is lost, animal fixed
by a large proboscis which forms a
pseudopaUium covering the whole
shell except the extremity of the
spire, parasitic on all groups of
Echinoderms. Entosiphon, visceral
mass still coiled; shell much re-
duced, proboscis very long forming
a pseudopaUium which covers the
whole body and projects beyond
in the form of a siphon, foot and
nervous system present, eyes.
branchia and anus absent, para-
Deima Fig. 33 — 5e<
blakei in the Indian Ocean. shell of Triton, Cuv. (Fn
site in the Holothurian Deima Fig. 33— Section of the
Fam. ss.—Eutoconchid*e. No shell; Owen.)
visceral mass not coiled ; no a. Apex,
sensory organs, nervous system, ac, Siphonal notch of the
branchia or anus; body reduced mouth of the shell,
to a more or less tubular sac; ac to pc. Mouth of the shell
hermaphrodite and viviparous; w, v, whorls of the shell,
parasitic in Holothurians; larvae s, s. Sutures,
arc veligers, with shell and oper- Occupying the axis, and
culum. Entocolax, mouth at tree exposed "by the section, is
extremity, animal fixed by aboral seen the " columella " or
orifice of pseudopaUium, Pacific, spiral pillar. The upper
Entoconcha. body elongated and whorls of the shell are seen
tubular, animal fixed by the oral to be divided into separate
extremity, protandric henna- chambers by the fornu-
phrodite, parasitic in testes of tion of successively formed
Holothurians causing their abor- " septa."
tion. Enteroxtnos, no pseudo-
paUium and no intestine, hermaphrodite, larvae with operculum.
Tribe a.— Heteropoda. Pelagic Taenioglossa with toot large
and laterally compressed to form a fin.
Fam. 1. Atlanttdae, Visceral sac and shell coiled in one plane;
foot divided transversely into two parts, posterior part bearing
an operculum, anterior part forming a fin provided with a
sucker. Atlanta. Oxygyrus.
Fam. 2 —Cariuanidae. Visceral sac and shell small in proportion to
the rest of the body, which cannot be withdrawn into the shell;
foot elongated, fin-shaped, with sucker, but without operculum.
Carinaria. Cardiopoda,
Fam. 3 — PUrotrachaeidae. Visceral sac very much reduced;
without shell or mantle; anus posterior; foot provided with
sucker in male only. PUrotrachaea. Firolotda. PUrosoma.
Sub-order 2. — Stenoglossa. Radula narrow with one lateral
tooth on each side, and one median tooth or none.
Tribe 1. — Rachiglossa. Radula with a median tooth and a si
Fig. 34.— Female Janthina, with egg-float (a) attached to the foot;
b, egg-capsules; c, ctcnidium (gill-plume) ; d, cephalic testacies.
tooth on each side of it. Formula 1 : 1 : 1. Rudimentary jawi
present.
Fam. i.—TurbHuUidat. Shell solid, piriform, with thick folded
columella; lateral teeth of radula bicuspidate. TurbintUo.
Cynodomta. Puigur. Hemifusus. Tuaula. Slrepsidur*.
Fam. 2. — Fascxolanidae. Shell elongated, with long arahon;
lateral teeth of radula roulticuspidate. Fasciclaria. Fusns.
ClavcUa. Latirus.
Fam. 3. — Wtndae. Shell fusiform and solid, aperture elongated,
columella folded; no operculum; eyes on sides of tentacles.
Uitra. Turricula. Cylindromitra. Imbricaria.
Fam. t—Bucctnida*. Foot Urge and broad;' eyes at base of
£UTHYNEUIU1
GASTROPODA
5»7*
ojperculi
Comine
homy. Buccinum. Chrysodomus.
TrUonidea. Pisauia. Eulkrux.
Pkos. Dipaacus.
Fam. 5. — Nassidae. Foot broad, with two slender posterior
appendages; operculum unguiculate. Nassa, marine, British.
Canidia, fluviatik. Bullia.
Fam. 6. — Muricidae. Shell with moderately long spire and canal,
ornamented with ribs, often spiny; foot truncated anteriorly.
Murex* British. Trophon, British. Typhis. Vrosalpinx.
Fam. y.—Purpuridae. Shell thick, with short spire, last whorl
large and canal short; aperture wide; operculum horny.
Purpura, British. Rafana. Monoceros. Sistrum. Con-
thehpmt,
Fam. %.—Haliida*. Shell ventricose. thin and smooth, with wide
aperture; foot large and thick, without operculum. Halia.
Fam. 9. — Cancellariidae. Shell ovoid, with short spire and folded
columella; Coot small, no operculum; siphon short. Can-
Fam. 10. — CdumUUidae. Spire of shell prominent, aperture
narrow, canal -very short, columella crenelated; toot large.
Fam. 11. — CoraUiophilidae. Shell irregular; radula absent;
foot and siphon short; sedentary animals, living in corals.
CoraUiophila, Rkisochilus. Leptoconchus. MagUus. Rape.
Fam. 1 a. — Volutidae. Head much flattened and wide, with eyes
on sides; foot broad; siphon with internal appendages.
Voluta. CuwiUea. Cyntba.
Fam. 13.— Olividae. Foot with anterior transverse groove; a
posterior pallia! tentacle; generally burrowing. Olivia.
Oirvflla. Ancillaria. Agaronia.
Fam. 14. — Margincliidae. Foot very large; mantle reflected over
shell. Marginetla. PstudomargineUa.
Fam. 15. — liarpidae. Foot very large; without operculum;
shell with short spire and longitudinal ribs; siphon long.
Harpa.
Tribe 2.— Toxiglossa. No jaws. No median tooth in radula.
Formula; 1:0: 1. Poison-gland present whose duct traverses
the nerve-collar.
Fam. I. — Pleurotomalidae. Shell fusiform, with elongated spire;
margin of shell and mantle notched. Pleurotoma. Clavatula.
Mangilia. Bela. Pusionclla. Pontiothauma.
Fam. 2. — Terebridae. Shell turriculatcd, with numerous whorls;
aperture and operculum oval; eyes at summits of tentacles;
siphon long. Terebra.
Fam. y—Conidat. Shell conical, with very short spire, and
narrow aperture with parallel borders; operculum unguiform.
Conus.
Sub-Class II.— Euthyneuea
The most important general character of the Euthyneura
is the absence of torsion in the visceral commissure, and the
more posterior position of the anus and pallial organs. Compara-
tive anatomy and embryology prove that this condition is due,
not as formerly supposed to a difference in the relations of the
visceral commissure which prevented it from being included in
the torsion of the visceral hump, but to an actual detorsion which
has taken place in evolution and is repeated to a great extent
in individual development. In several of the more primitive
forms the same torsion occurs as in Streptoneura, viz. in Aclaeon
and Limacina among Opisthobranchla, and Chilina among
Pulmonata. Actaeon is prosobranchiate, the visceral commissure
is twisted in Aclaeon and Ckilina, and even slightly still in Bulla
and Scaphander; in Aclaeon and Limacina the osphradium is
to the left, innervated by the supra-intestinal ganglion. But
in the other members of the sub-class the detorsion of the visceral
mass has carried back the anus and circumanal complex from the
anterior dorsal region to the right side, as in Bulla and Aplysia',
or even to the posterior end of the body, as in Philine,0ncidium $
Deris, &c. Different degrees of the same process of detorsion are,
as we have seen, exhibited by the Heteropoda among the Strepto-
neura, and both in them and in the Euthyneura the detorsion
is associated with degeneration of the shell Where the modifica-
tion is carried to its extreme degree, not only the shell but the
pallial cavity, ctenidium and visceral hump disappear, and the
body acquires a simple elongated form and a secondary external
symmetry, as in Pterotrachaea and in Doris, Eolis, and other
Nudibranchia. These facts afford strong support to the hypo-
thesis that the weight of the shell is the original cause of the
torsion of the dorsal visceral mass in Gastropods. But this
hypothesis leaves the elevation of the visceral mass and the
txogaitric coiling of the shell in the ancestral formjinexplaincd.
In those Euthyneura in which the shell is entirely absent in the
adult, it is, except in the three genera Cenia, Runcina and
Vaginula, developed in the larva and then falls off. In other
cases (Tcctibranchs) the reduced shell is enclosed by upgrowths
of the edge of the mantle and becomes internal, as in many
Cephalopods. A few Euthyneura in which the shell is not much
reduced retain an operculum in the adult state, e.g. Actaeon,
Limacina, and the marine Pulmonale, Amphibola. The detorted
visceral commissure shows a tendency to the concentration
of all its elements round the oesophagus, so that except in the
Bullomorpha and in Aplysia the whole nervous system is aggre-
gated in the cephalic region, either dorsally or ventrally. The
Fig. zs—Acera bullata. A single row of teeth of the Radula.
(Formula, xAjl.)
radula has a number of uniform teeth on each side of the median
tooth in each transverse row. The head in most cases bears
two pairs of tentacles. All the Euthyneura are hermaphrodite.
In the most primitive condition the genital duct is single
throughout its length and has a single external aperture; it is
therefore said to be monaulic The hermaphrodite aperture is
on the right side near the opening of the pallial cavity, and a
ciliated groove conducts the spermatozoa to the penis, which is
situated more anteriorly. This is the condition in the Bullo-
morpha, the Aplysiomorpha, and in one Pulmonate, Pythia.
In some cases while the original aperture remains undivided,
the seminal groove is closed and so converted into a canal.
This is the modification found in Cavolinia longirostris among
the Bullomorpha, and in all the Auriculidae except Pythia. A
further degree of modification occurs when the male duct takes
its origin from the hermaphrodite duct above the external
opening, so that there are two distinct apertures, one male and
one female, the latter being tha^ original opening. The genital
duct is now said to be diaulic, as in Valvata, Oncidiopsis, Actaeon,
and Lobiger among the Bullomorpha, in the PUurobranchida*,
in the Nudibranchia, except the Doridomorpha and most of
the Elysiomorpha, and in the Pulmonata. Originally in this
condition the female aperture is at some distance from the male,
as in the Basommatophora and in other cases; but in some
forms the female aperture itself has shifted and come to be
contiguous with the male opening and penis as in the Slylom-
matophora. In all these cases the female duct bears a bursa
copulatrix or rcceptaculum seminis. In some forms this recept-
acle acquires a separate external opening remaining connected
with the oviduct internally. There are thus two female openings,
one for copulation, the other for oviposition, as well as a male
opening. The genital duct is now trifurcated or triaulic, a
condition which is confined to certain Nudibranchs, viz. the
Doridomorpha and most of the Elysiomorpha.
The Ptcropoda, formerly regarded as a distinct class of the
Mollusca, were interpreted by E. R. Lankester as a branch of
the Cephalopoda, chiefly on account of the protrusible sucker-
bearing processes at the anterior end of Pneumonoderms. These
he considered to be homologous with the arms of Cephalopods.
He fully recognized, however, the similarity of Pteropods to
Gastropods in their general asymmetry and in the torsion of the
viscera! mass in Limacinidac. It is now understood that they
are Euthyneurous Gastropods adapted to natatory locomotion
and pelagic life. The sucker-bearing processes of Pncumono-
derma are outgrowths of the proboscis. The fins of Pteropods
are now interpreted as the expanded lateral margins of the foot,
termed parapodia, not homologous with the siphonof Cephalopods
which is formed fromepipodia. The Thecosomatous Pteropods
are allied to Bulla, the Gymnosomatous forms to Aplysia. The
Euthyneura comprises two orders, Opisthobranchia and PtfJk
monata.
5 i8
GASTROPODA
flEUTHYNEURA
Order I.— Owstbobianciia. Marine Euthynenra, the more
archaic forms of which have a relatively Urge foot and a small
visceral hump, from the base of which projects on the right side a
short mantle-skirt. The anus is placed in such forms far back beyond
the mantle-skirt. In front of the anus, and only partially covered
A.
operculum
Veliger-Iarva of an Opisthobranch (Pdycera). f, Foot;
ilum ; writ, anal papilla ; ry, dry, two portions of u
nutritive yolk on either side of the intestine.
- , .- ... . op,
y, dry, two portions of unabsorbed
the intestine. The right otocyst is
seen at the root of the foot.
B, Trochosphcre of an Opisthobranch (PUurobranckidiwn)
showing — skgr, the shell-gland or primitive shell-sac; v. the cilia of
the velum ; ph, the commencing stomodaeum or oral invagination ;
ot, the left otocyst; pg, red-coloured pigment spot.
C. Diblastula of an Opisthobranch {Potycera) with elongated
blastopore oi.
(All from Lankestcr.)
by the mantle-skirt, is the ctenidium with its free end turned back-
wards. The heart lies in front of, instead of to the side of. the attach-
ment of the ctenidium — hence Opisthobranchia as opposed to
" Prosobranchia," which correspond to the Strcptoneura. A shell
is possessed in the adult state by but few Opisthobranchia. but all
pass through a veliger larval stage with a nautiloid shell (fig. 36).
Many Opisthobranchia have by a process of atrophy lost the typical
ctenidium and the mantle-
skirt, and have developed
other organs in their place.
As in some Pectinibranchia,
the free margin of the
mantle-skirt is frequently
reflected over the shell
when a shell exists; and,
as in some Pectinibranchia,
broad lateral outgrowths
Fio. n.-Pkyllirkoi buccphola, twice i^ES^S^™
the natural sixe. a transparent pisciform tfTu^^r th? 3SK
b Radular sac developments of structure
t\ Oesophagus, accompanying the atrophy
4 StonkdL £ typical organs in the
c\ Intestine. Opisthobranchia and
f. Anus. general degeneration of
*• <!«'' «"'• T"* ««ir lo*>es of the liver. ?£»"*«*»<>« "JVL*?? 1 '
%, Vhe heart (auricle and ventricle). The members of the order
t. The renal
i\ The ciliat
renal sac
ffi, Theexten
», Thecereb
♦, Theeeph*
/, The genu
y. Theovo-t
w. The parai
usually
position
umbrella
the gill which
stands alone,
generation (s
processes of
Moilusca froi
views of Aplysia sp., in various conditions of
action. (After Cuvier.)
ic tentacles. m, Mantfe-flap reflected over the
lie tentacles. thin oval shell.
os % s. Orifice formed by the un-
closed border of the reflected
mantle-skirt, allowing the
nidium). shell to show.
pe, The spermatic groove.
i delicate shell to the mantle is peculiar, since it
rea upon the visceral hump, the extent of which
58, C, but may be better understood by a glance
<• aIIuhI M*nn« IJtmkrmtln tfitw ACt\ in wkL-h rk*
BUTHYNEURA]
GASTROPODA
5*9
Posteriorly we have the anus, in front of this the lobate gill-plume,
between the two (hence corresponding in position to that of the
Pectinibrancbia) we have the aperture of the renal organ. In front,
near the anterior attachment of the gill-plume, is the osphradium
(olfactory organ) dis-
covered by J. W.
Spcngel, yellowish in
colour, in the typical
position, and overlying
an olfactory ganglion
with typical nerve-con-
ion(te*fig.4J) To
right of Spengcl's
^hradium it the open-
ing of a peculiar gland
which has, when dis-
sected out, the form of
a bunch of grapes; its
secretion is said to be
poisonous. On the
under side of the free
edge of the mantle arc
situated the numerous
small cutaneous glands
which, in the large
Aplysia camdus (not
in other species), form
the purple secretion
which was known to
the ancients. In front
Flo. 30. — Aplvsia Uportna (camdus, of the osphradium is
h epipodia and mantle reflected *h« « n g*c genital pore,
" theaperture of the com-
mon or hermaphrodite
duct. From this point
Cuv.), witl . r r .
away from the mid-line. (Lankester.)
a. Anterior cephalic tentacle.
ft. Posterior cephalic tentacle; between a ??**• ^rom tms point
and b, the eyes. J«* passes forward to
c. Right epipodium. fj,^ ?&_* £•
d. Left epipodium.
e. r Under part of visceral hump.
fp. Posterior extremity of the foot,
fp. Posterior extremity of the foot. au ~. n r n £ n Inc 'P?"
* 'sst »* of ,hc foot unde,lyinE *• ss? s&sr «h's
{, The ctenidium (branchial plume). % aTJ^ 7 i IT
. The mantle-skirt tightly spread over the ?™. form * . c * n * 1 - At
horny shell and pushed with it towards lt .\ termination by the
th*. dft «w- F wdc of the head is
1 , The spermatic groove.
*, The common genital pore (male and P*" 19 ' f VL th f * TJI
female) P* 1 * of the ' oot ^ not
female).
Spengcl).
ff, Outline of part of the renal sac (neph*
ridium) below the surface.
0, External aperture of the neph ridium.
p, Anus.
Fie 40. — Umbrella meditcrranea. a, mouth; b, cephalic tentacle;
A, gill (ctenidium). The free edge of the mantle is seen just below
the margin of the shell (compare with Aplysia, fig. 39). (From
Owen.)
outstretched 8 or 9 in. in length. The other is light brown and some-
what smaller, its length usually not exceeding 7 in. The first is
flaccid and sluggish in its movements, and has not much power of
contraction ; its epipodial lobes arc enormously developed and extend
far forward along die body ; it gives out when handled an abundance
of purple liquid; which u derived from ctitaneous glands situated
on the under side of the free edge of the mantle. According to F.
Blochmann it is identical with A. camdus of Cuvier. The other
species is A. dtpilatu; it is firm to the touch, and contracts forcibly
head "a groove — the
spermatic groove —
down which the sper-
muscular introverted
In the hinder
A Orifice of the grape-shaped (supposed ^"2 ^•J***
poisonous) gland. ^^ • g 5 fn * ) ti'JL he open "
m. the osphradium (olfactory organ of ««*• *& A m ™!+
forming gland
often found in the
Mollusean foot.
With regard to in-
ternal organization we
may commence with
the disposition of the
renal organ (nephridium), the external opening of which has already
been noted. The position of this opening and other features of the
renal organ were determined by J. 1 . Cunningham.
There is considerable uncertainty with respect to the names of
the species of Aplysia. There are two forms which are very common
in the Gulf of Naples. One is quite black in colour, and measures when
X>
others spinous, fitted to act as crushing
instruments. From this we pass to a
stomach and a coil of intestine embedded
in the lobes of a voluminous liver; a
caecum of large sise is given off near the
commencement of the intestine. The liver
opens by two ducts into the digestive Fie. 41. — Gonad, and
tract. accessory glands and
The generative organs lie close to the ducts of Aplysia. (Lan-
coil of intestine and liver, a little to the kestcr.)
left side. When dissected out they ap- j Ovo-testis.
pear as represented in fig. 41. The M \ Hermaphrodite duct.
Hermaphrodite
cmnweu renouunivc organ «■ gonaa • Albuminiparous gland*
consists of both ovarian and testicular J Vesicula seminalis
cells (see fig. 4*). It is an ovo-testis. *, Opening of the albu-
Froin it oasses a common or henna- miniparous gland into
phrodite duct, which very soon becomes t0 e hermaphrodite
entwined in the spire of a gland — the duct.
albuminiparous gland. The latter opens ,, Hermaphrodite duct
into the common duct at the point *. (uterine portion),
and here also is a small diverticulum of *, Vaginal portion of the
the duct /. Passing on. we find not uterine duct,
lar from the genital pore a glandular t% Spermatheca.
spherical body (the spermatheca c) open- 4, its duct,
ing by means of a longish duct into 0f Genital pore,
the common duct, and then we reach
the pore (fig. 39. *)• Here the female apparatus terminates. But
when the male secretion of the ovotestis is active, the seminal
fluid passes from the genital pore along the spermatic groove (fig. 39)
to the penis, and is by the aid of that eversible muscular organ intro-
duced into the genital pore of a second Aplysia, whence it passes
into the spermatheca, there to await the activity of the female
dement of the ovo-testis of this second Aplysia. After an interval
520
GASTROPODA
(EUTHYNEURA
days— possibly weeks— the ova of the second Apiysi
- to descend the hermaphrodite duct; they become ex
digestive tract, but we find very numerous hepatic diverticula on a
shortened axial tract (fig 47). These diverticula extend usiu "
into each of the dorsal papillae or " cerata " when these are t
shortened axial tract (fig 47). These diverticula extend usually a
at papillae or " cerata " when these are present.
They are not merely digestive glands, but are sufficiently wide to act
as receptacles of food, and in them the digestion of food proceeds just
as in the axial portion of the canal. A precisely similar modification
Flo. 4*.— Follicles of the hermaphrodite gonads of Euthyneurou
Gastropoda. A, of Helix; B, of EoHs\ a, ova; b, developini
spermatozoa; c, common efferent duct.
closed in a viscid secretion at the point where the albuminiparou
gland opens into the duct intertwined with it; and on reaching th<
pout where the spermathecal duct debouches they are impregnate*
by the spermatozoa which escape nov
from the spermatheca and meet the ova.
The development of Apivsta from th<
egg presents many points of interest fron
the point of view of comparative embry
ology. but in relation to the morphology
of the Opisthobranchia it is sufficient t<
point to the occurrence of a trochospherx
and a vdiger stage (fig. 36), and of c
shell-gland or primitive shell-sac (fig. 36
**f)t which is succeeded by a nautiloid
shell.
In the nervous system of Aplysia the
great ganglion-pairs are well developed and
distinct. The cuthyneurous visceral loop
is long
AplyA
joined
of the
limit,
viscera
ganglu
pre sen
nerve
ganglk
Spengt
with a more remote ganglion— the genital.
Such special irregularities in the develop-
ment of ganglia upon the visceral loop,
and on one or more of the main nerves
connected with it, are very frequent. Our
figure, of the nervous system of Aplysia
does not give the small pair of buccal
ganglia which are, as in all glossophorous
Fio. 43.— Nervous Molluscs, present upon the nerves passing
system of Aplysia, as from the cerebral region to the odontophore.
a type of the long- For a comparison of various Opistho-
looped Euthyncurous branch*, Apiysia will be found to present
condition. The un- a convenient starting-point. It is one of
twisted visceral loop the more typical Opisthobranchs, that is
Is lightly shaded, to say, it belongs to the section Tecti-
(After Spengel.) branchia. but other members of the sub-
ce, Cerebral ganglion, order, namely. Bulla and Actaeon (figs. 44
pi, Pleural ganglion, and 45), are less abnormal than Aplysia
p€. Pedal ganglion. in regard to their shells and the form of the
ab. sp, Abdominal gan- visceral hump. They have naked spirally
glion which re- twisted shells which may be concealed from
presents also the view in the living animal by the expansion
supra -int est in a I and reflection of the para podia, but are not
ganglion of Strep- enclosed by the mantle, whilst Actaetm is
toneura and gives remarkable for possessing an operculum
off the nerve to like that of so many Streptoneura.
the otphradium The great development of the parapodia
(olfactory organ) seen in Aplysia is usual in Tectibranehiate
0, and another to Opisthobranchs. The whole surface of the
an unlettered so- body becomes greatly modified in those
called " genital " Nudibranchiate forms which have lost, not
ganglion. The only the shell, but also the ctenidium. Many
buccal nerves of these have peculiar processes developed
and ganglia are on the dorsal surface (fig. 46, A. B), or
omitted. retain purely negative characters (fig. 46,
D). The chief modification of internal
organization presented by these forms, as compared with Aplysia,
ts found in the condition of the alimentary canal. The liver fs no
bagcr a compact organ opening by a pair of duct* into the median
Fig. 44.— Bulla vextllum (Chemnitz), aa seen crawling. 4. oral
hood (compare with Tethys, fig. 46, B), possibly a continuation of
theepipodia; b, b\ cephalic tentacles. (From Owen.)
of the liver or great digestive gland is found in the scorpions, where
the axial portion of the digestive canal is short and straight, and the
lateral ducts sufficiently wide to admit food into the ramifications
of the eland there to be digested; whilst in the spiders the gland is
reduced to a series of simple caeca.
The typical character is retained by the heart, pericardium, and
the communicating nephridium or renal organ in all Opisthobranchs.
An interesting example of this is furnished by the fish-like trans-
parent .Pkyllirkoi (fig. 37), in which it is possible moat satisfactorily
to study in the living animal, by means of the microscope, the course
of the blood-stream, and also the reno-pericardial communication.
In many of the Nudibranchiate Opisthobranchs the nervous system
presents a concentration of the ganglia (fig. 48). contrasting greatly
with what we have seen in Aplysia. Not only are the pleural ganglia
fused to the cerebral, but also the visceral to these (see in further
illustration the condition attained by the Pulmonate Linnaeus.
*"- 59)« and the visceral loop is astonishingly short and insignificant
(fig. 48, e J ). That the parts are rightly tnus identified is probable
from J. W. Spengcl's observation of the osphradium and its nerve-
ui pply in these forms; the nerve to that organ, which is placed
u_. :„... „ . L _ j ._._,___ r. . gJ rom
somewhat anteriorly — on the dorsal surface — being given <
the hinder part (visceral) of the right compound ganglion— the
Icllow to that marked A in fig. 48. The Eolid-like Nudibraachs,
imongst other specialities of structure, possess (in some cases at any
rate) apertures at the apices of the " cerata " or dorsal papillae,
ca. Some amongst
osscssing peculiarly
pices of these same
of the Coelentera.
these nematocysti
lals feed.
is been examined—
a. Doris. Tergipfi.
and in all a nauti-
by a well-marked
the free-swti
A folds (whether parapodia or mantle
>r velum) have yet to be cleared up
>y a knowledge of such development
n forms like Tethys, Doris, Phyllidia,
ice. As in other Molluscan groups,
ve find even
for instance,
ranchidium,
jeatest differences 1
>f food-material by which the egg-shell is encumbered. Some
orm their diblastula by emboly, others by epiboly; and in the
iter history of the further development of the enclosed cells (arch-
ntcron) very marked variations occur in closely-allied forms, due
the influence of a greater or less abundance of food-material
nixed with the protoplasm of the egg.
Sub-order I.— Tbctibranchia; (Opisthobranchs provided in the
dult state with a shell and a mantle, except Runcina. Pleuro-
ranckaea. Cymbuliidae, and some Aplysiomorpha. There u a
tenidium, except in some Thccosomata and Gymnosomata, and so
sphradium.
Tribe 1.— Bullomorpra. The shell is usually well developed
xcept in Runcina and Cymbuliidae, and may be external or internal
fo operculum, except in Actaeonidae and Limacinidae. The partial
svity is always well developed, and contains the ctenidium, at least
1 part; ctemdium, except in Lopkocercidae, of folded type. With
EUTHVKBOKA]
GASTROPODA
5*i
the exception of the Aptustridqe, Lophocercida* and Tkecosmaia,
the head is devoid of tentacles* and its dorsal surface forms a digging
long, except in Rtmcina, Lobigrt and ThHM o nm t* . Herma-
phrodite genital aperture, connected with the penis by a ciliatetf
groove, except in Actaeon, Lobiger and Catoltnia longirostru, in
which the spermiduct is a closed tube. Animals either swim or
burrow.
Fam. i. — Actaemidae. Cephalic shield bifid posteriorly ; margins
of foot slightly developed ; genital duct diaulic; visceral com-
missure streptoneur- „
ous; shell thick, with €
prominent spire and
elongated aperture; a
horny operculum.
Actaeon, British. Soli-
dula. Tornatellaea, ex*
tinct. Adetaetaeon.
Bullina. Bullinula.
Fam. 2. — Ringiculidae.
Cephalic disk enlarged
anteriorly, forming an
open tube posteriorly;
shell external, thick,
with prominent spire;
no operculum. Ringu
cula. Pugnus.
Fam. 3. — Tornatinidae.
Margins of foot not
prominent; noradula;
shell external, with
inconspicuous spire.
Tornatina, British, n
tusa. Vofvvla.
Fig. 46.
A, B&Ks papulosa (Lin.), dorsal view.
o, 6, Posterior and anterior cephalic tentacles. e f The dorsaT'ccrata."
B, Tethys Uporina, dorsal view.
a, The cephalic hood. e, Anus.
ft, Cephalic tentacles. /, Large cerata.
C. Neck. 1, Smaller cerata.
d, Genital pore. A, Margin of the foot.
C, Doris (Actinocydus) lubcrculalus (Cuv.), seen from the pedal
surface.
m, Mouth. /, Sole of the foot.
b. Margin of the head. sp. The mantle-like epipodium.
D, E, Dorsal and lateral view of Elysia {Actaeon) virtdis. ep,
epipodial outgrowths. (After Kefcrstein.)
disk or shield. The edges of the foot form parapodia, often trans-
formed into fins. Posteriorly the mantle forms a large paltial lobe
Fig. 48. — Central Nervous
System of Fiona (one of the
Nudibranchia), showing a tend-
ency to fusion of the great
ganglia. (From Gegenbaur,
after Bcrgh.)
A , Cerebral, pleural and visceral
ganglia united.
B, Pcdalgangiion.
C, Buccalgangbon.
D, Oesophageal ganglion con-
nected with the buccal.
a, Nerve to superior cephalic
tentacle.
b, Nerves to inferior cephalic
tentacles.
c, Nerve to generative organs.
d, Pedal nerve.
e, Pedal commissure.
e*, Visceral loop or commis-
sure (?).
Stomach generally provided with
Fig. 47.— Enteric Canal
of EUis papulosa. (From
Gegenbaur, after Aider and
Hancock.)
ph, Pharynx.
m, Midgut, with its hepatic
appendages h, all of
which are not figured.
e, Hind gut.
an, Anus.
under the pallial aperture. . .
chitinoua or calcified masticatory plates, visceral commissure fairly
Fam. 4.—Scapkondridae. d,
Cephalic shield short, *, *.
truncated posteriorly;
eyes deeply embedded ;
three calcareous stom- t>
achal plates; shell ex-
ternal, with reduced *,
Scaphander,
Fig. 49. — Cavolinia tridentou, Forsk.
from the Mediterranean, magnified two
diameters. (From Owen.)
o, Mouth.
R*. b. Pair of cephalic tentacles.
C, C, Ptcropodial lobes of the foot.
Median web connecting these.
Processes of the mantle-skirt re-
flected over the surface of the
shell.
The shell enclosing the visceral
hump.
The median spine of the shell.
genen
Viscen
British. Atys. SmarogdincUa. Cj/tdkiw, British. Ampktspkyra,
British.
Fam. 55. — BuUidae. Margins of foot well developed ; eyes super-
tidal; three chitinous stomachal plates; shell external, with
reduced spirt. Bulla, British. Hamin&a, British.
Fam. 6. — Aceralidae. Cephalic shield continuous with neck;
twelve to fourteen stomachal plates; a posterior pallial fila-
ment passing through a notch in shell. Aura, British. Cylin-
drobuUa. fotuteUa.
Fam. 7. — Aplustrtdae. Foot very broad; cephalic shield with
four tentacles: shell external, thin, without prominent spire.
Aplustrum. Hydatina. Micromelo.
Fam. 8. — PkUintdae. Cephalic shield broad, thick and simple;
shell wholly internal, thin, spire much reduced, aperture
very large. Philine, British. CryptopkthoJmus. Chelinodum
Phantrophthalmus. Cotpodasfis, British. Colobocephalus.
Fam. 9. — Doridiidae. Cephalic shield ending posteriorly in a
median point; shell internal, largely membranous; no radula
or stomachal plates. Doridium. Navarckus.
Fam. 10.— -Castropuridae. Cephalic shield pointed behind ; shell
internal, chiefly membranous, with calcified nucleus, nautiloid;
parapodia forming fins. Gastropteron.
Fam. 11. — Runcimdae. Cephalic shield continuous with dorsal
integument; no shell; ctenidium projecting from mantle
cavity. Runcina.
Fam. 12— Lophocerddae. Shell external, globular or ovoid; foot
elongated, parapodia separate
from ventral surface; genital
ducf diaulic Lobiger. l*opko-
ccrcus.
The next three families form the
group formerly known as Thcco-
somatous Pteropods. They are
all pelagic, the foot being entirely
transformed into a pair of anterior ,- r .
fins; eyes are absent, and the nerve .™- 50-~ Shell 01 tavoUnia
centres are concentrated on the ven- trtdentata, seen irom the aid*,
tral side of the oesophagus. /, Postero-dorsal surface.
Fam. 13. — Limaciniaae. Dextral g. An tero- ventral surface,
animals, with shell coiled ft, Median dorsal spine,
pseud o-sinist rally; operculum 1, Mouth of the shell,
with sinistral spiral; pallial
cavity dorsal. Limacina, British. Peraclis, ctenidium present.
Fam. H.—Cymbuliidae. Adult without shell; a subepithelial
pscudoconch formed by connective tissue; pallial cavity
ventral. Cymbulia. Cymbuliopsu. CUba, DesmopUms. .
Fam. 15.— Cavoliniidae. Shell not coiled, symmetrical; pallial
cavity ventral. Cavolinia. Qio. Cwitrina,
Tribe 2.— Aplysiomorpha. Shell more or less internal, much
reduced or absent. Head bears two pairs of tentacles. Parapodia
separate (torn wxttaV iwrAaou «a& Tgareriki \x»»As«a*&. >a&»
522
GASTROPODA
(EUTHYNEURA
swimming lobe*. Visceral commissure much shortened, except in
Atiysia. Genital duct monauhc; hermaphrodite duct connected
with penis by a ciliated groove. Animals either swim or crawl.
Fam. l.—Apiysiida*. Shell partly or wholly internal, or absent;
foot long, with well-developed ventral surface. Aplysia.
Dolabtlla. Dolabrifer, Afdysietla, PkylUptysia. Not-
archus.
The next six families include the animals formerly known as
Gymnosomatous Pteropods, characterized by the absence of mantle
and shell, the reduction of the ventral surface of the foot, and the
parapodial fins at the anterior end of the body. They arc all pelagic.
Fam. 2. — pHeumonodermatidae. Pharynx evaginable, with
suckers. Pnmmcnoderma. Dexiobranehaea. Sponliobranckaca.
Scktmbrackium.
Fam. 3.— •Gitnopsida*. No buccal appendages or suckers; a
very Ions; evaginable proboscis;
a guadnradiate terminal bran-
chia. CUonopsis.
Fam. 4.—Nol*bronckaeidoe. Pos-
terior branchia triradiate. Note-
brauckoca.
Fam. s.—Thliptodontidae. Head
very large, not marked off from
the body; neither branchia nor
suckers; fins situated near the
middle of the body. Tkliptodoiu
Fam. 6. — Clionidae. No branchia
Fig. 51.— Embryo of Cavolinia
tridentata. (From Balfour, after FoL)
a, Anus.
Median portion of the foot.
M Pteropodjal lobe of the foot,
ft. Heart.
1, Intestine,
si, Mouth.
ot, Otocyst.
q, Shell:
r, Nephridium.
*, Oesophagus.
0, Sac containing nutritive yolk.
nib. Mantle-skirt.
mc, Sub-pallial chamber.
Km, Contractile sinus.
/.
FlC. 52.— Styfofo aciada.
Rang. ap. enlarged. (From
Owen.)
C,C, The wing-like lobes of
the foot.
d, Median fold of same.
e, Copulatory organ.
#, Pointed extremity of the
t. Anterior margin of the
S3, Stomach. [shell.
0, Liver.
u. Hermaphrodite gonad.
of any kind ; a short evaginable pharynx, bearing paired conical
buccal appendages or " ccphalocones," Clions. Paraclume.
FowUrina.
Fam. T—Holopsychidat. No branchia; two long and branched
buccal appendages. Halo psyche.
Tribe 3.— Pleurobranchomorpha. Two pain of tentacles.
Foot without parapodia; no paUial cavity, but always a single
ctcnidhim situated on the right aide between mantle and foot.
Genital duct diaulic, without open seminal groove; male and
female apertures contiguous. Visceral commissure short, tendency
to concentration of all ganglia in dorsal side of oesophagus.
Fam. \.—TyUdiniiat. Shell external and conical; anterior
tentacles form a frontal veil; ctenidium extending only over
right aide; a distinct osphradium. TyMina.
Fam. 9.—Umbrdlidat. Shell external, conical, much flattened;
anterior tentacles very small, and situated with the mouth in
a notch of the foot below the head; ctenidium very large.
Umbrella.
Fam. y—PUurobranckidae. Shell covered by mantle, or absent;
anterior tentacles form a frontal veil; mantle contains spicules.
PUurobrancktts. Berlhella. HaliotiutUa. Ouanius, British.
Oscanidla. Oscaniopsis. PUurobranchaea.
Suborder 2. — Nudibranchia. Shell absent in the adult; no
ctenidium or osphradium. Body generally slug-like, and externally
symmetrical. Visceral mass not marked off from the foot, except in
Hedylidae. Dorsal respiratory appendages frequently present.
Visceral commissure reduced; nervous system concentrated on
dorsal side of oesophagus. Marine; generally carnivorous, and
brightly coloured, affording many instances of protective resem-
blance.
Tribe 1 .— Trttoniomorph A. Liver wholly or partially contained
in the visceral mass. Anus lateral, on the right aide. Usually two
ro' talk; male
an
Frontal veil;
appendage*
with horny
i no dorsal
nt; pelagic
Fam. 4. — Tethyidae. Head broad, surrounded by a funneJ-shaped
velum or hood; no radula; dorsal appendages foliaoeous.
Tctkys. Melib*.
Fam. 5. — Demdronotidae. Anterior tentacles forming a scalloped
frontal veil ; dorsal appendages and tentacles similajiy ramified-
Dendrvitotus. Campaspe.
Fam. d. — BorneUidae. Dorsum furnished on either side with
papillae, at the base of which are ramified appendages. BorneUa.
Fam. 7.—Lomanotidae. Body flattened, the two dorsal borders
prominent and foliaccous. Lomanotus, British.
Tribe 2. — Doridomorpha. Body externally symmetrical; anus
median, posterior, and generally dorsal, surrounded by ramified
paUial appendages, constituting a secondary branchia. Liver not
ramified in the integuments. Genital duct triaulic. Spicules present
In the mantle.
Fam. 1. — Polyceratidae. A more or less prominent frontal
Fig. te.—Halopsychegaudickaudii t
Soul. (From Owen.) M uch enlarged ;
the body-wall removed.
a. The mouth.
c. The pteropodial Jpbes of the foot.
/, The cent rally-placed hind-foot.
d, /, e, Three pairs of tentacle-like
processes placed at the sides of
the mouth, and developed (in all
probability) from the tore-foot.
0', Anus.
v, Genital pore.
A, Retractor muscles.
o and p. The liver
«, p, w. Genitalia.
Fig. 54.— Anad*
eristota, one of the
pygobranchiate Opis*
thobranchs (dorsal
view). (From Gegen-
baur, after Alder and
Hancock.)
a, Anus.
br, Secondary branchia
surrounding the
anus.
I, Cephalic tentacles.
External to the
branchia are seen ten
club-like processes of
the dorsal wall, these
are the " cerata "
which are character-
istically developed in
another sub-order of
Opisthobranchs.
veil; branchiae non-retractile. Euplocamus. Polyccra, British.
Tkecaccra, British. Acprus, British. Plocamophertis. Polio.
Crimora. Trio pa, British. Triotella.
Fam. 2. — Goniodorididae. Mantle-border projecting; frontal
vcsl reduced, and often covered by the anterior border of Che
EUTHYNEURA]
GASTROPODA
523
mantle. Goniodoris, British. Acantkodoris, British. Idalia,
British. Ancula, British. Doridunculus. Lamcllidoris. An-
cyiodoris, the only fresh-water Nudibranch, from Lake Baikal.
Fam. 3. — tleierodorididae. No branchia. HeUrodoris.
Fam. 4. — Dorididae. Mantle oval, covering the head and the
greater part of the body: anterior tentacles, ill-developed;
branchiae generally retractile. Doris, British. Hexabranchus.
Chromodoru.
Fam. 5. — Doridopsidae. Pharynx suctorial ; noradula; branchial
rosette on the dorsal surface, above the mantle-border.
Doridopsis.
Fam. 6. — Corambidae. Anus and branchia posterior, below the
mantle-border. Ccrambe.
Fam. 7. — PhyUidiidae. Pharynx suctorial; branchiae surround-
ing the body, between the mantle and foot. PkyUiiia.
Fryeria.
The last three families constitute the sub-tribe Porostomata.
characterized by the reduction of the buccal mass, which is modified
into a suctorial apparatus.
Tribe 3 — EouDOMORpHA {Ctadokepatkn). The whole of the liver
contained in the integuments and tegumentary papillae. Genital
duct diaulic; male and female apertures contiguous. The anus is
anterolateral, except in the Proctonolidae, in which it is median.
Tegumentary papillae not ramified, and containing cnidosacs with
ncmatocysts.
Fam. 1. — Eolididae. Dorsal papillae spindle-shaped or club-
shaped. Eolis, British. Faceltna, British. Tereipes, British.
Gonieolis. Cuthona. EmblcUmia. Gctvina. Calma. Hero.
Fam. i.—Glaucida*. Body furnished with three pairs of lateral
lobes, bearing the tegumentary papillae; foot very narrow;
pelagic. Glancus.
Fam. $.—IIedytidae. Body elongated; visceral mass marked
off from foot posteriorly; dorsal appendages absent, or reduced
to a single pair; spicules in the integument. HcdyU.
Fam. 4. — Pseudovermidae. Head without tentacles; body
elongated ; anus on right side. Pseudovermis.
Fam. $.-—Proctonolidae. Anus posterior, median; anterior
tentacles, atrophied; foot broad. Janus, British. Procto-
notus, British.
Fam. 6. — Dotonidae. Bases of the rhinophores surrounded by
a sheath; dorsal papillae tuberculated and club-shaped, in a
single row on cither side of the dorsum; no cnidosacs. Dole,
British. Gellina. Heromorpha.
Fam. 7. — Fionidae. Dorsal papillae with a membranous ex-
pansion; male and female apertures at some distance from
each other; pelagic Fiona.
Fam. Z.—PleuropkyUidae* Anterior tentacles in the form of a
digging shield; mantle without appendages, but respiratory
papillae beneath the mantle-border. PleurophyUidio.
Fam. g.—Dermatobranchidae. Like the last, but wholly without
branchiae. Dtrmaiobranchiis.
Tribe 4.— Elysiomorpiia. Liver ramifies in integuments and ex-
tends into dorsal papillae, but there arc no cnidosacs. Genital duct
always triaulic, and male and female apertures distant from each
other. No mandibles, and radula uniscrial. Never more than one
pair of tentacles, and these are absent in Alderia and some species
of Limapontia.
Fam. 1. — Hermaeidae. Foot narrow; dorsal papillae linear or
fusiform, in several
series. Her mot a,
British. Stiliger. Al-
deria, British.
Fam. i—Pkytto-
branckidoe Foot
broad, dorsal papillae
flattened and folia-
ceous. Phyllobranckus.
Cyerce.
Fam. 3. — Plakobron-
chidae. Body de-
pressed, without .dorsal
papillae, but with two
very large lateral ex-
pansions, with dorsal
plications. Plako-
A bronchus.
_, _ .... , Fam. 4. — Elysiidae.
„. F,G - ^-—P "? 1 and Ventral View of Body elongated, with
Plewophyiltdia Imeata (Otto), one of lateral expansions;
the Eolidomorph Nudibranchs. (After tentacles large; foot
Keferstein.) narrow. Elys to,
ft, The .mouth. British. Tridachio.
i. The lamclliform sub-pallial gills, Fam. 5. — Limapontiidae.
which (as in Patella) replace the No lateral expansions,
typical Moliuscan ctcnidium. and no dorsal papillae;
bodyjpbnari/orm ; anus
dorsal, median aad p o st e ri or. Limapontia, British, Adooonia,
British, dais.
Order 2 (of the E^thvneuia).--PuLisowATA. Euthv n e u ro us
Gastropoda, probably derived from aacetUsjl forms similar to the
tibranchiate Opisthobranchia by adaptation to a terrestrial fife,
ctenidium is atrophied, and the edge of the mantle-skirt is fused
lie dorsal integument by concrescence, except atone point which
is the aperture of the mantle-chamber, thus converted into a
ly closed sac Air is admitted to this sac for respiratory and
rostatic purposes, and it thus becomes a lung. An operculum
esent only in Ampkibola; a contrast being thus afforded with the
cuhte pulmonale Streptoneura (Cyclostoma, &c.), which differ
thcr essential features of structure from the Pulmonata. The
nonata are, like the other Euthyncura, hermaphrodite, with
orateiy developed copulatory organs and accessory glands.
■ other Euthyncura, they have very numerous small denticles
he lingual ribbon. In aquatic Pulmonata the osphradiuoi is
ined.
i some Pulmonata (snails) the foot is extended at right angles
u* visceral hump, which rises from it in the form of a coil as in
ptoneura; in others the visceral hump is not elevated, but is
nded with the foot, and the shell is small or absent (slugs),
iilmonata are widely distinguished from a small number of
ptoneura atone time associated with them on account of their
tie-chamber being converted, as in Pulmonata, into a lung, and
:tenidium or branchial plume aborted. The terrestrial Strepto-
a (represented in England by the common genus Cyclostoma)
c. 5b.— A Series of Stylommatophorous Pulmonata, showing
sitional forms between snail and slug.
, Helix pomoJia. (From Keferstein.)
, Helieophanta brempes. (From Keferstein, after Pfeiffer.)
, Tesiacdla kaliotidea. (From Keferstein.)
, Avion aier, the great black slug. (From Keferstein.)
a. Shell in A. B. C, shell-sac (closed) in D; b, orifice leading
into the subpallial chamber (lung).
: a twisted visceral nerve-loop, an operculum on the foot, a
plex rhipidoglossate or taenio-glossate radula, and are of distinct
k The Pulmonata have a straight visceral nerve-loop, usually
perculum even in the embryo, and a multidcnticulate radula,
teeth being equi-formal; and they are hermaphrodite Some
nonata (Ltmnaea, &c.) live in fresh waters although breathing
The remarkable discovery has been made
in deep lakes such Ltmnaei do not
the air, but admit water to the lung-sac
live at the bottom. The lung-sac serves
)ubtedly as a hydrostatic apparatus in
aquatic Pulmonata, as well as assisting
i ration.
ae same general range of body-form is Fig. 57.— Ancylns
m in Pulmonata as in the Hcteropoda fluviatiiis, a patent*
in the Opisthobranchia; at one extreme form aquatic Pul-
liave snails with coiled visceral hump, at monate.
other cylindrical or flattened slugs (see . % M
56). Limpet-like forms are also found (fig. 57. Ancytns). The
b always simple, 'with its flat crawling surface extending from
to end. but in tin embryo L imna t a it shows a totobed char-
ier, -which leads on to the condition characteristic of Ptcropoda.
5^4
GASTROPODA
The adaptation of the Pulmonata to terrestrial life has entailed
little modification of the internal organisation. In one genua
{Planorbu) the plasma of the blood is coloured red by haemoglobin,
this being the onlv instance of the presence of this body in the blood
of Glossophorous Mollusca, though it occurs in corpuscles in the blood
of the bivalves Area and Sokn (Lankester).
The generative apparatus of the snail {Helix) may serve as an
example of the hermaphrodite apparatus common to the Pubnonata
and Opisthobranchia (fig. 58). From
the ovo-testis, which lies near the apex
of the visceral coil, a common herma-
phrodite duct ve proceeds, which
receives the duct of the compact white
albuminiparous gland, Ed, and then
becomes much enlarged, the additional
width being due to the development of
glandular folds, which arc regarded as
forming a uterus m. Where these folds
cease the common duct splits into two
portions, a male and a female. The
male duct vd becomes fleshy and
muscular near its termination at the
genital pore, forming the penis ft.
Attached to it is a diverticulum ft, in
which the spermatozoa which have
descended from the ovo-testis arc
stored and modelled into sperm ropes
or spermatophores. The female por-
tion of the duct is more complex. Soon
after quitting the uterus it is joined by
a long duct leading from a glandular
sac the spermatheca (&/). In this duct
and sac the spcrmatopborcs received
in copulation from another snail arc
lodged. In HeHx hortensis the sperma-
theca is simple. In other species of
Helix a second duct (as targe in Helix
F1C.S8.— Hermaphrodite "***'** a » the c £ w ?^ » &•>'?" ? ff
Reproductive Apparatus of from thc »permathcca! duct, and in the
the Garden Sa*i\{Helixkor- natural state is closely adherent to the
tensis). wa " °' tne uterus. This second duct
r . f has normally no spcrmathecal gland at
s, Uvo-testis, j ts termination, which is simple and
ve. Hermaphrodite duct blunt. But in rare cases in Helix
Ed, Albuminiparous gland, aspersa a second spermatheca is found
v. Utcnne dilatation of at thc end of this second duct. Tracing
the hermaphrodite the widening female duct onwards we
r ° uc f' now come to the openings of the
Digitate accessory digitate accessory glands d, d, which
glands on the female probably assist in the formation of the
#- 1 C V t j egg-capsule. Close to them is the rc-
ps K Calcifcrous gland or markable dart-sac ps, a thick-walled
dart-sac on the female MC| j n t he lumen of which a crystalline
0/ c ct " l four-fluted rod or dart consisting of
tXJ, bpermatneca or lecep- carbonate of lime is found. It is sup-
taclc of the sperm in po^d to ^t \ n ^p^ ^y as a stimulant
copulation, opening m copulation, but possibly has to do
into the female duct. w j t h tne calcareous covering of the
to*, Male duct (vas de- egg-capsule. Other Pulmonata exhibit
ferensj. variations of secondary importance in
£• £f m9 ;, the details of this hermaphrodite ap-
fL % Flagcllum. paratus.
The nervous system of Helix is not
favourable, as, an example on account of thc fusion of the ganglia
to form an almost uniform ring of nervous matter around the
oesophagus. The pond-snail (Ltmnaeus) furnishes, on thc other
hand, a very beautiful case of distinct ganglia and connecting
cords (fig. 59). The demonstration which it affords of the ex-
treme shortening of the Euthyneurous visceral nerve-loop is most
Instructive and valuable for comparison
the condition of the nervous centres in
some Opisthobranchia. The figure (fig. 5c.
In the letterpress attached to it ; the pair
by the connectives to the cerebrals are, a
omitted. Here we need only further draw
dium, discovered by Lacaxe-Duthiers, an
agree in its innervation with that organ
On account of the shortness of the viscera
of the right visceral ganglion to the oesopha
to the osphradium and olfactory ganglion ii
of the osphradium corresponds more or les
vanished right ctenidium, with which it is
Helix and Limax the osphradium has 1
possibly its discovery might clear up
been raised as to the nature of the 1
genera. In Planorbu, which is sinistral (as are a few other genera
or exceptional varieties of various Anisopteurous Gastropods).
Instead of being dextral, the osphradium is on the left aide,
19 its nerve from the left visceral ganglion, the
of unitattral organs being .reversed. This ss» as .
fEUTHYNEURA
b in all " reversed "
d.
might be expected, what is found to be the c
Gastropods.
The shell of the Pulmonata, though always light and delicate, bin
many cases a well-developed spiral " house," into which the creature
can withdraw itself; and, although the foot poss esses noopcrcuhim,
yet in Helix the aperture of the shell is closed in the winter by a
complete lid, thc " nybernaculum," mom
which is secreted by the foot. In Clausii
this lid exists permanently in the adult,
to the mouth of the shell, and known
Limnaeus thc permanent shell is preccdi
marked shell-gland or primitive snell-sai
posed to be the developing anus, but
identical with thc " shell-gland " disco\
lusca (Pisidium, Pleurobranckidimm, JV
Gastropoda Anisopleura, this shell-sac
a plug of chitinous matter, but norma
appears, whilst the cap-like rudiment of the permanent shell is shed
out from thc dome-like surface of thc visceral hump, in the centre of
which the shell-sac existed for a brief period.
In Clausii ta, according to the observations of C Gegenbatir, the
primitive shell-sac does not flatten out and disappear, but takes the
form of a flattened closed sac Within this closed sac a plate of cal-
careous matter is developed, and after a time the upper wall of the
sac disappears, and thc calcareous plate continues to grow as the
nucleus of the permanent shell. In the slug Testacetia (fig. 56. C)
the shell-plate never attains a large size, though naked. In other
slugs, namely, Limax and Arion, the shell-sac remains perssanently
closed over the shell-plate, which in the latter genus consists of a
granular mass of carbonate of lime. The permanence of the primi-
tive shell-sac in these slugs is a point of considerable interest. It is
clear em A ply as
(describ g primi-
tive ins dentkal
with on .kiton n
formed, ?_placcd
behind ( Pltetre-
phorus, of shell-
sacs on i find in
Chiton. ig* (and
with it 1 lusca) is
precise!) Icarcous
pen or formed,
is a further question
which we shall con-
sider when dealing
with the Cephalopoda.
It is important here
to note that Clausilia
furnishes us with an
exceptional instance
of the continuity of thc
shell or secreted pro-
duct of the primitive
shell -sac with the
adult shell. In most
other Mollusca (Aniso-
pleurous Gastropods.
Pteropods and Con-
chtfera) there is a want
of such continuity,
the primitive shell-sac
contributes no factor
to the permanent shell,
or only a very minute Fig. 59. — Nervous System of the Poad-
knob • like particle Snail, Ltmnaeus stagnalts, as a type of the
(NcrUtna and Palu- short-looped euthyneurous condition. The
Una). It flattens out short visceral " loop " with its three ganglia
and disappears before is lightly-shaded,
the work of forming C e, Cerebral ganglion,
the permanent shell pe. Pedal ganglion,
commences. And just pi, Pleural ganglion.
as there is a break a b, Abdominal ganglion,
at this stage, so (as sp, Visceral ganglion of the left side; op-
observed by A. Krohn posite to it is the viscera) ganglion of
in Marsema -Echino- the right side, which gives off the long
s^iro) there may be a nerve to the olfactory ganglion and
break at a later stage. osphradium 0.
the nautiloid shell In Planorbts and in A uricnla (Pulmonata,
formed on the larva allied to Ltmnaeus) thc olfactory organ is
being cast, and a new on the left side and receives its nerve from
shell of a different form the left visceral ganglion. ( After SpcngeL)
being formed afresh on
the surface of the visceral hump. It is, then, in this sense that we
may speak of primary, secondary and tertiary shells in Mollusca,
recognising the fact that they may be merely phases fused by con-
tinuity of growth so as to form but one shell, or that in other cases
they may be presented to us as separate individual things, in virtue
of the wwwievelopment of the later phases, or in virtue of sadden
-"- &a the activity of the mantle-surface cattsosg the •heddu*
EUTHYNEURAI
GASTROPODA
525
is entered upon.
The development of the aquatic Pulmonata from the egg c
considerable facilities for study, and that of Limnaeus has I
or disappearance of one phase of shell-formation before a later one
is entered upon.
; offers
.. - _s been
elucidated by E. R. Lankester, whilst H. Rabl has with remarkable
skill applied the method of sections to the study of the minute
embryos of Ptanorbis. The chief features in the development of
Limnaeus are exhibited in fig. 60. There is not a very large amount
of food-material present in the egg of this snail, and accordingly the
cells resulting from division are not so unequal as in many other
cases. The tour cells first formed are of equal size, and then four
smaller cells are formed by division of these four so as to lie at one
end of the first four (the pole corresponding to that at which the
" directive corpuscles ' arc extruded and remain). The smaller cells
now divide and spread over the four larger cells; at the same time
a space — the cleavage cavity or bfastocod — forms in the centre of
the mulberry-like mass. Then the large cells recommence the
process of division and sink into the hollow of the sphere, leaving
an elongated groove, the blastopore, on the surface. The invaginated
cells (derived from the division of the four big cells) form the endo-
derm or arch-enteron ; the outer cells are the ectoderm. The blasto-
pore now closes along the middle part of its course, which coincides
Fie. 60. — Embryo of Limnaeus siagnalis, at a stage when the
Trochosphere is developing foot and shell-gland and becoming a
Vcligcr, seen as a transparent object under slight pressure. (Lan-
kester.)
ph. Pharynx (stomodacal in-
vagination),
r, r, The ciliated band marking
out the velum.
ng. Cerebral nerve-ganglion.
re, Stiebcl's canal (left side), Iff,
probably an evanescent
embryonic nephridium.
attachment to the ecto-
derm is coincident with the
hindmost extremity of the
elongated blastopore of fig.
lies '
**, The primitive shell-i
shell-gland.
pi, The rectal peduncle
pedicle of invagination
in posit ic
becomes
around it
other cxti
in contini
" rectal p«;uui
ture
ftesoblastic (skeletotrophk
and muscular) cHls invest-
ing fi, the bitobed arch-
or enteron or lateral vesicles
of invaginated endoderm,
or which wiff develop into liver,
its /, The foot.
" foot." One end of the blastopore
and an ingrowth of ectoderm takes place
tomodaeum or fore-gut and mouth. The
but the invaginated endoderm cells remain
extremity of the blastopore, and form the
" pedicle of invagination " of Lankester,
xlls retain no contact with the middle region
istopore. The anal opening forms at a late
igrowth or proctodaeum coinciding with the
rectal peduncle (fig. 6o, pi).
the muscular, fibrous and vascular tissues
wo symmetrically disposed " mesoblasts."
e invaginated arch-enteron, partly to cells
rm, which at a very early stage is connected
the invaginated endoderm.- The external
tea through the same changes as in other
u was held previously to Lankester 's obser-
/hen the middle ana hinder regions of the
In, an equatorial ridge of dilated cells' 2s
•mbryo into a typical trochosphere.
es below the mouth, and the post-oral benri*
rre grows more rapidly then the anterior or
oot shows a bilobed form. Within the velar
area the eyes and the cephalic' tentacles commence to rise up. and
on the surface of the post-oral region b formed a cap-like shell and
aa encircling ridge, which gradually increases in pranineace sad
becoasw the tody depending ■antic skirt. TkeoutUaeof Um velar
area b ecomes strongly emarginated and can be traced through the
more mature embryos to the cephalic lobes or labial processes of the
adult Limnaeus (fig. 61).
The increase of the visceral dome, its spiral twisting, and the
gradual closure of the space overhung by the mantle-skirt so as to
Fie. 61. — A, B, C Three views of Limnaeus stagualis, in order to
show the persistence of the larval velar area 9, as the circum-oral lobes
of the adult, m. Mouth; /, foot; », velar area, the margin 9 corre-
sponding with the ciliated band which demarcates the velar area
or velum of the embryo Gastropod (see fig. 4, D, E, F, H, 1, v).
(Original:)
convei
T
when <
out fr
was si
at the
slight
of the
from 1
pcdicl
vagiiu
are s»
in the
of inv;
the st<
rectal
secreti
Limnc
FartlM
nerve-
able o
on eat
seen, 1
arc pei
inafu
ridia <
Limnc
them i
typica
they 1
state,
appeal
other 1
projec
are ck
Pulmonata.
Marine Pulmonata. — Whilst the Pulmonata are essentially a
terrestrial and fresh-water group, there is one genus of slug-like
Fig. to.—Ortcuiium langanum, a littoral Pulmonate, found on the
shores of the Indian and Pacific Oceans (Mauritius, Japan).
Pulmonates which frequent the sea-coast {Oncidium, fig. 6a). Karl
Semper has shown that these slugs have, in addition to the usual
pair of cephalic eyes, a number of eyes developed upon the- dorsal
integument. These dorsal eyes are very perfect in elaboration,
possessing lens, retinal nerve-end cells, retinal pigment and optic
nerve. Curiously enough, however, they diner from the cephalic
M oHuoca n eye in the fact that, ma i '' -"■ '*- "
U the optic nerve neailrste the retime.
t. aa in the vertebrate eye, the fifauaeats
the retiaa, and are conne cte d with the
526
GASTROTRICHA
surfaces of the
opposite end.
but it is importa
others, that in I
eyes upon the
there is the sam
the retinal cells.
probably been <
coexist in an ur
according to K.
thalmus, and th<
them to escape from this enemy.
Sub-order i. — Basommatophora. Pulmonata with an external
shell. The head bears a single pair of contractile but not invaginable
tentacles, at the base of which are the eyes. Penis at some distance
from the female aperture, except in Amphibola and Sipkonarta.
All have an osphradium, except the Auriculidae, which are terres-
trial, and it is situated outside the pallial cavity in those forms in
which water is not admitted into the lung. There is a vcligcr stage
in development, but the velum is reduced.
Fam. i. — Auriculidae. Terrestrial and usually littoral; genital
duct monaulic, the penis being connected with the aperture by
an open or closed groove; shell with a prominent spire, the
internal partitions often absorbed and the aperture denticulated.
Auricula. Cassidula. Alexia. Mdampus. Carychium,
terrestrial, British. Scarabus. Leuconia, British. Btouneria.
Pedipcs.
Fam. 2.—0tiniiae. Shell with short spire, and wide oval aperture;
tentacles short. Otina, British. Camptonyx, terrestrial.
Fam. 3. — Amphibolidae. Shell spirally coiled; head broad,
without prominent tentacles; foot short, opcrculated; marine.
Amphibola.
Fam. 4. — Sipkonariidae. Visceral mass and shell conical; ten-
tacles atrophied; head expanded; genital apertures con-
tiguous; marine animals, with an aquatic pallial cavity con-
taining secondary branchial laminae. Siphonaria.
Fam. s.—Gadiniidoe. Visceral mass and shell conical; head
flattened; pallial cavity aquatic, but without a branchia;
genital apertures separated. Cadinia.
Fam. 6. — Ckilinidae. Shell ovoid, with short spire, wide aperture
and folded columella; inferior pallial lobe thick; visceral
commissure still twisted. Ckilina.
Fam. 7. — Limnaeidae. Shell thin, dextral, with prominent spire
and oval aperture; no inferior pallial lobe. Ltmnaea, British.
Ampkipeptea, British.
Fam. 8. — Fompkolygidae. Shell dextral, hyperstrophic, animal
sinistral. Pompkolyx. Choanompkalus.
Fam. 9. — Planorbidae. Visceral mass and 6hell sinistral ; inferior
pallia! lobe very prominent, and transformed iu'o a branchia,
Planorbis, British. Bulinus. Mirotesta.
Fam. 10. — AncyUdae. Shell conical, not spiral; inferior pallial
lobe transformed into a branchia. Ancylus, British. Lotto,
Grundlackia.
Fam. ii.—Pkysido*. Visceral mass and shell sinistrally coiled;
shell thin, with narrow aperture; no inferior pallial lobe. Physa,
British. ApUxo, British.
Sub-order a.— Stylommatophoia. Pulmonata with two pairs
of tentacles, except JaneUidae and Vertigo; these tentacles are in-
vaginable, and the eyes are borne on the summits of the posterior
pair. Male and female genital apertures open into a common vesti-
bule, except in Vaginuluiae and Oncidiidae. Except in Oncidium,
there is no longer a veliger stage in development.
Tribe 1. — Holognatha. jaw simple, without a superior ap-
pendage.
Fam. 1. — SeUnitUae. Radula with elongated and pointed teeth,
like those of the Agnatha; a jaw present. Pluhnia. Trigo-
nocklamys.
Fam. 2.—ZonUidae. Shell external, smooth, belicifonn or
flattened; radula. with pointed marginal teeth. ZoniUs,
British. Ariophanta. OrpteUa. Vitrina. Hdicarion.
Fam. $.—Limacidae. Shell internal. Umax. British. Parma-
cella. Urocvclus. Pomarien, Amelia. Agrialimax.
Maolimax. Monockrmma, Paralimax. MetaUmax.
Fam. ^.—Philomycidae. No shell; mantle covers the whole
surface of the body; radula with squarish teeth. Philomyxus.
Fam. S.—OitracUdkida*. Shell largely chitinous, not spiral, its
calcareous apex projecting through a small hole in the mantle.
OttratoUtk*.
Fam. 6.—Arionidae. Shell internal, or absent; mantle restricted
to the anterior and middle part of the body; radula with
squarish teeth. A rion, British. Geomalocns. Ariolimax. Ana-
denus.
Fam. 7.—HeKcidae. Shell with medium spire, external or partly
covered by the mantle; genital aperture below the right pos-
terior tentacle; genital apparatus generally provided with a
dart-sac and multifid vesicles. Helix, British. Bulimus.
HemihWia. Berendtia. Cochlostyia. Rhode*,
Fam. &.—Ewiodonlidae, Shell external, spiral, generally orna-
mented with ribs; borders of aperture thin and not reflected ;
radula with oquan teeth; genital ducts without accessory
organs. Endodonta. Puncium. Sphyradium. Laoma. Pyn,
mtdula.
Fam. 9. — Ortkalicidoe. Shell external, ovoid, the last whorl
swollen, aperture oval with a simple border; radular teeth ia
oblique rows. Orihalicus.
Fam. 10. — Bulimulidae. Jaw formed of folds imbricated exter-
nally and meeting at an acute angle near the base. Buiimudus.
PelieUa, Ampktbulimus.
Fam. 11. — Cyiindrdluiae. Shell turriculatcd, with numerous
wnorls, the last more or less detached. CyliudreUa.
Fam. 1 a.— Pupidae. Shell external, with elongated spire and
numerous whorls, aperture generally narrow; male genital
duct without multifid vesicles. Pupa, British. Eucolodium.
Vertigo, British. Buliminus, British. Clausilia, British. Belt*.
Zospeum. Megaspira, Strophia. Anostoma,
Shelf elongated, with a more or lest
re with a simple border. Ackattna.
British. CioneUa. Caeciliaudla.
Shell bulimoid, dextral or sinistral;
u their extremities and multicusptdau.
jaws; teeth narrow and pointed;
etl oval, elongated, with narrow aper-
ture; neck very long; labial palps prominent. OUacina
(Glandina). Streptostyia.
Fam. 2. — TestaceUidae. Shell globular or auriform, external or
partly covered by the mantle. Streptaxu. Cibbulina. Aerope.
Rhyiida. Doudebardia. TestaceUa. Chlamydopkorus. Scktse-
gtossa.
Fam. 3. — Ratkouisiidae. No shell, a carinated mantle covering
the whole body ; male and female apertures distant, the female
near the anus. Raikouina. Atopos.
Tribe 3.— Elasmocnatua. Jaw with a well-developed doraal
appendage.
Fam. 1. — Succineidae. Anterior tentacles much reduced; male
and female apertures contiguous but distinct; shell thin,
spiral, with short spire. Succinea, British. Homalonyx. Hya-
Umax. Ncokralimax.
Fam. 2. — JaneUidae. Limaciform, with internal rounded shell;
mantle very small and triangular; pulmonary chamber with
tracheae; no anterior tentacles. JaneUa. AneitcUa. Aneiteo.
Triboniohkorus.
Tribe 4. — Ditreiiata. Male and female apertures distant.
Fam. li — Vaginulidae. No shell; limaciform; terrestrial;
female aperture on right side in middle of body ; anus posterior.
Vaginu&T ^
Fam. a. — Oncidiidae. No shell; limaciform; littoral; female
aperture posterior, near anus; a reduced pulmonary cavity
with a distinct aperture. Oncidium. OncidieUa, British.
Pernio,
GASTROTRICHA, a small group of fairly uniform animals
which live among Rotifers and Protozoa at the bottom of ponds
and marshes, hiding amongst the recesses of the algae and
sphagnum and other fresh-water plants and eating organic
debris and Infusoria. They are of minute size varying from one-
sixtieth to one-three-hundredth of an inch, and they move by
means of long cilia. Two ventral bands composed of regular
transverse rows of cilia are usually found. The head bears some
especially large cilia. The cuticle which covers the body is here
and there raised into overlapping scales which may be prolonged
into bristles. An enlarged, frontal scale may cover the head, and
a tow of vote* sjepaxajbea the ventral ciliated areas from one
GATAKER— GATE
527
another, whilst two series of alternating rows cover the back and
side. The body, otherwise circular in section, is slightly flattened
vent rally. The mouth is anterior and slightly ventral; it leads
into a protrusible pharynx armed with recurved teeth that can be
Bo everted. This leads to a muscular
■*- oesophagus with a tri radiate lumen,
which acts as a sucking pump and
ends in 'a funnel-valve projecting
into the stomach. The last named
is oval and formed of four rows of
large cells; it is separated by a
sphincter from the rectum, which
opens posteriorly and dorsally.
The nitrogenous excretory appara-
tus consists of a coiled tube on each
side of the stomach; internally the
tubes end in large flame-cells, and
externally by small pores which lie
on the edges of the ventral row of
scales. A cerebral ganglion rests on
the oesophagus and supplies the
cephalic cilia and hairs; it is con-
tinued some way back as two dorsal
nerve trunks. The sense organs are
the hairs and bristles and in some
species eyes. The muscles are simple
and unstriated and for the most part
run longitudinally.
The two ovaries lie at the level of
the juncture of the stomach and
rectum. The eggs become very
large, sometimes half the length of
the mother; they are laid amongst
nun. water weeds. The male reproductive
Chaelonotus maximux, system is bat little known, a small
Ehrb., ventral side. (After gland lying between the ovaries has
£ hn !? :) .i a- b«en thought to be a testis, and if
• the^ou?h roU g «* be, the Gastrotricha are henna-
ds. Dorsal bristles. phrodite.
hCi. Posterior lateral cilia. Zelinka classifies the group as fol-
A>, Cuticular dome, lows:—
Mr, Oral cavity. Sub-order 1.— EuiCHTHYDiNA with a
IT. Lateral scnsor>' hairs, forked tail.
PI, Cuticular plates. (i.) Fam. Irhthydidae, without
Sa, Dorsal bristle of the bristles. Genera : hktkydium, Lcpxdo-
ba&al part. derma.
Srk, Plates. (ii.) Fam. Chactonotidac, with
Sf, Lateral bristles. bristles. Genera: Ckaetonotus,
Vb, Point of union of cili- Chaelura.
ated tract. Sub-order a. — Apodika, tail not
•Ci, Anterior group of cilia, forked. Genera: Dasydytes, Gossea,
tS, Ventral bristles of the SlyhckatJa.
basal part. The genus Asfndiopkorus recently
described by Voigt seems in some
respects intermediate between Lepidoderma and Ckaetonotus.
Zclmkia and Philosyrtis are two slightly aberrant forms described
by Curd from certain diatomaceous sands. Altogether there must
be some forty to fifty described species.
The group is an isolated one and shows no clear affinities with any
of the great phyla. Those that are usually dwelt on are treated
with the Rotifers and Nematoda and Turbdlaria.
Literature.— A. C. Stokes, Tke Microscope (Detroit, 1 887-1 888) ;
C. Zelinka, Zeitsckr. wiss. Zoo!, xlix., 1890, p. 309; M. Voigt,
Forsckber. Plou. Th. ix.. 1004. p. 1 ; A. Giard, C. R. Soc. Bid. Ivi.
Sp. 1061 and 1063; E. Daday, Termes. Futetek. xxiv. p. 1; F.
schokkc, Denk. Schceiz. Ges. xxxvii. p. 109; S. Hlava. tool. Ant.
xxviii., 1905, p. 331. (A. E. S.)
GATAKER, THOMAS (1574-1654), English divine, was born
in London in September 1 574, and educated at St John's College,
Cambridge. From 1601 to 16x1 he held the appointment of
preacher to the society of Lincoln's Inn, which he resigned on
accepting the rectory of Rolhcrhithc. In 1642 he was chosen a
member of the assembly of divines at Westminster, and annotated
for that assembly the books of Isaiah, Jeremiah and Lamenta-
tions. He disapproved of the introduction of the Covenant,
and declared himself in favour of episcopacy. He was one of
the- forty-aeven London clergymen who disapproved of the
trial of Charles I. He was married four times, and died in July
His principal works, besides some volumes of sermon s are— -On
Ik* Nature and Us* 0/ Lots (1619), a curious treatise which led to his
being accused of favouring games of chance; DisserlaHo it styU
Novt Testamenti (1648); Ctnnus, swe Adversaria miscellanea, in
quibus Sacra* Scriptura* prima, dtind* aliontm scriptarum, loci*
aliquam muUis lux reddiiur (1651), to which was afterwards sub-
joined Adversaria Postkuma; and his edition of Marcus Antoninus
(1652), which, according to Hallam, is the " earliest edition of any
classical writer published in England with original annotations,
and, for the period at which it was written, posse ig ei remarkable
merit. His collected works were published at Utrecht in 1698.
OATCHINA, a town of Russia, in the government of St Peters-
burg, 29 m. by rail S. of the city of St Petersburg, in 59°34'N. and
30° 6' E. Pop. (i860) 9184; (1897) 14,735- It » situated in a
flat, well-wooded, and partly marshy district, and on the south
side of the town are two lakes. Among its more important
buildings are the imperial palace, which was founded in 1770 by
Prince Orlov, and constructed according to the plans of the
Italian architect Rinaldi; a military orphanage, founded in
1803; and a school for horticulture. Among the few industrial
establishments is a porcelain factory. At Gatchina an alliance
was concluded between Russia and Sweden on the aoth of October
1700.
GATE, an opening into any enclosure for entrance or exit,
capable of being closed by a barrier at will. The word is of wide
application, embracing not only the defensive entrance ways into
a fortified place, with which this article mainly deals, or the
imposing architectural features which form the main entrances to
palaces, colleges, monastic buildings, &c, but also the common
five-barred barrier which closes an opening into a field. The most
general distinction that can be made between " door " and
" gate " is that of size, the greater entrance into a court contain-
ing other buildings being the "gate," the smaller entrances
opening directly into the particular buildings the " doors/' or
that of construction, the whole entrance way being a " gate " or
gateway, the barrier which closes it a " door." A further dis-
tinction is drawn by applying " door " to the solid barriers or
" valves " of wood, metal, &c, made in panels and fitted to a
framework, and " gate " to an openwork structure, whether of
metal or wood (see further D001 and Metal-wohk). The
ultimate origin of the word is obscure; the early forms appear
with a palatalized initial letter, still surviving in such dialectical
forms as " yate," or in Scots " yett." It is probably connected
with the root of " get," in the sense cither of " means of access "
or of " holding," " receptacle "; cf. Dutch gat, hole. There maybe
a connexion, however, with " gate," now usually spelled " gait,"
a manner of walking, 1 but originally a way, passage; cf. Ger.
Gasse, narrow street, lane.
The entrance through the enclosing walls of a city or fortifica-
tion has been from the earliest times a place of the utmost
importance, considered architecturally, socially or from the point
of view of the military engineer. In the East the " gate " was
and still is in many Mahommedan countries the central place of
civic life. Here was the seat of justice and of audience, the most
important market-place, the spot where men gathered to receive
and exchange news. The references in the Bible to the gates of
the city in all these varied aspects are innumerable (cf. Gen. xix.
1 ; Deut. xxv. 7; Ruth iv. 1 ; 2 Sam. xix. 8; 2 Kings vii. x). Later
the seat of justice and of government is transferred to the gate of
the palace of the king (cf. Dan. ii. 49, and Esther ii. 19), and this
use is preserved to-day in the official title of the seat of govern-
ment of the Turkish empire at Constantinople, the " Sublime
Porte," a translation of the Turkish Bab Aliy (beb, gate, and aliy,
high). A full account with many modern instances of Eastern
customs will be found in Sir Charles Warren's article " Gate " in
1 The spelling " gait " is confined to this meaning— the only literary
one surviving. In the form " gate " it appears dialcctally in this
sense and in such particular meanings as a rijjht to run cattle on
common or private ground or as a passage way in mines. The prin-
cipal survival is in nafcies of streets in the north and midlands of
England and in Scotland, e.g. Briggate at Leeds, Wheeler Gate and
Castle Gate at Nottingham, Gaflow Tree Gate at f '
CasxmgattatKlCo«i*Ua£bdJutarf^.
528
GATE
Hastings's Did. of Bible. For the " pylon," the typical gate of
Egyptian architecture, see Architecture.
The gates into a walled town or other fortified place were
necessarily in early times the chief points on which the attack
concentrated, and the features, common throughout the ages, of
flunking or surmounting towers and of galleries over the entrance
way, are found in the Assyrian gate at Khorsabad (cf. * Chron.
xxvi. 9; 2 Sam. zviii. 24). With the coming of peaceful times to
a city or the removal of the fear of sudden attack, the gateways
would take a form adapted more for ready exit and entrance
than for defence, though the possibility of defending them was
not forgotten. Such city gates often had separate openings
for entrance and exit, and again for foot passengers and for
vehicles. The Gallo-Roman gate at Autun has four entrances,
two just wide enough to admit carriages, and two narrow alleys
for foot passengers. A fine example of a Roman city gate, dating
from the time of Constantine, is at Tr&ves. It is four storeys
high, with ornamental windows, and decorated with columns
on each storey. The two outer wings project beyond the central
part, the two entrance ways are 14 ft. wide, and could be closed by
doors and a portcullis. The chambers in the storeys above were
osed for the purposes of civil administration. In more modern
times city gateways have often followed the type of the Roman
triumphal arch, with a single wide opening and purely ornamental
superstructure. On the other hand, the defensive gate formed
by an archway entering as it were through a tower has been
constantly followed as a type of entrance to buildings of an
entirely peaceful character. A fine example of such a gateway,
originally built for defence, is at Battle Abbey; this was built
by Abbot Retlynge in 1338, when Edward III. granted a licence
to fortify and crenellate the abbey. Such gateways are typical
of Tudor palaces, as at St James's or at Hampton Court, and arc
the most common form in the colleges of Oxford and Cambridge.
The Tom Gate at Christ Church, Oxford, with its surmounted
domed bell tower, or the cupola resting on columns at Queen's
College, Oxford, are further examples of the gate architecturally
considered.
The changes the fortified gateway has undergone in construction
and the varying relative importance it has held in the scheme
of defence follow the lines of development taken by the history
of Fortification and Siececrapt (q.v.). The following is a
short sketch of the main stages in its history. A good example
of the Roman fortified city gate still remains at Pompeii. Here
there is one passage way for vehicles, 14 ft. wide; this is open to
the sky. The two footways on either side are arched, with
openings in the centre on to the central way. The doors of the
gate are on the city side, but a portcullis (cataracla) closed it
on the country side. The gateways of the Roman permanent
camps (castra statha) were four in number, the porta praetoria
and Decumana at either end, with principalis dextra and sinistra
on the side (see abo Camp). At Pevensey (Anderida) a small
postern on the north side of the Roman walls was laid bare
in 1906-1007, in which the passage curves in the thickness of the
wall, and from a width admitting two men abreast narrows so
that one alone could block it. Flanking towers or bastions
guarded the main entrances, while in front were built outworks,
of palisades, &c, to protect it; these were known as pro-
eastra or antemuraUa, and the entrances to these were placed
so that they could be flanked from the main walls.
In the defence of a fortified place the gate had not only to be
protected from sudden surprise, but also had to undergo pro-
tracted attacks concentrated upon it during a siege. Thus until
the coming of gunpowder, the ingenuity of military engineers
was exhausted in accumulating fbe most complicated defences
round the gateways, and the strength of a fortified place could
be estimated by the fewness of it* gates. Viollet-le-Duc {Did.
it Parch, du moyen dge, s.v. Porte) takes the Narbonne and Aude
gates (E. and W.) of Carcassonne as typical instances of this
complication. The following brief account of the Narbonne
Gate (fig. i),one of the principal parts of the work on the fortifica-
tions begun by Philip the Bold in 1285, will give some idea of
the varied means of defence, which may be found individually it
not always in such collective abundance in the fortified gateway!
of the middle ages. Two massive towers flanked the actual
entrance and were linked across by an iron chain; over the
entrance (E) was a machicolation, further added to in timed
war by a hoarding of timber; and an outer portcullis fell in
front of the heavy iron-lined doors. On to the passage way
between the first and second doors opened a square machicolation
(G) from which the defenders in the upper chambers of the gate
could attack an enemy that had succeeded in breaking through
the first entrance or had been trapped by the falling of the first
portcullis. Another machicolation (I) opened from the roof in
front of the second portcullis and second door. So much for the
gate itself; but before an attack could reach that point, the
following defences bad to be passed: an immense circular
barbican (A) protected the entrance across the moat and through
the outer enceinte of the city. This entrance was flanked by a
masked return of the wall (C), while palisades (P) still further
hampered the assailant in his passage across the " lists n to the
foot of the gate towers. Here sappers would find themselves
exposed to a fire from the loopholes and from the machicolated
hoardings above them, while the projecting horns with which
TteOtjr
Fig. i.— Plan of the Narbonne Gate of the city of Carcassonne,
the face of the towers terminated forced them to uncover them-
selves to a flanking fire from the indents in the main curtain on
either side of the towers.
The later history of the gateway is merged in that of modem
fortification. The more elaborate the gate defences the greater
was the inducement for the besieger to attack the walls, and
improvements in methods of siegecraft ultimately compelled the
defender to develop the enceinte from its medieval form of a ring
wall with flanking towers to the 17th century form of bastions,
curtains, tenailles and ravelins, all intimately connected in one
general scheme of defence. By Vauban's time there is little to
distinguish the position and defences of the gateways from the
rest of the fortifications surrounding a town. A road from the
country usually entered one of the ravelins, sinking into the
glacis, crossing the ditch of the ravelin and piercing the parapet
almost at right angles to its proper direction (see fig. a, which
also shows a typical arrangement of minor communications
such as ramps and staircases). From the interior of the ravelin
it passed across the main ditch to a gate in the curtain of the
enceinte. The road was in fact artificially made to wind in such a
way that it was kept under fire from the defences throughout, while
the part of it inside the works was bent so as to place a covering
mass between the enemy's fire and troops using the road for a
sortie. Thus the gate itself was merely a barrier against a coup
de main and to keep out unauthorized persons. In conditions
precluding the making of a breach in the walls, i.e. in surprises
and assaults de the force, the gateway and accompanying
drawbridge continue to play their part in the 16th, 17th and
18th centuries, but they seldom or never appear as the objectives
of a siege en regie. In Vauban's works, and those of most other
engineers, there was generally a postern giving access to the
floor of the main ditch, in the centre of the curtain escarp. The
gates of Vauban's and later fortresses are strong heavy wooden
GATEHOUSE— GATESHEAD
5*9
doors, and the gateways more or leas ornamental archways,
exactly as in many private mansions oC castellar form. In
modern fortresses the gate of a detached fort or an cnceinU dc
sureti is intended purely as a defence against an unexpected
rush. Tne usual method is to have two gates, the outer one a
lattice or portcullis of iron bars and the inner one a plate of half-
inch steel armour, backed by wood and loopholed. The defenders
of the gate can by this arrangement fire from the inner loopholes
through the outer gate upon the approaches, and also keep the
enemy under fire whilst he is trying to force the outer gate
Fig. a. — Plan of Gate Arrangements of an i8th Century Fortress.
itself. The ditches are crossed cither by drawbridges or by ramps
leading the road down to the floor of the ditch.
The " gate " as a barrier to be removed and as an entrance
to be passed is of constant occurrence in figurative language
and in symbolical usage. The gates of the temple of Janus (?.».)
at Rome stood open in war and closed in peace. The pylon of
ancien t Egypt had a symbolical meaning in the Book of the Dead,
and religious significance attaches to the torii, one of the outward
signs of the Shinto religion in Japan, the Buddhist (or art, and to
the Chinese pai4oo, the honorific gateways erected to ancestors.
The gates of heaven and hell, the gates of death and darkness,
the wide and narrow gates that lead to destruction and life
(Matt. vii. 13 and 14), arc familiar metaphorical phrases in the
Bible. In Greek and Roman legend dreams pass through
gates of transparent horn if true, if deceptive and false
through opaque gates of ivory (Horn. Od. xix. 560 sq.; Virg.
Aen. vL 893). (C. Wb.)
GATEHOUSE. In the second half of the 16th century in
England the entrance gateway, which formed part of the principal
front of the earlier feudal castles, became a detached feature
attached to the mansions only by a wall enclosing the entrance
court. The gatehouse then constituted a structure of some
importance, and included sometimes many rooms as at Stanway
Hall, Gloucestershire, where it measures 44 ft. by as ft. and has
three storeys; at Westwood, Worcestershire, it had a frontage
of 54 ft. with two storeys; and at Burton Agnes, Yorkshire,
it was still larger and was flanked by great octagonal towers
at the angles and had three storeys. At a later period smaller
accommodation was provided so that it virtually became a lodge,
but being designed to harmonize with the mansion it presented
sometimes a monumental structure. On the continent of
Europe the gatehouse forms a much more important building,
as it formed part of the town fortifications, where it sometimes
defended the passage of a bridge across the stream or moat.
There are numerous examples in France and Germany.
GATES, HORATIO (1728-1806), American general, was born
at Maldon in Essex, England, in 1728. He entered the English
army at an early age, and was rapidly promoted. He accom-
panied General Braddock in his disastrous expedition against
Fort Duquesne in 1755, and was severely wounded in the battle
of July 9; and he saw other active service in the Seven Years'
War. After the peace of 1 763 he purchased an estate in Virginia,
where be lived till the outbreak of the War of Independence hi
177$, when he was named by Congress adjutant-general. In 1776
be was appointed to command the troops which had lately
retreated from Canada, and in August 1777, as a result of a
successful intrigue, was appointed to supersede General Pbflir)
Schuyler in command of the Northern Department. In the two
battles of Saratoga (?.«.) bis army defeated General Burgoyne,
who, on the 17th of October, was forced to surrender his whole
army. This success was, however, largely due to the previous
manoeuvres of Schuyler and to Gates's subordinate officers. The
intrigues of the Conway Cabal to have Washington superseded
by Gates completely failed, but Gates was president for a time
of the Board of War, and in 1780 was placed in chief command in
the South. He was totally defeated at Camden, S.C., by Corn-
waliis on the 17th of August 1780, and in December was super-
seded by Greene, though an investigation into his conduct
terminated in acquittal (1782). He then retired to his Virginian
estate, whence he removed to New York in 1700, after emancipat-
ing his slaves and providing for those who needed assistance.
He died in New York on the 10th of April 1806.
GATESHEAD, a municipal, county and parliamentary
borough of Durham, England; on the S. bank of the Tyne
opposite Newcastle, and on the North Eastern railway. Pop.
(1891) 85,692; (1901) 109,888. Though one of rthe largest
towns in the county, neither its streets nor its public buildings,
except perhaps its ecclesiastical buildings, have much claim
to architectural beauty. The parish church of St Mary is an
ancient cruciform edifice surmounted by a lofty tower; but
extensive restoration was necessitated by a fire in 1854 which
destroyed a considerable part of the town. The town-hall, public
library and mechanic's institute are noteworthy buildings.
Education is provided by a grammar school, a large day school
for girls, and technical and art schools. There is a service of
steam trams in the principal streets, and three fine bridges
connect the town with Newcastle-upon-Tyne. There are large
iron works (including foundries and factories for engines, boilers,
chains and cables), shipbuilding yards, glass manufactories,
chemical, soap and candle works, brick and tile works, breweries
and tanneries. The town also contains a depot of the North
Eastern railway, with large stores and locomotive works. Exten-
sive coal mines exist in the vicinity; and at Gateshead Fell are
large quarries for grindstones, which are much esteemed and are
exported to all parts of the world. Large gas-works of the
Newcastle and Gateshead Gas Company are also situated in the
borough. The parliamentary borough returns one member.
The corporation consists of a mayor, 9 aldermen, and 27
councillors. Area, 3132 acres.
Gateshead (Gateshewed) probably grew up during late Saxon
times, the mention of the church there in which Bishop Walcher
was murdered in 1080 being the first evidence of settlement..
The borough probably obtained its charter during the following
century, for Hugh de Puiset, bishop of Durham (n 53-1 195),
confirmed to his burgesses similar rights to those of the burgesses
of Newcastle, freedom of toll within the palatinate and other
privileges. The bishop had a park here in 1348, and in 1438
Bishop Nevill appointed a keeper of the " tower." The position
of the town led to a struggle with Newcastle over both fishing
and trading rights. An inquisition of 1322 declared that the
water of the Tyne was divided into three parts: the northern,
belonging to Northumberland; the southern to Durham; and
the central, common to all. At another inquisition held in 1336-
ihe men of Gateshead claimed liberty of trading and fishing
along the coast of Durham, and freedom to sell their fish where
they would. In 1552, on the temporary extinction of the
diocese of Durham, Gateshead was attached to Newcastle, but
in 1554 was regranted to Bishop Tunstall. As compensation
the bishop granted to Newcastle, at a nominal rent, the Gateshead'
salt-meadows, with rights of way to the High Street, thus'
abolishing the toll previously paid to the bishop. During the
next century Bishop Tunst all's successors incorporated nearly
all the various trades of Gateshead, and Cromwell continued
this policy. The town government during this period was by
53°
GATH— GAUDEN
the bishop's bailiff, and the holders of the burgages composed
the juries of the bishop's courts leet and baron. No charter of
incorporation is extant, but in 1563 contests were carried on
under the name of the bailiffs, burgesses and commonalty, and
a list of borough accounts exists for 1696. The bishop appointed
the last borough bailiff in 1681, and though the inhabitants in
1772 petitioned for a bailiff the town remained under a steward
and grassmen until the 19th century. As part of the palatinate
of Durham, Gateshead was not represented in parliament until
1832. At the inquisition of 1336 the burgesses claimed an annual
fair on St Peter's Day, and depositions in 1 577 mention a borough
market held on Tuesday and Friday, but these were apparently
extinct in Camden's day, and no grant of them is extant. The
medieval trade seems to have centred round the fisheries and the
neighbouring coal mines which are mentioned in 1364 and also
by Leland.
OATH, one of the five chief cities of the Philistines. It is
frequently mentioned in the historical books of the Old Testament,
and from Amos vi. 2 we conclude that, like Ashdod, it fell to
S argon in 711. Its site appears to have been known in the 4th
century, but the name is now lost. Eusebius (in the Onomastkon)
places it near the road from Eleutheropolis (Beit Jibrin) to
Diospolis (Ludd) about five Roman miles from the former. The
Roman road between these two towns is still traceable, and its
milestones remain in places. East of the road at the required
distance rises a white cliff, almost isolated, 300 ft. high and
full of caves. On the top is the little mud village of Tell es-§afi
(" the shining mound "), and beside the village is the mound
which marks the site of the Crusaders' castle of Blanchegarde
(Alba Custodia), built in 1144. Tell es-§&fi was known by its
present name as far back as the 12th century; but it appears
not improbable that the strong site here existing represents
the ancient Gath. The cliff stands on the south side of the
mouth of the Valley of Elan, and Gath appears to have been
near this valley (1 Sam. xvii. 2, 52). This identification is not
certain, but it is at least much more probable than the theory
which makes Gath, Eleutheropolis, and Beit Jibrin one and the
same place. The 'site was partially excavated by the Palestine
Exploration Fund in 1899, and remains extending in date
back to the early Canaanite period were discovered.
GATUNG, RICHARD JORDAN (1818-1903), American in-
ventor, was born in Hertford county, North Carolina, on the
1 2th of September 1818. He was the son of a well-to-do planter
and slave-owner, from whom he inherited a genius for mechanical
invention and whom he assisted in the construction and perfecting
of machines for sowing cotton seeds, and for thinning the plants.
He was well educated and was successively a school teacher and a
merchant, spending all his spare time in developing new inven-
tions. In 1839 he perfected a practical screw propeller for steam-
boats, only to find that a patent had been granted to John
Ericsson for a similar invention a few months earlier. He estab-
lished himself in St Louis, Missouri, and taking the cotton-
sowing machine as a basis he adapted it for sowing rice, wheat and
other grains, and established factories for its manufacture. The
introduction of these machines did much to revolutionize the
agricultural system in the country. Becoming interested in the
study of medicine through aYi attack of smallpox, he completed a
course at the Ohio Medical College, taking his M.D. degree in 1850.
In the same year he invented a hemp-breaking machine, and in
1857 a steam plough. At the outbreak of the Civil War he was
living in Indianapolis, and devoted himself at once to the perfect-
ing of fire-arms. In 1861 he conceived the idea of the rapid fire
machine-gun which is associated with his name. By 1862 be
had succeeded in perfecting a gun that would discharge 350
shots per minute; but the war was practically over before the
Federal authorities consented to its official adoption. From that
time, however, the success of the invention was assured, and
within ten years it had been adopted by almost every civilized
nation. Gat ling died in New York City on the 26th of February
I GATTY, MARGARET ( 1 800-187 3) , English writer, daughter of
the Rev. Alexander Scott (1768-1840), chaplain to Lord Nelson,
was born at Burnham, Essex, in 1809. She early began to draw
and to etch on copper, being a regular visitor to the print-room
of the British Museum from the age of ten. She also illuminated
on vellum, copying the old strawberry borders and designing
initials. In 1S39 Margaret Scott married the Rev. Alfred Gatty,
D.D., vicar of Ecclesficld near Sheffield, subdean of York
cathedral, and the author of various works both secular and re-
ligious. In 1842 she published in association with her husband a
life of her father; but her first independent work was The Fairy
Godmother and other Talcs, which appeared In 1851. This was
followed in 1855 by the first of five volumes of Parables from
Nature, the last being published in 187 1. It was under the mm
de plume of Aunt Judy, as a pleasant and instructive writer for
children, that Mrs Catty was most widely known. Before start-
ing Aunt Judy's Magazine in May i860, she had brought out
Aunt Judy's Tales (1858) and Aunt Judy's Letters (1862), and
among the other children's books which she subsequently
published were Aunt Judy's Song Book for Children and Tke
Mother's Book of Poetry. *' Aunt Judy " was the nickname given
by her daughter Juliana Horalia Ewing (e.t.)r* The editor of the
magazine was on the friendliest terms with her young corre-
spondents and subscribers, and her success was largely due to the
sympathy which enabled her to look at things from the child's
point of view. Besides other excellences her children's books
arc specially characterized by wholcsomcness of sentiment and
cheerful humour. Her miscellaneous writings include, in addition
to several volumes of tales, The Old Folks from Home, an account
of a holiday ramble in Ireland; The Travels and Adventures of
Dr WolJ the Missionary (1S61), an autobiography edited by
her; British Sea Weeds (1862); Waifs and Strays of Natural
History (187 1); A Book of Emblems and The Book of Sim-
Dials (1872). She died at Ecdesfield vicarage on the 4th of
October 1873.
GAU, JOHN (c. 1405-? 1553), Scottish translator, was born at
Perth towards the close of the 15th century. He was educated
in St Salvator's College at St Andrews. He appears to have been
in residence at Malmd in 1 533, perhaps as chaplain to the Scots
community there. In that year John Hochstraten, the exiled
Antwerp printer, issued a book by Gau entitled: The Rtiki toy
to the Kingdome of Heuine, of which the chief interest is that it is
the first Scottish book written on the side of the Reformers. It is
a translationof Christiern Pedersen's Den rcttevey till Hiemmerigis
Rige (Antwerp, IS31), for the most part direct, but showing
intimate knowledge in places of the German edition of Urbanus
Rhegius. Only one copy of Gau's text is extant , in the library of
Britwell Court, Bucks. It has been assumed that all the copies
were shipped from Malmd to Scotland, and that the cargo was
intercepted by the Scottish officers on the look out for the
heretical works which were printed abroad in large numbers.
This may explain the silence of all the historians of the Reformed
Church — Knox, Calderwood and Spotiiswood. Gau married in
1536 a Malmd citizen's daughter, bearing the Christian name
Birgitta. She died in 1551, and he in or about 1553.
The first reference to the Ritht Vay appeared in Chalmers's
Caledonia, ii. 616. Chalmers, who was the owner of the unique
volume before it passed into the Britwell Court collection, considered
it to be an original work. David Latng printed extracts for ihe
Bannatyne Club {Miudiany, Hi., 1855). The evidence that the
book is a translation was first given by Sonnenstcin Wendt in a
paper " Om Reformatorcrna i Malmd, in Rordam's Ny Kirke-
nistoriske Samli tiger, ii. (Copenhagen, i860). A complete edition was
edited by A. F. Mitchell for the Scottish Text Society (1888). See
also Lonmcr's Patrick Hamilton.
GAUDEN, JOHN (1605-1662), English bishop and writer,
reputed author of the Eikon Basilike, was born in 1605 at May-
land, Essex, where his father was vicar of the parish. Educated
at Bury St Edmunds school and at St John's College, Cambridge,
he took his M.A. degree in 1695/6. He married Elizabeth,
daughter of Sir William Russell of Chippenham, Cambridgeshire,
and was tutor at Oxford to two of his wife's brothers. He seems
to have remained at Oxford until 1630, when he became vicar of
Chippenham. His sympathies were at first with the parlia-
mentary party. He was chaplain to Robert Rich, second earl of
Warwick, and preached before the House of Commons in 1640,
GAUDICHAUD-BEAUPRfe— GAUDY
In 164 1 he was appointed to the rural deanery of Bocking.
Apparently bis views changed as the revolutionary tendency of
the Presbyterian party became more pronounced, for in 1648/9
he addressed to Lord Fairfax A Religious and Loyal Pro-
testation . . . against the proceedings of the parliament. Under
the Commonwealth he faced both ways, keeping his ecclesiastical
preferment, but publishing from time to time pamphlets on behalf
of the Church of England. At the Restoration he was made
bishop of Exeter. He immediately began to complain to Hyde,
earl of Clarendon, of the poverty of the see, and based claims for a
better benefice on a certain secret service, which he explained on
the 20th of January 1661 to be the sole invention of the Eikon
Basilihe, The Pourlraicture oj his sacred Majestic in his Solitudes
and Sufferings put forth within a few hours after the execution of
Charles I. as written by the king himself. To which Clarendon
replied that he had been before acquainted with the secret and
had often wished he had remained ignorant of it. Gaudcn
was advanced in 1662, not as he had wished to the see of
Winchester, but to Worcester. He died on the 23rd of May of
the same year.
The evidence in favour of Gauden's authorship rests chiefly on
his own assertions and those of his wife (who after his death sent
to her son John a narrative of the claim), and on the fact that it
was admitted by Clarendon, who sould have had means of being
acquainted with the truth. Gauden's letters on the subject arc
printed in the appendix to vol. iii. of the Clarendon Papers, The
argument is that Gauden had prepared the book to inspire
sympathy with the king by a representation of his pious and
forgiving disposition, and so to rouse public opinion against his
execution. In 1693 further correspondence between Gaudcn,
Clarendon, the duke of York, and Sir Edward Nicholas was
published by Mr Arthur North, who had found them among the
papers of his sister-in-law, a daughter-in-law of Bishop Gaudcn;
but doubt has been thrown on the authenticity of these papers.
Gauden stated that he had begun the book in 1647 and was
entirely responsible for it. But it is contended that the work was
in existence at Naseby, 1 and testimony to Charles's authorship
is brought forward from various witnesses who had seen Charlc3
himself occupied with it at various times during his imprisonment.
It is stated that the MS. was delivered by one oC the king's agents
to Edward Symmona, rector of Rainc, near Bocking, and that it
was in the handwriting of Oudart,Sir Edward Nicholas's secretary.
The internal evidence has, as is usual in such cases, been brought
forward as a conclusive argument in favour of both contentions.
Doubt was thrown on Charles's authorship in Milton's Eikonok-
lasles (1649), which was followed almost immediately by a royalist
answer, The Princely Pelican. Royall Resolves— Extracted from
his Majesty's Divine Meditations, with satisfactory reasons . . .
thai his Sacred Person was the only Author oj tliem (1649). The
history of the whole controversy, which has been several times
renewed, was dealt with in Christopher Wordsworth's tracts in
a most exhaustive way. He eloquently advocated Charles's
authorship. Since he wrote in 18.79, some further evidence has
been forthcoming in favour of the Naseby copy. A correspond-
ence relating to the French translation of the work has also
come to light among the papersof Sir Edward Nicholas. Noneof
the letters show any doubt that King Charles was the author.
S. R. Gardiner (Hist, of the Great Civil War, iv. 325) regards Mr
Doble's articles in the Academy (May and June 1883) as finally
disposing of Charles's claim to the authorship, but this is by no
means the attitude of other recent writers. If Gaudcn was the
author, he may have incorporated papers, &c, by Charles, who
may have corrected the work and thus been joint-author. This
theory would reconcile the conflicting evidence, that of those who
saw Charles writing parts and read the MS. before publication,
and the deliberate statements of Gauden.
Sec a Wo the article by Richard Hooper in the Diet. Nat. Biog.;
Christopher \Vord*worth. Who wrote Eikon Basilikef two letters
addressed to the archbishop of Canterbury (1824), and King Charles
the First, the Author of Iton Basilikb (1818); if. J. Todd, A Utter
1 See a note in Archbishop Tcnt«on's handwriting in his copy of the
Eikon Basiltke preserved at Lambeth Palace, and quoted in Almack's
Bibliography, p. IS-
53i
to the Archbishop of Canterbury concerning Eikon Basilihe (1825);
Bishop Gauden. The Author of the IcOn Basiliki (1829); W. G.
Brought on, A Letter to a Friend (1826), Additional Reasons . . .
(1829), supporting the contention in favour of Dr Gaudcn; Mr
Classics (1904); and Edward Almack, Bibliography of the King's
Booh (1896). This last book contains a summary of the arguments
on either side, a full bibliography of works on the subject, and
facsimiles of the title pages, with full descriptions of the various
extant copies.
GAUDICHAUD-BBAUPRB, CHARLES (1789-1854), French
botanist, was born at Angoulcme on the 4th of September 1789.
He studied pharmacy first in the shop of a brother-in-law at
Cognac, and then under P. J. Robiquet at Paris, where from
R. L. Desfontaines and L. C. Richard he acquired a knowledge
of botany. In April 1810 he was appointed dispenser in the
military marine, and from July i8n to the end of 1814 he served
at Antwerp. In 1817 he joined the corvette " Uranie " as
pharmaceutical botanist to the circumpolar expedition com-
manded by D. de Frcycinet. The wreck of the vessel on the
Falkland Isles, at the close of 1819, deprived him of more than
half the botanical collections he had made in various parts of
the world. In 1830-1833 he visited Chile, Peru and Brazil, and
in 1836-1837 he acted as botanist to " La Bonite " during its
circumnavigation of the globe. His theory accounting for the
growth of plants by the supposed coalescence of elementary
" phytons " involved him, during the latter years of his life,
in much controversy with his fellow-botanists, more especially
C. F. B. de Mirbel. He died in Paris on the 16th of January 1854.
Besides accounts of his voyages round the World, Gaudichaud-
Bcaupro wrote " Lett res sur I organographie et la phy&iologie,"
Arch, de botanique, ii., 1883; " Rechcrchcs generates sur rorgano-
graphii*," &c. (prize essay. 1835), Mim.de I AeadtmU des Sciences,
t. viii. and kindred treatises, with memoirs on the potato-blight, the
multiplication of bulbous plants, the increase in diameter 01 dicoty-
ledonous plants, and other subjects; and Refutation de toutes us
objections centre Us nouxeaux principes physiologiques (1852).
GAUDRY. JEAN ALBERT (1827-1008), French geologist and
palaeontologist, was bom at St Germain-en-Laye on the 16th
of September 1827, and was educated at the college, Stanislas.
At the age of twenty-five he made explorations in Cyprus and
Greece, residing in the latter country from 1855 to i860. He
then investigated the rich deposit of fossil vertebrata at Pikermt
and brought to light a remarkable mammalian fauna, Miocene
in age, and intermediate in its forms between European, Asiatic
and African types. He also published an account of the geology
of the island of Cyprus (Mem. Sac. Gtol. de France, 1862). la
1853, while still in Cyprus, he was appointed assistant to A.
d'Orbigny, who was the first to hold the chair of palaeontology
in the museum of natural history at Paris. In 187 2 he succeeded
to this important post; in 1882 he was elected member of the
Academy of Sciences; and in 1000 he presided over the meetings
of the eighth International Congress of Geology then held in
Paris. He died on the 27th of November 1908. He b distin-
guished for his researches on fossil mammalia, and for the support
which his studies have rendered to the theory of evolution.
Publications. — Animaux fossiles et gtologie de TAttiqne (2 vols.,
1862-1867); Cours de palcontologie (1873); Animaux fossiles du
Mont Leber on (1873); Les Enchalnements du monde animal dans
les temps giologiques (Mainmifhes Tertiaires, 1878 ; Fossiles
primairrs, 1883; Fossiles secondares, 1890); Essut de palfon-
tologie phihsopkique (1896). Brief memoir with portrait mGeol.
Mag. (1903). p. 49- (H.B.W.)
GAUDY, an adjective meaning showy, very bright, gay,
especially with a sense of tasteless or vulgar extravagance, of
colour or ornament. The accurate origin of the various senses
which this word and the substantive " gaud " have taken are
somewhat difficult to trace. They are all ultimately to be referred
to the Lat. gaudere, to rejoice, gaudium, joy, some cf them
directly, others to the French derivative gaudir, to rejoice, and
O Fr. gaudie. As a noun, in the sense of rejoicing or feast,
" gaudy " is still used of a commemoration dinner at a college
at the university of Oxford. " Gaud," meaning generally a toy,
a gay adornment, a piece of showy jewelry, is more specifically
applied to larger and more decorative beads in a rosary.
532
GAUERMANN— GAUL
GAUERMANN, FRIEDRICH (1807-1862), Austrian painter,
son of the landscape painter Jacob Gauermann (1773-1843)1
was born at Wicsenbach near Gutenstein in Lower Austria
on tbc 20th of September 1807. It was the intention of his father
that be should devote himself to agriculture, but the example
of an elder brother, who, however, died early, fostered his inclina-
tion towards art. Under his father's direction he began studies
in landscape, and he also diligently copied the works of the chief
masters in animal painting which were contained in the academy
and court library of Vienna. In the summer he made art tours
in the districts of Styria, Tirol and Salzburg. Two animal pieces
which he exhibited at the Vienna Exhibition of 1824 were regarded
as remarkable productions for his years, and led to his receiving
commissions in 1825 and 1826 from Prince Mctternich and
Caraman, the French ambassador. His reputation was greatly
increased by his picture " The Storm," exhibited in 1829, and
from that time his works were much sought after and obtained
correspondingly high prices. His " Field Labourer " was regarded
by many as the most noteworthy picture in the Vienna exhibition
of 1S34, and his numerous animal pieces have entitled him to a
place in the first rank of painters of that class of subjects. The
peculiarity of his pictures is the representation of human and
animal figures in connexion with appropriate landscapes and in
characteristic situations so as to manifest nature as a living
whole, and he particularly excels in depicting the free life of
animals in wild mountain scenery. Along with great mastery
of the technicalities of his art, his works exhibit patient and keen
observation, free and correct handling of details, and bold and.
clear colouring. He died at Vienna on the 7th of July 1862.
Many of hi* pictures have been engraved, and after his death a
■election of fifty-three of his works was prepared for this purpose
by the Austrian Ktuutocreiu (Art Union).
GAUGE, or Gace (Med. Lat. gauja,jaugia, Yr.jaugc, perhaps
connected with Fr. jalc, a bowl, gal on, gallon), a standard of
measurement, and also the name given to various instruments
and appliances by which measurement is effected. The word
seems to have been primarily used in connexion with the process
of ascertaining the contents of wine casks; the name gaugcr
is still applied to certain custom-house officials in the United
States, and in Scotland it means an exciseman. Thence it was
extended to other measurements, and used of the instruments
used in making them or of the standards to which they were
referred. In the mechanical arts gauges are employed in great
variety to enable the workmen to ascertain whether the object
he is making is of the proper dimensions (sec Tool), and similar
gauges of various forms are employed to ascertain and to specify
the sizes of manufactured articles such as wire and screws. A
rain gauge is an apparatus for measuring the amount of the
rainfall at any locality, and a wind gauge indicates the pressure
and force of the wind. The boilers of steam engines are provided
with a water gauge and a steam or pressure gauge. The purpose
of the former is to enable the attendant to see whether or not
there is a sufficient quantity of water in the boiler. It consists of
two cocks or taps communicating with the interior, one being
placed at the lowest point to which it is permissible for the water
to fall, and the other at the point above which it should not rise;
a glass tube connects the two cocks, and when they arc both open
the water in this stands at the same level as in the boiler. The
steam gauge shows the pressure of the steam in the boiler. One
of the commonest forms, known as the Bourdon gauge, depends
on the fact that a curved tube tends to straighten itself if the
pressure within it is greater than that outside it. This gauge
therefore consists of a curved or coiled tube of elastic material,
and preferably of elliptic section, connected with the boiler and
arranged with a multiplying gear so that its bending or unbending
actuates a pointer moving over a graduated scale. If the pressure
within the tube is less than that outside it, the tube tends to
bend or coil itself up further; with a pointer arranged as before,
the gauge then becomes a vacuum gauge* indicating how far
the pressure in the Teasel to which it is attached is below that
of the atmosphere. la railway engineering the gauge of a line
is the distance between the two rails (see Railway). In nautical
language, a ship is said to have the weather gage when she is
to windward of another, and similarly the lee gage when to
leeward of another ; in this sense the word is usually spelt " gage,"
a spelling which prevails in America for all senses. .
GAUHAT1, a town of British India, in the Kamrup district
of Eastern Bengal and Assam, mainly on the left or south, but
partly on the right bank of the Brahmaputra. Fop. (1001)
14,244. It is beautifully situated, with an amphitheatre of
wooded hills to the south, but is not very healthy. There are
many evidences, such as ancient earthworks and tanks, of its
historical importance. During the 17th century it was taken
and retaken by Mahommedans and Ahoms eight times in fifty
years, but in 1681 it became the residence of the Ahom governor
of lower Assam, and in 1786 the capital of the Ahom raja. On
the cession of Assam to the British in 1826 it was made the seat
of the British administration of Assam, and so continued till
1874, when the headquarters were removed to Shillong in the
Khasi hills, 67 m. distant, with which Gauhati is connected
by an excellent cart-road. Two much-frequented places of
Hindu pilgrimage are situated in the immediate vicinity, the
temple of Kamakhya on a hill 2 m. west of the town, and the
rocky island of Umananda in the mid-channel of the Brahma-
putra. Gauhati is still the headquarters of the district and of
the Brahmaputra Valley division, though no longer a military
cantonment. It is the river terminus of a section of the Assam-
Bengal railway. There are a second-grade college, a government
high school, a law class and a training school for masters.
Gauhati is an important centre of river trade, and the largest
seat of commerce in Assam. Cotton-ginning, Hour-milling, and
an export trade in mustard seed, cotton, silk and forest produce
arc carried on. Gauhati suffered very severely from the earth*
quake of the 12th of June 1897.
GAUL, GILBERT WILLIAM (1855- ), American artist,
was born in Jersey City, New Jersey, on the 31st of March 1855.
He was a pupil of J. G. Brown and L. £. Wilmarth, and he
became a painter of military pictures, portraying incidents ef
the American Civil War. He was elected an associate of the
National Academy of Design in 1880, and in 1882 a faH
academician, and in the latter year became a member of the
Society of American Artists. His important works include:
" Charging the Battery," " News from Home," "Cold Comfort
on the Outpost," " Silenced," "On the Lookout," and " Guerillas
returning from a Raid."
GAUL, the modern form of the Roman Gallia, the name
of the two chief districts known to the Romans as inhabited
by Celtic-speaking peoples, (a) Gallia Cisalpina (or Citcrim,
" Hither "), i.e. north Italy between Alps and Apennines and
(b) the far more important Gallia Trausalpina (or Ulterior,
" Further "), usually called Gallia (Gaul) simply, the land
bounded by the Alps, the Mediterranean, the Pyrenees, the
Atlantic, the Rhine, i.e. modern France and Belgium with parti
of Holland, Germany and Switzerland. The Greek form of
Gallia was TaXaria, but Galatia in Latin denoted another Celtic
region in central Asia Minor, sometimes styled GaUograecia.
(a) Gallia Cisalpina was mainly conquered by Rome by 222
B.C.; later it adopted Roman civilization; about 42 bx. it
was united with Italy and its subsequent history is merged in that
of the peninsula. Its chief distinctions are that during the later
Republic and earlier Empire it yielded excellent soldiers, and
thus much aided the success of Caesar against Pompey and of
Octavian against Antony, and that it gave Rome the poet Virgil
(by origin a Celt), the historian Livy, the lyrist Catullus, Cornelius
Ncpos, the elder and the younger Pliny and other distinguished
writers. 1
( b) Gaul proper first enters ancient history when the Greek
colony of Massilia was founded (?6oo B.C.). Roman armies
began to enter it about a 18 B.C. In 121 B.C. the coast from
1 When Cisalpine Gaul became completely Romanized, it was
often known as "Gallia Togata," while the Province was dis-
tinguished as "Gallia. Bracata" {bracae t incorrectly bmccae,
*' trousers "), from the long trousers worn by the inhabitants, and
the rest of Gaul as " Gallia Coraata," from the inhabitants wearing
.their hair long.
GAUL
533
Montpellier to the Pyrenees (i.e. all that was not Massiliot) with
its port of Narbo (mod. Nar bonne) and its.trade route by Toulouse
to the Atlantic, was formed into the province of Gallia Narbonensis
and Narbo itself into a Roman municipality. Commercial
motives prompted the step, and Roman traders and land specu-
lators speedily flocked in. Gradually the province was extended
north of Massilia, up the Rhone, while the Greek town itself
became weak and dependent on Rome.
It is not, however, until the middle of the ist century B.C. that
we have any detailed knowledge of pre-Roman Gaul. The earliest
account is that contained in the Commentaries of Julius Caesar.
According to this authority, Gaul was at that time divided among
three peoples, more or less distinct from one another, the Aquitani,
the Gauls, who called themselves Celts, and the Belgae. The
first of these extended from the Pyrenees to the Garumna
(Garonne); the second, from that river to the Sequana (Seine)
and its chief tributary the Matrona (Marne), reaching eastward
presumably as far as the Rhenus (Rhine); and the third, from
this bounding line to the mouth of the last-named river, thus
bordering on the Germans. By implication Caesar recognizes
as a fourth division the province of Gallia Narbonensis. By
far the greater part of the country was a plain watered by
numerous rivers, the chief of which have already been mentioned,
with the exception of its great central stream, the Liger or Ligcris
(Loire). Its principal mountain ranges were Cebenna or Gehenna
(Ccvennes) in the south, and Jura, with its continuation Vosegus
or Vogesus (Vosges), in the east. The tribes inhabiting Gaul in
Caesar's time, and belonging to one or other of the three races
distinguished by him, were numerous. Prominent among them,
and dwelling in the division occupied by the Celts, were the
Helvetii, the Sequani and the Aedui, in the basins of the
Rhodanus and its tributary the Arar (Saone), who, he says, were
reckoned the three most powerful nations in* all Gaul; the
Arverni in the mountains of Cebenna; the Scnones and Carnutes
in the basin of the Ligcr; the Vencti and other Armorican tribes
between the mouths of the Liger and Sequana. The Ncrvii,
Bcllovaci, Suessiones, Remi, Morini, MenapH and Aduatuci
were Belgic tribes; the Tarbelli and others were Aquitani;
while the Allobroges inhabited the north of the Provincia, having
been conquered in 121 B.C. The ethnological divisions thus set
forth by Caesar have been much discussed (see Celt, and articles
on the chief tribes).
The Gallic Wars (58-51 ) of Caesar (q.v.) added all the rest of
Gaul, north-west of the Ccvennes, to the Rhine and the Ocean,
and in 49 also annexed Massilia. All Gaul was now Roman
territory. Now the second period of her history opens; it
remained for Roman territory to become romanized.
Caesar had no time to organize his conquest; this work was
left to Augustus. As settled by him, and in part perhaps also
by his successor Tiberius, it fell into the following five adminis-
trative areas.
(i) Narbonensis, that is, the land between Alps, sea and
Ccvennes, extending up the Rhone to Vienne, was as Augustus
found it, distinct in many ways from the rest of Gaul. By nat urc
it is a sun-steeped southern region, the home of the vine and
olive, of the minstrelsy of the Provencal and the exuberance of
Tartarin, distinct from the colder and more sober north. By
history it had already (in the time of Augustus) been Rorilari
for from 80 to 100 years and was familiar with Roman ways. It
was ready to be Italianized and it was civilized enough to need
no garrison. Accordingly, it was henceforward governed by a
proconsul (appointed by the senate) and freed from the burden
of troops, while its local government was assimilated to that of
Italy. The old Celtic tribes were broken up: Instead, munici-
palities of Roman citizens were founded to rule their territories.
Thus the Allobroges now disappear and the colonia of Vienna
takes their place: the Volcae vanish and we find Ncmausus
(NImes). Thus thrown into Italian fashion, the province took
rapidly to Italian ways. By aj>. 70 it was " Italia vcrius quam
provincia " (Pliny). The Gauls obviously bad a natural bias
towards the Italian civilization, and there soon became no
difference between Italy and southern Gaul. But though educa-
tion spread, the results were somewhat disappointing. Trade
flourished; the corporations of bargemen and the Kke on the
Rhone made money; the many towns grew rich and could afford
splendid public buildings. But no great writer and no great ad-
ministrator came from Narbonensis; itinerant lecturers and jour-
nalists alone were produced in plenty, and at times minor poets.
(ii.-iv.) Across the Cevennes lay Caesar's conquests, Atlantic
in climate, new to Roman ways. The. whole area, often col-
lectively styled " Gallia Comata," often " Tres Provinciae," was
divided into three provinces, each under a Icgalus pro praeiort
appointed by the emperor, with a common capital at Lugudunum
(Lyons). The three provinces were: Aquilania, reaching from
the Pyrenees almost to the Loire; Luptdunensis, the land
between Loire and Seine, reaching from Brittany in the west to
Lyons in the south-east; and Bdgica in the north. The
boundaries, it will be observed, were wholly artificial. Here also
it was found possible to dispense with garrisons, not because
the provinces were as peaceful as Narbonensis, but because the
Rhine army was close at hand. As befitted an unromanised
region, the local government was unlike that of Italy or Narbon-
ensis. Roman municipalities were not indeed unknown, 'but
very few: the local authorities were the magistrates of the old
tribal districts. Local autonomy was here carried to an extreme.
But the policy succeeded. The Gauls of the Three Provinces, or
some of them, revolted in a.d. ax under Floras and Sacrovir, in
68 under Vindex, and in 70 under Classicus and Tutor (see Crvrus,
Claudius). But all five leaders were romanized nobles, with
Roman names and Roman citizenship, and their risings were
directed rather against the Roman government than the Roman
empire. In general, the Gauls of these provinces accepted
Roman civilization more or less rapidly, and in due course became
hardly distinguishable from the Italian. In particular, they
eagerly accepted the worship of " Augustus and Rome," devised
by the first emperor as a bond of state religion connecting
the provinces with Rome. Each August, despite the heat,
representatives from the 60 (or 64) tribes of Gallia Comata met
at Lyons, elected a priest, " sacerdos ad aram Augusti ct Romae,"
and held games. The post of representative, and still more that
of priest, was eagerly coveted and provided a scope for the
ambitions which despotism usually crushes. It agrees with the
vigorous development of this worship that tbe Three Provinces,
though romanized, retained their own local feeling. Even in the
3rd century the cult of Celtic deities (Hercules Magusanus.
Deusoniensis, &c) were revived, the Celtic leuga reintroduced
instead of the Roman mile on official milestones, and a brief
effort made to establish an independent, though romanized, Gaul
under Postumus and his short-lived successors (a.d. 250-273).
Not only was the area too large and strong to lose its individu-
ality: it was also too rural and too far from the Mediterranean
to be romanized as fully and quickly as Narbonensis. It is even
probable that Celtic was spoken in forest districts into the 4th
century aj>. Town life, however, grew. The ckefs4ieux of the
tribes became practically, though not officially, municipalities,
and many of these towns reached considerable size and magnifi-
cence of public buildings. But they attest their tribal relations
by their appellations, which are commonly drawn from the name
of the tribe and not of the town itself. Thus the capitals of the
Remi and Parish' were actually Durocortorum and Lutctia: the
appellations in use were Rcmis or Remus, Parisiis or Parisius—
these forms being indeclinable nouns formed from a sort of
locative of the tribe names. Literature also flourished. In the
latest empire Ausonius, Symmachus, Apollinaris, Sidonfus and
other Gaulish writers, chiefly of Gallia Comata, kept alive the
classical literary tradition, not only for Gaul but for the world.
(v.) The fifth division of Gaul was the Rhenish military
frontier. Augustus had planned the conquest of Germany up to
the Elbe. His plans were foiled by the courage of Arminrus and
the inability of the Roman exchequer to pay a larger army.
Instead, his successor Tiberius organized the Rhine frontier in
two military districts. The northern one was the valley of the
Mcuse and that of the Rhine to a point just south of Bonn: the
southern was the rest of the Rhine valley to Switzerland. Each
534
GAULT— GAUR
district was garrisoned at first by four, later by fewer legions,
which were disposed at various times in some of the following
fortresses: Vetera (Xanten), Novaesium (Neuss), Bonne (Bonn),
Moguntiacum (Mainz), Argentorate (Strassburg) and Vindonissa
(Windisch in Switzerland). At first the districts were purely
military, were called, after the garrisons, " exercitus Gennanicui
superior " (south) and " inferior " (north). Later one or two
municipalities were founded — Colonia Agrippinensis at Cologne
(a.d 51), Colonia Augusta Trevcrorum at Trier (date uncertain),
Colonia Ulpia Traiana outside Vetera— and about 80-90 a.d. the
two " Exercitus " were turned into the two provinces of Upper
and Lower Germany. The armies in these districts formed the
defence of Gaul against German invaders. They also helped to
keep Gaul itself in order and their presence explains why the four
provinces of Gaul proper contained no troops.
These provincial divisions were modified by Diocletian but
without seriously affecting the life of Gaul. The whole country,
indeed, continued Roman and fairly safe from barbarian invasions
till after 40a In 407 a multitude of Franks, Vandals, &c, burst
over Gaul. Roman rule practically ceased and the three kingdoms
of the Visigoths, Burgundians and Franks began to form. There
were still a Roman general and Roman troops when Attila was
defeated in the campi Catalaunici in a.d 451, but the general,
Aetius, was " the last of the Romans," and in 4S6 Clovis the
Frank ended the last vestige of Roman rule in Gaul.
For Roman antiquities in Gaul fee, beside articles on the modern
towns (Arles, Nimes, Orange. &c), Brracte. Alesia, Itius
Portus, Aqueduct, Architecture, Amphitheatre, &c; for
religion see Druidism; for the famous schools of Autun, Lyons,
Toulouse, Ntmes, Viennc, Marseilles and Narbonnc. see J. E. Sandys,
History of Classical Scholarship (ed. 1906-1908), L pp. 247-J50;
for the Roman provinces, Th. Mommsen. Provinces of the Roman
Empire (trans. 1886), vol. i. chap. iii. See also Dcsiardins, Gto-
grapkie htstonaue cl administrative dc la Caule romaine (Paris, 1877);
Fustel de Coutanges, Hisloire des institutions politiques dt I'ancienne
France (Paris, 1877); for Caesar's campaigns, article Caesar,
Julius, and works quoted; for coins, art Numismatics and articles
in the Numismatisrhe Zeitscknft and Revue numismatique (e.g.
Blanchet, 1907. pp. 461 foil.). (F J. H.)
GAULT, in geology, one of the members of the Lower Creta-
ceous System. The name is still employed provincially in parts
of England for a stiff blue clay of any kind; by the earlier
writers it was sometimes spelt " Gait " or " Golt."
The formation now known as Gault in England has been
variously designated " Blue Marie,*' " Brick Earth," " Golt
Brick Earth " and " Oak-tree-soil." In certain parts of the
south of England the Gault appears as a well-marked deposit of
clay, lying between two sandy formations; the one above came
to be known as the " Upper Greensand," the one below being
the " Lower Greensand " (see Greensand). Since the typical
clayey Gault is continually taking on a sandy fades as it is traced
both horizontally and vertically; and since the fossils of the
Upper Greensand and Gault arc inseparably related, it has been
proposed by A. J. Jukes-Browne that these two series of beds
should be regarded as the arenaceous and argillaceous phases of a
single formation, to which he has given the name " Selbornian "
(from the village of Selborne where the beds are well developed).
Lithologically, then, the Selbornian includes the blue and grey
clays and marls of the Gault proper; the glauconitic sands of the
Upper Greensand, and their local equivalent, the " malm,"
" malm rock " or " fircstone," which in places passes into the
micaceous sandstone containing sponge spicules and globules of
silica, the counterpart of the rock called " gaize " on the same
horizon in northern France. In Yorkshire, Lincolnshire and parts
of Norfolk the Selbornian is represented by the Red Chalk. The
malm is a ferruginous siliceous rock, the silica being mainly in the
colloidal condition in the form of globules and sponge spicules;
some quartz grains, mica and glauconite are usually present
along with from 2 to 2 5 % of calcareous matter. Chert-bands and
nodules are common in the Upper Greensand of certain districts;
and calcareous concretions, locally recognized as cowstones
(Lyme Regis), doggers or buhrstones, are not infrequent.
The principal divisions of the Selbornian stage with their
characteristic zonal fossils are as follows:—
Warminster Beds Pecten aster and Cardiaster fossarisa.
Upper Gault Devizes Beds or Merstham Beds with Schloen.
bachia roslratns.
{Mopktes lantus.
H. interrupt**.
Acantkoceras mammittatum.
The Gault (with Upper Greensand) crops out all round the Wealdea
area; it extends beneath the London basin and reappears from
beneath th/ * ' ~' " ' -■----«
Hills to nc >
fairly const
clay, howei
already poi
chalk towai
sand towar
it also over
and thence
ridge Clay,
it rests npoi
passes on tt
steps farthe
large oudic
localities fo
preserved 1
1 ale of Wi
Huns unto*
(malmstonc
Wardour, a
" blue slipc
or underclift.
The Gault of north France is very similar to that in the souts
of England, but the French term Albien includes only a portion of
the Selbornian formation. The Gault of north-west Germany
e m braces beds that would be classed as Albien and Aptien by French
authors; it comprises the " FlammcnmergeJ "—a pale sipeeous
marl shot with name-shaped darker patches— a day with Beiemnita
minimus, and the " Gargasmergcl ' (Aptian). In the Oiester and
Teutoberger Wald, and in the region of Halberstadt. the clays and
marls are replaced by sandstones, the so-called Caull-Quader.
Continental writers usually place the Gault or Albian at the summit
of the Lower Cretaceous; while with English geologists the practict
is to commence the Upper Cretaceous with this formation. la
addition to the fossils already noticed, the following may be men-
tioned: Acantkoceras Desmoceras BeaudanH, Hoftites iptendens,
Hamites, Scapkites. Turrttiles, Aporrkais reiusa, Tntonia atifmrna,
also Ichthyosaurus and Orntlhochetrus (Pterodactyl). From the days,
bricks and tiles are made at Burham, Barnwell, Dunton Green.
Arlcsey. Hitchin, &c. The cherts in the Greensand portion are used
for road metal, and in the Blackdown Hills, for scythe stones:
hearthstone is obtained about Merstham; phosphatic nodules occur
at several horizons.
See Cretaceous System; Albian; Aptian; also A. I. Jukes-
Browne, " The Gault and Upper Greensand of England, vol. U
Cretaceous Rocks of Britain; Mem. Gcol. Survey, 1900.
GAUNTLET (a diminutive of the Fr. [ant, glove), a large
form of glove, and especially the steel-plated glove of medievil
armpur. To " run the gauntlet," i.e. to run between two rows
of men who, armed with sticks, rope-ends or other weapons,
beat and strike at the person so running, was formerly a punish-
ment for military and naval offences. It was abolished in the
Prussian army by Scharnhorst. As a method of torturing
prisoners, it was employed among the North American Indians.
" Gauntlet " (earlier " gantlet ") in this expression is a corruption
of " gantlope," from a Swedish gatlope, from gala, lane, and tofp,
a course (cf. Gcr. gassenlaufen, to run the gauntlet). According
to the New English Dictionary the word became familiar in
England at the time of the Thirty Years' War.
GAUR, or Lakhnauti, a ruined dty of British India, in Maids
district of Eastern* Bengal and Assam. The ruins are situated
about 8 m. to the south of English Bazar, the civil station of
the district of Malda, and on the eastern bank of the Bhagirathi,
an old channd of the Ganges. It is said to have been founded
by Lakshman, and its most ancient name was Lakshmanavati,
corrupted into Lakhnauti. Its known history begins with its
conquest in a.d. i 198 by the Mahommedans, who retained it
as the chief scat of their power in Bengal for more than three
centuries. When the Afghan kings of Bengal established their
independence, they transferred their seat of government (about
US©) to Pandua (?.».), also in Malda district, and to build
their new capital they plundered Gaur of every monument that
could be removed. When Pandua was in its turn deserted
(aj>. I4SJ)» Gaur once more became the capital' under the
GAUR— GAUSS
535
name of Jannatabad; it remained so as long as the Mahommedan
kings retained their independence. In a-D. 1564 Sulaimaa
Kirani, a Patban adventurer, abandoned it for Tanda, a place
somewhat nearer the Ganges. Gaur was sacked by Sher Shah
in 1539, and was occupied by Akbar's general in 1575, when
"Daud Shah, the last of the Afghan dynasty, refused to pay
homage to the Mogul emperor. This occupation was followed
by an outbreak of the plague, which completed the downfall of
the city, and since then it has been little better than a heap of
ruins, almost overgrown with jungle.
The city in its prime measured 7$ m. from north to south
with a breadth of 1 to 2 m With suburbs it covered an area
of 70 to 30 sq. m., and in toe 16th century the Portuguese
historian Faria y Sous* described it as containing 1,300,000
inhabitants. The ramparts of this walled city, which was
surrounded by extensive suburbs, still exist; they were works
of vast labour, and were on the average about 40 ft. high, and
180 to 200 ft thick at the base. The facing of masonry and the
buildings with which they were covered have now disappeared,
and the embankments themselves are overgrown with dense
jungle. The western side of the city was washed by the Ganges,
and within the space enclosed by these embankments and the
river stood the city of Gaur proper, with the fort containing
the palace in its south-west corner. Radiating north, south and
east from the city, other embankments are to be traced running
through the suburbs and extending in certain directions for 30
or 40 m. Surrounding the palace is an inner embankment of
similar construction to that whkh surrounds the city, and even
more overgrown with jungle. A deep moat protects it on the
outside. To the north of the outer enbankmenl lies the Sogar
Dighi, a great reservoir, 1600 yds. by 800 yds., dating from
a.d. 1x26.
Fergusson in bis History of Eastern Architecture thus describes
the genera] architectural style of Gaur: — " It i% neither like that
of Delhi nor Jaunporc, nor any other style, but one purely local
and not without considerable merit in itself; its principal
characteristic being heavy short pillars of stone supporting
pointed arches and vaults in brick — whereas at Jaunporc, for
instance, light pillars carried horizontal architraves and flat
ceilings." Owing to the Lightness of the small, thin bricks, which
were chiefly used in the making of Gaur, its buildings have not
well withstood the ravages of time and the wealhei: while
much of its enamelled work has been removed for the ornamenta-
tion of the surrounding cities of more modern origin. Moreover,
the ruins long served as a quarry for the builders of neighbouring
towns and villages, till in 1000 steps were taken for their preserva-
tion by the government. The finest ruin in Gaur is that of the
Great Golden Mosque, also called Bara Darwaza, or twelve-
doored < 1 $26). An arched corridor running along the whole front
of the original building is the principal portion now standing.
There are eleven arches on either side of the corridor and one at
each end of it, from which the mosque probably obtained its
name. These arches are surmounted by eleven domes in fair
preservation; the mosque had originally thirty-three.
The Small Golden or Eunuch's mosque, in the ancient suburb
of Firozpur, has fine carving, and is faced with stone fairly well
preserved. The Tanlipara mosque (1475-1480) has beautiful
moulding in brick, and the Lotan mosque of the same period
is unique in retaining its glazed tile*. The citadel, of the
Mahommedan period, was strongly fortified with a rampart
and entered through a magnificent gateway called the Dakhil
Darwaza (?U50-1474). At the south-east corner was a palace,
surrounded by a wall of brick 66 ft. high, of which a part is
standing. Near by were the royal tombs. Within the citadel
is the Kadam Rasul mosque (1 530), which is still used, and close
outside is a tall tower called the Firoz Minur (perhaps signifying
" tower of victory "). There are a number of Mahommedan
buildings on the banks of the Sagar Dighi. including, notably,
the tomb of the saint Makhdum Shaikh Akhi Siraj (d 1357),
and in the neighbourhood is a burning ghat, traditionally the
only one allowed to the use of the Hindus by their Mahommedan
conquerors, and still greatly venerated and frequented by them.
Many inscriptions of historical Importance have been found in the
ruins.
See M. Martin (Buchanan Hamilton), Eastern India, vol. 1*11.(1831) ;
G. H. Ravcnshaw, Gaur (1878): James Fergusson. History of Indian
and Eastern Architecture (1876); Reports of Ike Arckaeotogieai
Surveyor, Bengal Circle (1900-1904).
GAUR, the native name of the wild ox, Bos (Bibos) gaurus,
of India, miscalled bison by sportsmen. The gaur, which extendi
into Burma and the Malay Peninsula, where it is known as
seladang, is the typical representative of an Indo-Malay group
of wild cattle characterized by the presence of a ridge on the
withers, the compressed horns, and the white legs. The gaur,
which reaches a height of nearly 6 ft. at the shoulder, is specially
characterized by the forward curve and great elevation of the
ridge between the horns. The general colour is blackish-grev.
Hill-forests are the resort of this species.
OAUSf, KARL FRIEDRICH (1777-1855), German mathe-
matician, was born of humble parents at Brunswick on the 30th
of April 1777, and was indebted for a liberal education to the
notice which his talents procured him from the reigning duke.
His name became widely known by the publication, in his
twenty-fifth year (1801), of the Disquisitionts ttritfrmelkae.
In 1807 he was appointed director of the Gottingen observatory,
an office which he retained to his death: it is said that he never
slept away from under the roof of his observatory, except on
one occasion, when he accepted an invitation from Baron von
Humboldt to attend a meeting of natural philosophers at Berlin.
In 1809 be published at Hamburg his Theoria motus corporum
codrsfium, a work which gave a powerful impulse to the true
methods of astronomical observation; and his astronomical
workings, observations, calculations of orbits of planets and
comets, &c, are very numerous and valuable. He continued
his labours in the theory of numbers and ol her analytical subjects,
and communicated a long series of memoirs to the Royal Society
of Sciences (Kdnigliche Cescllschajt da Wissenschaften) at
Gottingen. His first memoir on the theory of magnetism,
Intensitas vis magncticae terrestris ad mensuram absoluiam
revocata, was published in 1833, and he shortly afterwards
proceeded, in conjunction with \Vilhclm Weber, to invent new
apparatus for observing the earth's magnetism and its changes;
the instruments devised by them were the declination instrument
and the bi filar magnetometer. With Weber's assistance he
erected in 1833 at Gottingen a magnetic observatory free from
iron (as Humboldt and F J. D. Arago had previously done on a
smaller scale), where he made magnetic observations, and from
this same observat ory he sent telegraphic signals to the neighbour-
ing town, thus showing the practicability of an electromagnetic
telegraph. He further instituted an association (AfognetiscMer
Vercin), composed at first almost entirely of Germans, whose
continuous observations on fixed term-days extended from
Holland to Sicily. The volumes of their publication, Resultat*
aus den Beobaxhtungen dts magnetischtn Vercins, extend from
1836 to 1839; and in those for 1838 and 1839 are contained the
two important memoirs by Gauss, Allgtmeine Tkeorie des Erd-
magnetismus, and the AUgetncine Lehrs&toe — on the theory of
forces attracting according to the inverse square of the distance.
The instruments and methods thus due to him are substantially
those employed in the magnetic observatories throughout the
world. He co-operated in the Danish and Hanoverian measure-
ments of an arc and trigonometrical operations (1821-1848),
and wrote (1843. 1846) the two memoirs Vber GegensUtndc der
kdkeren Gtoddsic. Connected with observations in general
we have (1812-1826) the memoir Theoria combinationis observa-
tionum erroribus minimis obnoxia, with a second part and a
supplement. Another memoir of applied mathematics is the
Dioptrische U Iter suchun gen (1840). Gauss was well versed im
general literature and the chief languages of modern Europe,
and was a member of nearly all the leading scientific societies
in Europe. He died at Gbttingen on the 23rd of February 185$.
The centenary of his birth was celebrated (1877) at his native
place, Brunswick.
Gausft's collected works were published by the Royal Society of
Gottingen, in 7 vols. 4to(Gott., 1863-1871), edited by E. J. Sobering
S3&
-(lithe
Analysis, i
Physics,
ta aestinm ,
Band to.
memoirs,
authors in
of previou
GAUSSEN^GAUTIER, THEOPHILE
(but toth
be safely
to the pre
or which '
the subjec
thesecoiK
the memo:
of comple
theory of
tables. 1
thecompl
meooftm
calculations, and the amount of work gone through in the construc-
tion of the table of the number of the classes of binary quadratic
forms must also have been tremendous. In vol. iii. we have memoirs
relating to the proof of the theorem that every numerical equation
has a real or imaginary root, the memoir on, the Hypergeometric
Series, that on Interpolation, and the memoir Determtnotto ottroc-
tionis — in which a planetary mass is considered as distributed over
its orbit according to the time in which each portion of the orbit is
described, and the question (having an implied reference to the theory
of secular perturbations) is to^find the attraction of such a ring. In
the solution the value of an elliptic function is found by means of
the orithmetko-feometrical mean. The Nachlass contains further re-
searches on this subject, and also researches (unfortunately very
fragmentary) on the lemniscate-fuoction, &c. showing that Gauta
was, even before 1800, in possession of many of the discoveries which
have made the names of N. H. Abd and K. G. J. Jacobi illustrious.
In vol. iv. we have the memoir AUgemeine Auflbsung, on the graphical
representation of one surface upon another, and the Disquisitiones
generates circa superficies curves. (An account of the treatment of
surfaces which he originated in this paper will be found in the article
Surface ) And in vol. v. we have a memoir On the Attraction of
Homogeneous Ellipsoids, and the already mentioned memoir AUge-
meine Lekrsdtwe, on the theory of forces attracting according to the
inverse square of the distance. (A. Ca.)
GAUSSEM, FRANCOIS SAMUEL ROBERT LOUIS (1700-
186 3), Swiss Protestant divine, was born at Geneva on the 25th of
August 1700. His father, Georg Markus Gaussen, a member of
the council of two hundred, was descended from' an old Languedoc
family which had been scattered at the time of the religious
persecutions in France. At the dose of his university career at
Geneva, Louis was in 1 816 appointed pastor of the Swiss Reformed
Church at Satigny near Geneva, where he formed intimate rela-
tions with J. E. Ceilerier, who had preceded hiro in the pastorate,
and also with the members of the dissenting congregation at
Bourg-de-Four, which, together with the £guse du temoignage,
had been formed under the influence of the preaching of James
and Robert Haldane in 1817. The Swiss revival was distasteful
to the pastors of Geneva ( Venerable Compagniedes Pasteur s), and
on the 7th of May 1817 they passed an ordinance hostile to it.
As a protest against this ordinance, in 1819 Gaussen published in
conjunction with Ceilerier a French translation of the Second
Helvetic Confession, with a preface expounding the views he had
reached upon the nature, use and necessity of confessions of
faith, and in 1830, for having discarded the official catechism of
bis church as being insufficiently explicit on the divinity of
Christ, original sin and the doctrines of grace, he was censured
and suspended by his ecclesiastical superiors. In the following
year he took part in the formation of a SotitU ktvangtiiqut
(Evangelise he GesoUsehaft). When this society contemplated,
among other objects, the establishment of a new theological
college, he was finally deprived of his charge. After some time
devoted to travel in Italy and England, he returned to Geneva
and ministered to an independent congregation until 1834, when
he joined Merle d'Aubignt as professor of systematic theology in
the college which he had helped to found. This post he continued
to occupy until 1857, when he retired from the active duties oi
the chair. He died at Let Grottes, Geneva, on the 18th of June
1863.
His best-known work, entitled La ThiopnausHe cm pleUe
Inspiration del sainles tcritures, an elaborate defence of the
doctrine of " plenary inspiration," was originally published is
Paris in 1840, and rapidly gained a wide popularity in France,.**
ibo, through translations, in England and America. It was
followed in i860 by a supplementary, treatise on the canon*
[Le Canon das sointes tcrilures au double pond davuedela scum*
* de lafox), which, though also popular, has hardly been so widely
read.
See the article in HerzogHauck. Realencyhlopddi* (1899).
GAUTIER, *MILE THEODORE llON (183^-1897). French
Literary historian, was born at Havre on the 8th of August 183a.
He was educated at the £cole des Chartes, and became succes-
rfvely keeper of the archives of the department of Haute-Marne
and of the imperial archives at Paris under the empire. In 1871
he became professor of palaeography at the fccole des Chartes.
He was elected member of the Academy of Inscriptions in 1887,
snd became chief of the historical section of the national archives
in 1803. Leon Gautier rendered great services to the study of
early French literature, the most important of bis numerous
works on medieval subjects being a critical test (Tours, 1871)
with translation and introduction of the Chanson da Roland, and
Les ftpopies franchises (3 vols-, 1866-1867; 2nd ed. t 5 vols., 187ft-
1897, including a Bibliographic des chansons da geste). He died in
Paris on the 25th of August 1897.
GAUTIER, THtOPHILB (1811-1872), French poet and
miscellaneous writer, was born at Tarbes on the 31st of August
1811. He was educated at the grammar school of that town, and
afterwards at the College Charlemagne in Paris, but was almost as
much in the studios. He very early devoted himself to the study
of the older French literature, especially that of the 16th and the
early part of the 1 7th century. This study qualified him weO U
take part in the Romantic movement, and enabled him to
astonish Sainte-Beuve by the phraseology and style of some
literary essays which, when barely eighteen years old, be put into
the critic's hands. In consequence of this introduction he si
once came under the influence of the great Romantic cinade, to
which, as to Victor Hugo in particular, he was also introduced by
his gifted but ill-starred schoolmate Gerard de Nerval With
Gerard, Petrus Borel, Corot, and many other less known paiaten
and poets whose personalities he has delightfully sketched in the
articles collected under the titles of Hisloire du RcmanHsme, &c ,
be formed a minor romantic clique who were distinguished for a
time by the most extravagant eccentricity. A flaming crimson
waistcoat and a great mass of waving hair were the outward
signs which qualified Gautier for a chief rank among the enthusi-
astic devotees who attended the rehearsals of Herman* with red
tickets marked " Hierro," performed mocking dances round toe
bust of Racine, and were at all times ready to exchange word or
blow with the perruques and grisdtres of the cla s sical party, la
Gauticr's case these freaks were not inconsistent with real genius
and real devotion to sound ideals of literature He began (like
Thackeray, to whom he presents in other ways some striking
points of resemblance) as an artist, but soon found that his true
powers lay in another direction.
His first considerable poem, Albertus (1830), displayed a good
deal of the extravagant character which accompanied rather thta
marked the movement, but also gave evidence of uncommon
command both of language and imagery, and in particular of a
descriptive power hardly to be excelled. The promise that
given was more than fulfilled in his subsequent poetry, which, is
consequence of its small bulk, may well be noticed at once and by
anticipation. The ConUdie de la mort, which appeared soon after
(1832), is one of the most remarkable of French poems, and
though never widely read has received the suffrage of every
competent reader. Minor poems of various dates, published ia
1840, display an almost unequalled command over poetical form,
an advance even over Albertus in vigour, wealth and appropriate-
ness of diction, and abundance of the special poetical essence.
AH these good gifts reached their climax In the Emaux el conbts,
first published in 1856, and again, with additions, just before the
poet's death in 187*. These poems are in their own way such as
GAUTIER D'ARRAS— GAUZE
537
cannot be surpassed. Gautier's poetical work contains in litlie
an expression of his literary peculiarities. There are, in addition
to the peculiarities of style and diction already noticed, an extra-
ordinary feeling and affection for beauty in art and nature, and a
strange indifference to anything beyond this range, which has
doubtless injured the popularity of his work.
But it was not, after all, as a poet that Gautier was to achieve
either profit or fame. For the theatre, he had but little gift, and
his dramatic efforts (if we except certain masques or ballets in
which his exuberant and graceful fancy came into play) are by
far his weakest. It was otherwise with his prose fiction. His
first novel of any size, and in many respects his most remarkable
work, was Mademoiselle dt Uaupin (1835). Unfortunately this
book, while it establishes his literary reputation on an imperish-
able basis, was unfitted by it* subject* and in parts by its treat-
ment, for general perusal, and created, even in France, a prejudice
against its author which be was very far from really deserving.
During the years from 1833 onwards, his fertility in novels and
tales was very great. Les J emus- France (1833), which may rank
as a sort of prose Albertus in some ways, displays the follies of the
youthful Romantics in a vein of humorous and at the same time
half-pathetic satire. Fortunio (1S38) perhaps belongs to the same
class. Jeitatura, written somewhat later, is less extravagant and
more pathetic. A crowd of minor tales display the highest
literary qualities, and rank with Mcnmce's at the bead of all
contemporary works of the class. First of all must be mentioned
the ghost -story of La Morte amoureuse, a gem of the most perfect
workmanship. For many years Gautier continued to write
novels. La Bdle J amy (1864) is a not very successful attempt to
draw on his English experience, but the earlier Militona (1847) is
a most charming picture of Spanish life. In Spirit* (1866) he
endeavoured to enlist the fancy of the day for supernatural
manifestations, and a Roman de la momie ( 1856) is a learned study
of ancient Egyptian ways. His most remarkable effort in this
kind, towards the end of his life,was Le Capitaine Fraeasse (1863),
a novel, partly of the picaresque school, partly of that whirh
Dumas was to make popular, projected nearly thirty years earlier,
and before Dumas himself had taken to the style. This book
contains some of the finest instances of his literary power.
Yet neither in poems nor in novels did the main occupation
of Gautier as a literary man consist. He Was early drawn to
the more lucrative task of feuillcton-writing, and for more than
thirty years he was among the most expert and successful
practitioners of this art. Soon after the publication of Made-
moiseiic de Maupin, in which he had not been too polite to
journalism, he became Irrevocably a journalist. He was actually
the editor of V Artist* for a time: but his chief newspaper
connexions were with La Presse from 1836 to 1854 and with the
Monsieur later. His work was mainly theatrical and art criticism.
The rest of his life was spent either at Paris or in travels of
considerable extent to Spain, the Netherlands, Italy, Turkey,
England, Algeria and Russia, all undertaken with a more or less
definite purpose of book-making. Having absolutely no political
opinions, he had no difficulty in accepting the Second Empire,
and received from it considerable favours, in return for which,
however, be in no way prostituted his pen, but remained a
literary man pure and simple. He died on the 23rd of December
187a.
Accounts of his travels, criticisms of the theatrical and literary
works of the day, obituary notices of his contemporaries and,
above all, art criticism occupied him in turn. It has sometimes
been deplored that this engagement in journalism should have
diverted Gautier from the performance of more capital work in
literature. Perhaps, however, this regret springs from a certain
misconception. Gautier's power was literary power pure and
simple, and it is as evident in his slightest sketches and criticisms
as in tmaux el camees or La Morle amoureuse. On the other hand,
his weakness, if he had a weakness, lay in his almost total in-
difference to the matters which usually supply subjects for art
and therefore for literature. He has thus been accused of " lack
of ideas " by those who have not cleared their own minds of cant ;
and in the recent set-back of the critical current against form and
our of " philosophic " treatment, comment upon him has
imes been unfavourable. But this injustice will, beyond
icstion, be redressed again. He was neither immoral,
ious nor unduly subservient to despotism, but morals,
n and politics (to which we may add science and material
ss) were matters of no interest to him. He was to all
s a humanist, as the word was understood in the 15th
ry. But he was a humorist as well, and this combination,
1 to his singularly kindly- and genial nature, saved him
wme dangers and depravations as well as some absurdities
ich the humanist temper is exposed. As time goes on it
« predicted that, though Gautier may not be widely read,
1 writings will never cease to be full of indescribable charm
E very definite instruction to men of letters. Besides those
works which have been already cited* we may notice Urn
: dudiabk (1839), a charming mixture of humour and tender*
Les Grotesques (1844), a volume of early criticisms on some
es of 17th-century literature; Caprices et tigtags (184s),
lanies dealing in part with English life; Voyage en Espagme
\, ConstantinopU (1854), Voyage en Russia (1806), brilliant
es of travel; Menagerie iniime (1869) and Tableaux da
play his incomparable
n.
vorka, and the vicomte
>,$ de Thiopkile Gautier
taking would be. But
t of articles have been
r a la plume (1880);
undi (new ed„ 1888J;
879 his son-in-law, E.
htcr Estclle (the elder,
istinction — was at one
shy, Thiephtie Gautier,
Id be compared Maxima
rancais (1890) and the
>urt. Critical eulogies,
r«) and Baudelaire (two
numerous. The chief
titUraires sur le XIX*
;> respectable academic
(G.Sa.)
[TITER D'ARRAS, French trouvhe, flourished in the second
f the 1 ath century. Nothing is known of his biography
: what may be gleaned from his works. He dedicated hit
ice of trade to Theobald V., count of Blois (d. iigt);
5 his other patrons were Marie, countess of Champagne,
iter of Louis VII. and Eleanor of Guienne and Baldwin IV.,
of Hainaut. trade, the hero of which becomes emperor
nstantinople as Heraclius, is purely a roman d 1 avert lures
njoyed great popularity. His second romance, IUe el
m, dedicated to Beatrix, the second wife of Frederick
rossa, treats of a similar situation to that outlined in the
" FJiduc " by Marie de France.
the CEutrts de Gautier <f Arras, cd. E. L&seth (2 vols., Parts,
; Ilisl. tilt, de la France, vol. xxii. (1853); A. Dinaux, Les
ires (1833-1843). vol. iii.
JZE, a light, transparent fabric, originally of silk, and
ametimes made of linen or cotton, woven in an open manner
irery fine yarn. It is said to have been originally made at
in Palestine, whence the name. Some of the gauzes from
n Asia were brocaded with flowers of gold or silver. In
caving of gauxe the warp threads, in addition to being
d as in plain weaving, are twisted in pairs from left to
and from right to left alternately, after each shot of weft,
>y keeping the weft threads at equal distances apart, and
ing them in their parallel position. The textures arc
1 either plain, striped or figured; and the material receives
designations, according to its appearance and the purposes
ich it is devoted. A thin cotton fabric, woven in the same
is known as leno, to distinguish it from muslin made by
weaving. Silk gauze was a prominent and extensive
try in the west of Scotland during the second half of the
century, bnt on the introduction of cotton-weaving it
y declined. In addition to its use for dress purposes silk
is much employed for bolting or sifting flour and other
ground substance*. The term gauxe is. applied generally
53«
GAVARNI— GAVELKIND
to transparent fabrics of whatever fibre made, and to the fine-
woven wire-cloth used in safety-lamps, sieves, window-blinds, Arc.
GAVARNI, the name by which Sulpice Guillaume Chevalie*
(1801-1866), French caricaturist, is known. He is said to have
taken the nom de plume from the place where he made his first
published sketch. He was born in Paris of poor parents, and
started in life as a workman in an engine-building factory. At
the same time he attended the free school of drawing. In his
first attempts to turn his abilities to some account he met with
many disappointments, but was at last entrusted wkh the
drawing of some illustrations for a journal of fashion. Gavarni
was then thirty-four years of age. His sharp and witty pencil
gave to these generally commonplace and unartistic figures a
life-likeness and an expression which soon won for him a name
in fashionable circles. Gradually he gave greater attention to
this more congenial work, and finally ceased working as an
engineer to become the director of the journal Lcs Gens dumondc.
His ambition rising in proportion to his success, Gavarni from
this time followed the real bent of his inclination, and began a
series of lithographed sketches, in which he portrayed the most
striking characteristics, foibles and vices of the various classes
of French society. * The letterpress explanations attached to his
drawings were always short, but were forcible and highly
humorous, if sometimes trivial, and were admirably adapted
to the particular subjects. The different stages through which
Gavarni's talent passed, always elevating and refining itself,
are well worth being noted. At first he confined himself to the
study of Parisian manners, more especially those of the Parisian
youth. To this vein belong Les LorcUes, Les Actrices, Lcs Coulisses,
Lcs Fashionables, Les Gentilshommes bourgeois, Les Artistes, Les
Dibardturs, Clicky, Les £ludiants de Paris, Les Baliverneries
porisiennes, Les Plaisirschampetres, Les Bats masquis, Le Car naval,
La Souvenirs du carnaval, Les Souvenirs du bal Chicard, La Vie
desjeunes hommes, Lcs Patois de Paris. He had now ceased to
be director of Les Gens du monde; but he was engaged as ordinary
caricaturist of Le Charivari, and, whilst making the fortune
of the paper, he made his own. His name was exceedingly
popular, and his illustrations for books were eagerly sought for
by publishers. Le Juif errant, by Eugene Sue (1843, 4 vols.
8vo), the French translation of Hoffman's tales (1843, 8vo), the
first collective edition of Balzac's works (Paris, Houssiaux, 1850,
so vols. 8vo), Le Diable a Paris (1844-1846, 2 vols. 4to), Les
Franqais pcints par eux-memes (1840-1843, 9 vols. 8vo), the
collection of Physiologies published by Aubcrt in 38 vols. i8mo
(1840- 1 84a), —all owed a great part of their success at the time,
and arc still sought for, on account of the clever and telling
sketches contributed by Gavarni. A single frontispiece or
vignette was sometimes enough to secure the sale of a new book.
Always desiring to enlarge the field of his observations, Gavarni
soon abandoned his once favourite topics. He no longer limited
himself to such types as the torette and the Parisian student,
or to the description of the noisy and popular pleasures of the
capital, but turned his mirror to the grotesque sides of family
life and of humanity at large. Les Enfants ierribles, Les Parents
terribles, Les Fourberies desfemmes, La Politique desfenmes, Les
Marisvengts, Les Nuances du sentiment, Les Rives, Les Pctits Jeux
de sociitd, Les Petits Malheur s du bonhcur, Les Impressions de
menage, Les Interjections, Les Traductions en langue vulgaire, Les
Propas de Thomas Viretoque, &c., were composed at this time,
ana are his most elevated productions. But whilst showing the
same power of irony as his former works, enhanced by a deeper
insight into human nature, they generally bear the stamp of a
■bitter and even sometimes gloomy philosophy. This tendency
was still more strengthened by a visit to England in 1849. He
returned from London deeply impressed with the scenes of misery
and degradation which he had observed among the lower classes
of that city. In the midst of the cheerful atmosphere of Paris he
had been struck chiefly by the ridiculous aspects of vulgarity
and vice, and he had laughed at them. But the debasement of
human nature which he saw in London appears to have affected
him so forcibly that from that time the cheerful caricaturist
never laughed or made others laugh again. What he had
witnessed there became the almost exclusive subject of his
drawings, as powerful, as impressive as ever, but better calculated
to be appreciated by cultivated minds than by the public, which
had in former years granted him so wide a popularity. Most of
these last compositions appeared in the weekly paper L'JUustra-
tion. In 1857 he published in one volume the aeries entitled
Masques et visages (1 vol. tamo), and in 1869, about two years
after his death, his last artistic work, Les Douse Mots (1 voL foL),
was given to the world. Gavarni was much engaged, during the
last period of his life, in scientific pursuits, and this fact must
perhaps be connected with the great change which then took
place in his manner as an artist . He sent several communication
to the Academic des Sciences, and till his death on the a 3rd of
November 1866 be was eagerly interested in the question of
aerial navigation. It is said that he made experiments on a large
scale with a view to find the means of directing balloons; but
it seems that he was not so successful in this line as his fellow-
artist, the caricaturist and photographer, Nadar.
Gavarni's (Eutres choisies were edited in 1845 (4 vols, ato) wkfc
letterpress by J. Janin, Th. Gautter and Balzac, followed in i«$o
by two other volumes named Perles et parurei ; and some essays u
prose and in verse written by him were collected by one of his bio-
graphers. Ch. Yriarte, and published in 1869. See also E. and J. de
Goocourt, Gavarni, I'homme et V autre (1873, 8vo). J. Clatetie has
also devoted to the great French caricaturist a curious and interest,
ing essay. A catalogue raisonni of Gavarni's works was published
by J. Armelhault and E. Bochcr (Paris, 1873, 8vo).
GAVAZZI, ALESSANDRO (1800-1889)! Italian preacher and
patriot, was born at Bologna on the 21st of March 1809. He
at first became a monk (1825), and attached himself to the
Barnabites at Naples, where he afterwards (1S29) acted as
professor of rhetoric. In 1840, having already expressed liberal
views, he was removed to Rome to fill a subordinate position.
Leaving his own country after the capture of Rome by the
French, he carried on a vigorous campaign against priests and
Jesuits in England, Scotland and North America, partly by
means of a periodical, the Garaxi Free Word, While in England
he gradually went over (1855) to the Evangelical church, and
became head and organizer of the Italian Protestants in London.
Returning to Italy in i860, he served as army-chaplain with
Garibaldi. In 1870 he became head of the Free Church (Chiesa
libera) of Italy, united the scattered Congregations into the
" Unione dclle Chiese libere in Italia," and in 1875 founded in
Rome the theological college of the Free Church, in which be
himself taught dogmatics, apologetics and polemics. He died
in Rome on the 9th of January 1880.
Amongst his publications are No Union with Rome (1871); The
Priest in Absolution (1877); My Recollections of the Last Four Popn,
&c.. in answer to Cardinal Wiseman (1838); Orations, 2 decades
(1851).
GAVELKIND, 1 a peculiar system of tenure associated chiefly
with the county of Kent, but found also in other parts of England.
In Kent all land is presumed to be bolden by this tenure until
the contrary is proved, but some lands have been disgavdled
by particular statutes. It is more correctly described as socage
tenure, subject to the custom of gavelkind. The chief peculiari-
ties of the custom are the following. (1) A tenant can aOentlc
his lands by feoffment at fifteen years of age. (a) There is 00
escheat on attainder for felony, or as it is expressed in the old
rhyme —
" The father to the bough.
The son to the plough."
(3) Generally the tenant could always dispose of his lands by
will. (4) In case of intestacy the estate descends not to the eldest
son but to all the sons (or, in the case of deceased sons, their
representatives)- in equal shares. u Every son is as great s
gentleman as the eldest son is." It is to this remarkable peculi-
arity that gavelkind no doubt owes its local popularity. Though
1 This word is generally taken to represent in O. Eng. gafolgtevnd,
from tafol, payment, tribute, and gecynd, species, kind, and origin-
ally to have meant tenure by payment of rent or non-milkary ser-
vices, cf. gajd-land, and thence to have been applied to the particular
custom attached to such tenure in Kent. Gafoi apparently i»
derived from the Teutonic root seen in " to give ; the Med.
Lat. gabulum, gablum gives the Fr. gabelU* tax.
GAVESTON— GAWAIN
539
females claiming in their own right are postponed to males,
yet by representation they may inherit together with them.
( 5) A wife is dowable of one-half, instead of one-third of the land.
(6) A widower may be tenant by courtesy, without having had
any issue, of one-half, but only so long as he remains unmarried.
An act of 18 i, for commuting manorial rights in respect of lands
of copyhold and customary tenure, contained a clause specially
exempting from the operation of the act " the custom of gavelkind
as the same now exists and prevails in the county of Kent."
Gavelkind is one of the most interesting examples of the
customary law of England; it was, previous to the Conquest,
the general custom of the realm, but was then superseded by
the feudal law of primogeniture. Its survival in this instance in
one part of the country is regarded as a concession extorted
from the Conqueror by the superior bravery of the men of Kent.
Irish gavelkind was a species of tribal succession, by which the
land, instead of being divided at the death of the holder amongst
his sons, was thrown again into the common stock, and redivided
among the surviving members of the sept. The equal division
amongst children of an inheritance in land is of common occur-
rence outside the United Kingdom and is discussed under Suc-
cession.
See Inheritance ; Tenure. AUo Robinson, On Gavelkind; Digby,
History of ike Law of Real Property. Pollock and Maitland, History
of English Law\ Challis, Real Property.
GAVESTON, PIERS (d. 1312), earl of Cornwall, favourite of
the English king Edward II., was the son of a Gascon knight,
and was brought up at the court of Edward I. as companion
to his son, the future king. Strong, talented and ambitious,
Gaveston gained great influence over young Edward, and early
in 1307 he was banished from England by the king; but he
returned after the death of Edward I. a few months later, and
at once became the chief adviser of Edward II. Made earl of
Cornwall, he received both lands and money from the king, and
added to his wealth and position by marrying Edward's niece,
Margaret, daughter of Gilbert de Clare, earl of Gloucester (d.
1295). He was regent of the kingdom during the king's short
absence in France in 2308, and took a very prominent part at
Edward's coronation in February of this year. These proceedings
aroused the anger and jealousy of the barons, and their wrath
was diminished neither by Gaveston's superior skill at the
tournament, nor by his haughty and arrogant behaviour to
themselves. They demanded his banishment; and the king,
forced to assent, sent his favourite to Ireland as lieutenant,
where he remained for about a year. Returning to England in
July 1309, Edward persuaded some of the barons to sanction this
proceeding; but as Gaveston was more insolent than ever the
old jealousies soon broke out afresh. In 1311 the king was
forced to agree to the election of the "ordainers," and the
ordinances they drew up provided inter alia for the perpetual
banishment of his favourite. Gaveston then retired to Flanders,
but returned secretly to England at the end of 131 1. Soon he
was publicly restored by Edward, and the barons had taken up
arms. Deserted by the king he surrendered to Aymer de Valence,
earl of Pembroke (d. 1374), at Scarborough in May 1312, and was
taken to Deddington in Oxfordshire, where he was seized by Guy
de Beauchamp, earl of Warwick (d. 13 15). Conveyed to Warwick
castle he was beheaded on Blacklow Hill near Warwick on the
19th of June 1312. Gaveston, whose body was buried in 131s
at King's Langley. left an only daughter.
See W. Stubbs, Constitutional History, vol. it. (Oxford, 1896); and
Chronicles of the Reigns of Edward I. and Edward //., edited by W.
Stubbs. Rolls aeries (London. 1882-1883).
GAVOTTE (a French word adopted from the Provencal gavoto),
properly the dance of the Gavots or natives of Gap, a district
in the Upper Alps, in the old province of Dauphin^. It Is a
dance of a brisk and lively character, somewhat resembling
the minuet, but quicker and less stately (see Dance); hence
also the use of this name for a corresponding form of musical
composition.
OAWAIN (Fr. Watvain (Brut), Gawain, Gaugain; Lat.
Walganns, Wahnnus; Dutch, Walwtin, Welsh, Gwalchmei),
ton of King Lotb of Orkney and nephew to Arthur on hit
ther's side, the most famous hero of Arthurian romance.
? first mention of his name is in a passage of William of Malmes-
y, recording the discovery of his tomb in the province of Roe
Wales. He is there described as " Walwen qui fuil hand
mer Arturis ex sorore nepos." Here he is said to have reigned
r Galloway; and there is certainly some connexion, the
racter of which is now not easy to determine, between the
>. In the later Historia of Godfrey of Monmouth, and its
nch translation by Wace, Gawain plays an important and
leudo-historic " role. On the receipt by Arthur of the
dting message of the Roman emperor, demanding tribute,
\ he who is despatched as ambassador to the enemy's camp,
re his arrogant and insulting behaviour brings about the
break of hostilities. On receipt of the tidings of Mord red's
chery, Gawain accompanies Arthur to England, and is slain
he battle which ensues on their landing. Wace, however,
lently knew more of Gawain than he has included in bis
islation, for he speaks of him as
Li quens Walwains
Qui tant fu preudom de ses mains (11. 9057-58).
later on says
Prous fu et de mult grant raesure,
D'orgoil et de forfait n'ot qure
Plus vaut (aire qu'il ne dist
Et plus doner qu'il ne pramist (10. 106*109).
English Arthurian poems regard him as the type and model of
alrous courtesy, " the fine father of nurture," and as Pro-
»r Maynadier has well remarked, " previous to the appearance
Calory's compilation it was Gawain rather than Arthur, who
the typical English hero." It is thus rather surprising to
that in the earliest preserved MSS. of Arthurian romance, i.e.
he poems of Chretien de Troyes, Gawain, though generally
ed first in the list of knights, is by no means the hero par
Uence. The latter part of the Perceval is indeed devoted to the
Lai of his adventures at the Ckastd Merveilleus, but of none of
ttien'a poems is be the protagonist. The anonymous author
he Chevalier & VepU indeed makes this apparent neglect of
rain a ground of reproach against Chretien. At the same time
majority of the short episodic poems connected with the cycle
t Gawain for their hero. In the earlier form of the prose
ances { e.g. in the Merlin proper, Gawain* is a dominant
onality, his feats rivalling in importance those ascribed to
lur, but in the later forms such as tbe Merlin continuations,
Tristan, and the final Lancelot compilation, his character and'
tion have undergone a complete change, he is represented as
1, cowardly and treacherous, and of indifferent moral
-actcr. Most unfortunately our English version of the
ances, Malory's Morte Arthur, being derived from these later
is (though his treatment of Gawain is by no means uniformly
iistcnt), this unfavourable aspect is that under which the hero
become known to the modern reader. Tennyson, who only
iv the Arthurian story through the medium of Malory, has,
Exaggeration, largely contributed to this misunderstanding,
■ris, in The Defence of Guinevere, speaks of " gloomy Gawain ";
taps the most absurdly misleading epithet which could possibly
2 been applied to the " gay, gratious, and gude " knight of
v English tradition.
he truth appears to be that Gawain, the Celtic and mythic
in of whose character was frankly admitted by tbe late M.
ton Paris, belongs to the very earliest stage of Arthurian
it ion, long antedating the crystallization of such tradition into
ary form. He was certainly known in Italy at a very early
:; Professor Rajna has found the names of Arthur and
rain in charters of the early 12th century, the bearers of those
tes being then grown to manhood; and Gawain is figured in
architrave of the north doorway of Modcna cathedra], a 1 2th-
ury building. Recent discoveries have made it practically'
ain that there existed, prior to the extant romances, a collec-
of short episodic poems, devoted to the glorification of
lur's famous nephew and his immediate kin (his brother
eris, or Caret h, and his son Guinglaio), the authorship of
ii was attributed to a Welshman, Bleheris; fragments of this
540
collection have been preserved to us alike in the first continuation
of Chretien de Troyes Perceval, due to Wauchier de Dcnain,
and in our vernacular Gawaiu poems. Among these " B Leber is "
poems was one dealing with Gawain's adventures at the Grail
castle, where the Grail is represented as non-Christian, and presents
features strongly reminiscent of the ancient Nature mysteries.
There is good ground for believing that as Grail quester and
winner, Gawain preceded alike Perceval and Galahad, and that
the solution of the mysterious Grail problem is to be sought
rather in the tales connected with the older hero than in those
devoted to the glorification of the younger knights. The explana-
tion of the very perplexing changes which the character of Gawain
has undergone appears to lie in a misunderstanding of the original
sources of that character. Whether or no Gawain was a sun-
hero, and he certainly possessed some of the features— we are
constantly told how his strength waxed with the waxing of the sun
till noontide, and then gradually decreased; he owned a steed
known by a definite name le Gringalet; and a light-giving sword,
Escalibur (which, as a rule, is represented as belonging to Gawain,
not to Arthur) — all traits of a sun-hero— he certainly has much in
common with the primitive Irish hero Cuchullin. The famous
head-cutting challenge, so admirably told in Syr Gawayne and the
Grene Knighle, was originally connected with the Irish champion.
Nor was the lady of Gawain's love a mortal maiden, but the
queen of the other-world. In Irish tradition the other-world is
often represented as an island, inhabited by women only; and
it is this " Isle of Maidens " that Gawain visits in Din Crone;
returning therefrom dowered with the gift of eternal youth.
The Chastel Merveilleus adventure, related at length by Chretien
and Wolfram is undoubtedly such an " other-world " story. It
seems probable that it was this connexion which won for Gawain
the title of the " Maidens' Knight," a title for which no satis-
factory explanation is ever given. When the source of the name
was forgotten its meaning was not unnaturally misinterpreted,
and gained for Gawain the reputation of a facile morality,
which was exaggerated by the pious compilers of the later Grail
romances into persistent and aggravated wrong-doing; at the
same time it is to be noted that Gawain is never like Tristan and
Lancelot, the hero of an illicit connexion maintained under
circumstances of falsehood and treachery. Gawain, however,
belonged to the pre-Christian stage of Grail tradition, and it is not
surprising that writers, bent on spiritual edification, found him
somewhat of a stumbling-block. Chaucer, when he spoke of
Gawain coming" again out of faerie," spoke better than he knew;
the home of that very gallant and courteous knight is indeed
Fairy-land, and the true Gawain-tradition is informed with
fairy glamour and grace.
See Syr Gaway that hero, edited
by Sir Frederick ] i 839 (out of print
and difficult to j France, vol. xxx.;
introduction and poems by Gaston
Paris; The Lept Weston, Grimm
Library, vol. viL Jessie L. Weston,
Grimm Library, ? Green Knight,"
" Sir Gawain at t n and the Lady of
Lys," vols. i. r vi a utt).
GAWLER, a town of Gawler county, South Australia, on the
Tara river, 24! m. by rail N.E. of Adelaide. It is one of the most
thriving places in the colony, being the centre of a large wheat-
growing district; it has also engineering works, foundries, flour-
mills, breweries and saw-mills, while gold, silver, copper and
lead are found in the neighbouring hills. The inhabitants of the
town and its extensive suburbs number about 7000; though the
population of the town itself in 1001 was 1996.
GAY, JOHN (1685-173 2), English poet, was baptized on the
16th of September 1685 at Barnstaple, where his family had
long been settled. He was educated at the grammar school of the
town under Robert Luck, who had published some Latin and
English poems. On leaving school he was apprenticed to a silk
mercer in London, but being weary, according to Dr Johnson,
" of either the restraint or the servility of his occupation," he
soon returned to Barnstaple, where he spent some time with his
uncle, the Rev. John Hanmer, the Nonconformist minister of the
GAWLER— GAY, JOHN
town. He then returned to London, and though no details are
available for his biography until the publication of Wine in 1706,
the account he gives in Rural Sports (17 13), of years wasted ia
attending on courtiers who were profuse in promises nevei
kept, may account for his occupations. Among his early literary
friends were Aaron Hill and Eustace Budgell. In The Present
Slate of Wit (1 71 1) Gay attempted to give an account of " all our
periodical papers, whether monthly, weekly or diurnal." He
especially praised the Taller and the Spectator, and Swift, who
knew nothing of the authorship of the pamphlet, suspected it
to be inspired by Steele and Addison. To Lintot's Miscellany
(1712) Gay contributed " An Epistle to Bernard Lintot," con-
taining some lines in praise of Pope, and a version of the story of
Arachne from the sixth book of the Metamorphoses of Ovid. Ia
the same year he was received into the household of the duchess
of Monmouth as secretary, a connexion which was, however,
broken before June 17 14.
The dedication of his Rural Sports (17 13) to Pope was
the beginning of a lasting friendship. Gay could have no
pretensions to rivalry with Pope, who seems never to have
tired of helping his friend. In 17 13 he produced a comedy,
The Wife of Bath, which was acted only three nights, and The
Fan, one of his least successful poems; and in 1 7x4 The Shepherd's
Weeh, a series of six pastorals drawn from English rustic life.
Pope had urged him to undertake this last task in order to
ridicule the Arcadian pastorals of Ambrose Philips, who had been
praised by the Guardian, to the neglect of Pope's claims as the
first pastoral writer of the age and the true English Theocritus.
Gay's pastorals completely achieved this object, but his ludicrous
pictures of the English swains and their loves were found to be
abundantly entertaining on their own account. Gay had just
been appointed secretary to the British ambassador to the court
of Hanover through the influence of Jonathan Swift, when the
death of Queen Anne three months later put an end to all his
hopes of official employment. In 17^, probably with some help
from Pope; he produced What d'ye call it? a dramatic skit on
contemporary tragedy, with special reference to Ot way's Venue
Preserved. It left the public so ignorant of its real meaning that
Lewis Theobald and Benjamin Griffin (1680- 1740) published a
Complete Key to what oVye call it by way of explanat ion. In 17 16
appeared his Trivia, or the Art of Walking the Streets of London, a
poem in three books, for which he acknowledged having received
several hints from Swift. It contains graphic and humorous
descriptions of the London of that period. In January 1 717 be
produced the comedy of Three Hours after Marriage, which was
grossly indecent without being amusing, and was a complete
failure. There is no doubt that in this piece he had assistance
from Pope and Arbuthnot, but they were glad enough to have it
assumed that Gay was the sole author.
Gay had numerous patrons, and in 1720 he published Poem
on Several Occasions by subscription, realizing £1000 or more.
In that year James Craggs, the secretary of state, presented
him with some South Sea stock. Gay, disregarding the prudent
advice of Pope and other of his friends, invested his an fn South
Sea stock, and, holding on to the end, he lost everything. The
shock is said to have made him dangerously ill. As a matter of
fact Gay had always been a spoilt child, who expected everything
to be done for him. His friends did not fail him at this juncture.
He had patrons in William Pulteney, afterwards earl of Bath,
in the third earl of Burlington, who constantly entertained him
at Chiswick or at Burlington House, and in the third earl of
Queensberry. He was a frequent visitor with Pope, and received
unvarying kindness from Congreve and Arbuthnot. In 1724
he produced a tragedy called The Captives. In 1727 -he wrote
for Prince William, afterwards duke of Cumberland, his famous
Fifty-one Fables in Verse, for which he naturally hoped to gain
some preferment, although he has much to say in them of the
servility of courtiers and the vanity of court honours. He was
offered the situation of gentleman-usher to the Princess Louisa,
who was still a child. He refused this offer, which all his friends
seem to have regarded, for no very obvious reason, as an indignity.
As the FabUs were written for the amusement of one royal child.
GAY, M. F. S.— GAYA
541
there would appear to have been a measure of reason in giving
him a sinecure in the service of another. His friends thought
him unjustly neglected by the court, but he had already received
(1722) a sinecure as lottery commissioner with a salary of £150
a year, and from 1722 to 1729 he had lodgings in the palace at
Whitehall, He had never rendered any special services to the
court.
He certainly did nothing to conciliate the favour of the govern-
ment by his next production, the Beggars' Opera, a lyrical
drama produced on the 20th of January 1728 by Rich, in which
Sir Robert Walpole was caricatured. This famous piece, which
was said to have made " Rich gay and Gay rich," was an innova-
tion in many respects, and for a time it drove Italian opera off
the English stage. Under cover of the thieves and highwaymen
who figured in it was disguised a satire on society, for Gay made
it plain that in describing the moral code of his characters he had
in mind the corruptions of the governing class. Part of the
success of the Beggars' Opera may have been due to the acting
of Lavinia Fenton, afterwards duchess of Bolton, in the part of
Polly Peachum. The play ran for sixty-two nights, though the
representations, four of which were " benefits " of the author,
were not, as has sometimes been stated, consecutive. Swift is
said to have suggested the subject, and Pope and Arbuthnot
were constantly consulted while the work was in progress, but
Gay must be regarded as the sole author. He wrote a sequel,
Polly, the representation of which was forbidden by the lord
chamberlain, no doubt through the influence of Walpole. This
act of " oppression " caused no loss to Gay. It proved an
excellent advertisement for Polly, which was published by sub-
scription in 1729, and brought its author more than £1000. The
duchess of Queensberry was dismissed from court for enlisting
subscribers in the palace. The duke of Queensberry gave him a
home, and the duchess continued her affectionate patronage
until Gay's death, which took place on the 4th of December
1732. He was buried in Westminster Abbey. The epitaph
on his tomb is by Tope, and is followed by Gay's own mocking
couplet: —
" Life is a jest, and all things show it,
1 thought so once, and now I know it."
Act's and Galatea, an English pastoral opera, the music of which
was written by Handel, was produced at the Haymarket in
1 732. The profits of his posthumous opera of Achilles (1733), and
a new volume of Fables (1738) went to his two sisters, who
inherited from him a fortune of £6000. He left two other pieces,
The Distressed Wife (1743)1 a comedy, and Tlic Rehearsal at
Goaikam ( 1 7 54) , a farce. The Fables, slight as they may appear,
cost him more labour than any of his other works. The narratives
are in nearly every case original, and are told in clear and lively
verse. The moral which rounds off each little story is never
strained. They are masterpieces in their kind, and the very
numerous editions of them prove their popularity. They have
been translated into Latin, French and Italian, Urdu and
Bengali.
See his Poetical Works (1893) in the Muses* Library, with an intro-
duction by Mr John Underbill; also Samuel Johnson's Lices of the
Poets, John Gay r s SingspUU (1898), edited by G. Sarrazin (Engliscke
Textbibtiotkek II.); and an article by Austin Dobson in vol. 21 of
the Dictionary of National Biography, Gay's Chair (1820), edited
by Henry Lee, a fellow-townsman, contained a. biographical sketch
by his nephew, the Rev. Joseph Bailer.
GAY, MARIE FRAMBOISE SOPHIE (1776-1852), French
author, was born in Paris on the 1st of July 1776. Madame
Gay was the daughter of M. Nichault de la Valctte and of
Francesca Pcretti, an Italian lady. In 1793 she was married
to M. Liottier, an exchange broker, but she was divorced from
him in 1709, and shortly afterwards was married to M. Gay,
receiver-general of the department of the Rofir or Ruhr. This
union brought her into intimate relations with many distinguished
personages; and her salon came to be frequented by all the
distinguished litterateurs, musicians, actors and painters of the
time, whom she attracted by her beauty, her vivacity and her
many amiable qualities. Her first literary production was a
letter written in 1802 to the Journal de Paris, in defence of
Madame de StaeTs novel, Delpkine; and in the same year she
published anonymously her first novel Laure d'Eslcll. Lionie
de Montbreuse, which appeared in 1813, is considered by Sainte-
Beuve her best work; but Anatolc (1815), the romance of a
deaf-mute, has perhaps a higher reputation. Among her other
works, Salons ctlebres (2 vols., 1837) may be especially mentioned.
Madame Gay wrote several comedies and opera libretti which
met with considerable success. She was also an accomplished
musician, and composed both the words and music of a number
of songs. She died in Paris on the 5th of March 1852. For an
account of her daughter, Delphine Gay, Madame de Girardin,
see GiRABDitf.
See her own Souoenirs ffune vieiUe femme (1834) ; also Thcophile
Gauticr, Portraits contemporains; and Saintc-Beuve, Causeries du
lundi, vol. vi.
GAY, WALTER (1856- ), American artist, was born at
Hingham, Massachusetts, on the 22nd of January 1856. In
1876 he became a pupil of Leon Bonnat in Paris. He received
an honourable mention in the Salon of 1885; a gold medal in
1888, and similar awards at Vienna (1804), Antwerp (1895),
Berlin (1896) and Munich (1897). He became an officer of the
Legion of Honour and a member of the Society of Secession,
Munich. Works by him arc in the Luxembourg, the Tate
Gallery (London), and the Boston and Metropolitan (New York)
Museums of Art. His compositions arc mainly figure subjects
portraying French peasant life.
GAYA, a city and district of British India, in the Patna
division of Bengal The city is situated 85 m. S. of Patna by
rail. Pop. (1001) 71,288. It consists of two distinct parts;
adjoining each other; the part containing the residences of the
priests is Gaya proper; and the other, which is the business
quarter, is called Sahibganj. The civil offices and residences of
the European inhabitants arc situated here. Gaya derives its
sanctity from incidents in the life of Buddha. But a local
legend also exists concerning a pagan monster of great sanctity,
named Gaya, who by long penance had become holy, so that all
who saw or touched him were saved from perdition. Yama, the
lord of hell, appealed to the gods, who induced Gaya to lie down
in order that his body might be a place of sacrifice; and once
down, Yama placed a large stone on him to keep him there. The
tricked demon struggled violently, and, in order to pacify him,
Vishnu promised that the gods should take up their permanent
residence in him, and that any one who made a pilgrimage to the
spot where he lay should be delivered from the terrors of the
Hindu place of torment. This may possibly be a Brahmanic
rendering of B uddha's life and work. There arc forty-five sacred
spots (of which the temple of Vishnupada is the chief) in and
around the city, and these arc visited by thousands of pilgrims
annually. D uring the Mutiny the large store of treasure here was
conveyed safely to Calcutta by Mr A. Money. The city contains
a government high school and an hospital, with a Lady Elgin
branch for women.
The District of Gaya comprises an area of 4712 sq. m.
Generally speaking, it consists of a level plain, with a ridge of
prettily wooded hills along the southern boundary, whence the
country falls with a gentle slope towards the Ganges. Rocky
hills occasionally occur, cither detached or in groups, the loftiest
being Maher bill about 12 m. S.E. of Gaya city, with an elevation
of 1620 ft. above sea-Icvel. The eastern part of the district is
highly cultivated; the portions to the north and west are less
fertile; while in the south the country is thinly peopled and
consists of hills, the jungles on which are full of wild animals.
The principal river is the Son, which marks the boundary between
Gaya and Shahabad, navigable by small boats throughout the
year, and by craft of 20- tons burden in the rainy season. Other
rivers are the Pun pun, Phalgu and Jamuna. Two branches of
the Son canal system, the eastern main canal and the Patna
canal, intersect the district. In 100: the population was
2.059.933. showing a decrease of 3 % in the decade. Among the
higher castes there is an unusually large proportion of Brahmans,
a circumstance due to the number of sacred places which the
district contains. The Gayawals, or priests in charge of the holy
54*
GAYAL— GAY-LUSSAC
places, are held in high esteem by the pilgrims ; but they are not
pure Brahmans, and are looked down upon by those who are.
They live an idle and dissolute life, but are very wealthy, from
contributions extorted from the pilgrims. Buddh Gaya, about
6 m. S. of Gaya city, is one of the holiest sites of Buddhism, as
containing the tree under which Sakyarauni attained enlighten-
ment. In addition to many ruins and sculptures, there is a
temple restored by the government in i88x. Another place of
religious interest is a temple of great antiquity, which crowns the
highest peak of the Barabar hills, and at which a religious fair is
held each September, attended by 10,000 to 20,0000 pilgrims.
At the foot of the hill are numerous rock caves excavated about
300 B.C. The opium poppy is largely cultivated. There are a
number of lac factories. Manufactures consist of common brass
utensils, black stone ornaments, pottery, tussur-silk and cotton
cloth. Formerly paper-making was an important manufac-
ture in the district, but it has entirely died out. The chief
exports are food grains, oil seeds, indigo, crude opium (sent to
Patna for manufacture), saltpetre, sugar, blankets, brass utensils,
&c. The imports are salt, piece goods, cotton, timber bamboos,
tobacco, lac, iron, spices and fruits. The district is traversed by
four branches of the East Indian railway. In 1901 it suffered
severely from the plague.
Sec District Gazetteer (1906); Sir A. Cunningham, Makabodki
(189a).
GAYAL, a domesticated ox allied to the Gaur, but dis-
tinguished, among other features, by the more conical and
straighter horns, and the straight line between them. Gayal
are kept by the natives of the hill-districts of Assam and parts
of Tenasserim and Upper Burma. Although it has received
a distinct name, Bos (Bibos) frontalis, there can be little doubt
that the gayal is merely a domesticated breed of the gaur, many
gayal-skulls showing characters approximating to those of the
gaur.
GAYANGOS Y ARCS, PASCUAL DB (1800-1897), Spanish
scholar and Orientalist, was born at Seville on the 21st of June
1809. At the age of thirteen he was sent to be educated at
Pont-le-Voy near Blois, and in 1828 began the study of Arabic
under Silvestre dc Sacy. After a visit to England, where he
married, he obtained a post in the Spanish treasury, and was
transferred to the foreign office as translator in 1833. In 1836 he
returned to England, wrote extensively in English periodicals, and
translated Almakkari's History of the Mahommedan Dynasties in
Spain (1 840-1 843) for the Royal Asiatic Society. In England he
also made the acquaintance of Ticknor, to whom he was very
serviceable. In 1843 he returned to Spain as professor of Arabic
at the university of Madrid, which post he held until 1881, when
he was made director of public instruction. This office he re-
signed upon being elected senator for the district of Huelva.
His latter years were spent in cataloguing the Spanish manu-
scripts in the British Museum; he had previously continued
Bergcnroth's catalogue of the manuscripts relating to England
in the Simancas archives. His best-known original work is his
dissertation on Spanish romances of chivalry in Rivadencyra's
Biblioleca de anions espaflolcs. He died in London on the 4th
of October 1897.
GAYARR& CHARLES *TIENNE ARTHUR (1805-1895),
American historian, was born in New Orleans, Louisiana, on the
9th of January 180s. After studying at the College d*Orleans he
began, in 1826, to study law in Philadelphia, and three years later
was admitted to the bar. In 1830 he was elected a member of the
House of Representatives of Louisiana, in 1831 was appointed
deputy attorney-general of his state, in 1833 became presiding
judge of the city court of New Orleans, and in 2834 was elected
as a Jackson Democrat to the United States Senate. On account
of ill-health, however, be immediately resigned without taking his
seat, and for the next eight years travelled in Europe and collected
historical material from the French and the Spanish archives.
In 1 844-1845 and in 1856-1857 he was again a member of the
state House of Representatives, and from 1845 to 1853 was
secretary of state of Louisiana. He supported the Southern
Confederacy during the CirH War, Id which he lost a large fortune,
and after its close lived chiefly by his pan. He died in New
Orleans on the 1 ith Ci February 1895. He is best known as the
historian of Louisiana. He wrote Histoiredela Louisiane (1847);
Romance of the History of Louisiana (1848); Louisiana: its
Colonial History and Romance (1851), reprinted in A History of
Louisiana; History of Louisiana: Ike Spanish Domination
(1854); Philip II. of Spain (1866); and A History of Louisiana
(4 vols., 1866), the last being a republication and continuation
of his earlier works in this field, the whole comprehending the
history of Louisiana from its earliest discovery to 1 861. He
wrote also several dramas and romances, the best of the latter
being Fernando de Lctnos (1872).
GAY-LUSSAC, JOSEPH LOUIS (1 778-1850), French chemist
and physicist, was born at St Leonard, in the department of
Haute Vienne, on the 6th of December 1778. He was the elder
son of Antoine Gay, procureur du rot and judge at Pont«de-
Noblac, who assumed the name Lussac from a small property be
had in the neighbourhood of St Leonard. Young Gay-Lussic
received his early education at home under the direction of the
abbe* Bourdieux and other masters, and in 1 704 was sent to Paris to
prepare for the £cole Polytechnique, into which he was admitted
at the end of x 797 after a brilliant examination. Three yean later
he was transferred to the £cole des Fonts et Ch&uasees, and
shortly afterwards was assigned to C. L. Berthollet, who wanted
an able student to help in his researches. The new assistant
scarcely came up to expectations in respect of confirming certaia
theoretical views of his master's by the experiments set him to
that end, and appears to have stated the discrepancy without
reserve; but Berthollet nevertheless quickly recognized the
ability displayed, and showed his appreciation not only by desiring
to be Gay-Lussac's " fat her in science," but also by making him in
1807 an original member of the Soti6t6 d'Arcueil. In 1802 he was
appointed demonstrator to A. F. Fourcroy at the £cole Poly-
technique, where subsequently (1809) be became professor of
chemistry, and from x 808 to 1832 he was professor of phy&ks at
the Sorbonne, a post which he only resigned for the chair of
chemistry at the Jardin des Plantcs. In 183 1 he was elected to
represent Haute Vicnnc in the chamber of deputies, and in 1839
he entered the chamber of peers. He died in Paris on the oth of
May 1850.
Gay-Lussac's earlier researches were mostly physical hi
character and referred mainly to the properties of gases, vapour-
tensions, hygromctry, capillarity, &c. In his first memoir (Ann.
de Chimie, 1802) he showed that different gases are dilated in
the same proportion when heated from o° to xoo° C. Apparently
he did not know of Dalton's experiments on the same point,
which indeed were far from accurate; but in a note he explained
that "lc cit. Charles avait remarque" depuis 15 ons la men*
propriltc' dans ces gaz; mais n'ayant jamais public ses resultats,
e'est par le plus grand hasard que je les ai connus." In con-
sequence of his candour in thus rescuing from oblivion the
observation which his fellow-citizen did not think worth publish-
ing, his name is sometimes dissociated from this law, which instead
is known as that of Charles. In 1804 he had an opportunity
of prosecuting his researches on air in somewhat unusual condi-
tions, for the French Academy, desirous of securing some observa-
tions on the force of terrestrial magnetism at great elevations
above the earth, through Berthollet and J. E. Chaptal obtained
the use of the balloon which had been employed in Egypt, and
entrusted the task to him and J. B. Blot. In their first ascent
from the garden of the Conservatoire des Arts on the 24th of
August 1804 an altitude of 4000 metres (about 13,000 ft.) was
attained. But this elevation was not considered sufficient
by Gay-Lussac, who therefore made a second ascent by himself
on the 1 6th of September, when the balloon rose 7016 metres
(about 23,000 ft.) above sea-level. At this height, with the
thermometer marking 9} degrees below freezing, he remained
for a considerable time, making observations not only on
magnetism, but also on the temperature and humidity of the air,
and collecting several samples of air at different heights. The
magnetic observations, though imperfect, led him to the con-
clusion that the magnetic effect at all Attainable elevations above
GAZA
543
the earth's surface remains constant; and on analysing the
samples of air he could find no difference of composition at
different heights. (For an account of both ascents see Journ.
de phys. for 1804.) On the 1st of October in the same year, in
conjunction with Alexander von Humboldt, he read a paper on
eudiometric analysis {Ann. de Chim., 1805), which contained the
germ of his most important generalization, the authors noting
that when oxygen and hydrogen combine together by volume,
it is in the proportion of one volume of the farmer to two volumes
of the latter. But his law of combination by volumes was not
enunciated in its general form until after his return from a scientific
journey through Switzerland, Italy and Germany, on which with
Humboldt he started from Paris in March 1805. This journey
was interrupted in the spring of x8oo by the news of the death
of M. J. Brisson, and Gay-Lussac hurried back to Paris in the
hope, which was gratified, that he would be elected to the seat
thus vacated in the Academy. In 1807 an account of the
magnetic observations made during the tour with Humboldt
was published in the first volume of the Mtmoirts d'ArctteiJ, and
the second volume, published in 1809, contained the important
memoir on gaseous combination (read to the Sociele Philo-
mathique on the last day of 1808), in which he pointed out that
gases combining with each other in volume do so in the simplest
proportions— 1 to 1, 1 to 2, 1 to 3— and that the volume of the
compound formed bears a simple ratio to that of the constituents.
About this time Gay-Lussac's work, although he by no means
entirely abandoned physical questions, became of a more chemical
character; and in three instances it brought him into direct
rivalry with Sir Humphry Davy. In the first case Davy's
preparation of potassium and sodium by the electric current
spurred on Gay-Lussac and his collaborator L. J. Thenard, who
had no battery at their disposal, to search for a chemical method
of obtaining those metals, and by the action of red-hot iron on
fused potash — a method of which Davy admitted the advantages
— they succeeded in 1808 in preparing potassium, going on to
make a full study of its properties and to use it, as Davy also
did, for the reduction of boron from boracic acid in 1809. The
second concerned the nature of " oxymuriatic acid " (chlorine).
While admitting the possibility that it was an elementary body,
after many experiments they finally declared it to be a compound
{Mint. d'Arcutil, 1809). Davy, on the other hand, could see no
reason to suppose it contained oxygen, as they surmised, and
ultimately they had to accept his view of its elementary character.
The third case roused most feeling of all. Davy, passing through
Paris on his way to Italy at the end of 1813, obtained a few
fragments of iodine, which had been discovered by Bernard
Courtois (1 777-1838) in 181 1, and after a brief examination by
the aid of his limited portable laboratory perceived its analogy
to chlorine and inferred it to be an element. Gay-Lussac, it is
said, was nettled at the idea of a foreigner making such a dis-
covery in Paris, and vigorously took up the study of the new
substance, the result being the elaborate " Mcmoire sur Piode,"
which appeared in the Ann. de ckim. in 1814. He too saw its
resemblance to chlorine, and was obliged to agree with Davy's
opinion as to its simple nature, though not without some hesita-
tion, due doubtless to his previous declaration about chlorine.
Davy on his side seems to have felt that the French chemist was
competing with him, not altogether fairly, in trying to appropriate
the honour of discovering the character of the substance and of
its compound, hydriodic acid.
In 18 10 he published a paper which contains some classic
experiments on fermentation, a subject to which be returned
in a second paper published in 181 5. At the same time he was
working with Thenard at the improvement of the methods of
organic analysis, and by combustion with oxidizing agents,
first potassium chlorate and subsequently copper oxide, he
determined the composition of a number of organic substances.
But his last great piece of pure research was on prussic acid.
In a note published in 181 1 he described the physical properties
of this acid, but he said nothing about its chemical composition
till 1815, when he described. cyanogen as a compound radicle,
prussic acid as a compound of that radicle with hydrogen alone,
and the prustiates (cyanides) as compounds of the radicle with
metals. The proof that prussic acid contains hydrogen but no
oxygen was a most important support to the hydrogen-acid
theory, and completed the downfall of Lavoisier's oxygen theory;
while the isolation of cyanogen was of equal importance for the
subsequent era of compound radicles in organic chemistry.
After thus research Gay-Lussac's attention began to be dis-
tracted from purely scientific investigation. He had now secured
a leading if not the foremost place among the chemists of the
French capital, and the demand for his services as adviser in
technical problems and matters of practical interest made greet
inroads on his available time. He had been a member of the
consultative committee on arts and manufactures since 1805;
he was attached to the " administration des poudrcs ct salpelre* "
in 1818, and in 1829 be received the lucrative post of assayer to
the mint. In these new fields he displayed the powers so con-
spicuous in his scientific inquiries, and he was now to introduce
and establish scientific accuracy where previously there had been
merely practical approximations. His services to industry in-
cluded his improvements in the processes for the manufacture
of sulphuric acid (18:8) and oxalic acid (1829); methods of
estimating the amount of real alkali in potash and soda by the
volume of standard add required for neutralization, and for
estimating the available chlorine in bleaching powder by a solut ion
of arsenious acid; directions for the use of the centesimal
alcoholometer published in 1824 and specially commended by
the Institute; and the elaboration of a method of assaying
silver by a standard solution of common salt, a volume on which
was published in 1833. Among his research work of this period
may be mentioned the improvements in organic analysis and the
investigation of fulminic acid made with the help of Liebig, who
gained the privilege of admission to his private laboratory in
1823-1824.
Gay-Lussac was patient, persevering, accurate to punctilious-
ness, perhaps a little cold and reserved, and not unaware of his
great ability. But he was also bold and energetic, not only in
his work but also in support and defence of his friends. His
early childish adventures, as told by Arago, herald the fearless
aeronaut and the undaunted investigator of volcanic eruptions
(Vesuvius was in full eruption when he visited it during his
tour in 1805); and the endurance be exhibited under the labora-
tory accidents that befell him shows the power of will with which
he would face the prospect of becoming blind and useless for the
prosecution of the science which was his very life, and of which he
was one of the most distinguished ornaments. Only at the very
end, when the disease from which he was suffering left him no hope,
did he complain with some bitterness of the hardship of leaving
this world where the many discoveries being made pointed to
yet greater discoveries to come.
The most complete list of Gay-Lussac's papers is contained in
the Royal Society's Catalogue of Scientific Papers, which enumerates
148, exclusive 01 others written jointly with Humholdt, Th6nard,
Welter and Liebig. Many of them were published in the A nnales de
thimie, which alter it changed its title to Annates de chimie tl
physique he edited, with Arago, up to nearly the end of his life; but
some are to be found in the Mcmoires d'Arcucil and the Combles
rendtts, and in the Reckerehcs physiques et chimiques, published
with Thenard in 181 1.
GAZA, THEODORUS (c. 1400-1475), one of the Greek scholars
who were the leaders of the revival of learning in the 1 5th century,
was born at Thessalonica. On the capture of his native city by
the Turks in 1430 he fled to Italy. During a three years' residence
in Mantua he rapidly acquired a competent knowledge of Latin
under the teaching of Vittorino da Feltrc, supporting himself
meanwhile by giving lessons in Greek, and by copying manuscripts
of the ancient classics. 1 In 1447 he became professor of Greek
in the newly founded university of Fcrrara, to which students
in great numbers from all parts of Italy were soon attracted
by his fame as a teacher. He had taken some part in the councils
which were held in Siena (1423), Ferrara (1438), and Florence
(1430), with the object of bringing about a reconciliation between
1 According to Voipt, Gaza came to Italy some ten years later from
Constantinople, where he had been a teacher or held vmsk. ckttcak.
office.
54+
GAZA— GAZALAND
the Greek and Latin Churches; and in 1450, at the invitation of
Pope Nicholas V., he went to Rome, where he was for some years
employed by his patron in making Latin translations from
Aristotle and other Greek authors. After the death of Nicholas
(1455), being unable to make a living at Rome, Gaza removed
to Naples, where he enjoyed the patronage of Alpbonso the
Magnanimous for two years (14 56-1458). Shortly afterwards he
was appointed by Cardinal Bessarion to a benefice in Calabria,
where the later years of his life were spent, and where he died
about 1475. Gaza stood high in the opinion of most of his
learned contemporaries, but still higher in that of the scholars
of the succeeding generation. His Greek grammar (in four
books), written in Greek, first printed at Venice in 1495, and
afterwards partially translated by Erasmus in 1521, although
in many respects defective, especially in its syntax, was for a
long time the leading text -book. His translations into Latin
were very numerous, including the Problemato, De partibus
animalium and De generatione animalium of Aristotle; the
Hisloria plantarumol Theophrastus; the ProbUmata of Alexander
Aphrodisias; the De inslruendis aciebus of Aclian; the De
composition* verborum of Dionysius of Haliearnassus; and some
of the Homilies of John Chrysostom. He also turned into Greek
Cicero's De senecluU and Somnium Scipionis-^nith much success,
in the opinion of Erasmus; with more elegance than exactitude,
according to the colder judgment of modern scholars. He was
the author also of two small treatises entitled De mensibus and
De origine Tnrcarum.
See G. Voigt, Die Wiederbelebung des klessisckcn AlUrtums
1893), and article by C. F. Bahr in Ersch and Gruber's Atlgemeine
...... .. . . ... * L . . ___ ^bri^
For a complete list of
Bibiiotheca Graeca (cd. Harles), x.
lopddie.
his works, see Fabricius,
GAZA (or 'Azzah, mod. Ghutuh), the most southerly of the
five princely Philistine cities, situated near the sea, at the point
where the old trade routes from Egypt, Arabia and Petra to'
Syria met. It was always a strong border fortress and a place
of commercial importance, in many respects the southern
counterpart of Damascus. The earliest notice of it is in the
Tell el- A mar na tablets, in a letter from the local governor, who
then held it for Egypt, with which country it always stood in
close connexion. It never passed for long into Israelite hands,
though subject for a while to Hczekiah of Judah; from him it
passed to Assyria. In Amos i. 6 the city is denounced for giving
up Hebrew slaves to Edom. To Herodotus (iii. 5 ) the place
seemed as important as Sardis. The city withstood Alexander
the Great for five months (332 B.C.), and in 96 B.C. was razed to
the ground by Alexander Jannaeus. It was rebuilt by Aulus
Gabinius, 57 B.C., but on a new site; the old site was remembered
and spoken of as "Old " or " Desert Gaza ": compare Acts
viii. 26. In the 2nd and 3rd centuries Gaza was a thriving
Greek city, with good schools and famous temples, especially
one to the local god Marna (i.e. " Lord " or " Our Lord "). A
statue of this god has been found near Gaza; it much resembles
the Greek representation of Zeus. The struggle with Christianity
here was long and intense. Egyptian monks gradually won over
the country folk, and in 402, under the influence of Thcodosius
and Porphyry the local bishop, the Marneion was destroyed
and the cross made politically supreme. In the 5th and 6th
centuries Gaza was held in high repute as a place of learning.
But after it passed into Moslem hands (635) it gradually lost
all save commercial importance, and even the Crusaders did
little to revive its old military glory. It finally was captured
by the Moslems in 1244. Napoleon captured it in 1799.
The modern town (pop. 16,000) is divided into four quarters,
one of which is built on a low hill. A magnificent grove of very
ancient olives forms an avenue 4 ro. long to the north. There
are many lofty minarets in various parts of the town, and a
fine mosque built of ancient materials. A lath century church
towards the south side of the hill has also been converted into
a mosque. On the east is shown the tomb of Samson (an
erroneous tradition dating back to the middle ages). The ancient
walls are now covered up beneath green mounds of rubbish.
The water-supply is from wells sunk through the sandy soil to
the rock; of these there are more than twenty— an unusual
number for a Syrian town. The land for the 3 m. between
Gaza and the sea consists principally of sand dunes. There is
no natural harbour, but traces of ruins near the shore mark the
site of the old Maiuma Gazae or Port of Gaza, now called d
Mineh, which in vhe 5th century was a separate town and episcopal
see, under the title Constantia or Limena Gaza. Hashem, an
ancestor of Mahomet, lies buried in the town. On the east are
remains of a race-course, the corners marked by granite shafts
with Greek inscriptions on them. To the south is a remarkable
hill, quite isolated and bare, with a small mosque and a grave-
yard. It is called dMuntfir," the watch tower," and is supposed
to be the mountain "before (or facing) Hebron," to which
Samson carried the gates of Gaza (Judg. xvi. 3). The bazaars
of Gaza are considered good. An extensive pottery exists in
the town, and black earthenware peculiar to the place is manu-
factured there. The climate is dry and comparatively healthy,
but the summer temperature often exceeds ixo° Fahr. The
surrounding country is partly cornland, partly waste, and is
inhabited by wandering Arabs. The prosperity of Ghuzzch
has partially revived through the growing trade in barley, of
which the average annual export to Great Britain for 1897- 1809
was over 30,000 tons. The dress of the people is Egyptian
rather than Syrian. Gaza is an episcopal sec both of the Greek
and the Armenian church. The Church Missionary Society
maintains a mission, with schools for both sexes, and a hospital.
GAZALAND, a district of Portuguese East Africa, extending
north from the Komati or Manhissa river, Delagoa Bay, to the
Pungwe river. It is a well-watered, fertile country. Gazaland
is one of the chief recruiting grounds for negro labour in the
Transvaal gold mines. The country derives its name from a
Swazi chief named Gaza, a contemporary of Chaka, the Zulu
king. Refugees from various clans oppressed by Dingaan
(Chaka's successor) were welded into one tribe by Gaza's sob
Manikusa, who took the name of Sotshangana, his followers
being known generally as Matshangana. A section of them was
called Mavili or Landeens (i.e. couriers), a designation which
persists as a tribal name. Between 1833 and 1836 Manikusa
made himself master of the country as far north as the Zambezi
and captured the Portuguese posts at Delagoa Bay, Inhamban*,
Sofala and Sena, killing nearly all the inhabitants. The Portu-
guese reoccupicd their posts, but held them with great difficulty,
while in the interior the Matshangana continued their ravages
unchecked, depopulating large regions. Manikusa died about
i860, and his son Umzila, receiving some help from the Portuguese
at Delagoa Bay in a struggle against a brother for the chieftain-
ship, ceded to them the territory south of the Manhissa river.
North of that stream as far as the Zambezi and inland to the
continental plateau Umzila established himself in independence,
a position he maintained till his death (c. 1884). His chief
rival was a Goanese named Gouveia, who came to Africa about
1850. Having obtained possession of a prazo in the Gorongozi
district, he ruled there as a feudal lord while acknowledging
himself a Portuguese subject. Gouveia recovered from the Mat-
shangana and other troublers of the peace much of the country
in the Zambezi valley, and was appointed by the Portuguese
captain-general of a large region. From x868 onward the country
began to be better known. Probably the first European to
penetrate any distance inland from the Sofala coast since the
Portuguese gold-scckcrs of the 16th century was St Vincent W.
Erskine, who explored the region between the Limpopo and
Pungwe (186S-1875). Portugal's hold on the coast had been
more firmly established at the time of Umzila's death, and
Gungunyana, his successor, was claimed as a vassal, while efforts
were made to open up the interior. This led in 1 800-1 891 to
collisions on the borderland of the plateau with the newly
established British South Africa Company, and to the arrest
by the company's agents of Gouveia, who was, however, set at
liberty and returned to Mozambique via Cape Town. An offer
made by Gungunyana ( 1891 ) to come under British protection
was not accepted. In 1892 Gouveia was killed in a war with a
nalwt c%mA. (tatt$myan& maintained his independence until
GAZEBO— GEBER
545
18951 when he was captured by a Portuguese force and exiled,
first to Lisbon and afterwards to Angola, where be died in 1906.
With the capture of Gunguny'ana opposition to Portuguese rule
largely ceased.
In flora, fauna and commerce Gaxaland resembles the neigh-
bouring regions of Portuguese East Africa. (?.».).
See G. McCall Theal, History of South Africa sine* iyg$ % vol. v.
(London, 1908).
GAZEBO (usually explained as a comic Latinism, for M I will
gaze "; the New English Dictionary suggests a possible oriental
origin now lost), a term used in the 18th century for a structure
on the outer wall of a garden, having an upper storey with
windows on each side so as to overlook the road. Similar build-
ings are found in Holland on the borders of the canals, which in
some c ases f orm very picturesque features.
GAZETTE, a name given to news-sheets or newspapers having
an abstract of current events (see Newspapers). The London
Gazette is the title of the English official organ for announcements
by the government, and is published every Tuesday and Friday.
It contains all proclamations, orders of council, promotions and
appointments to commissions in the army and navy, all appoint-
ments to offices of state, and such other orders, rules and regula-
tions as are directed by act of parliament to be published therein.
It also contains notices of proceedings in bankruptcy, dissolutions
of partnership, &c. By the Documentary Evidence Act 1868 the
production of a copy of the Gazette is prima facie evidence of royal
proclamations and government orders and regulations. Similar
gazettes are also published in Edinburgh and Dublin. Most
countries (the United States excepted) have official journals
containing information more or less similar to that of the London
Gazette, as the French Journal vfficid, the German Deutsche?
Reichs-und Kgl. Preuss. Slaats- A nxeiger, tec. The word " gazet-
teer " was originally applied to one who wrote for " gazettes,"
but is now only used for a geographical dictionary arranged on
an alphabetical plan.
GEAR (connected with "garb," properly elegance, fashion,
especially of dress, and with " gar," to cause to do, only found in
Scottish and northern dialects; the root of the word is seen in the
Old Tent, garwjan. to make ready), an outfit, applied to the
wearing apparel of a person, or to the harness and trappings of a
horse or any draft animal, as riding-gear, hunting-gear, &c;
also to household goods or stuff. The phrase "out of gear,"
though now connected with the mechanical application of the
word, was originally used to signify " out of harness " or con-
dition, not ready to work, not fit. The word is also used of
apparatus generally, and especially of the parts collectively in a
machine by which motion is transmitted from one part to another
by a series of cog-wheels, continuous bands, &c It is used in a
special sense in reference to a bicycle, meaning the diameter of an
imaginary wheel, the circumference of which is equal to the
distance accomplished by one revolution of the pedals (see
Bicycle).
GEBER. The name Gcbcr has long been used to designate the
author of a number of Latin treatises on alchemy, entitled Summa
perfectionis magisterii, De investigation perfectionis, De invcnlionc
veritatis. Liber fornacum, Testament um Gcbcrt Regis Indiae and
Alckemia Gebcri, and these writings were generally regarded as
translations from the Arabic originals of Abu Abdallah Jabcr
ben Hayyam (Haiyan) ben Abdallah al-Kufi, who is supposed to
have lived in the 81 h or 9th century of the Christian era. About
him, however, there is considerable uncertainty. According to the
KiMb-al-Fihrist (10th century), which gives his name as above,
the authorities disagree, some asserting him to have been a writer
on philosophy and rhetoric, and others claiming for him the first
place among the adepts of his time in the art of making gold ami
silver. The writer of the KitSb-al-Fihrist says he had been
assured that Jabcr only wrote one book and even that he never
existed at all, but these statements he scouts as ridiculous, and
expressing the conviction that Jabcr really did exist, and that his
works were numerous and important, goes on to quote the titles
of some 500 treatises attributed to him. He is said to have resided
most frequently at Kufa, where he prepared the " elixir," but,
according to others, he never spent long in one place, having
reason to keep his whereabouts unknown. His patron or master
is variously given as Ja'far ben Yahya, and as Ja'far es-Sadiq;
in the Arabic Booh of Royalty, professedly written by him, he
addresses the last-named as his master. In addition to these
details the Fihrist mentions a tradition that he originally came
from Khorasan. Another story given by d'Herbcloi (tJibtie-
theque orientate, s.v. " G labor ") makes him a native of Harrnn
in Mesopotamia and a Sabaean. Leo Africanus, who in 1516
gave an account of the Alchemists of Fez in Africa (see this
English translation of his Africae descriplio by John Pory, A
Geographical History of Africa, London, 1600, p. 155), states that
their principal authority was Geber, a Greek who had apostatized
to Mahommedanism and lived a century after Mahomet. In
Albert us Magnus the name Geber occurs only once and then with
the epithet "of Seville"; doubtless the reference is to the
Arabian Jabir ben Aflah, who lived in that city in the nth
century, and wrote an astronomy in 9 books which Is of import-
ance in the history of trigonometry.
The great puzzle connected with the name Geber lies in the*
character of the writings attributed to him, their style and matter
differentiating them strongly from those of even the best authors
of the later alchemical period, and making it difficult to account
for their existence at all. The researches of M. P. E. Berthelot
threw a great deal of light on this question. Taking the six
treatises enumerated above he concluded, after critical examina-
tion, that the two last may be disregarded as of later date than the
others, and that the Do mvesHgalione perfectionis, the De in-
vention* and the Liber fornacum are merely extracts from or
summaries of the Summa perfectionis with later additions. The
Summa he therefore regarded as representative of the work of the
Latin Geber, and study of it convinced him that it contains no
indication of an Arabic origin, either in its method, which is
conspicuous for clearness of reasoning and logical co-ordination of
material, or in its facts, or in the words and persons quoted.
Without going so far as to deny that some words and phrases may
be taken from the writings of the Arabian Jabcr, he was disposed
to hold that it is the original work of some unknown Latin
author, who wrote it in the second half of the 13th century and
put it under the patronage of the venerated name of Geber. The
MS. of this work in the Bibliotheque Nationale at Paris dates from
about the year 1300. Berthelot further investigated Arabic
MSS. existing in the Paris library and in the university of Leiden,
and containing works attributed to Jaber, and had translations
made of six treatises — two, of which he gives the titles as Litra
de la royauti and Petit Litre de la misiricordc, — from Paris, and
ioxxt—Liwe des balances, Litre de la misiricordc, Litre de la
concentration and Litre de la mercure orientate— (rom Leiden.
Berthelot was not prepared to assert that these treatises were
actually written by Jaber, but he held it certain that they are
works written in Arabic between the 9th and 1 2th centuries, at a
period anterior to the relations of the Latins with the Arabs. In
style these treatises arc entirely different from the Summa of
Geber. Their language is vague and allegorical, full of allusions
and pious Mussulman invocations; the author continually
announces that he is about to speak without mystery or reserve,
but all the same never gives any precise details of the secrets
he professes to reveal. He holds the doctrine that everything
endowed with an apparent quality possesses an opposite occult
quality in much the same terms as it is found in Latin writers of
the middle ages, but he makes no allusion to the theory of the
generation of the metals by sulphur and mercury, a theory
generally attributed to Geber, who also added arsenic to the list.
Again he fully accepts the influence of the stars on the production
of the metals, whereas the Latin Geber disputes it, and in general
the chemical knowledge of the two is on a different plane. Here
again the inference is that the Latin treatises printed from the
15th century onwards as the work of Geber are not authentic,
regarded as translations of the Arabic author Jaber, always
supposing that the Arabic MSS. transcribed and translated for
Berthelot are really, as they profess to be, the work of Jaber, ana
as repttaciuaAro oi \n» ovtatoua %xA vaxyudmwvn*.
546
gebhard-<;ecko
But while Berthelot thus deprived the world of what were Long
regarded at genuine Latin versions of Jaber's works, he also gave
it something in their place, for among the Paris MSS. he found a
mutilated treatise, hitherto unpublished, entitled Liber d*
Septuaginla{Johannis),translatusa Magislro Renaldo Cremcncnsi,
which he considered the only known Latin work that can be
regarded as a translation from the Arabic Jaber. The latter
states in the Arabic works referred to above that under that title
he collected 70 of the 500 little treatises or tracts of which he was
the author, and the titles of those tracts enumerated in the
Ktidb-al-Fikrist as forming the chapters of the Liber it Septua-
tinta correspond in general with those of the Latin work, which
further is written in a style similar to that of the Arabic Jaber
and contains the same doctrines. Hence Berthelot felt justified
in assigning it to Jaber, although no Arabic original is known.
The evidence collected by Berthelot has an important bearing on
the history of chemistry. Most of the chemical knowledge attri-
buted to the Arabs has been attributed to them on the strength
of the reputed Latin writings of Geber. If, therefore, these are
original works rather than translations, and contain facts and
doctrines which are not to be found in the Arabian Jaber, it
follows that, on the one hand,the chemical knowledge of the Arabs
has been overestimated and, on the other, that more progress was
made in the middle ages than has generally been supposed.
See M. P. E. Berthelot'* works on the history of alchemy and
especially his Chimb au moyen Age (3 vols., Paris, 1803), the third
volume of which contains a French translation of Jaber's works
together with the Arabic text.
OBBHARD TRUCHSESS VOM WALDBURO (1547-1601),
elector and archbishop of Cologne, was the second son of William,
count of Waldburg, and nephew of Otto, cardinal bishop of
Augsburg (1514-1573). Belonging thus to an old and dis-
tinguished Swabian family, he was born on the 10th of November
1 547, and after studying at the universities of Ingolstadt, Perugia,
Louvain and elsewhere began his ecclesiastical career at Augs-
burg. Subsequently he held other positions at Strassburg,
Cologne and Augsburg, and in December 1577 was chosen elector
of Cologne after a spirited contest. Gebhard is chiefly noted for
his conversion to the reformed doctrines, and for his marriage
with Agnes, countess of Mansfeld, which was connected with this
step. After living in concubinage with Agnes he decided, perhaps
under compulsion, to marry her, doubtless intending at the same
time to resign his see. Other counsels, however, prevailed.
Instigated by some Protestant supporters he declared he would
retain the elcctoratc,and in December 1 582 he formally announced
his conversion to the reformed faith. The marriage with Agnes
was celebrated in the following February, and Gebhard remained
in possession of the see. This affair created a great stir in
Germany, and the clause concerning ecclesiastical reservation in
the religious peace of Augsburg was interpreted in one way by
his friends, and in another way by his foes; the former holding
that he could retain his office, the latter that he must resign.
Anticipating events Gebhard had collected some troops, and had
taken measures to convert his subjects to Protestantism. In
April 1583 he was deposed and excommunicated by Pope Gregory
XIII.; a Bavarian prince, Ernest, bishop of Liege, Freising and
Hildesheim, was chosen elector, and war broke out between the
rivals. The cautious Lutheran princes of Germany, especially
Augustus I., elector of Saxony, were not enthusiastic in support of
Gebhard, whose friendly relations with the Calvinists were not to
their liking; and although Henry of Navarre, afterwards Henry
IV. of France, tried to form a coalition to aid the deposed elector,
the only assistance which he obtained came from John Casimir,
administrator of the Palatinate of the Rhine. The inhabitants of
the electorate were about equally divided on the question, and
Ernest, supported by Spanish troops, was too strong for Gebhard.
John Casimir, who acted as commander-in-chief, returned to the
Palatinate in October 15 S3, and early in the following year
Gebhard was driven from Bonn and took refuge in the Nether-
lands. The electorate was soon completely in the possession of
Ernest, and the defeat of Gebhard was a serious blow to Protes*
tmntism, Mfid narks a stage in the history of the Reformation.
Living in the NetbcrUndt be becuoe very intimate with Elixir
beth'fl envoy, Robert Dudley, earl of Leicester, but he failed to
get assistance for renewing the war either from the English quceo
or in any other quarter. In 1 580 Gebhard look up hta residence at
Strassburg, where he had held the office of dean of the cathedral
since 1574. Before his arrival some trouble had arisen in the
chapter owing to the fact that three excommunicated canons
persisted in retaining their offices. He joined this party, which
was strongly supported in the city, took part in a double election
to the bishopric in 1 $91, and in spite of some opposit ion retained
his office until his death at Strassburg on the 31st of May 1601.
Gebhard was a drunken and licentious man, who owes his promi-
nence rather to his surroundings than to his abilities.
See M Lonen. Der kdlniuhe Krieg (Gotha, 1882). and the article
on Gebhard ia band viii. of the AUtemeitu deulscke Bto%rapki*
(Leipzig. 1878); J. H. Hennes, Der Kampf urn das Erzsttft Kola
(Cologne, 1878); L. Enncn, GeukichUder Slodt Koln (Cologne. 1S63-
1880); and NuntialnrberiehU aus Deutsckland. Der kampf urn
Kdln, edited by J. Hansen (Berhn, 189a).
GEBWBILER (Fr. Guebwillcr), a town of Germany in the
imperial province of Alsace-Lorraine, at the foot of the Vosgcs,
on the Lauch, 13 m. S. of Colmar, on the railway Bollwciler-
Lautenbach. Pop. (1005) 13,259. Among the principal buildings
are the Roman Catholic church of St Lcodgar, dating from the
1 2th century, the Evangelical church, the synagogue, the town-
house, and the old Dominican convent now used as a market and
concert halL The chief industries are spinning and dyeing, and
the manufacture of cloth and of machinery; quarrying is carried
on and the town is celebrated for its white wines.
Gebweiler is mentioned as early as 774. It belonged 10 the
religious foundation of Murbach, and in 1759 tnc abbots chose it
for their residence. In 1789, at the outbreak of the Revolution,
the monastic buildings were laid in ruins, and, though the archives
were rescued and removed to Colmar, the library perished.
GECKO, 1 the common name applied to all the species of the
Gcckoncs, one of the three sub-orders of the Lacalilia. The
geckoes are small creatures, seldom exceeding 8 in. in length
including the tail. With the head considerably flattened, the
body short and thick, the legs not high enough to prevent the
body dragging somewhat on the ground, the eyes large and almost
destitute of eyelids, and the tail short and in some cases nearly at
thick as the body, the geckoes altogether lack the Utheness and
grace characteristic of most lizards. Their colours also are dull,
Leaf-tailed Gecko (Gymnodaclytus plat ur us) of Australia.
and to the weird and forbidding aspect thus produced the general
prejudice against those creatures in the countries where they
occur, which has led to their being classed with toads and
snakes, is no doubt to be attributed. Their bite was supposed
to be venomous, and their saliva to produce painful cutaneous
eruptions; even their touch was thought sufficient to convey a
dangerous taint. It is needless to say that in this instance the
popular mind was misled by appearances. The geckoes are not
only harmless, but are exceedingly useful creatures, feeding oa
insects, which, owing to the great width of their oesophagus, they
are enabled to swallow whole, and in pursuit of which they do not
hesitate to enter human dwellings, where they are often killed oa
1 This Kslay name f^fef imitates the animal's cry.
GED-hGEDDES, ANDREW
547
Lower Surface of the Toe of
(a) Gecko, (b) Hcmidactylus—
enlarged.
suspicion. The structure of the toes in these lizards forms one of
their most characteristic anatomical features.
Most geckoes have adhesive digits and toes, by means of which
they are enabled not only to climb absolutely smooth and vertical
surfaces, for instance a window-pane, but to run along a white-
washed ceiling, back downwards. The adhesion is not produced
by sticky matter but by numerous transverse lamellae, each
of which is further beset with tiny hair-like excrescences. The
arrangement of the lamellae and pads differs much in the various
genera and is used for dassificactory purposes. Those which
live on sandy ground have narrow digits without the adhesive
apparatus. Most species have sharp, curved daws, often
retractile between some of the
lamellae or into a special
sheath. The tail is very brittle
and can be quickly regener-
ated; it varies much in size
and shape; the most extra-
ordinary is that of the leaf-
tailed gecko. Ptyckozoon
homalocepkalon of the Malay
countries has membranous ex-
pansions on the sides of the
head, body, limbs and tail, which
look like parachutes, but more
probably they aid in conceal-
ing the creature when it is
closely pressed to the similarly coloured bark of a tree. Most
geckoes are dull coloured, ydlow to brown, and they soon change
colour from lighter to dark tints. They are insectivorous and
chiefly nocturnal, but are fond of basking in the sun, motionless
on the bark of a tree, or on a rock the colour of which is then
imitated to a nicety. Some species are more or less transparent.
Geckoes, of which about 2 70 species are known, subdivided into
about 50 genera, are cosmopolitan within the warmer zones,
tnduding New Zealand, and even the remotest volcanic islands.
This wide distribution is due partly to the great age of the
suborder (although fossils are unknown), partly to their being
able to exist for several months without food so that, concealed
in hollow trunks of trees, they may float about for a very long
time, Ships, also, act as distributors. In south Europe occur
only Hemidactylus tweicus, Tarcntola mauritanica (Platydoctylus
facelanus) and Phyllodactylus euro pat us.
GED, WILLIAM (1600-1749), the inventor of stereotyping,
was born at Edinburgh in 1690. In 1725 he patented his in-
vention, developed from the simple process of soldering together
loose types of Van der Mey. Ged, although he succeeded in
obtaining a cast in similar metal, of a type page, could not
persuade Edinburgh printers to take up his invention, and
finally entered into partnership with a London stationer named
Jenner and Thomas James, a typefpundcr. The partnership,
however, turned out very ill; and Ged, broken-hearted at his
want of success due to trade jealousy and the compositors'
dislike of the innovation, died in poverty on the 19th of October
1 749. Two prayer-books for the university of Cambridge and
an edition of Sallust were printed from his stereotype plates.
In his time the best type was imported from Holland, and Ged's
daughter reports that he had repeated offers from the Dutch
which, from patriotic motives, he refused. His sons tried to
carry out his patent, and it was eventually perfected by Andrew
Wilson.
GEDDES, ALEXANDER (1737-1802), Scottish Roman Catholic
theologian, was born in Rathven, Banffshire, on the 14th of
September 1737. He was trained at the Roman Cat hoik
seminary at Scalan and at the Scottish College in Paris, where
he studied biblical philology, school divinity and modern
languages. In 1 764 he officiated as a priest in Dundee, but in
May 1765 accepted an invitation to live with the earl of Traquair,
where, with abundance of leisure and the free use of an adequate
library, he made further progress in his favourite biblical studies.
After a second visit to Paris, which was employed by him in
leading and making extracts from rare books and manuscripts,
he was appointed in 1769 priest of Auchinhalrig and Prcshome
in his native county. The freedom with which he fraternized
with his Protestant neighbours called forth the rebuke of his
bishop (George Hay), and ultimately, for hunting and for
occasionally attending the parish church of Cullen, where one
of his friends was minister, he was deprived of bis charge and
forbidden the exercise of ecclesiastical functions within the
diocese. This happened in 1779; and in 1780 he went with his
friend Lord Traquair to London, where he spent the rest of his
life. Before leaving Scotland he had received the honorary
degree of LL.D. from the university of Aberdeen, and had been
made an honorary member of the Society of Antiquaries, in the
institution of which he had taken a very active part. In London
Geddes soon received an appointment in connexion with the
chapel of the imperial ambassador, and was also hdped by Lord
Petre in his scheme for a new Catholic version of the Bible.
In 1786, supported also by such scholars as Benjamin Kcnnicott
and Robert Lowth, Geddes published a Prospectus of a new
Translation of the Holy Bible, a considerable quarto volume, in
which the defects of previous translations were fully pointed
out, and the means indicated by which these might be removed,
It was well received, and led to the publication in 1788 of Pro-
posals for Printing, with a spedmen, and in 1700 of a Central
Answer to. Queries, Counsels and Criticisms. The first volume
of the translation itself, which was entitled The Holy Bible . . .
faithfully translated from corrected Texts of the Originals, with
various Readings, explanatory Notes and critical Remarks,
appeared in 1792, and was the signal for a storm of hostility on
the part of both Catholics and Protestants. It was obvious
enough— no small offence in the eyes of some — that as a critic
Geddes had identified himself with C. F. Houbigant (1686- 1783),
Kcnnicott and J. D. Michadis, but others did not hesitate to
stigmatize him as the would-be " corrector of the Holy Ghost."
Three of the vicars-apostolic almost immediately warned all the
faithful against the " use and reception " of his translation, on
the ostensible ground that it had not been examined and ap-
proved by due ecdesiastical authority; and by his own bishop
(Douglas) he was in 1793 suspended from the exercise of his
orders in the London district. The second volume of the transhv*
tion, completing the historical books, published in 1797, found
no more friendly reception; but this circumstance did not dis-
courage hire from giving forth in 1800 the volume of Critical
Remarks en the Hebrew Scriptures, which presented in a some-
what brusque manner the then novel and startling views of
Eichhorn and his school on the primitive history and early
records of mankind.
Geddes was engaged on a critical translation of the Psalms
(published in 1807) when he was sdzed with an illness of which
he died on the 26th of February 1802. Athough under ecclesi-
astical censures, he had never swerved from a consistent pro-
fession of faith as a Catholic; and on his death-bed he duly
received the last rites of his communion.
Besides pamphlets on the Catholic and slavery questions, as well
as several fugitive jeux d'esPrit, and a number of unsigned articles
in the Analytical Review, Geddes also published a free metrical
version of Select Satires of Horace (1779), and a verbal rendering of
tho First Book of the Iliad of Homer (1792). The Memoirs of his life
and writings by his friend John Mason Good appeared in 1803.
GEDDES, ANDREW (1783-1844), British painter, was born
at Edinburgh. After receiving a good education in the high
school and in the university of that city, be was for five years in
the excise office, in which his father held the post of deputy
auditor. After the death of his father, who had opposed his
desire to become an artist, he came to London and entered the
Royal Academy schools. His first cont ribution to the exhibitions
of the Royal Academy, a " St John in the Wilderness," appeared
at Somerset House in 1806, and from that year onwards Geddes
was a fairly constant exhibitor of figure-subjects and portraits.
His well-known portrait of Wilkie, with whom he was on terms
of intimacy, was at the Royal Academy in 1 816. He alternated
for some years between London and Edinburgh, with some
excursions on the Continent, but in 1831 settled in London, and
was ejkeud isaatis-Vt <* \k* ^a** tattoos* *^ <Av\ «&***
5+8
GEDDES, J k L.— GEDYMIN
died in London of consumption in 1844. A very able executant,
a good colourist, and a close student of character, he made his
chief success as a portrait-painter, but he produced occasional
figure subjects and landscapes, and executed some admirable
copies of the old masters as well. He was also a good etcher.
His portrait of his mother, and a portrait study, called " Summer,"
are in the National Gallery of Scotland, and his portrait of Sir
Walter Scott is in the Scottish National Portrait Gallery.
Sec Art in Scotland: its Origin and Progress, by Robert Brydall
(1889); The Scottish School of Painting, by William D. McKay,
R.S.A. (1906).
GEDDES, JAMES LORRAINE (1827-1887), American soldier
and writer, was born in Edinburgh, Scotland, on the 19th of
March 1827. In his boyhood he was taken to Canada, but in
1843 he returned to Scotland; then studied at Calcutta in the
military academy, entered the army, and after distinguishing
himself in the Punjab campaign, returned to Canada, whence
in 1857 he removed to Vinton, Iowa. In the American Civil
War he served in the Federal army first as lieutenant-colonel
and after February 1862 as colonel of volunteers, taking port
in the fighting at Shiloh, Vicksburg and Corinth. He was
captured at Shiloh and was imprisoned for a time at Madison,
Ga., and in Libby prison, Richmond, Va., and in 1865 was
brevettcd brigadier-general of volunteers. He was principal
of the College for the Blind at Vinton after the war, and until
his death was connected with the Iowa College of Agriculture
at Ames, being military instructor and cashier in 1870-1882,
acting president in 1876-1877, librarian in 1877-1878, vice-
president and professor of military tactics in 1880-1S82, and
treasurer in 1884-1887. He died at Ames on the 21st of
February 1887. He wrote a number of war songs, including
M The Soldiers' Battle Prayer " and " The Surs and Stripes."
GEDDES, SIR WILLIAM DUGUID (1828-1000), Scottish
scholar and educationist, was bom in Aberdeenshire. He was
educated at Elgin academy and university and King's College,
Aberdeen, and after having held various scholastic posts he was
appointed in i860 professor of Greek and in 1885 principal of
the (united) university of Aberdeen. He was knighted in 1892.
He died in Aberdeen on the 9th of February 1900. It is chiefly
as a teacher that Geddes will be remembered, and in his enthusi-
astic and successful efforts to raise the standard of Greek at the
Scottish universities he has been compared with the humanists
of the Renaissance. Amongst other works he was the author
of A Creek Grammar (185s; 17th edition, 1883; new and revised
edition, 1893); a meritorious edition of the Phaedo of Plato
(2nd ed., 1885); and The Problem of the Homeric Poems (1878),
in which, while supporting Grotc's view that the Iliad consisted
of an original Achillefs with insertions or additions by later
hands, he maintains that these insertions are due to the author
of the Odyssey.
GEDYMIN (d. 1342), grand-duke of Lithuania, was supposed
by the earlier chroniclers to have been the servant of When,
prince of Lithuania, but more probably he was Wilen's younger
brother and the son of Lutuwcr, another Lithuanian prince.
Gedymin inherited a vast domain, comprising Lithuania proper,
Samogitia, Red Russia, Polotsk and Minsk; but these possessions
were environed by powerful and greedy foes, the most dangerous
of them being the Teutonic Knights and the Livonian knights of
the Sword. The systematic raiding of Lithuania by the knights
under the pretext of converting it had long since united all the
Lithuanian tribes against the common enemy; but Gedymin
aimed at establishing a dynasty which should make Lithuania
not merely secure but mighty, and for this purpose he entered
into direct diplomatic negotiations with the Holy See. At the
end of 1322 he sent letters to Pope John XXII. solid ting his
protection against the persecution of the knights, Informing him
of the privileges already granted to the Dominicans and the
Franciscans in Lithuania for the preaching of God's Word, and
desiring that legates should be sent to receive him also into the
bosom of the church. On receiving a favourable reply from the
Holy See, Gedymin issued circular letters, dated 25th of January
133$, to the principal Hanse towns, offering a fret access into hit
domains to men of every order and profession from nobles and
knights to tillers of the soil. The immigrants were to choose their
own settlements and be governed by their own laws. Priest «,
and monks were also invited to come and buitd churches at
Vilna and Novogrodek. Similar letters were sent to the Wendish
or Baltic cities, and to the bishops and landowners of Livonia
and Esthonia. In short Gedymin, recognising the superiority
of western civilization, anticipated Ivan the Terrible and Peter
the Great by throwing open the semi-savage Russian lands to
influences of culture.
In October 13*3 representatives of the archbishop of Riga,
the bishop of Dorpat, the king of Denmark, the Dominican and
Franciscan orders, and the Grand Master of the Teutonic Order
assembled at Vilna, when Gedymin confirmed his promises and
undertook to be baptized as soon as the papal legates arrived.
A compact was then signed at Vilna, " in the name of the whole
Christian World," between Gedymin and the delegates, confirm-
ing the promised privileges. But the christianizing of Lithuania
was by no means to the liking of the Teutonic Knights, and ib»
used every effort to nullify Gedymin's far-reaching design. Th£.
unfortunately, it was easy to do. Gedymin's chief object was to
save Lithuania from destruction at the hands of the Germans.
But he was still a pagan reigning over semi-pagan lands; he
was equally bound to his pagan kinsmen in Samogitia, to he.
orthodox subjects In Red Russia, and to his Catholic allies in
Masovia. His policy, therefore, was necessarily tentative and
ambiguous, and might very readily be misinterpreted. Thus
his raid upon Dobrzyn, the latest acquisition of the knights on
Polish soil, speedily gave them a ready weapon against him.
The Prussian bishops, who were devoted to the knights, at a synod
at Elbing questioned the authority of Gedymin's letters and
denounced him as an enemy of the faith; his orthodox subjects
reproached him with leaning towards the Latin heresy; while
the pagan Lithuanians accused him of abandoning the ancient
gods. Gedymin disentangled himself from his difficulties by
repudiating bis former promises; by refusing to receive the papal
legates who arrived at Riga in September 1323; and by dismissing
the Franciscans from his territories. These apparently retrogres-
sive measures simply amounted to a statesmanlike recognition
of the fact that the pagan element was still the strongest force
in Lithuania, and could not yet be dispensed with in the coming
struggle for nationality. At the same time Gedymin through his
ambassadors privately informed the papal legates at Riga that
his difficult position compelled him for a time to postpone his
steadfast resolve of being baptized, and the legates showed
their confidence in him by forbidding the neighbouring states
to war against Lithuania for the next four years, besides ratifying
the treaty made between Gedymin and the archbishop of Riga.
Nevertheless in 1325 the Order, disregarding the censures of the
church, resumed the war with Gedymin, who had in the meantime
improved his position by an alliance with Wladislaus Lokietek,
king of Poland, whose son Casimir now married Gedymin's
daughter Aldona.
While on his guard against his northern foes, Gedymin from
1 3 16 to 1340 was aggrandizing himself at the expense of the
numerous Russian principalities in the south and cast, whose
incessant conflicts with each other wrought the ruin of then all.
Here Gedymin's triumphal progress was irresistible; but the
various stages of it are impossible to follow, the sources of its
history being few and conflicting, and the date of every salient
event exceedingly doubtful. One of his most important
territorial accretions, the principality of Halics-Vladimfr, was
obtained by the marriage of his son Lubart with the daughter
of the Haliczian prince; the other, Kiev, apparently by conquest.
Gedymin also secured an alliance with the grand-duchy of
Muscovy by marrying his daughter, Anastasia, to the grand-
duke Simeon. But hie was strong enough to counterpoise the
influence of Muscovy in northern Russia, and assisted the re-
public of Pskov, which acknowledged his overlordship, to break
away from Great Novgorod. His internal administration bean
all the marks of a wise ruler. He protected the Catholic as wefl
a* the orthodox clergy, encouraging them both to dvihxe Us
GEE— GEFFROY
549
subjects; he raised the Lithuanian army to the highest state
of efficiency then attainable; defended his borders with a chain
of strong fortresses; and built numerous towns including Vilna,
the capital (c. 1321). Gedymin died in the winter of 1342 of
a wound received at the siege of Wielowa. He was married
three times, and left seven sons and six daughters.
See Tcodor Narbutt, History of the Lithuanian nation (Pol.)
(Vilna, 1835); Antoni Prochaska, On the Genuineness of the Letters
of Gedymin (Pol.) (Cracow, 1895); Vladimir Bonifatovich Antono-
vich. Monograph concerning the History of Western and South-
western Russia (Rub.) (Kiev, 1865). (R. N. B.)
GEE, THOMAS (1815-1898), Welsh Nonconformist preacher
and journalist, was born at Denbigh on the 24th of January x8i 5.
At the age of fourteen he went into his father's printing office, but
continued to attend the grammar school in the afternoons. In
1837 he went to London to improve his knowledge of printing,
and on his return to Wales in the following year ardently threw
himself into literary, educational and religious work. Among his
publications were the well-known quarterly magazine Y Trae-
thodydd (" The Essayist "), Gwyddoniadur Cymreig (" Encyclo-
paedia Cambrcnsis ")• and Dr Silvan Evans's English-Welsh
Dictionary (1868), but his greatest achievement in this field was
the newspaper Barter Cymru (" The Banner of Wales "), founded
in 1857 and amalgamated with Yr A wiser an ("The Times")
two years later. This paper soon became an oracle in Wales,
and played a great part in stirring up the nationalist movement in
the principality. In educational matters he waged a long and
successful struggle on behalf of undenominational schools and for
the establishment of the intermediate school system. He was an
enthusiastic advocate of church disestablishment, and had a
historic newspaper duel with Dr John Owen (afterwards bishop
of St David's ) on this question. The Eisteddfod found in him
a thorough friend and a wise counsellor. His commanding
presence, mastery of diction, and resonant voice made him an
effective platform speaker. He was ordained to the Calvinistic
Methodist ministry at Bala in 1847, and gave his time and talents
ungrudgingly to Sunday school and temperance work. Through-
out his life he believed in the itinerant unpaid ministry rather
than in the settled pastorate. He died on the 28th of September
1898, and his funeral was the most imposing ever seen in North
Wales.
GEBL, JACOB (1780-1862), Dutch scholar and critic, was born
at Amsterdam on the 12th of November 1789. In 1823 he was
appointed sub-librarian, and in 1833 chief librarian and honorary
professor at Leiden, where he died on the 1 ith of November 1862.
Geel materially contributed to the development of classical
studies in Holland. He was the author of editions of Theocritus
(1820), of the Vatican fragments of Polybius (1829), of the
'OXvjtiruucfe of Dio Chrysostom (1840) and of numerous essays in
the Rkeinisthts Museum and Bibliolhcca critica nova, of which he
was one of the founders. He also compiled a valuable catalogue
of the MSS. in the Leiden library, wrote a history of the Greek
sophists, and translated various German works into Dutch.
GEELONG, a seaport of Grant county, Victoria, Australia,
situated on an extensive land-locked arm of Port Phillip known
as Corio Bay, 45 m. by rail S. W. of Melbourne. Pop. of the city
proper (1001) 12,399; with the adjacent boroughs of Geelong
West, and Newton-and-Chilwell, 23,311. Geelong slopes to the
bay on the north and to the Barwon river on the south, and its
position in this respect, as well as the shelter it obtains from the
Bcilarine hills, renders it one of the healthiest towns in Victoria.
As a manufacturing centre it is of considerable importance.
The first woollen mill in the colony was established here, and the
tweeds, cloths and other woollen fabrics of the town are noted
throughout Australia. There are extensive tanneries, flour-mills
and salt works, while at Fyansford, 3 m. distant, there are
important cement works and paper-mills. The extensive vine-
yards in the neighbourhood oJf the town were destroyed under
the Phylloxera Act, but replanting subsequently revived this
industry. Corio Bay, a safe and commodious harbour, is entered
by two channels across its bar, one of which has a depth of 23} ft.
There is extensive quayage, and the largest wool ships are able
to load alongside the wharves, which are connected by rail with
all parts of the colony. The facilities given for shipping wool
direct to England from this port have caused a very extensive
wool-broking trade to grow up in the town. The country
surrounding Geelong is agricultural, but there are large limestone
quarries cast of the town, and in the Otway Forest, 23 m. distant,
coa l is wor ked. Geelong was incorporated in 1849.
GEESTEMtlNDE, a seaport town of Germany, in the Prussian
province of Hanover, on the right bank of the Wescr, at the
mouth of the Gceste, which separates it from Brcmerhaven, 32 m.
N. from Bremen by rail. Pop. (1905) 23,625. The interest of the
place is purely naval and commercial, its origin dating no farther
back than 1857, when the construction of the harbour was begun.
The great basin, which can accommodate large sea-going vessels,
was completed in 1863, the petroleum basin was opened in 1874,
and additional wharves have been constructed for the reception
of vessels engaged in the fishing industry. The fish market of
Geestemiinde is the most important in Germany, and the auction
hall pract ically determines the price of fish throughout the empire.
The whole port is protected by powerful fortifications. Among
the industrial establishments of the town are shipbuilding yards,
foundries, engineering works and saw-mills.
GEFFCKEN, PRIEDRICH HEINRICH (1830-1806), German
diplomatist and jurist, was born on the 9th of December 1830 at
Hamburg, of which city his father was senator. After studying
law at Bonn, Gotlingcn and Berlin, he was attached in 1854 to
the Prussian legation at Paris. For ten years (1 856-1866) be
was the diplomatic representative of Hamburg in Berlin, first
as charge d'affaires, and afterwards as minister-resident, being
afterwards transferred in a like capacity to London. Appointed
in 1872 professor of constitutional history and public law in the
reorganized university of Strassburg, Gcffcken became in 1880 a
member of the council of state of Alsace-Lorraine. Of too nervous
a temperament to withstand the strain of the responsibilities of
his position, he retired from public service in 1882, and lived
henceforth mostly at Munich, where he died, suffocated by an
accidental escape of gas into his bedchamber, on the 1st of May
1 896. Geffckcn was a man of great crudit ion and wide knowledge
and of remarkable legal acumen, and from these qualities pro- 1
cccded the personal influence he possessed. He was moreover a
clear writer and made his mark as an essayist. He was one of the
most trusted advisers of the Prussian crown prince, Frederick
William (afterwards the emperor Frederick), and it was he (it is
said, at Bismarck's suggestion) who drew up the draft of the New
German federal constitution, which was submitted to the crown
prince's headquarters at Versailles during the war of 1870-71.
It was also Geffckcn who assisted in framing the famous docu-
ment which the emperor Frederick, on his accession to the
throne in 1888, addressed to the chancellor. This memoran-
dum gave umbrage, and on the publication by Geffcken in the
Deutsche Rundschau (Oct. 1888) of extracts from the emperor
Frederick's private diary during the war of 1870-71, he was, at
Bismarck's instance, prosecuted for high treason. The Reichs-
gericht (supreme court), however, quashed the indictment, and
Geffcken was liberated after being under arrest for three months.
Publications of various kinds proceeded from his pen. Among
these are Zur Gcschickie des orienlalischen Kricgcs 1853-1856
(Berlin, 1881); Fmnhreich, Russland und der Dreibund (Berlin,
1894); and Stoat und Kirche (1875), English translation by
E. F. Fairfax- (1877). His writings on English history have been
translated by S. J. Macmullan and published as The British
Empire, with essays on Prince Albert, Palmer ston, Beaconsjuid,
Gladstone, and reform of the House of Lords ( 1889).
GEFFROY, MATHIEU AUGUSTS (1820-1895), French
historian, was born in Paris. After studying at the £cold
Normale Superieure he held history professorships at various'
lycies. His French thesis for the doctorate of letters, £tuda sur
les pamphlets politiquts el rcliguux da Milton (1848), showed
that he was attracted towards foreign history, a study for which
he soon qualified himself by mastering the Germanic and
Scandinavian languages. In 1851 he published a Histoirt des
Hats seantfnates, which is especially valuable for dear arrange-
. ment and for the trustworthiness of its facts. Later, a long
55°
GEFLE— GEIBEL
stay in Sweden furnished him with valuable documents for a
political and social history of Sweden and France at the end of
the 1 8th century. In 1864 and 1865 he published in the Revue
des deux mondes a series of articles on Gustavus III. and the
French court, which were republished in book form in 1867.
To the second volume be appended a critical study on Merit
Antoinette et Louis XVI apocrypkes, in which he proved, by
evidence drawn from documents in the private archives of the
emperor of Austria, that the letters published by Feu il let de
Conches (Louis XVI, Marie Antoinette et Madame Elisabeth,
1 864-1 873) and Hunolstein (Corresp. intdite de Marie Antoinette,
1864) are forgeries. With the collaboration of Alfred von
Arneth, director of the imperial archives at Vienna, he edited
the Correspondence secrete entre Marie-Therese et le comte de
Mercy- Argenteau (3 vols., 1874), the first account based on trust-
worthy documents of Marie Antoinette's character, private
conduct and policy. The France-German War drew Geffroy's
attention to the origins of Germany, and his Rome et Us Barbara:
Uudt sur la Germanic de Taciie (1874) set forth some of the results
of German scholarship. He was then appointed to superintend
the opening of the French school of -archaeology at Rome, and
drew up two useful reports (1877 and 1884) on its origin and early
work. But his personal tastes always led him back to the study
of modern history. When the Paris archives of foreign affairs
were thrown open to students, it was decided to publish a collec-
tion of the instructions given to French ambassadors since 1648
(RecueU da instructions donnies aux ambassadeurs et ministres
de France depuis Is traiit de Westphalie), and Geffroy was com-
missioned to edit the volumes dealing with Sweden (voLii., 1885)
and Denmark (vol. xiii., 1895). In the interval he wrote Madame
de Maintenem d*apris sa correspondence autkentique (2 vols.,
1887), in which he displayed his penetrating critical faculty in
discriminating between authentic documents and the additions
and corrections of arrangers like La Beaumelle and Lavallec.
His last works were an Essai sur la formation des collections
d' antiques de la Suede and Des institutions et des menus du
paganism* scandinave: Flslande avant le Ckristianisme, both
published posthumously. He died at Bievre on the 16th of
August 1895.
GIFLE, a seaport of Sweden on an inlet of the Gulf of Bothnia,
chief town of the district (Ian) of Gefleborg, 1x2 m. N.N.W. of
Stockholm by rail. Fop. (1900) *9>5 22 - It is the chief port of
the district of Kopparberg, with its iron and other mines and
forests. The exports consist principally of timber and wood-
pulp, iron and steel. The harbour, which has two entrances
about 20 ft. deep, is usually ice-bound in mid-winter. Large
vessels generally load in the roads at Graberg, 6 m. distant.
There are slips and shipbuilding yards, and a manufacture of
sail-cloth. The town is an important industrial centre, having
tobacco and leather factories, electrical and other mechanical
works, and breweries. At Skutsklr at the mouth of the Dal
river are wood-pulp and saw mills, dealing with the large
quantities of timber floated down the river; and there are large
wood-yards in the suburb of Bornhus. Gefle was almost destroyed
by fire in 1869, but was rebuilt in good style, and has the ad-
vantage of a beautiful situation. The principal buildings arc a
castle, founded by King John III. (1 568-1592), but rebuilt later,
a council-house erected by Gustavus III., who held a diet here in
1792, an exchange, and schools of commerce and navigation.
GEGENBAUR, CARL (1 826-1003), German anatomist, was
born on the 21st of August 1826 at WOrzburg, the university of
which he entered as a student in 1845. After taking his degree
in 1851 he spent some time in travelling In Italy and Sicily,
before returning to Wurzburg as Privatdocent in 1854. In 1855
he was appointed extraordinary professor of anatomy at Jena,
where after 1865 his fellow-worker, Ernst Haeckel, was professor
of zoology, and in 1858 he became the ordinary professor. In
1873 he was appointed to Heidelberg, where he was professor
of anatomy and director of the Anatomical Institute until his
retirement in xooi. He died at Heidelberg on the 74th of June
1903. The work by which perhaps he is best known is his
Gnmdriu d* PtrgMcMtrndm Anatomic (Leipzig, 1874? A and
edition, 1878). This was translated into English by W. P.
Jeffrey Bell (Elements 0/ Comparative Anatomy, 1878), with
additions by E. Ray Lankester. While recognising the import-
ance of comparative embryology in the study of descent, Gegen-
baur laid stress on the higher value of comparative anatomy
as the basis of the study of homologies, i.e. of the relation
between corresponding parts in different animals, as, for example,
the arm of man, the foreleg of the horse and the wing of afovL
A distinctive piece of work was effected by him in 1871 in supple-
menting the evidence adduced by Huxley in refutation of the
theory of the origin of the skull from expanded vertebrae, which,
formulated independently by Goethe and Oken, had beet
championed by Owen. Huxley demonstrated that the skull
is built up of cartilaginous pieces; Gegenbaur showed that M ia
the lowest (gristly) fishes, where hints of the original vertebrae
might be most expected, the skull is an unsegmented gristly
brain-box, and that in higher forms the vertebral nature of the
skull cannot be maintained, since many of the bones, notably
those along the top of the skull, arise in the skin." Other publica-
tions by Gegenbaur include a Text-book of Human A natomy
(Leipzig, 1883, new ed. 1903), the Epiglottis (1892) and Com-
parative Anatomy of the Vertebrates in relation to the I n ve r tebrates
(Leipzig, 2 vols., 1898-xooi). In 1875 he founded the Morpho-
logisches Jahrbuch, which he edited for many years. In 1901
he published a short autobiography under the title EHebtet uni
Erstrebtes.
See Furbringer in Heidetberger Professoren aus dem xpfe* Jehr-
hundert (Heidelberg, 1903).
GEGENSCHEIN (Ger. gegen, opposite, and schein, shine), aa
extremely faint luminescence of the sky, seen opposite the direc-
tion of the sun. Germany was the country in which it was fust
discovered and described. The English rendering "counter-
glow " is also given to it. Its faintness is such that it can be
seen only by a practised eye under favourable conditions. It
is invisible during the greater part of June, July, December
and January, owing to its being then blotted out by the superior
light of the Milky Way. It is also invisible during moonlight
and near the horizon, and the neighbourhood of a bright star
or planet may interfere with its recognition. When none of
these unfavourable conditions supervene it may be seen at nearly
any time when the air is clear and the depression of the sun
below the horizon more than so\ (See Zodiacal Lioht.)
GEIBEL, EMANUEL (1815*1884), German poet, was bom
at Lubeck on the 17th of October 1815, the son of a pastor ia
the city. He was originally intended for his father's profession,
and studied at Bonn and Berlin, but his real interests lay not ia
theology but in classical and romance philology. In 1838 he
accepted a tutorship, at Athens, where he remained until 184a
In the same year he brought out, in conjunction with his friend
Ernst Curtius, a volume of translations from the Greek. His
first poems, Zeitstimmen, appeared in 1841; a tragedy, Ktnir
Roderick, followed in 1843. In the same year he received 1
pension from the king of Prussia, which he retained until his
invitation to Munich by the king of Bavaria in 1851 as honorary
professor at the university. In the interim he had produced
Ktfnig Sigurds Brautfakrt (1846), an epic, and JuniusHder
(1848, 33rd ed. 1901), lyrics in a more spirited and manlier style
than his early poems. A volume of Neue Gedichte, published at
Munich in 1857, and principally consisting of poems on classical
subjects, denoted a further considerable advance in objectivity,
and the series was worthily closed by the Sp&therbstbtiUter, pub-
lished in 1877. He had quitted Munich in 1869 and returned
to LUbeck, where he died on the 6th of April 1884. His works
further include two tragedies, £r*«Ai7<f(i858, 5th ed. 1800), and
Sophonisbe (1869), and translations of French and Spanish
popular poetry. Beginning as a member of the group of political
poets who heralded the revolution of 1848, Geibel was also the
chief poet to welcome the establishment of the Empire in 1877.
His strength lay not, however, in his political songs but in his
purely lyric poetry, such as the fine cycle Ada and his still popular
love-songs. He may be regarded as the leading representative
of German lyric poetry between 1848 andjeja
GEIGE— GEIJER
Geibel'i GesammelU Werhe were published in 8 vols. (1883, 4th ed.
1906) ; his Gedichle have gone through about 130 edition*. An excel-
lent selection in one volume appeared in 1904. For biography and
criticism, see K. Gocdeke, E. Geibel (i860) j W. Schercr's address on
Geibel (1884); K. T. Gaedertt, Geibel-Denhwurdigkeilen (1886);
C. C. T. Litzmann, £. Geibel. aus Erinnerungen, BrteJen und Tagt-
buchern (1887), and biographies by C. Lcimbaca (2nd ed., 1894), and
K. T. Gacdertx (1897).
GEIOE (O. Ft. gigue, gige\ O. Ital. and Span, giga; Prov.
gigna ; O. Dutch gight), in modern German the violin ; in medieval
German the name applied to the first stringed instruments
played with a bow, in contradistinction to those whose strings
were plucked by fingers or plectrum such as the cithara, rotu and
fidula, the first of these terms having been very generally used
to designate various instruments whose strings were plucked.
The name glge in Germany, of which the origin is uncertain, 1 and
its derivatives in other languages, were in the middle ages applied
to rebecs having fingerboards. As the first bowed instruments
in Europe were, as far as we know, those of the rebab type, both
boat-shaped and pear-shaped, it seems probable that the name
dung to them long after the bow had been applied to other
stringed instruments derived from the cithara, such as the fiddle
(videl) or vielle. In the romances of the 1 ath and 13th centuries
the gigt is frequently mentioned, and generally associated with
the rotta. Early in the 16th century we find definite information
concerning the Geige in the works of Sebastian Virdung (151 1).
Hans Judenkilnig (15*3), Martin Agricola (153a), Hans Gerle
(i533); &nd from the instruments depicted, of two distinct types
and many varieties, it would appear that the principal idea
attached to the name was still that of the bow used to vibrate the
strings. Virdung qualifies the word Ccigt with Klein (small) and
Gross (large), which do not represent two sizes of the same
instrument but widely different types, also recognised by
Agricola, who names three or four sixes of each, discant. alto,
tenor and bass. Virdung's Klein Grig* is none other than the
rebec with two C-shapcd soundholes and a raised fingerboard cut
in one piece with the vaulted back and having a separate flat
soundboard glued over it, a change rendered necessary by the
arched bridge. Agricola's Klein Geige with three st rings was of a
totally different construction, having ribs and wide incurvations
but no bridge; there was a rose soundhole near the tailpiece
and two C-shaped holes in the shoulders. Agricola (Husica
instrumental) distinctly mentions three kinds of Geigen with
three, four and five strings. From him we learn that only one
position was as yet used on these instruments, one or two higher
notes being occasionally obtained by sliding the little finger
along. A century later Agricola's Geige was regarded as anti-
quated by Praetorius, who reproduces one of the bridgeless ones
with five strings, a rose and two C-shapcd soundholes, and calls
it an old fiddle; under Geige he gives the violins. (K. S.)
GEIGER, ABRAHAM (1810-1874), Jewish theologian and
orientalist, was born at Frankfort-on-Main on the 24th of May
1 8 10, and educated at the universities of Heidelberg and Bonn.
As a student he distinguished himself in philosophy and in philo-
logy, and at the close of his course wrote on the relations of
Judaism and Mahommcdanism a prize essay which was after-
wards published in 1833 under the title Was hat Mohammed aus
dem Judentum aufgenomment (English trans. Judaism and
Islam, Madras, 1808). In November 1832 he went to Wiesbaden
as rabbi of the synagogue, and became in 1835 one of the most
1 The words gtge, gtgen, geic appear suddenly in the M. H. German
of the 12th century, and thence pasted apparently into the Romance
languages, though some would reverse the process (e.g. Wcigand,
Deutsche* Worlerbuch). An elaborate argument in the Deutsche?
Wdrterbuch of J. and \V. Grimm (Leipzig, 1897) connects the word
with an ancient common Teut. root f«f— meaning to sway to and
* o. as preserved in numerous forms: e.g. M.H.G gagen, gugen,
to sway to and fro " (gugen, gagen, the rocking of a cradle), the
Swabian gigen, gagen, in
\ugc\
the
same sense, the Tirolese gai\
crool
aiggern,
ked. '
The
fro. as preserved in numerous forms: e.g. M.H.G gagen, gugen,
. j /__ .. / -•. ..: f a cra <jk) *■--
«way, doubt, or the old Norse geiga, to go astray or
reference is to the swaying motion of the violin bow. The English
" jig " is derived from gige through the O. Fr. gigue (in the sense
of a stringed instrument); the modern French gigue (a dance) is
the English " jig " rc-importcd (Hatzfcld and Darmcstcter, Diction-
noire). This opens up another possibility, of the origin of the name
of the instrument in the dance which it accompanied. (W. A. P.)
55i
tive promoters of the Zeitschrifl far jildische Theehgie (1835-
39 and 2842*1847). From 1838 to 1863 be lived in BresUu,
lere he organized the reform movement in Judaism and wrote
me of his most important works, including Lent' und Ltsebuch
r Spracht derMisckna (1845), Stndien from Maimonides (1850),
inslation into German of the poems of Juda ha-Levi (1851),
d Urschrifl und Vbersetsungen der Bibel in ihrer Abhdngigkeit
• der intum Entwickelung des Judentums (1857). The Ust-
med work attracted little attention at the time, but. now
joys a great reputation as a new departure in the methods of
idying the records of Judaism. The Urschrifl has moreover
en recognized as one of the most original contributions to
riical science. In 1 863 Geiger became bead of the synagogue of
1 native town, and in 1870 he removed to Berlin, where, in
dition to his duties as chief rabbi, he, took the principal charge
the newly established seminary for Jewish science. The
rsckri/t was followed by a more exhaustive handling of one of
topics in Die Sadducder und Pharisder (1863), and by a more
trough application of its leading principles in an elaborate
itory of Judaism (Das Judentum und seine GescMuhte) in 1865-
71. Geiger also contributed frequently on Hebrew, Samaritan
d Syriacsubjects toihcZeitschriflderdeutschen morgenUtndischen
sctlschaft, and from 1862 until his death (on the 23rd of October
74) he was editor of a periodical entitled Jiidische Zeitschrifl
r Wissenschafl und Leben. He also published a Jewish prayer-
ok (Isra&itisches Gebeihuch) and a variety of minor monographs
historical and literary subjects connected with the fortunes of
1 people. (I. A.)
An AUgemeine EinUUung and five volumes of Nackgclassene
\riften were edited in 1875 by his son Luowic Geicer (b. 1848),
10 in 1880 became extraordinary professor in the university of
rlin. Ludwig Geiger published a large number of biographical
d li terary works and made a special study of German humanism,
i edited the Goethe- J ahrbuck from 1880, Vierleijahrssehrifl fur
nliur und Liiteralur der Renaissance (1885-1886), Zcilschr.fUr
Gesch. der Juden im Deutschland (1886-1891), Zeitschr. fur
gleichende Litteraturgeschichte und Renaissance-Litteratur
&87-1891). Among his works are Johann Reuchlin, scin Leben
4 seine IVerke (Leipzig, 1871); and Johann Reuchlin's Brief-
:hsel (Tubingen, 1875); Renaissance und Human ismus in
\lien und Deutschland (1882, 2nd ed. 1901); Gesch. des geisiigen
bens der preussischen Hanptstadl(iSg2-i$cj4); Berlin's geistiges
ben ( 1 894-1896).
?ce also J. Dercnbourg in Jid. Zeitschrifl, xl 299-308; E.
iricber, Abraham Geiger als Reformalor des Judentums (1880),
. (with portrait) in Jewish Encyclopedia.
Abraham Geiger's nephew Lazarus Geiger (1820-1870),
ilosophcr and philologist, born at Frankfort-on-Main, was
ttined to commerce, but soon gave himself up to scholarship,
d studied at Marburg, Bonn and Heidelberg. From 1861 till
sudden death in 1870 he was professor in the Jewish high
100I at Frankfort. His chief aim was to prove that the
>lution of human reason is closely bound up with that of
iguage. He further maintained that the origin of the Indo-
rmanic language is to be sought not in Asia but in central
rmany. He was a convinced opponent of rationalism in religion.
» chief work was his Ursprung und Entwickelung der tnensch-
\en Sprache und Vernunfl (vol. i., Stuttgart, 1868), the principal
ults of which appeared in a more popular form as Der Ursprung
Sprache (Stuttgart, 1869 and 1878). The second volume of the
mcr was published in an incomplete form (1872, 2nd ed. 1809)
er his death by his brother Alfred Geiger, who also published a
mber of his scattered papers as Zur Entwickelung der Mensck-
I (1S71, 2nd ed. 1878; Eng. trans. D. Asher, Hist, of the
vtlopment of the Human Race, Lond., 1880).
iee L. A. Rosenthal, Lot. Geiger: seine Lehre torn Ursprung d.
'ache und Vernunfl und sein Leben (Stuttgart, 1883); E. rescuer.
Geiger, sein Leben und Dtnken (1871); J. Keller, L. Geiger und
Kritih d. Vernunfl (Wertheim, 1883) and Der Ursprung d. Yar-
tfl (Heidelberg, 1884).
iEIJBR. ERIK GUSTAF (1783-1847), Swedish historian, was
n at Rans&ter in Varmland, on the x ath of January i-\& v*t v
—July thai hid VmmicctAeA Vmrn, Knavws.vcv'Cc*. vv^**sa»i-
552
GEIKIE, SIR ARCHIBALD
He was educated at the university of Upaala, where in 1803 he
carried off the Swedish Academy's great prize for his Areminne
after Sten Sture den Hldre. He graduated in 1806, and in 1810
returned from a year's residence in England to become docent in
his university. Soon afterwards he accepted a post in the public
record office at Stockholm, where/with some friends, he founded
the " Gothic Society/' to whose organ Id una .he contributed a
number of prose essays and the songs Manhem, Vikingen, Den
sisU ham pen, Den siste shalden, Odaibonden, Kolargossen, which he
set to music. About the same time he issued a volume of hymns,
of which several are inserted in the Swedish Psalter.
Geijer's lyric muse was soon after silenced by his call to be
assistant to Erik Michael Fant, professor of history at Upsala,
whom be succeeded in 1817. In 1824 he was elected a member of
the Swedish Academy. A single volume of a great projected
work, Svea Rites Hsfder, itself a masterly critical examination of
the sources of Sweden's legendary history, appeared in 1825.
Geijer's researches in its preparation had severely strained his
health, and he went the same year on a tour through Denmark
and part of Germany, his impressions from which are recorded in
his Minnen. In 1832-1836 he published three volumes of his
Siensko folkets historia (Eng. trans, by J. H. Turner, 1845), a
clear view of the political and social development of Sweden
down to 1654. The acute critical insight, just thought, and
finished historical art of these incomplete works of Geijer entitle
him to the first place among Swedish historians. His chief other
historical and political writings are his Tcckning of Sveriges
tilist&nd 1718-1772 (Stockholm, 1838), and Feodalism och
republikamsM, eU bidrag till SarnhMUsfdrfattningens historia (1 844) ,
which led to a controversy with the historian Anders Fryxell
regarding the part played in history by the Swedish aristocracy.
Geijer also edited, with the aid of J. H. Schroder, a continuation
of FznVsScriptoresrerum svecicarum medii aevi (1818-1828), and,
by himself, Thomas Thorild's Samlade skrifter (1810-1825), and
Konung Custaf ///.'s efterlemnade Popper (4 vols., 1843-1846).
Geijer's academic lectures, of which the last three, published in
1845 under the title Om v&r tids inn samhitltsforhAllanden, i
synnerket medafseende pi Fader ncslandct, involved him in another
controversy with Fryxell, but exercised a great influence over his
students, who especially testified to their attachment after the
failure of a prosecution against him for heresy. A number of his
extempore lectures, recovered from notes, were published in 1856.
He also wrote a life of Charles XIV. (Stockholm, 1844). Failing
health forced Geijer to resign his chair in 1846, after which he
removed to Stockholm for the purpose of completing his Svensko
folkets historia, and died there on the 23rd of April 1847. His
Samlade skrifter (13 vols., 1840-1855; new ed., 1873-1877) include
a large number of philosophical and political essays contributed
to reviews, particularly to Litteraturbladet (1838- 1839), a periodi-
cal edited by himself, which attracted great attention in its day
by its pronounced liberal views on public questions, a striking
contrast to those he had defended in 1828-1830, when, as again
in 1840-184 1, he represented Upsala University in the Swedish
diet. His poems were collected and published as Shaldestychen
(Upsala, 1835 and 1878).
Geijer's style is strong and manly. His genius bursts out in
sudden flashes that light up the dark corners of history. A few
strokes, and a personality stands before us instinct with life.
His language is at once the scholar's and the poet's; with his
profoundest thought there beats in unison the warmest, the
noblest, the most patriotic heart. Geijer came to the writing of
history fresh from researches in the whole field of Scandinavian
antiquity, researches whose first-fruits are garnered in numerous
articles in Iduna, and his masterly treatise Om den gamla nordiska
folkvisan, prefixed to the collection of Svenska folktisor which he
edited with A. A. Afzeh'us (3 vols., 1814-18x6). The development
of freedom it the idea that gives unity to aU his historical
writings.
For Geijer's biography, see his own Minnen (1634), which contains
copious extracts From his letters and diaries; B. E. MaHnstrom,
Minnestal Ofrer B. C. Geijer, addressed to the Upsala students
(June 6, s&fi), and printed among his Tol ock esthetislta ofhondtintar
Om).MBdGrumUragm a/ Stout* vitterhs*** hifiar (1*66-1*68);
and S. A. Hollander, Af^t«Ma/£.C.C«>«r (6rebro, 1869). See also
lives of Geijer by J. Hellstenius (Stockholm, 1876) and J. Niekwa
(Odenae, 1902).
GEIKIE, SIR ARCHIBALD (1835- ), Scottish geologist,
was born at Edinburgh on the a 8th of December 1835. He was
educated at the high school and university of Edinburgh, and
in 1855 was appointed an assistant on the Geological Survey.
Wielding the pen with no less facility than the hammer, he
inaugurated his long list of works with The Story of a Boulder;
or, Cleanings from the Note-Book of a Geologist (1858). His ability
at once attracted the notice of his chief, Sir Roderick Murchfaon,
with whom he formed a lifelong friendship, and whose biographer
he subsequently became. With Murchison some of his earliest
work was done on the complicated regions of the Highland
schists; and the small geological map of Scotland published is
1862 was their joint work: a larger map was issued by Geikk is
1892. In 1863 he published an important essay " On the Pheno-
mena of the Glacial Drift of Scotland," Trans. Geol. Soe. Glasgow,
in which the effects of ice action in that country were for the first
time clearly and connectedly delineated. In 1865 appeared
Geikie's Scenery of Scotland (3rd edition, 1001), which was, he
claimed, " the first attempt to elucidate in some detail the history
of the topography of a country." In the same year he was
elected F.R. S. At this time the Edinburgh school of geologists-
prominent among them Sir Andrew Ramsay, with his Physical
Geology and Geography of Great Britain — were maintaining the
supreme importance of denudation in the configuration of land-
surfaces, and particularly the erosion of valleys by the action of
running water. Geikie's book, based on extensive personal
knowledge of the country, was an able contribution to the
doctrines of the Edinburgh school, of which he himself soon
began to rank as one of the leaders.
In 1867, when a separate branch of the Geological Survey
was established for Scotland, he was appointed director. Os
the foundation of the Murchison professorship of geology and
mineralogy at the university of Edinburgh in 1871, he became
the first occupant of the chair. These two appointments he
continued to hold till 1881, when he succeeded Sir Andrew
Ramsay in the joint offices of director-general of the Geological
Survey of the United Kingdom and director of the. museum of
practical geology, London, from which he retired in February
1 001. A feature of his tenure of office was the impetus given to
microscopic petrography, a branch of geology to which he hid
devoted special study, by a splendid collection of sections of
British rocks. Later he wrote two important and interesting
Survey Memoirs, The Geology of Central and Western Fife aid
Kinross (1900), and The Geology of Eastern Fife (1004).
From the outset of his career; when he started to investigate the
geology of Skye and other of the Western Isles, he took a keen
interest in vokanic geology, and in 1871 he brought before the
Geological Society of London an outline of the Tertiary volcanic
history of Britain. Many difficult problems, however, remained
to be solved. Here he was greatly aided by his extensive travels,
not only throughout Europe, but in western America. While the
canyons of the Colorado confirmed his long-standing views oa
erosion, the eruptive regions of Wyoming, Montana and Utah
supplied him with valuable data in explanation of volcanic
phenomena. The results of his further researches were given in 10
elaborate and charmingly written essay on " The History of Vol-
canic Action during the Tertiary Period in the British isles,''
Trans. Roy, Soe. Edin., (1888). His mature views on volcanic
geology were given to the world in his presidential addresses
to the Geological Society in 1891 and 1892, and afterwards
embodied in his great work on The Ancient Volcanoes of Great
Britain (1897). Other results of his travels are collected in his
Geological Sketches at Home and Abroad (1882).
His experience as a field geologist resulted in an admirable
text-book, Outlines of Field Geology (5th edition, 1000) After
editing and practically re-writing Jukes's Student's Manual tj
Geology in 1872, he published in 1882 a Text-Book and in 1886 a
Class- Booh of geology, which have taken rank, as standard works
1 ol \btu\unA. Mmrtb tdftaaol his Text-Booh, in two voU., vat
GEIKIE, JAMES— GEISHA
issued in 1903. His writings arc marked in a high degree by charm
uf style and power of vivid description. Hi* literary ability has
given him peculiar qualifications as a writer of scientific bio-
graphy, and the Memoir of Edward Forbes (with G. Wilson), and
those of his old chiefs, Sir R I. Murchison<2 vols., 1875) and Sir
Andrew Crombic Ramsay (1895), arc models of what such works
should be. His Founders 0/ Geology consists of the inaugural!
course of Lectures (founded by Mrs G. H. Williams) at Johns
Hopkins University, Baltimore, delivered in 1897. In 1897 he
issued an admirable Geological Map of England and Wales, with
Descriptive Notes. In 1898 he delivered the Romanes Lectures,
and his address was published under the title of Types of Scenery
and their Influence oh Literature. The study of geography owes
its improved position in Great Britain largely to his efforts.
Among his works on this subject is The Teaching of Geography
(1887). His Scottish Reminiscences (1904) and Landscape in
History and other Essays (1905) are charmingly written and full
of instruction. He was foreign secretary of the Royal Society
from 1890 to 1894, joint secretary from 1903 to 190S, president
in 1909, president of the Geological Society in 1S91 and 1892,
and president of the British Association, 1892. He received the
honour of knighthood in 1891.
GEIKIE, JAMES (1*30- ), Scottish geologist, younger
brother of Sir Archibald Gcikic, was born at Edinburgh on the
23rd of August 1S39. He was educated at the high school and
university of Edinburgh. He served on the Geological Survey
from 2861 until 1&S2, when he succeeded his brother as Murchi-
scn professor of geology and mineralogy at the university of
Edinburgh. He took as his special subject of investigation the
origin of surface-features, and the part played in their formation
by glacial action. His views arc embodied in his chief work, The
Great Ice Age and its Relation to the Antiquity of Man (1S74;
3rd cd., 1894). He was elected F.R.S. in 1875. James
Gcikie became the leader of the school that upholds the all-
important action of land-ice, as against those geologists who
assign chief importance to the work of pack-ice and icebergs.
Continuing this line of investigation in his Prehistoric Europe
(1881), he maintained the hypothesis of five inter-Glacial periods
in Great Britain, and argued that the palaeolithic deposits of
the Pleistocene period were not post- but inter- or pre-GIacial.
His Fragments of Earth Lore: Sketches and Addresses, Geological
end Geographical (1S93) and Earth Sculpture (1808) arc mainly
concerned with the same subject. His Outlines of Geology (1886),
a standard text-book of its subject, reached its third edition
in 1896; and in 1905 he published an important manual on
Structural and Field Geology. In 1887 he displayed another side
of his activity in a volume of Songs and Lyrics by H Heine and
other German Poets, done into English Verse. From 1888 he was
honorary editor of the Scottish Geographical Magaxine.
GEIKIE, WALTER (1795-1837). Scottish painter, was born at
Edinburgh on the 9th of November 1795. In his second year
he was attacked by a nervous fever by which he permanently lost
the faculty of hearing, but through the careful attention of his
father he was enabled to obtain a good education. Before he had
the advantage of the instruction of a master he had attained con-
siderable proficiency in sketching both figures and landscapes from
nature, and in 181 2 he was admitted into the drawing academy
of the board of Scottish manufactures. He first exhibited
in 181 5, and was elected an associate of the Royal Scottish
Academy in 1831, and a fellow in 1834. He died on the xst of
August 1837, and was interred in the Greyfriars churchyard,
Edinburgh. Owing to his want of feeling for colour, Geikie was
not a successful painter in oils, but he sketched in India ink with
great truth and humour the scenes and characters of Scottish
lower-class life in his native city. A series of etchings which
exhibit very high excellence were published by him in 1820-1831,
and a collection of eighty-one of these was republished posthu-
mously in 1841, with a biographical introduction by Sir Thomas
Dick Lauder, Bart.
GE1LER (or Geyler) VON KAISBR5BERG. JOHANN (1445-
1510), " the German Savonarola," one of the greatest of the
popular preachers of the 15th century, was bom at Schafibauscn
553
on the i6lh of March 1445. but from 1448 passed his childhood
and youth at Kaisersberg in Upper Alsace, from which place his
current designation is derived. In 1460 he entered the university
of Freiburg in Baden, where, after graduation, he lectured for
some time on the Sewtentiac of Peter Lombard, the commentaries
of Alexander of Hales, and several of the works of Aristotle. A
living interest in theological subjects, awakened by the study of
John Gcrson, led him in 1471 to the university of Basel, a centre
of attraction to some of the most earnest spirits of the time
Made a doctor of theology in 1475, be received a profcssorslup
at Freiburg in the following year-, but his tastes, no less than the
spirit of the age, began to incline him more strongly to the vocation
of a preacher, while his fervour and eloquence soon led to his
receiving numerous invitations to the larger towns. Ultimately
he accepted in 1478 a call to the cathedral of Strassburg, where
he continued to work with few interruptions until within a short
time of his death on the 10th of March 151a The beautiful
pulpit erected for him in 1481 in the nave of the cathedral, when
the chapel of St Lawrence had proved too small, still bears
witness to the popularity he enjoyed as a preacher in the in>
mediate sphere of hit labours, and the testimonies of Sebastian
Brant, Bcatus Rhcnanus, Johann Rcuchlin, Mclanchthon and
others show how great had been the influence of his personal
character. His sermons— bold, incisive, denunciatory, abounding
in quaint illustrations and based on texts by no means confined
to the Bible,— taken down as he spoke them, and circulated
(sometimes without his knowledge or consent) by his friends,
told perceptibly on the German thought as well ason the German
speech of his time.
Among the many volumes published under his name only two
appear to have had the benefit of his revision, namely, Der Seelen
Parodies von woven und votkomnen Tugtnden. and that entitled Das
irrtg Schaf. Of the rest, probably the best-known is a series of
lectures on his friend Seb. Brant'* work-, Das Narrensckiff or the
Navicula or Speculum fatuorum, of which an edition was published
at Strassburg in 151 1 under the following title: — Navtcula site
speculum fatuorum praestantisstmi sacr arum liter ammdoctor is Joannu
Getter Keysersbergh.
See F. W. von Amnion, Geyler 1 s Leben, Lekren und Preditten
(1826); L. Dachcux, Un Rtformateur catkoliqtte d la An du XV
Steele, J. G. de K (Paris, 1876); R. Cruel, Geseh. der deulschen
Prediet, pp. 538-576 (1879); P. dc Lorcnzt, G filer's aus$ewaklk-
Sikrtjten (4 vols., 1881); T. M. Lindsay, History of the Reformation,
i. 118 (1906); and G, Kawerau in lierzog-llauck, Reuletuyklopadie,
vi.427.
GEINrTZ, HAKS BRUNO (1814-1900), German geologist, was
born at Altenburg, the capital of the duchy of Saxc-Altcnburg,
on the 16th of October 1814. He was educated at the uni-
versities of Berlin and Jena, and gained the foundations of his
geological knowledge under F. A. Qucnstedt. In 1837 he took
the degree of Ph.D with a thesis on the M uschclkalk of Thuringia.
In 1850 he became professor of geology and mineralogy in the
Royal Polytechnic School at Dresden, and in 1857 he was made
director of the Royal Mincralogical and Geological Museum,
he held these posts until 1804. He was distinguished for his
researches on the Carboniferous and Cretaceous rocks and fossils
of Saxony, and in particular for those relating to the fauna and
flora of the Permian or Dyas formation. He described also the
graptolitcs of the local Silurian strata, and the flora of the
Coal -format ion of Altai and Nebraska. From 1863 to 1878 he
was one of the editors of the Neues Jahrbuch. He was awarded
the Murchison medal by the Geological Society of London in 1878
He died at Dresden on the 28th of January xooo. His son
Franz Eugen Geinitz (b. 1854). professor of geology in the
university of Rostock, became distinguished for researches on
the geology of Saxony, Mecklenburg, &c
H. B Geinitx's publications were Das Quadersandsleingebirge oder
Kreideffbirge xn DeutseUand (1 840-1850), Die Versteineruugtn der
Sknnkoklenformatton s» Saeksen (1855); Dyas, oder die Zeeksteiu-
formalton und das Rotkltegende (1861-1863); Das Elbtkatgebtrgp in
Saeksen (1871-1875)
GEISHA (a Chino- Japanese word meaning " person of pleasing
accomplishments "), strictly the name of the professional dancing
and singing girls of Japan. The word is, however, often loosely
used for the girls and women inhabiting Shin Yoshiwara, the
prostitutes' quarter of Tokyo The training of the tw« Goafe*
554
GEISLINGEN— GELATIN
or singing girl, which includes lessons in dancing, begins often
as early as her seventh year. Her apprenticeship over, she
contracts with her employer for a number of years, and is seldom
able to reach independence except by marriage. There is a
capitation fee of two yen per month on the actual singing girls,
and of one yen on the apprentices.
Sco J ukfcht I nouye, Sketches ef Tokyo Life.
GEISLINGEN, a town of Germany in the kingdom of Wilrttem-
berg, on the Thierbach, 38 m. by rail E.S.E. of Stuttgart. Pop.
(1005) 7050. It has shops for the carving and turning of bone,
ivory, wood and horn, besides iron-works, machinery factories,
glass-works, brewing and bleaching works, &c. The church of
St Mary contains wood-carving by Jorg Syrlin the Younger.
Above the town lie the ruins of the castle of Helfensleln, which
was destroyed in 1552. Having been for a few years in the
possession of Bavaria, the town passed to Wurttembcrg in 1810.
Sec Wcitbrccht, Wanderungen dutch Geislingen vnd seine Umge~
bun* (Stuttgart, 1896).
GEISSLER, HEINMCH (18x4-1879), German physicist, was
born at the village of Igelshieb in Saxe-Meiningen on the 26th
of May 1 814 and was educated as a glass-blower. In 1854 he
settled at Bonn, where he speedily gained a high reputation for
his skill and ingenuity of conception in the fabrication of chemical
and physical apparatus. With Julius PlUcker, in 1852, he as-
certained the maximum density Of water to be at 3-8° C. He
also determined the coefficient of expansion for ice between
-24° and -7*, and for water freezing at o°. In 1869, in con-
junction with H. P. J. Vogelsang, he proved the existence of
liquid carbon dioxide in cavities in quartz and topaz, and later
he obtained amorphous from ordinary phosphorus by means of
the electric current. He is best known as the inventor of the
sealed glass tubes which bear his name, by means of which are
exhibited the phenomena accompanying the discharge of electri-
city through highly rarefied vapours and gases. Among other
apparatus contrived by him were a vaporimeter, mercury air-
pump, balances, normal thermometer, and areometer. From
the university of Fonn, on the occasion of its jubilee in 1868, he
received the honorary degree of doctor of philosophy. He died
«t Bonn on the 24th of January 1879.
See A. W. Hofmann, Ber. d. deut. chem. Ges. p. 148 (1879).
QELA, a city of Sicily, generally and almost certainly identified
with the modern Terranova (q.v.). It was. founded J>y Cretan
and Rhodian colonists in 688 B.C., and itself founded Acragas
(see Acwcentum) in 582 B.C. It also hod a treasure-house at
Olympia. The town took its name from the river to the east
(Thucydidcs vi. 2), which in turn was so called from its winter
frost OycXct In the Siccl dialect; cf. Lat. geHdus). The Rhodian
settlers called it Lindioi (see Lindus). Gela enjoyed its greatest
prosperity under Hippocrates (498-491 B.C.), whose dominion
extended over a considerable part of the Island. Gclon, who
seized the tyranny on his death, became master of Syracuse in
485 B.C., and transferred his capital thither with half the in-
habitants of Gela, leaving his brother Hicro to rule over the rest.
Its prosperity returned, however, after the expulsion of Thrasy-
bulus in 466 B.C., ' but in 405 it was besieged by the Carthaginians
and abandoned by Dionysius' order, after his failure (perhaps
due to treachery) to drive the besiegers away (E. A. Freeman,
Hist, of Sic. Ui. 562 seqj.). The inhabitants later returned and
rebuilt the town, but it never regained its position . In 31 1 B.C.
Agathoclcs put to death 5000 of its inhabitants; and finally,
after its destruction by the Mamcrtines about 281 B.C., Phlntias
of Agrigcntum transferred the remainder to the new town of
Phintias (now Licata, ?.».). It seems that in Roman times they
still kept the name of Gelenscs or Geloi in their new abode (Th.
Mommscn in C.I.L. x. t Berlin, 1883, p. 737). (T. As.)
GELADA, the Abyssinian name of a large species of baboon,
differing from the members of the genus Papic (see Baboon)
by the nostrils being situated some distance above the extremity
of the muzzle, and hence made the type of a separate genus,
under the name of TkeropWtccus gelada. In the heavy mantle
of long brown hair covering the fore-quarters of the old males,
'Aeechytiu died there in 456 B.C.
with the exception of the bare chest, which is reddish flesh -colour,
the gelada recalls the Arabian baboon (Papio kamadryai), aod
from this common feature it has been proposed to place the two
species in the same genus. The gelada inhabits the mountains of
Abyssinia, where, like other baboons, it descends in droves to
pillage cultivated lands. A second species, or race, Tkeropitfum
obscurus, distinguished by its darker hairs and the presence of
a bare flesh-coloured ring round each eye, inhabits the casters
confines of Abyssinia. (R. L.*)
GELASIUS, the name of two popes.
Gelasius I., pope from 492 to 496, was the successor of FeKx
III. He confirmed the estrangement between the Eastern and
Western churches by insisting on the removal of the name of
Acacius, bishop of Constant inople, from the diptychs. He is the
author of De duabus in Christo naluris aiteniu Emiyckcn §1
Nestor turn. A great number of his letters has also come dowi
to us. His name has been attached to a Liber Sacrawunlonm
anterior to that of St Gregory, but he can have composed only
certain parts of it. As to the so-called Decrrtum Geiasii de Ubris
rceipiendis et nan rceipiendis, it also is a compilation of documents
anterior to Gelasius, and it is difficult to determine Gdasuas
contributions to it. At all events, as we know it, it is of Roman
origin, and 6th-century or later. (L. D.*)
Gelasius II. (Giovanni Coniulo), pope from the 24th of
January 11 18 to the 29th of January 1119, was born at Gaeta
ofan illustrious family. He became a monk of Monte Casshw,
was taken to Rome by Urban II., and made chancellor and
cardinal-deacon of Sta Maria in Cosmedin. Shortly after his
unanimous election to succeed Paschal II. he was seized by
Cencius Frangipane, a partisan of the emperor Henry V., but freed
by a general uprising of the Romans in his behalf. The emperor
drove Gelasius from Rome in March, pronounced his election
null and void, and set up Burdinus, archbishop of Brags, as
antipope under the name of Gregory VIII. Gelasius fled to
Gaeta, where he was ordained priest on the 9th of March and on
the following day received episcopal consecration. He at once
excommunicated Henry and the antipope and, under Norman
protection, was able to return to Rome in July; but the dis-
turbances of the imperialist party, especially of the Frangrpaoi,
who attacked the pope while celebrating mass in the church
of St Prasscdc, compelled Gelasius to go once more into exile.
He set out for France, consecrating the cathedral of Pisa on the
way, and arrived at Marseilles in October. He was received
with great enthusiasm at Avignon, Montpcllicr and other cities,
held a synod at Vicnnc in January 11 19, and was planning to
hold a general council to settle the investiture contest when he
died at Cluny. His successor was Calixtus II.
His letters are in J. P. Mignc, Patrol. Lot. vol. 163. Theontinal
life by Pandulf is in J. M. VVattcrich, Ponlif. Roman, *itae (Lope*
1862), and there is an important digest of his bulls aod official acts
in laffc-Wattcnbach, Regesta ponlif. Roman. (1885-1 888).
Sec J. Langen, Geschichte der rdmischen Kirche von Crtgor VII. ha
Innocenz III. (Bonn, 1893); F. Grceorovius, Rome in Ike Miidb
Ages, vol 4, trans, by Mrs G. W. Hamilton (London* 1896); A
Wagner, Du ttnteritafischen Notmannen und dot Papsttum, iot6-
1150 (Breslau. 1885); W. von Cicscbrccht. Geschichte der demtschn
Kaiserseit, Bd. iii. (Brunswick, 1890): G. Richter, Annahm ia
deutschen Geschichte im Mittctaltcr, iii. (Halle, 1898); H. H. Milnun,
Latin Christianity, vol. 4 (London, 1899). (C H. Ha.)
OELATI, a Georgian monastery m Russian Transcaucasia,
in the government of Kutais, 11 m. £. of the town of Kutais,
standing on a rocky spur (705 ft. above sea-level) In the valley of
the Rion. It was founded in 1109 by the Georgian king David
the Renovator. The principal church, a sandstone cathedral,
dates from the end of the preceding century, and contains the
royal crown of the former Georgian kingdom of Imerctla, besides
ancient MSS., ecclesiological furniture, and fresco portraits of
the kings of Imeretia. Here also, in a separate chapel, is the
tomb of David the Renovator (1089-11*5) and part of the iron
gate of the town of Ganja (now Elisavetpol), which that monarch
brought away as a trophy of his capture of the place.
GELATIN, or Gelatine, the substance which passes into
solution when ** collagen," the ground substance of bone,
cartilage and white fibrous tissue, b treated with boiling water
GELDERLAND
555
or dilute adds. It is especially characterised by its property of
forming a jelly at ordinary temperature, becoming liquid when
heated, and resolidifying to a jelly on cooling. The word fa
derived from the Fr. gHatine, and Ital. gelatine, from the Lat.
gdaUx, that which is frozen, congealed or stiff. It is, therefore, in
origin cognate with " jelly," which came through the Fr. gUm
from the same Latin original.
The "collagen," obtained from tendons and connective
tissues, also occurs in the cornea and sclerotic coat of the eye,
and in fish scales. Cartilage was considered to be composed of a
substance chondrigen, which gave chondrin or cartilage-glue on
boiling with water. Recent researches make it probable that
cartilage contains (i) chondromucoid, (a) chondroitin-sulphuric
acid, (3) collagen, (4) an albumoid present in old but not in
young cartilage; whilst chondrin is a mixture of gelatin and
mucin. " Bone collagen," or " ossein," constitutes, with calcium
salts, the ground substance of bones. Gelatin consists of two
substances, glutin and chondrin; the former is the main con-
stituent of skin-gelatin, the latter of bone-gelatin.
True gelatigenous tissue occurs in all mature vertebrates, with
the single exception, according to E. F I. Hoppe-Seyler, of the
Ampkioxus lanccolatus. Gelatigenous tissue was discovered by
Hoppe-Seyler in the cephalopods Octopus and Scpiolo, but in an
extension of his experiments to other invertebrates, as cock-
chafers and Anodon and Unto, no such tissue could be detected.
Neither glutin nor chondrin occurs ready formed in the animal
kingdom, but they separate when the tissues are boiled with
water A similar substance, vegetable gelatin, is obtained from
certain mosses.
Pure gelatin is an amorphous, brittle, nearly transparent
substance, faintly yellow, tasteless and inodorous, neutral in
reaction and unaltered by exposure to dry air. Its com-
position is in round numbers C-50, H — 7, N*»i8, 0—25%;
sulphur is also present in an amount varying from 0*2$ to
o-7%
Nothing a known with any certainty as to its chemical con-
stitution, or of the mode in which it is formed from albuminoids.
It exhibits in a general way a connexion with that large and im-
portant clam of animal mlwtanccs calkd protrids, bcitvg, like them,
amorphous, soluble in acid* and alkalis, and giving in solution a
left-handed rotation of the plane of polarization. Nevertheless the
ordinary well-recognized reactions for proteids are but faintly
observed in the case of gelatin, and the only substances which at
once and freely precipitate it from solution are mercuric chloride,
strong alcohol and tannic acid.
Although gelatin in a dry state is unalterable by exposure to air,
its solution exhibits, like all the proteids, a remarkable tendency
to putrefaction; but a characteristic feature of this process in the
case of gelatin is that the solution autumn a transienr acid reaction.
The ultimate products of thi6 decomposition arc the same as are
produced by prolonged boiling with acid. It has been found that
oxalic acid, over and aliovc the action common to all dilute acids
of preventing the solidification of gelatin solutions, has the further
property of preventing in a large measure this tendency to putrefy
when the gelatin is treated with hot solutions of this acid, and then
freed from adhering acid by means of calcium carbonate. Gelatin
so treated has been called mctagelotin
In spite of the marked tendency of gelatin solutions to develop
'erment-organisms and undergo putrefaction, the stalulity of the
substance in the dry state is such that it has even been used, and
with some success, as a means of preserving perishalilc foods. The
process, invented by Dr Campbell Morfit, consist* in impregnating
the foods with gelatin, and then drying them till about 10% or
less of water is present. Milk gelatinized in this way is superior in
several respects to the products of the ordinary condensation process,
more especially in the retention of a much larger proportion of
albuminoids.
Gelatin has a marked affinity for water, abstracting it from ad-
mixture with alcohol, for example. Solid gelatin steeped for some
hours in water absorbs a certain amount and swells up, in which
condition a gentle heat serves to convert it into n liquid: or this
may be readily produced by the addition of a trace of alkali or
mineral acid, or by strong acetic acid. In the last case, however,
or if we use the mineral acids in a more concentrated form, the
solution obtained has lost its power of solidifying, though not that
of acting as a glue. This property is utilized in the preparation
of liquid glue (sec Glue). By prolonged boiling of strong aqueous
solutions at a high, or of weak solutions at a lower temperature, the
characteristic nroperties of gelatin are impaired and ultimately
destroyed. After this treatment k acts less powerfully as a glue,
loses its tendency to sotidif y, and becomes increasingly soluble an
cold water; nevertheless the solutions yield on precipitation with
alcohol a substance identical in composition with gelatin.
By prolonged boiling in contact with hydrolyttc agents, such as
sulphuric acid or caustic alkali, it yields quantities of lettcin and
glvcocoU (so-called M sugar of gelatin," this being the method by
which gjycocoll was first prepared), but no tyrosin. In this last
respect it differs from the great body of proteids, the characteristic
solid products of the decomposition of which are leucin and tyrosin.
Gelatin occurs in commerce in varying degrees of purity, the
purer form obtained from skins and bones (to which this article
is restricted) is named gelatin; a preparation of great purity is
" patent isinglass," while isinglass (q.v.) itself is a fish -gelatin;
less pure forms constitute glue (?•».), while a dilute aqueous
solution appears in commerce as size (q.v.). The manufacture
follows much the same lines as that of glue, but it is essential
that the raw materials must be carefully selected, and in view of
the consumption of most of the gelatin in the kitchen— for soups,
jellies, &c— great care must be taken to ensure purity and
cleanliness.
In the manufacture of bone-gelatin the sorted bones are de-
greased as in the case of glue manufacture, and then transferred
to vats containing a dilute hydrochloric acid, by which means most
of the mineral matter b disflolved out, and the bones become flexible.
Instead of hydrochloric acid some French makers use phosphoric
acid. After being well washed with water to remove all traces of
hydrochloric acid, the bones are bleached by leading in sulphur
solidifies with the formation of pretty designs; this is the basis
the so-called " crystalline glass ' used for purposes of ornamei
, __- purposes t.
atlon. It is also used for coating pills to prevent them adhering
together and to make them tasteless. Compounded with various
mineral salts, the carbonates and phosphates of calcium, magnesium
and aluminium, it yields a valuable ivory substitute. It also plays
a part in the manufacture of artificial leather, of India inks, and of
artificial silk (the Vanduara Company p ro ces s es ).
GELDERLAND, Gelders, or Guilders, formerly a duchy of
the Empire, on the lower Rhine and the YsscI, bounded by
Friesland, Westphalia, Brabant, Holland and the Zuider Zee;
part of which has become the province of Holland, dealt with
separately below. The territory of the later duchy of Gclderland
was inhabited at t he beginningof theChristian era by the Teutonic
tribes of the Sicambri and the Batavi, and later, during the
period of the decline of the Roman empire, by the Chamavi and
other Frank peoples. It formed part of the Caroling kingdom of
Austrasia, and was divided into pagi or gautn, ruled by official
counts (comites-grawtn). In S45, by the treaty of Verdun, it
became part of Lotharingia (Lorraine), and in 879 was annexed
to the kingdom of East Franda (Germany) by the treaty of
Meerssen. The nucleus of the later county and duchy was the
gsu or district surrounding the town of Gelder or Gelre, lying
between the Mease and the Niers, and since 171s included in
Rhenish Prussia.
Tbxwlyhisl*>ryu^uivt*^V&^ T**&vi
556
GELDERLAND
the nth century a number of counts ruling in various parts of
what was afterwards known as Geldcrland. Towards the close
of that century Gerard of Wassenburg, who besides the county of
Gelre ruled over portions of Hamalant and Taster bant, acquired
a dominant position amongst his neighbours. He is generally
reckoned as the first hereditary count of Gtlderland (d. 1117/8).
His son, Gerard IL— the Long— (d. 113O, married Irmin-
gardis, daughter and heiress of Otto, count of Zutphen, and
their son, Henry I. (d. 1182), inherited both countships. His
successors Otto I. (1182-1207) and Gerard 111. (1207-1229)
were lovers of peace and strong supporters of the Hohenstaufcn
emperors, through whose favour they were able to increase their
territories by acquisitions in the districts of Vcluwe and Bcluwc.
He acted as guardian to his nephew Floris IV of Holland during
his minority Otto II., the Lame (1229-1271), fortified several
towns and bestowed privileges upon them for the purpose of
encouraging trade. He became a person of so much importance
that he was urged to be a candidate for the dignity of emperor.
He preferred to support the claims of his cousin, William II. of
Holland In return for the loan of a considerable sum of money
William gave to him the city of Nijmwegen in pledge. His son
Rein aid I (d. 1326) married Irmingardis, heiress of Limburg,
and in right of his wife laid claim to the duchy against Adolf of
Berg, who had sold his rights to John I of Brabant. War
followed, and on the 5th of June 1288 Reinald, who meantime
had also sold his rights to the count of Luxemburg, was defeated
and taken prisoner at the battle of Wocringcn. In this battle the
count of Luxemburg was slain, and Ranald had to surrender his
claims as the price of his defeat to John of Brabant In 1310, in
return for his support, Reinald received from the emperor Henry
VII for all his territories prhnlcgium de turn rvocando, i.e. the
exemption of his subjects from the liability to be sued before any
court outside his jurisdiction. In 131 7 he was made a prince of
the Empire A wound received at tho battle of Woeringcn had
affected his brain, and an insurrection against him was in 1316
headed by his son Reinald, who assumed the government under
the title of " Son of the Count." Reinald 1. was finally in 1320
immured in prison, where he died in 1326.
Reinald II., the Black (13 26- 1343), was one of the foremost
princes in the Netherlands of his day He married (1) Sophia,
heiress of Mechlin, and (2) in 1531 Eleanor, sister of Edward HI.
of England. By purchase or conquest he added considerably to
his territories. He did much to improve the condition of the
country, to foster trade, to promote the prosperity of the towns,
and to maintain order and security in his lands by wise laws and
firm administration. In 1338 the title of duke was bestowed
upon him by the emperor Louis the Bavarian, who at the same
time granted to him the fief of East Friesland. He died in 1343,
leaving three daughters by his first marriage, and two sons,
Reinald and Edward, both minors, by Eleanor of England. His
elder son was ten years of age, and succeeded to the duchy under
the guardianship of his mother Eleanor. Declared of age two
years later, the youthful Reinald III. found himself involved in
many difficulties through the struggles between the rival factions
named after the two noble families of Bronkhorst and Hekeren.
What was the quarrel between them; and what the causes they
represented, cannot now be ascertained with certainly. There is
good reason, however, to believe that' they were the counterparts
of the contemporary Cod and Hook parties in Holland, and of
the Schicringers and Vetkoopers In Friesland. In Geldcrland the
quarrel between them was converted into a dynastic struggle,
the Hekeren recognizing Duke Reinald, while the Bronkhorsten
set up bis younger brother Edward. At the battle of Tiel (1361)
Reinald was defeated and taken prisoner, and Edward held the
duchy till 13 71. He was a good and successful ruler, and bis
death by an arrow wound; after a brilliant victory over the duke
of Brabant near Baesweller (August 1371), was a loss to his
country. He was in his thirty-fifth year and left no heirs.
Reinald was now taken from the prison in which be bad been
confined to reign once more, but his health was broken and he
died childless three years afterwards. The war of factions again
broke out, the hatt-slsters of Reinald HI. and Edward both
claiming the inheritance, the elder, Matilda (Machteld), in her
own right, the younger Maria on behalf of her seven-year-old boy
William of Julich, as the only male representative of the family.
The Hekeren supported Matilda, the Bronkhorsten William of
Julich. The war of succession lasted till 1379, and ended in
William's favour, the emperor Wenceslas (Wcnzcl) recognizing
him as duke four years later.
Duke William was able, restless and adventurous, an idol
knight of the palmy days of chivalry. He took part in no kss
than five crusades with the Teutonic order against the heathen
Lithuanians and Prussians. In 1393 he inherited the duchy of
Julich, and died in 1402. He was succeeded by his brother,
Reinald IV (d. 1423), in the united sovereignty of Geldcrland,
Zutphen and Julich, who, in accordance with a promise made
before his accession, ceded the town of Emmerich to Duke Adolt
of Cleves. He took the part of his brother-in-law, John of Arkel.
against William VI. of Holland, and in a war of several years'
duration was not successful in preventing the Arkel territory
being incorporated in Holland. On his death without legitimate
issue, Geldcrland passed to the young Arnold of Egmont, grand-
son of his sister Johanna, who had married John, lord of Arkel.
their daughter Maria (d 1415) being tho wife of John, count of
Egmont (d. 1451) Arnold was recognized as duke in 1424 by
the emperor Sigismund, but in the following year the emperor
revoked his decision and bestowed the duchy upon Adolf of Berg.
Arnold in retaliation laid claim to the duchy of Julich, which had
likewise been granted to Adolf by Sigismund, and a war followed
in which the cities and nobles of Geldcrland stood by Arnold, it
ended in Arnold retaining Geldcrland and Zutphen, and Gerard,
the son of Adolf (d. 1437), being acknowledged as duke of Julich.
To gain the support of the estates of Geldcrland in this war of
succession, Arnold had been compelled to make many cpneessior*
limiting the ducal prerogatives, and granting large powers to 1
council consisting of representatives of the nobles and the four
chief cities, and his extravagance and exactions led to continual
conflicts, in which the prince was compelled to yield to the de-
mands of his subjects. In his later years a conspiracy was formed
against him, headed by his wife, the violent and ambitious
Catherine of Cleves, and his son Adolf. Arnold was at first
successful and Adolf had to go into exile; but he returned, and in
1465, having taken his father prisoner by treachery, interned him
in the castle of Buren. Charles the Bold of Burgundy now seized
the opportunity to intervene. In 147 1 he forced Adolf to release
his father, who sold the reversion of the duchy to the duke of
Burgundy for 92,000 golden gulden. On the 23rd of February
1473 Arnold died, and Charles of Burgundy became duke of
Geldcrland. His succession was not unopposed. Nijmwegen
offered an heroic resistance and only fell after a long siege. After
Charles's death in 1477 Adolf was released from the captivity in
which he had been held, and placed himself at the head of a party
in the powerful city of Ghent, which sought to settle the disputed
succession by forcing a match between him and Mary, the heiress
of Burgundy. On the 29th of June 1477, however, he was killed
at the siege of Tournai; and Mary gave her hand to Maximilian
of Austria, afterwards emperor. Catherine, Adolf's sister, made
an attempt to assert the rights of his son Charles to the duchy,
but by 1483 Maximilian had crushed all opposition and estab-
lished himself as duke of Geldcrland.
Charles of Egmont, however, did not surrender his claims, but
with the aid of the French collected an army, and in the course
of 1492 and 1493 succeeded in reconquering his inheritance. The
efforts of Maximilian to recover the country were vain, and the
successive governors of the Netherlands, Philip the Fair and his
sister Margaret, fared no better. In 1507 Charles of Egmont
Invaded Holland and Brabant, captured Hardcrwijk and Bomratl
in i$xx, threatened Amsterdam in 151a, and took Groningca.
It was, undoubtedly, a great and heroic achievement for the ruler
of a petty state like Gdderland thus to assert and maintain his
independence for a long period against the overwhelming power
of the house of Austria. It was not till 1528 that the emperor
Charles. V. could force him to accept the compromise of the treaty
of Gorkhan, by which he received Gdderland and Zutphen for
GELDERLAND
557
life as fiefs of the Empire. In 1534 the duke, 'who was childless,
attempted to transfer the reversion of Geldcrtand to France, but
this project was violently resisted by the estates of the duchy, and
Charles was compelled by them in x 538 to appoint as his successor
William V.— the Rich— of Cleves (d. 1592). Charles died the
same year, and William, with the aid of the French, succeeded in
maintaining his position in Gdderland for several years. The
Habsburg power was, however, in the end too great for him, and
he was forced to cede the duchy to Charles V. by the treaty of
Venloo, signed on the 7th of September 1543.
Gelderland was now definitely amalgamated with the Habsburg
dominions in the Netherlands, until the revolt of the Low
Countries led to its partition. In 1 579 the northern and greater
part, comprising the three " quarters " of Nijmwegen, Arnhem
and Zutphen, joined the Union of Utrecht and became the
province of Gelderland in the Dutch republic. Only the quarter
of Roermonde remained subject to the crown of Spain, and was
called Spanish Gelderland. By the treaty of Utrecht (1 7 1 5) this
was ceded to Prussia with the exception of Venloo, which fell to
the United Provinces, and Roermonde, which, with the remaining
Spanish Netherlands, passed to Austria. Of this, part was ceded
to France at the peace of Basel in 1795, and the whole by the
treaty of Luneville in 1801, when it received the name of the
department of the Roer. By the peace of Paris of 1814 the bulk
of Gelderland was incorporated in the United Netherlands, the
remainder falling to Prussia, where it forms the circle of
Dussddorf.
The rise of the towns in Gelderland began in the 13th century,
river commerce and markets being the chief cause of their
prosperity, but they never attained to the importance of the
larger cities in Holland and Utrecht, much less to that of the
great Flemish municipalities. They differed also from the Flemish
cities in the nature of their privileges and immunities, as they did
not possess the rights of communes, but only those of " free
cities " of the Rhenish type. The power of the feudal lord over
them was much greater. The states of Gelderland first became a
considerable power, in the land during the reign of Arnold of
Egmont (1423-1473). Their claim to large privileges and a
considerable share in the government of the county were formu-
lated in a document drawn up at Nijmwegen in April 1436.
These the duke had to concede, and to agree further to the appoint-
ment of a council to assist him in his administration. From this
time the absolute authority of the sovereign in Gelderland was
broken. The states consisted of two members— the nobility and
the towns. The towns were divided into four separate districts
or " quarters " named after the chief town in each — Nijmwegen,
Arnhem, Zutphen and Roermonde. In the time of the republic,
as has been stated above, the province of Gelderland comprised
the three first-named " quarters " only. The three quarters had
each of them peculiar rights and customs, and their representa-
tives met together in a separate assembly before taking part in
the diet {landiag) of the states. The nobility possessed great
influence In Gelderland and retained it in the time of the
republic. (G. E.)
GELDERLAND {Cuelders), a province of Holland, bounded S.
by Rhenish Prussia and North Brabant, W. by Utrecht and
South Holland, N. by the Zuider Zee, N.E. by Overysel, and S.E.
by the Prussian province of Westphalia. It has an area of 1006
sq. m. and a pop. (1000) of 566,549. Historically it was part vi
the duchy of Gelderland, which b treated separately above.
The main portion of Gelderland north of the Rhine and the
Old Ysel forms as it were an extension of the province of Overysel,
being composed of diluvial sand and gravel, covered with sombre
heaths and patches of fen. South of this line, however, the soil
consists of fertile river-day. The northern portion is divided by
the New (or Gelders) Ysel into two distinct regions, namely, the
Veluwe (** bad land ") on the west, and the former countship of
Zutphen on the east. In this last division the ground slopes
downwards from south-east to north-west (131 to 26 ft.) and is
intersected by several fertilizing streams which flow in the same
direction to join the YseL The extreme eastern corner is occupied
by older Tertiary bam, which is used for making bricks, and
upon this and the river-banks are the most fertile spots, woods,
cultivated land, pastures, towns and villages. The highlands of
the Veluwe lying west of the Ysel really extend as far as the
Crooked Rhine and the Vecht in the province of Utrecht, but are
slightly detached from the Utrecht hills by the sorcalled Gelders
valley, which forms the boundary between the two provinces.
This valley extends from the Rhine along the Grift, the Luntersche
Beek, and the Eem to the Zuider Zee, and would still offer an
outlet in this direction to the Rhine at high water if it were not for
the river dikes. The two main ridges of the Veluwe hills (164 and
360 ft.) extend from the neighbourhood of Arnhem north to
Harderwyk and north-east to Hattem. In the south they stretch
themselves along the banks of the Rhine, forming a strip of
picturesque river scenery made up of the varied elements of
sandhills and trees, day-lands and pastures. A large number of
country-houses and villas are to be found here, and the river-side
villages of Dieren, Vdp and Renkum. All over the Vduwe, are
heaths, scantily cultivated, with fields of rye and buckwheat,
cattle of inferior quality, and sheep, and a sparse population.
There is also a considerable cultivation of wood, especially of fir
and copse, while tobacco plantations are found at Nykcrk and
Wageningen.
The southern division of the province presents a very different
aspect, and contains many old towns and villages. It is watered
by the three large rivers, the Rhine, the Waal and the Maas, and
has a level clay soil, varied only by isolated hills and a sandy,
wooded stretch between Nijmwegen and the southern border.
The region enclosed between the Rhine and the Waal and
watered by tbe Linge is called the Bctuwc (" good land "), and
gave its name to the Germanic tribe of Batavians, who are some-
times wrongly regarded as the parent stock of the Dutch people.
There is here a denser population, occupied in the cultivation
of wheat, beetroot and fruit, the breeding of excellent cattle,
shipping and industrial pursuits. The principal centres of
population, such as Zutphen, Arnhem (the chief town of the
province) , Nijmwegen and Tiel, lie along the large rivers. Smaller,
but of equal antiquity, are the riverside towns of Doesburg,
which is strongly fortified; Wageningen, with the State agri-
cultural schools; Doetinchem, with a. bridge over the Old Ysel
which is mentioned as early as the 14th century; Zalt-Bommd,
with an old church (1304), and a railway bridge over the Waal;
and Kuilenburg, with a fine railway bridge (1863-1868) over the
Rhine. Five m. S, of Zalt-Bommd, on the Maas, is the medieval
castle of Ammerzode or Ammersooi, also called Amdroy during
the French occupation in 1674. It is in an excdlent state of
preservation and has been restored in modern times. The first
authentic record of the castle is its possession by John de Hcrlar
of the noble family of Loo at the end of the 13th century. In
1480 it passed by marriage to the powerful lords van Arkel, and
was partly destroyed by fire at the end of the 16th century.
The chapel dates from the 15th century, and the keep from
1564. Among the family portraits are works by Albert Dflrer.
Zctten, on the railway between Nijmwegen and Tid, is famous
for the charitable institutions founded here by the preacher
Otto Gerhard Hddring (d. 1876). They comprise a penitentiary
(1849) for women; an educational home (1858) for girls; a
theological training college (1864); and a Magdalen hospital.
Nykerk, Harderwyk and Elburg are fishing towns on the Zuider
Zee. Apeldoom is situated on the edge of the sand-grounds.
Heerenberg on the south-eastern border is remarkable for Hs
ancient castle near the seat of the powerful lords van den Bergh.
Other ancient and historical towns bordering on the Prussian
frontier are Zevenaar, which was for long the cause of dispute
between the houses of Cleves and Gelder and was finally attached
to the kingdom of the Netherlands fn 1816; Breedevoort, once
the seat of a lordship of the same name belonging to the counts
van Loon or Lohn, who built a castle here in the beginning of
the 13th century which was destroyed in 1646— the lordship
was presented to Prince William HI. in 1697; Winterswyk, now
an important railway junction, and of growing industrial im-
portance; and Bcrkeloo, or Borkulo, the seat of an andent
lordship dating from the first half of the rath century, which
560
GELSENKIRCHEN— GEM
OELSEMKIRCHEN, a town of Germany in the Prussian
Kovince of Westphalia, 27 m. W. of Dortmund on the railway
uisburg-Hamm. Pop. (1905) i47,°37- It has coal mines, iron
furnaces, steel and boiler works, and soap, glass and chemical
factories. In 1003 various neighbouring industrial townships
were incorporated with the town.
OEM (Lat. gemma, a bud, — from the root gen, meaning
" to produce," — or precious stone; in the latter sense the Greek
term is ^Q^of), a word applied in a wide sense to certain minerals
which, by reason of their brilliancy, hardness and rarily,are valued
for personal decoration; it is extended to include pearl. In a
restricted sense the term is applied only to precious stones after
they have been cut and polished as jewels, whilst in their raw
stale the minerals arc conveniently called ".gem-stones." Some-
times, again, the term " gem " is used in a yet narrower sense,
being restricted to engraved stones, like seals and cameos.
The subject is treated here in two sections: (1) Mineralogy
and general properties; (2) Gems in Art, i.e. engraved gems, such
as seals and cameos. The artificial products which simulate
natural gem-stones in properties and chemical composition arc
treated in the separate article Gem, Artificial.
1. Mineralogy and General Properties
The gem-stones form a small conventional group of minerals,
including principally the diamond, ruby, sapphire, emerald and
opal. Other stones of less value — such as topaz, spinel, chryso-
bcryl, chrysolite, zircon and tourmaline — are sometimes called
" fancy stones." Many minerals still less prized, yet often used
as ornamental stones, — like moonstone, rock-crystal and agate, —
occasionally pass under the name of " semi-precious stones,"
but this is rather a vague term and may include the stones of the
preceding group. The classification of gem-stones is, indeed, to
some extent a matter of fashion.
Descriptions of the several gem-stones will be found under
their respective headings, and the present article gives only a
brief review of the general characters of the group.
A high degree of hardness is an essential property of a gem-
stonc r for however beautiful and brilliant a mineral may be it is
Hsrdmess. usc ^ css t0 lnc J cw *ller »' h l acK sufficient hardness to
withstand the abrasion to which articles of personal
decoration arc necessarily subjected. Even if not definitely
scratched, the polished stone becomes dull by wear. Imitations
in paste may be extremely brilliant, but being comparatively
toft they soon lose lustre when rubbed. In the article Minera-
logy it is explained that the varying degrees of hardness arc
registered on a definite scale. The exceptional hardness of the
diamond gives it a supreme position in this scale, and to it the
arbitrary value of 10 has been assigned. The corundum gem-
stones (ruby and sapphire), though greatly inferior in hardness
to the diamond, come next, with the value of 9; and it is notable
that the sapphire is usually rather harder than ruby. Then
follows the topaz, which, with spinel and chrysobcryl, has a
hardness of 8; whilst quartz falls a degree lower. Most gem-
stoncs are harder than quartz, though precious opal, turquoise,
moonstone and sphene are inferior to it in hardness. Those
stones which are softer than quartz have been called by jewellers
dtmi-dwrcs. To lest the hardness of a cut stone, one of its sharp
edges may be drawn, with firm pressure, across the smooth
surface of a piece of quartz; if it leave a scratch its hardness must
be above 7. The stone is then applied in like manner to a
fragment of topaz, preferably a cleavage-piece, and if it fail to
leave a distinct scratch its hardness is between 7 and 8, whereas
if the topaz be scratched it is above 8. An expert may obtain a
fair idea of hardness by gently passing the stone over a fine
steel file, and observing the feel of the stone and the grating
sound which it emits. If a stone be scratched by a steel knife its
hardness is below 6. The degree of hardness of a precious stone
is soon ascertained by the lapidary when cutting it.
Gem-stones differ markedly among themselves in density or.
specific weight; and although this is a character which does not
directly affect tbeir value for ornamental purposes, it furnishes
by its constancy animpottani mean* of distinguishing one stout
from another. Moreover, it is a character very easily determined
and can be applied to cut stones without injury. The relative
weightiness of a stone is called its specific gravity, and
is often abbreviated as S.G. The number given in
the description of a mineral as S.G. shows how many
times the stone is heavier than an equal bulk of the standard
with which it is compared, the standard being distilled water at
4° C. If, for example, the S.G. of diamond is said to be 3-5 i
means that a diamond weighs 3} times as much as a mass of water
of the same bulk. The various methods of determining specific
gravity are described under Density. The readiest method d
testing precious stones, especially when cut, is to use dtu
liquids. Suppose it be required to determine whether ayefloi
stone be true topaz or false topaz (quartz), it is merely necesuj
to drop the stone into a liquid made up to the specific gravity 4
about 3; and since topaz has S.G. of 3*5 it sinks in this median,
but as quartz has S.G. of only 2-65 it floats. The densest gea>
stonc is zircon, which may have S.G. as high as 4*7, whilst the
lowest is opal with S.G. 2-2. Amber, it is true, is lighter sua.
being scarcely denser than water, but this substance can hang)
be called a gem.
Although the great majority of precious stones occur crystal-
lized, the characteristic form is destroyed in cutting. 1st
crystal-forms of the several stones are noticed under j
their respective headings, and the subject is discussed 2nJ2T
fully under Crystallography. A few substances cta^.
used as ornamental stones — like opal, turquoise,
obsidian and amber — are amorphous or without crystalline
form; whilst others, like the various stones of the chalcedony-
group, display no obvious crystal-characters, but are seen uatkr
the microscope to possess a crystalline structure. Gem-stoats
are frequently found in gravels or other detrital deposits, where
they occur as rolled crystals or fragments of crystals, and ia
many cases have been reduced to the form of pebbles. By tk
disintegration of the rock which formed the original matrix, iu
constituent minerals were set free, and whilst many of then
were worn away by long-continued attrition, the gem-stooo
survived by virtue of their superior hardness.
Many crystallized gem-stones exhibit cleavage, or a tendency
to split in definite directions. The lapidary recognizes a " graia "
in the stone. When the cleavage is perfect, as in topaz, it may
render the working of the stone difficult, and produce iaripkBt
cracks in the cut gem. Flaws due to the cleavage nbats are
called "feathers." The octahedral cleavage of tbediaaaouJh
taken advantage of in dressing the stone before cutting it. The
cutting of gem-stones is explained under Lapidary.
The beauty and consequent value of gems depend sninly
on their colour. Some stones, it is true, are valued lor enure
absence of colour, as diamonds of pure " water." Ctlgm
Certain kinds of sapphire and topaz, too, are " water
clear," as also is pure rock-crystal; but in most stones colour is 1
prime element of attraction. The colour, however, is not gtncraO)
an essential property of the mineral, but is due to the presence «
foreign pigmentary matter, often in very small proportion and a
some cases eluding determination. Thus, corundum when put
is colourless, but the presence of traces of certain mineral sub-
stances imparts to it not only the red of ruby and the blue of
sapphire, but almost every other colour. The tinctorial nailer
may be distributed either uniformly throughout the stone or a
regular zones, or in quite irregular patches. . A tourmaline, for
instance, may be red at one end of a prismatic crystal and gnu
at the other extremity, or the colour may be so disposed thai a
transverse section the centre will be red and the outer a*
green. A beryl may be yellow and green in the same cr/iii*.
Sapphire, again, is often parti-coloured, one portion of the slot
being bluer and other portions white or yellow; and the sLi&
lapidary, in cutting the stone, will take advantage of the hb:
portion. The character of the pigment is in many cases aa
definitely known. It by no means follows that the mauu
capable of imparting a certain tint tq glass is identical with u«
which naturally, colours a stone of the same tint; thus a glass
, s&p^uvvUma may be obtained by the use of cobalt, yet coed
GEMS
Plate I.
S-— ORIENTAL.
i. Babylonian date Sumerian) Cylinder of a Viceroy
of Ur-Gur ior L'r-Ennur), 2500 B.C.
2. Assyrian Cylinder. Woman adoring Goddess.
3. Assyrian Cylinder. Assur worshiped by two
Assyrian kinps. and divine Attendants.
4- Persian Seal of Darius (500 n.c). Lion Hunt.
5. Gracco-Per>ian Scarabaeoid. Boar Hunt.
15— CRETAN AM) MYCENAEAN INTAGLIOS.
6. Cretan Symbols.
Man and Bull. Crete.
Lions and Column. lalysus.
Daemon. Crete.
Lioness and Deer.
Three-sided Stone. Peloponnesus.
Man ami Bull. Crete.
Bull and Palm. lalysus.
All the above are in the BrilV&Vi Museum.
7-
8.
Q.
IO.
XI-I3.
14.
IS-
16-18 —GEMS OF THE ISLANDS.
16. Goddess on Waves. Birds.
17. Lion and Goat.
18. Heracles and Xcrcus.
ig.- PHOENICIAN SEAL, inscribed.
-GRAECO-PHOENICIAN
THARROS.
0. Kinjf. enthroned.
1. Bes with Antelope and Hound.
2. Bes with Lions.
Warrior.
Egyptian Device.
Bes axu\ CsoaV*.
"RavAs. ol \\oiu&.
SCARABS FROM
n-
24.
a6.
Plate II.
GEMS
27-u— EARLY GREEK SCARABS AND SCARABAEOIDS.
27. Pluto and Persephone. (New York.)
2.S. Boreas and Orcithyia. (New York.)
2.). Youth and Dog.
30. Archer feeling Arrow Tip. (Lord Southcsk.)
31. Satyr and Wine (.'up. 32. Archer and Dog.
31. Satyr with Wineskin.
3 j. Athena with Gorgon Spoils.
35-44 —FINEST GREEK SCARABS AND SCARABAEOIDS.
3S. Head of Young Warrior.
3O. Lyre Player. ■Co.kerell Coll.)
37. Crane, with Deer's Antler. vS. Head of Eo.«.
30. Lyre Pl.iyer. fWnalhou-e Coll. and B.M.)
40. Lyre Player, tinned by Syrie*.
41. Stork and Grasshopper, signed by Dexamenos. (St.
Petersburg.)
42. Flying Crane, signed by Dexamenos.
43- Mying Cioomj. 4 \. Lion and Stag
45-54 - ETRUSCAN SCARABS.
45. Achillea in Retirement.
47. Capaneu* struck hy th.* Bult.
49- ('ufKinvu* struck )>y the Bolt.
//. Heracles and Cycnus.
S.j. Heracles and the Lion.
S4- Machaon bandaging Pbiloctetcs.
All the above are in the British
-GREEK GEMS.
5?. Girl with Scroll and Lyre. 56. Girl with Water- Jar.
57. Head of Aristippu.s — Deities.
58-61. -SIGNED GEMS.
S-S. Asclepius of Aulos.
00. Medusa of Solon.
5q. Citharist of Allion.
01. Heracles of Gnaios.
tM- Head of Trajan Decius.
05. Jupiter of Heliopollv
07. So-called Psyche.
(St. Petersburg.)
»f«. Victory.
.lS. Hemic*.
50. Achilles.
52. Heracles.
62-70.— ROMAN GEMS.
62. Portrait.
04. Ares and Aphrodite.
66. Artemis of Ephesu*.
6S. So-called Psyche.
6y. Minerva with Mask. Stamp for the Eye Balsam of
Herophilus.
70. Helio>.
71-72— CHRISTIAN GEMv
71. Crucifixion. 72. Good Shepherd. Jonah.
73-76. -EIGHTEENTH CENTURY GEMS.
73. Achilles of Pamphilu*. copied from the antique.
l\. Vaos wwd Vsyclw, by Pichler.
1$. MYi<eiia.,\TomTvYN*\*y \i\xs\.\^ \taxt\*».u\«
Museum, uu\e» oWfctmafc %\».Vk&.
GEM
56"
has not been detected in the sapphire. Probably the most common
mineral pigments are compounds of iron, manganese, copper and
chromium. If the colour of the stone be discharged by heat, an
organic pigment is presumably present. Some ornamental stones
change their colour, or even lose it, on exposure to sunlight and
air: such is the case with rose-quartz, chrysoprase and certain
kinds of topaz and turquoise. Exposure to heat alters the colour
of some stones so readily that the change is taken advantage
of. commercially; thus, sherry-yellow topaz may be rendered
pink, smoky and amethystine quartz may become yellow, and
coloured zircons may be decolorized, so as to resemble diamonds.
The colours of some gem-stones are greatly affected by radio-
activity, and Prof. F. Bordas has found this to be particularly
the case with sapphire. From his experiments he believes that
yellow corundum, or oriental topaz, may have been formed from
blue corundum under the influence of radioactive substances
present in the soil in which the sapphire was embedded. Different
shades of colour may be presented by different stones of the same
species; and it was formerly the custom of lapidaries to regard
the darker stones as masculine and the paler as feminine, a full
blue sapphire, for instance, being called a " male sapphire "
and a delicate blue stone a " female sapphire." It is notable
that some stones appear to change colour by candle-light and
by most other artificial means of illumination; some amethysts
thus become inky, and certain sapphires acquire a murky tint,
whilst others become amethystine. For an example of a remark-
able change of this character, see Alexandrite.
As the optical properties of minerals are fully explained under
Crystallography, little need be said here on this subject.
The brilliancy of a cut stone depends on the amount
of light reflected from its faces; and in the form
known as the " brilliant " the gem is so cut that much
of the incident light, after entering the stone and suffering
refraction, is totally reflected from the facets at the back. The
amount of light which b thus returned to the eye of the observer
will be greater as the angle of total reflection, or critical angle, is
smaller, but this angle will be small if the refractive power of the
stone b great, so that the brilliancy directly depends on the re-
fractivity. The diamond has the highest refractive index of any
gem-atone (2*42). Jargoon, or zircon, has also a high index
(mean 1*95), and sphene, which b occasionally cut as a gem, b
likewise very notable in thb respect. The index of refraction
generally bears a relation to the specific gravity of the stone,
the heaviest gems having the highest indices, though a few
minerals offer exceptions. The refractive index, which b thus
a very important character in the scientific discrimination of
gem-stones, may be conveniently determined, within certain
Omits, by means of the refractometer devised by Dr G. F.
Herbert Smith. Thb instrument b an improved form of the
total reflectometer, in which the refractive power of a given
substance b determined by the method of total reflection. It
may be used for indices ranging from 1*300 to 1-775, an <* may
be applied to faceted stones without removal from their settings.
The play of prismatic colours exhibited by a cut stone, often
known as its " fire,' 1 b due to the decomposition of the white
_. light which enters the stone, and b returned, by internal
SJj^" reflection, after resolution intoits coloured components.
This decomposition depends on the dispersive power
of the substance. The exceptional beauty of the fiery flashes
in the diamond b due to its high dispersion, in other words, to
the difference between the refractive indices for the red rays and
the violet rays at the extremities of the spectrum. The peculiar
lustre exhibited by the diamond is called adamantine, and is
shared to some extent by certain other stones which have a
high refractive index and high dispersion, such as zircon.
The use of the spectroscope may be valuable in discriminating
between certain precious stones. It was shown by Sir A. H.
Church that almandine garnet and zircon when simply
viewed through this instrument give, under proper
conditions, characteristic absorption spectra, due to
the light reflected from the stone having penetrated
to some extent into the substance of the mineral and suffered
xi. to
absorption. It b sometimes useful to examine the behaviour
of a stone under the action of the Rontgcn rays.
A very useful means of discriminating between certain stones
b found in their dichroism, or, to use a more general term,
pleochrobm. Neither amorphous minerals, like opal,
nor minerals crystallizing in the cubic system, like toh
spinel and garnet, possess this property; but coloured
minerals which are doubly refracting may show different colours,
when properly examined, in different directions. Occasionally
thb b so marked as to be detected by the naked eye, as in iolite
or dichroitc, but usually the stone needs to be examined with such
an instrument as Haidinger's dichroscopc (see Crystallo-
graphy). It must be remembered that in the direction of an
optic axis the two images will be of the same colour in all positions
of the instrument, and it is therefore necessary before reaching
a definite conclusion to turn the stone about and examine
it in various directions. The use of the dichroscopc is so
simple that it can be applied by any one to the examination
of a cut stone, but there are other means of determining the nature
of a stone by its optical properties available to the mineralogist
and more suitably discussed under Crystallography.
In chemical composition the gem-stones present great variety.
Diamond b composed of only a single element; ruby, sapphire
and the quarts-group are oxides; spinel and chryso-
beryl may be regarded as aluminates; turquoise and c **"*gf
bcryllonile are phosphates; and a great number of S2f°"^
ornamental stones are silicates of greater or less
complexity, such as emerald, topaz, chrysolite, garnet, zircon,
tourmaline, kunzite, sphene and benitoile. In the examination
of a cut stone chemical tests are not available, since they usually
involve the partial destruction of the mineral. The artificial
production of certain gems by chemical processes which yield
products identical in composition and physical properties with
the natural stones, b described in the article Geu, Artificial.
Doublets and triplets are composite stone, sometimes prepared
for fraudulent purposes. In a doublet a slab of real gem-stone
covers the face of a paste, whilst in a triplet the paste b both
faced and backed by a slice of genuine stone. By the action of
a suitable solvent, such as chloroform or in some cases even hot
water, the cement uniting the pieces gives way and the compound
character of the structure b detected.
Before the chemical composition of gem-stones was understood,
their classification remained vague and unscientific As the
ancients depended almost entirely on the eye, the colour of the
stone naturally became the chief factor in classification. A
variety of stones agreeing roughly in colour would be grouped
together under a common name, widely as they might differ in
other respects. Thus the emerald, the peridot, green fluorspar,
malachite, and certain kinds of quartz and jade seem to have been
united under the general name of cfiApaybot; whibt the ruby,
red spinel and garnet were probably grouped together as car-
bunculus. In thb way minerals radically different were associated
on the ground of what b generally a superficial and accidental
character, and rarely of any classificatory value. On the other
hand, a grouping based only on colour led to several names being
in some cases applied to the same mineral species. Thus the
ruby and sapphire are essentially identical in chemical composi-
tion and in all physical characters, save colour.
Descriptions of precious stones by ancient writers generally are
too vague for exact diagnosis. The principal classical authorities
are Thcophrastus and the elder Pliny. Stones were
formerly held in esteem not only for their beauty and aS^'
rarity but for the medicinal and magical powers with
which they were reputed to be endowed. Up to comparatively
recent years the toadstone, for example, was worn not for beauty
but for sake of occult virtue; and even at the present day
certain stones, like jade, are valued for a similar reason. Prof.
W. Ridgeway has suggested that jewelry took its origin not, as
often supposed, in an innate love of personal decoration, but
rather in the belter that the objects used possessed magical virtue.
Snail stones peculiar in colour or shape, especially those with
natural perforations, are usually valued by urjcrvflized peoples
562
GEM
as amulets. The Orphic poem AiBikA, reputed to be of very early
though unknown date, is rich in allusions to the virtues of many
of the gem-stones. Many of the medical and other virtues of
precious stones were evidently attributed to them on the well-
known doctrine of signatures. Thus, the blood-red colour of a
fine jasper suggested that the stone would be useful in haemor-
rhage; a green jasper would bring fertility to the soil, and the
purple wine-colour of amethyst pointed to its value as a pre-
ventive of intoxication. Many of the superstitions came down
to modern times, and even at the present day the belief in " lucky
stones " is bj
Bibliocra -atones is
Professor M; ed. wilh
additions, by s Ooo-O.
Less detailed tnnkundc
(1887) and P ■ Sir A.
H. Church's le to the
collections in >nvcnient
introduction; vs at the
Society of Ai lied with
advantage. I l^r C. F.
Kunx, The Ct standard
authority; ar d others,
published by es in the
Mineral Reso lation on
precious stom Industry
(founded by ¥ e likewise
O. C. Farring :>$). For
optical charac mith, The
Herbert Smith The Gem-
Cutter's Crajl *s Stones
(London, 1908). (K W. R.*)
2. Gems in Art
In art, the word Gem is the general term for precious stones
when engraved with designs, whether adapted for sealing(<r0p<rrts,
sigillum, intaglio), or mainly for artistic effect {imagines cctypae,
cameo). They exist in a very large number of undoubtedly
genuine old examples, extending from the mists of Babylonian
antiquity to the decline of Roman civilization, and again starting
with a new, but less original impulse on the revival of art. Apart
from workmanship they possess the charms of colour deep, rich,
and varied, of material unequalled for its endurance, and of
scarcity, which in many instances has been enhanced by the
remoteness of the lands whence they came or the fortuity of their
occurrence. These qualities united within the small compass of
a gem were precisely such as were required in a seal as a thing
of constant use, so inalienable in its possession as lo become
naturally a personal ornament and an attractive medium of
artistic skill, no less than the centre of traditions or of religious
and legendary associations. As regards the nations of classical
antiquity, all seals are classed as gems, though in many cases the
material is not such as would strictly come under that beading,
and precious stones in the modern sense are hardly known to
occur. On the other hand it must not be supposed that gems
engraved in intaglio were necessarily employed as seals. At all
periods many intaglios are found which could not have been so
employed without great difficulty. In Greece and Rome, within
historic times, gems were worn engraved with designs to show
that the bearer was an adherent of a particular worship, the
follower of a certain philosopher, or the attached subject of an
emperor. I lo we ver, speaking generally, the intaglio engraving is
a means to an end. namely, a seal-impression, while an engraving
in relief is complete in itself.
Methods of Engraving (see abo under Lapidary).—- In gem-
engraving the principal modern implement is a wheel or minute
copper disk, driven in the manner of a lathe, and moistened with
olive oil mixed with emery or diamond dust. There is no dear
proof of the use among the ancients of a wheel mounted lathe-
wise, but we have abundant indicationsof drilling with a revolving
tool, which might be either a tubular drill making a ring-like
depression, a pointed tool making a cup-like sinking, or a small
wheel with a cutting edge, making a boat-shaped depression.
We have one sepulchral monument from Philadelphia show-
ing the tool of an intaglio engraver (daKTvXo*oi\oybdtoi; see
ASkm isch* MitUilungtn da Arch. Inst. xv. p. 333). Un-
fortunately the relief is incomplete, and the published illustra-
tion inadequate. It would seem, however, that a revolving tool
was supported by a kind of mandrel, and actuated in primitive
fashion by a bow. An alternative plan of working was to use a
splinter of diamond set in a handle and applied like a graver.
Both systems are clearly indicated by Pliny, who in one passage
(H.N. xxxvii 60) states that diamond splinters are sought out by
gem engravers and set in iron, and so easily hollow out stone* of
any degree of hardness; while elsewhere (H.N. xxxvii. 200) he
speaks of the special efficacy of the fervor terebrarum, the vehement
action of drills. A third method is also indicated by Pliny (ibid )
when he speaks of the use of a blunted tool, which must have been
moistened and supplied with emery of Naxos.
A four-sided pendant of the Hellenistic period published by
Furtwangler (Ant ike Gem mm, Gesch. p. 40c) shows clearly the
successive stages of the operation. On side a the subject is
slightly sketched in with the diamond point. On side b the
deepest parts of the figure have also been roughly scooped out
with the wheel. On sides c and d the wheel work is fairly com-
plete, but the finer internal work has not been begun.
After the design had been completed the stone must have
received a final polish on its surface, to obliterate any erroneous
strokes of the first sketch; but this process was not carried as far
as in modern work. It is a popular error to suppose that a high
degree of internal polish is a proof of antiquity. If the interior of
the design has a high degree of polish it may be either ancient or
modern, or it may be an ancient stone repolished in modern times.
If it has a matt surface uniformly produced by intention, it is
probably modern. If the design is slightly dimmed and worn or
scratched the stone may be antique, but is not necessarily so,
since modern engravers have observed this peculiarity, and have
imitated it wilh a success which, were there no other grounds of
suspicion, might escape detection.
History.— It has been a subject of controversy whether the
first infancy of the art was passed in Egypt or in Babylonia, but
it seems highly probable that it was developed in Babylonia,
whence at any rate the oldest examples of engraved gems at
present known are obtained. It does not necessarily follow,
however, that Egypt was therefore a pupil. It may well be that
the art was developed independently in the two count ries, although
certain points of possible contact in respect of the forms employed
will be described below in the section dealing with primitive
Egypt.
Babylonia. — At a very remote period the cylindrical form of
stone was introduced and became the approved shape, while the
technical skill of the artist was still slight, and the traces of the
tools employed (drill and pencil point) were still unconcealed.
The cylinder was suspended by a string and used as a seal
Impressions of cylinders are frequent on contract tablets. If one
of the parties cannot use a seal he makes a nail-mark in lieu
thereof, as is recorded in the document.
But from a time that was still comparatively early the en'
gravers could work with considerable skill in the hard stone. In
particular a cylinder may be quoted in the dc Clcrcq Collection
bearing the name of Sargon I. of Agade, who is placed about
3500 B.C. The cylinder is engraved with the king's name and
titles and two symmetrically disposed renderings of Izdubar, wilh
a vase of flowing water giving drink to a bull. l*he whole is
treated in a conventionalized style that indicates long traditions.
An important early cylinder in the British Museum is inscribed
with the name of a viceroy of Ur-Gur, king of Ur (about 2500 B.C.).
The engraving shows Ur-Gur being led into the presence of Sin,
the moon-god.
The cylinder seal was adopted by the Assyrians, and so was
carried on continuously rill the time of the Persian conquest of
Babylon (538 B.C.). Meanwhile, as an alternative form the
conoidal seal, rounded at the top and having a flat base for the
intaglio, came into use beside the cylinder.
In style the Assyrians carried on the Babylonian tradition, but
with no freedom of design. Subjects and treatment became
rigidly conventional.
After the Persian conquest the victors adopted the cylinder
GEM
563
form of the conquered, and continued to use it. A Persian
cylinder seal of Darius (probably about 500 B.C.) in the British
Museum shows the king in his chariot, transfixing a lion with his
arrows, in a palm wood. Above is the winged emblem of the
Persian deity Ahuramazda. The inscription gives the name and
titles of Darius in the Persian, Scythic and Babylonian languages.
The style is accurate and minute. The idea of the lion hunt is
borrowed from the Assyrian monuments, but the engraver has
been careful to make the necessary changes of costume and
treatment. The cylinder was, as might be anticipated, imitated
to a certain extent by peoples of the Eastern world in touch with
Babylonia. It occurs in Armenia, Media andElam. It has been
found in Crete (British School Annual, viiL p. 77) and is frequent
in the early Cypriote deposits. In some instances it has been
found unfinished and therefore must be supposed to be of local
manufacture. Sometimes a direct imitation of cuneiform
characters occurs on the Cypriote cylinders. The same form was
also employed by the Phoenicians (about the 8th century-
7th century b.c). By the Greeks and Etruscans it was used,
b it only rarely, and by way of exception.
Egypt. — We must go back to the remotest periods for the
origin of intaglio engraving in Egypt. Recent discoveries of
tombs of the earliest dynasties at Abydos and Nagada have
thrown much light on the early stages of Egyptian art, and have
revealed the remarkable fact that in Egypt (as in Babylonia) the
cylinder was the earliest form used for the purpose of a seal.
The cylinders that have been found are comparatively few in
number; but a large number of jar-stoppings of clay are pre-
served on which cylinder designs have been rolled off while the
day was still soft. Such early incised cylinders as are extant are
made either of hard wood or (as in an instance in the British
Museum) of stone. The identity of form has been thought to
indicate a connexion with Babylonia, but none can be traced in
the designs of the respective cylinders.
The Egyptians of the earliest dynasties had an admirable
command of hard stones, as shown by their beads and stone
vases, but with the exception of the cylinders quoted they are
not known to have applied their skill to the production of
intaglios. At this early period the scarab (or beetle) was still
unknown as a gem-form. It was only about the time of the
4th dynasty that the scarab (q.v.) was first introduced, and
gradually took the place of the cylinder as the prevailing shape.
The Scarabaeus sacrr (Egyptian, Khcptrcr), rolling its eggs in
a ball of mud, became the accepted emblem of the sun-god, and
so the form had an amulctic value. Scarabs of obsidian and
crystal date back to the 4th dynasty. Others, coarse and
uninscribed. belong to the beginning of the first Theban empire.
After the i8ih dynasty they are counted by thousands. While
the beetle form was naturalistically treated, the flat surface
underneath was well adapted to receive a hieroglyphic sign.
The scarabs, however, are by no means the only product of the
art. We have also figures of all kinds in the round and in
intaglio — statuettes, figures of animals and of deities, and sacred
emblems such as the ankh (or crux ansaia) and the eye. Among
interesting variations from the scarab form is the oblong intaglio
of green jasper in the Louvre (Gazette arch., 1878, p. 41) with a
design on both sides. It represents on the obverse Tethmosis
(Thothmes) II. (1800 B.C.) slaying a lion, and identified by his
cartouche. On the reverse we have the same king drawing his
bow against his enemies from a war chariot. The scarabs of
Egypt though uninteresting in themselves, considered as examples
of engraving, have this accidental importance in the history of
art, that they furnished the Phoenicians with a model which
they were able to improve as regards the intaglio by a more
free spirit of design, gathered partly from Egypt and partly
from Assyria. The scarab thus improved exercised a lasting
influence on the later history, since, as will be seen below, it was
adopted and modified both by Greeks and Etruscans.
Engraved Gems in the BiWe.—While the Phoenicians have left
actual specimens to show with what skill they could adopt the
systems of gem-engraving prevailing at their time in Egypt and
Assyria, the Israelites, on the other bind, have left tweeds to
prove, if not their skill, at least the estimation in which they held
engraved gems. " The sin of Judah is written with a pen of
iron and with the point of a diamond " (Jerem. xviL 1). To
pledge his word Judah gave Tamar his signet, with its cord foe
suspension, and staff (Gen. xxxviii. 18); whence if this passage
be compared with the frequent use of " seal " in a metaphorical
sense in the Bible, and with the usage of the Babylonians of
carrying a seal with an emblem engraved on it recorded by
Herodotus, it may be concluded that among the Israelites also
every man of mark at least wore a signet. Their acquaintance
with the use of seals in Egypt and Assyria is seen in the statement
that Pharaoh gave Joseph his signet ring as a badge of investiture
(Gen. xli. 4a), and that the stone which closed the den of lions
was sealed by Darius with his own signet and with the signet of
his lords (Daniel vi. 17). Then as to the stones which were most
prized, Eaekiel (xxviii. 13), speaking of the prince of Tyre.
mentions " the sardius, the topaz and the diamond, the beryl,
the onyx, and the jasper, the sapphire, the emerald and the
carbuncle," stones which again occur in that most memorable
of records, the description of the breastplate of the high priest
Fig. 1.— Jewish High Priest's Breastplate.
'(Exodus xxviii. 16-21, and xxxix. 8-14). Twelve stones
grouped in four rows, each with three specimens, may be
arranged on a square, so as to have the rows placed either verti-
cally or horizontally. If they are to cover the whole square, then,
unless the gold mounts supplied the necessary compensation,
they must be cut in an oblong form, and if the names engraved
on them are to run lengthwise, as b the manner of Assyrian
cylinders, then the stones, to be legible, must be grouped in four
horizontal rows of three each. There is in fact no reason to
suppose that the gems of the breastplate were in any other form
than that of cylinders such as abounded to the knowledge of
the Israelites, with this possibility, however, that they may
have been cut lengthways into half-cylinders like a fragmentary
one of sard in the British Museum, which has been mounted in
bronze, and, as a remarkable exception, has been set with three
small precious stones now missing. It could not have been a
seal, because of this setting, and because the inscription is not
reversed. The names of the twelve tribes, not their standards,
as has been thought, may have been engraved in this fashion,
just as on the two onyx stones in the preceding verses (Exodus
xxviii. 0-11), where there can be no question but that actual
names were incised. On these two stones the order of the names
was according to primogeniture and this, it is likely, would
apply to the breastplate also. The accompanying diagram will
show how the stones, supposing then to have been cylinders or
htJf<cytinden, mmy have been arrantnd consistently ^tkthn
5 6 +
GEM
descriptions of the Septuagint. In the arrangement of Josephus
(iii. 7. 5) the jasper is made to change places with the sapphire,
the amethyst with the agate, and the onyx with the beryl, while
our version differs partly in the order and partly in the names
of the stones; but probably in all these accounts the names had
in some cases other meanings than those which they now carry.
It must be remembered that we have two series of equivalents,
namely, the Hebrew compared with the Septuagint, and the
Greek words of the Septuagint compared with the modern
names, which in many coses, though derived from the Greek,
have changed their applications. From the fact that to each
tribe was assigned a stone of different colour, it may be taken
that in each case the colour was one which belonged prescriptivcly
to the tribe and was symbolic, as in Assyria, where the seven
planets appropriated each a special colour [see Brandis in
Hermes, 1867, p. 259 scq., and dc Saulcy, Revue archtologique,
1869, ii. p. 91; and compare Revelation xxi. 12, 13, where the
twelve gates, which have the names of the twelve tribes written
upon them, are grouped in four threes, and 19, 20, where the
twelve precious stones of the walls arc given]. The precious
stones which occur among the cylinders of the British Museum
are sard, emerald, lapis lazuli (sapphire of the ancients), agate,
onyx, jasper and rock crystal.
Gem-Engraving in Creek Lands. — Wc must now turn to the his-
tory of gem-engraving in Greek lands. The excavations in Crete in
the first years of the 20th century revealed a previously unknown
culture, which lasted on the lowest computation for more than
two thousand years, and was only interrupted by the national
upheavals which preceded the opening of Greek history proper.
(See Crete; Archaeology; and Aegean Civilization.) Through-
out the whole period the products of the gem-engraver occupy
an important place among the surviving remains. It must suffice,
however, in this place to indicate the chief groups of stones.
The earliest engraved stones of Minoan Crete are three-sided
prism seals, made of a soft steatite, native in S.E. Crete (Journ.
of Hellenic Studies, xvii. p. 328). These are incised with pictorial
signs evidently belonging to a rudimentary hieroglyphic system,
and are dated before 3000 B.C. At a period placed by A. J.
Evans between 2800 and 2200 the method was fully systematized
and employed on the signets, as well as on tablets and other
materials. This development of the hieroglyphic system was
accompanied by an increasing power of working in hard material,
and cornelian and chalcedony superseded soft steatite (Journ.
of Hell. Studies, xvii. p. 334).
Towards 2000 B.C. a highly developed linear form began to
supersede the pictorial signs. It is abundant on the tablets,
but the gems thus inscribed are comparatively rare. The linear
form in turn died out some six hundred years later.
The signs of the pictorial script incised on the gems are re-
presentations of objects, expressed with precision, but giving
little scope for the higher side of the gem-engraver's art.
Simultaneously, however, with the use of the script, a high
degree of skill was acquired by the engravers in rendering animal
and human forms. Scenes occur of ritual observance, hunting,
animal life, and strange compounded forms of demons. The
excavations did not yield a large number of original gems of this
class, but a great number of clay sealings from such signets were
discovered. That they were synchronous with the use of the
forms of script described above is proved by the fact that in the
palace at Cnossus deposits were found, both in the linear and
the hieroglyphic script, scaled with these signets, the seal
impressions being again endorsed in the script {Brit. School
Annual, xi. pp. 56, 62). For a remarkable group of sealings
found at Zakro see Journ. of Hell. Studies, xxii. pU. 6-10. The
finest naturalistic engravings are placed towards the close of the
" ftf id-Minoan " and beginning of the " Latc-Minoan " periods
(about 2300-1800 B.C.). During the progress of the " Late*
Minoan " period the subjects tended to assume a more formal
and heraldic character. The forms of stones in favour were the
disk convex on each side (lenticular or lentoid stones), and during
the " Mid-Minoan " period, elaborate signets in the form of
t fob-seals. Apirt horn the use oi intaglio* for sealing,
the excavations have shown that the Cretan lapidaries were
largely employed in the working of gems for purposes of decora-
tion. Fragments of lapis lazuli and crystal for inlaying (the
crystals having coloured designs on their lower surfaces) were
found in the throne room at Cnossus; the royal gaming-board,
also from the palace at Cnossus, had inlaid crystal disks and
plaques. The workshop of a lapidary, with unfinished works in
marble, steatite, jasper and beryl, was also found within the
precincts of the palace (Brit. School Annual, vii. pp. 20, 77).
Examples were also found of work in relief, substantially antici-
pating the art of cameo-cutting.
The area over which the Cretan influence extended was wide.
Its manifestations in Greek lands proper, first revealed by
Schliemann's excavation of the royal tombs of Mycenae, 'ran
parallel with and outlasted the later
periods of the Cretan culture to which
it stood in close relation (see Aegean
Civilization). Its gems and intaglio
works in gold are known to us from the
finds at Mycenae, and at analogous
sites, such as Memdi, Vaphio and
Ialysus. They have much in com-
mon with the finer class of Cretan
stones already described. The en-
graved gems fall principally into
two groups in respect of form, /« c - ^r" 1 *" 1 jc" 1 " ^*-
namely, the lenticular (or lentoid) Cryaulf rem Ialysus. (BnL
stones already mentioned, and (more
rarely) glandular stones, so called from their resemblance to a
glans or sling bolt. A Cretan fresco shows a figure wearing an
agate lenticular stone suspended from the left wrist. The finer
specimens of the Aegean gems are engraved with the wheel and
the point in hard stones, such as chalcedony, amethyst, sard,
rock-crystal and haematite. A lapidary's workshop similar
to that at Cnossus has been found at Mycenae, with a store of
unused gems, and an unfinished lenticular stone (Epkemeris
ArchaMogikk, 1897, p. 121). The characteristic of the Aegean
engraver is the free expression of living forms. His subjects are
figures of animals, men and demons in combat, and heraldic
compositions recalling the Gate of Lions at Mycenae. It was
almost inevitable that the scarab should be found in the Cretan
and Aegean deposits, but in such cases we have the Egyptian
scarab directly imported, and not, as at a later period. non-
Egyptian adaptations of the form. The
cylinder also (except in Cyprus, the border-
land between cast and west) only occurs as
an importation, and not as a currently
manufactured shape.
The " Island Gems."— The Aegean culture
was swept away probably by that dimly
seen upheaval which separated Mycenaean
from historical Greece, and which is com-
monly known as the Dorian invasion. One
of the few facts which indicate a certain
continuity of tradition in later Greece is this, that we again find
the same characteristic forms, the glandular and lenticular
stones, in the cemeteries, of Mclos and elsewhere. It is only
recently that archaeologists have learnt to distinguish between
the later lenticular and glandular stones " of the Greek Islands,"
as they are commonly called, and those of the Aegean age.
Engravings of the later class arc worked in soft materials only,
such as steatite. They have not the power of expressing action
peculiar to the Aegean artist. In general, the continuity of
tradition between the gems of the Mycenaean and the historical
periods is in respect of shape rat her than of art. The subjects are
for the most part decorative forms (the Gryphon, the winged
Sphinx, the winged horse, &c) in course of development into
characters of Greek myth.
The Phoenicians and the Greeks. —About the end of the 8th
and beginning of the 7th century B.C. the Phoenicians began to
exercise a powerful influence as intermediaries between Egypt
and Assyria and the Mediterranean. Porcelain and other
Fig. x. — Lenticular
Sard Trom Ialysus.
(Brit. Mus.)
GEM
S65
imitations' of Egyptian ornaments, and especially of Egyptian
scarabs, are found in great numbers on such sites as Amathus in
Cyprus, Camirus in Rhodes, in Etruria, and at Tharros in Sardinia.
The Egyptian hieroglyphics are imitated with mistakes, the
figures introduced are stiff and formal, the animals as a rule
heraldic. The scarab form, which in Egypt had had its sacred
significance, was now become nothing more than a convenient
shape for an object of jewelry or for the reverse side of a stone.
It was adopted from the Phoenicians both by Creeks and
Etruscans. By the Greeks, with whom we are at present con-
cerned, its use was occasional, and about 500 B.C. it was super-
seded by the scarabacoid. Under this name two forms, some-
what similar but independent in origin, are usually grouped
without sufficient discrimination. The scarabacoid proper is a
simplification of the scarab, effected by the omission of all details
of the beetle. But many of the stones known as scarabaeoids,
with a flat and oval base and a convex back, arc in respect of
their form probably of North Syrian origin (so Furlwlngler).
The earliest examples of archaic Creek gem-engraving (other
than the later " Island gems " already described) are works of
Ionian art. They show a desire, only limited by imperfect
power of expression, to represent the human figure, though the
particular theme may be a god or other mythical personages.
By the beginning of the 5th century the engravers had reached the
FlG. 4.— Victory. Fio. 5.— Citharirt.
Early Greek Scarab. Early Greek Scar*-
(Brit. Mus.) baeoid. (Brit. Mus.)
Fio. 6>-Head
of Eos. (Brit.
Mus.)
point of full development, and the scarabaeoids of the time
embody its results. As an example of fine scarabaeoids the
Woodhouse intaglio of a seated citharist (fig.5; Cat. of Gems in
Brit, Mus. No. 555) may be quoted as perhaps the very finest
example of Creek gem-engraving that has come down to us. It
would stand early in the 5th century B.C., a date which would
also suit the head of Eos from Ithome in Mcsscnia (fig. 6). The
number, however, of fine scarabaeoids known to us has been
considerably increased in recent years. They are marked by a
broad and simple treatment, which attains a large effect without
excessive minuteness or laboured detail. In these respects the
style has something in common with the reliefs of the 5th century.
Literary History.--* The literary references to the early gem-
engravers are no longer of the same importance as before in view
of the fuller knowledge we possess as to the quality of early gem-
engraving, but it is necessary that they should be taken into
account.
The records of gem-engravers in Greece begin in the island of
Samos, where Mnesarchus, the father of the philosopher Pytha-
goras, earned by his art more of praise than of wealth. " Not to
carry the image of a god on your seal," was a saying of Pytha-
goras; and, whatever his reason for it may have been, It Is
interesting to observe him founding a maxim on his father's
profession of gem-engraving (Diogenes LaSrt. viii. r, 17). From
Samos also came Theodorus, who made for Polycrates the seal of
emerald (Herodotus iii. 41), which, according to the curious
story, was cast in vain into the deep sea on purpose to be lost.
That the design on it was a lyre, as is stated in one authority, 7s
unlikely, at least if we accept Benndorf's ingenious interpretation
of Pliny (Nat. Hist, xxxiv. 83). He has suggested that the
portrait statue of Theodorus made by himself was In all proba-
bility a figure holding In one hand a graving tool, and in the other,
not, as previously supposed, a quadriga so diminutive that a
fly could cover it with its wings, but a scarab with the engraving
of a quadriga on its face {Zeitschriftfilriiedslerrekh. Gym Hasten,
1873, PP- 401-4*1)1 whence it is not unreasonable to conclude
that this scarab in fact represented the famous seal of Polycrates.
Shortly after 600 d.c there was a law of Solon's forbidding en-
gravers to retain impressions of the seals they made, and this date
would fall in roundly with that of Theodorus and Mnesarchus,
as if there had in fact been at that time a special activity and
unusual skill. That t he use of seals had been general long before,
in Cretan and Mycenaean times, we have seen above, and it is
singular to find, as Pliny points out (xxxiii. 4), no direct mention
of seals in Homer, not even in the passage (Iliad, vi. 168) where
Bellerophon himself carries the tablets on which were written the
orders against his life. From the time of Theodorus to that of
Pyrgotcles in the 4th century B.C. is a long blank as to names, but
not altogether as to gems, the production of which may be
judged to have been carried on assiduously from the constant
necessity of seals for every variety of purpose. The references to
them in Aristophanes, for example, and the lists of them in the
ancient inventories of treasures in the Parthenon and the
Asclepieion at Athens confirm this frequent usage during the
period in question. The mention of a public seal for authenti-
cating state documents also becomes frequent in the inscriptions*
In the reign of Alexander the Great we meet the name of Pyr-
gotcles, of whom Pliny records that he was no doubt the most
famous engraver of his time, and that Alexander decreed that
Pyrgoteles alone should engrave his portrait. Nothing else is
known of Pyrgoteles. A portrait of Alexander in the British
Museum (No. 2307), purporting to be signed by him, is palpably
modern.
From literary sources we also learn the names of the engraven
Apollonides, Chronius and Dioscorides, but the date of the last-
mentioned only is certain. He is said to have made an excellent
portrait of Augustus, which was used as a seal by that emperor
in the latter part of his reign and also by his successors. In-
scriptions on extant gems make it probable that Dioscorides was
a native of Aegeae in Cilicia, and that three sons, Hyllos, Hero-
philus and Eutychcs, followed their father's occupation. We
have also a few scattered notices of amateurs and collectors of
gems, but it will be seen that for the whole period of classical
antiquity the literary notices give little aid, and we must return
to the gems.
Early Inscribed Gems.— Various early gems are inscribed with
proper names, which may be supposed to indicate either the
artist or the owner of the gem. In some cases there is no
ambiguity, e.g. on a scarab is inscribed, " I am the seal of Thcrsis.
Do not open me "; and a scarabaeoid (fig. 7) is inscribed, " Syries
made me." But when we have the name alone, the general
principle on which wc must distinguish be-
tween owner and artist is that the name of
the owner is naturally meant to be con-
spicuous (as in a gem in the British Museum
inscribed in large letters with the name "of
Isagor[as]), while the name of an artist is
naturally inconspicuous and subordinate to
the design.
The early engravers known to us by their
signatures are: Syries, who was author of
the modified scarab in the British Museum,
mentioned above, with a satyr's head in place p |C 7 „.Scara-
of the beetle, and a citharist on the base— a baeoid by Syries.
work of the middle of the 6th century ; Semon, (Brit. Mus.j ,
who engraved a black jasper scarab now at
.Berlin, with a nude woman kneeling at a fountain filling her
pitcher, of the close of the 6th century; Epimenes, who was the.
author of an admirable chalcedony scarabaeoid of a nude youth
restraining a spirited horse— formerly in the Tyszkiewic*
Collection, and of about the beginning of the 5th century. But
better known to us than any of these artists is the sth-ccntury
engraver, Dexamenus of Chios, of whose work four examples 1
survive, viz. :—
1 For Nos. 1-4 see FurtwAagler, pL 14; for No*. 3-4 an Evans,
Rmv. arcktolopqu9 % xxxii. (1898) oU 8.
566
GEM
i. A chalcedony scarabaeoid from Greece, in the Fitswilliam
Muaeum at Cambridge, with a lady at her toilet, attended by
her maid. Inscribed AESAMEN02, and with the name of the
lady, MIKH2J.
a. An agate with a stork standing on one leg, inscribed
AESAMENOS simply.
3. A chalcedony with the figure of a stork flying, and inscribed
in two lines, the letters carefully disposed above each other,
AESAMEN02 EI1QIE XIOS.
4. A gem, apparently by the same Dexamenus, is a cornelian
formerly belonging to Admiral Soteriades in Athens, and sub-
sequent ly in the collection of Dr Arthur Evans.
It has a portrait head, bearded and inscribed
AESAMENOS EIIOIE.
The design of a stork flying occurs on an
agate scarab in the British Museum, from the
oldCrachcrode Collection,and therefore beyond
all suspicion of having been copied from the
more recently discovered Kertch gem.
For the period immediately following that
early prime to which the gems above de-
scribed belong, our materials are less copious.
Some of the finest examples are derived from
_ the Greek tombs in the Crimea and South
SardsthcE? Russia - Reckoned among the best of the
b.c (Brit. Mus.) Crimean gems, and that is equivalent to saying
among the best of all gems, are the follow-
ing: (1) a burnt scarabaeoid with an eagle carrying off a
hare; (2) a gem with scarab border and the figure of a
youth seated playing on the trigonon, very much resembling
the Woodhouse intaglio (both engraved, Com pie rendu, 1871,
pi. vi. figs. 16, 17). In these, and in almost all Greek
gems belonging to this period of excellence, the material
is of indifferent quality, consisting of agate, chalcedony or cor-
nelian, just as In the older specimens. Brilliant colour and
translucency are as yet not a necessary element, and accordingly
the design is worked out solely with a view to its own artistic
merit. The scarab tends to die out. The scarabaeoid in its
.turn b abandoned for the simple ring stone. The subjects
chosen take by degrees a different character. Aphrodite (nude),
Fig. 9.— Amethyst Pendant (Brit. Mus.)
Eros, children and women tend to replace the older and severer
themes. The motives of 4th-century sculpture appear by degrees
on the gems.
Etruscan Genu.— At this point it is convenient to discuss the
gem-engraving of the Etruscans, which came into being towards
the close of the archaic period of Greek art. In the early Etruscan
deposits, such as that of the Polledrara tomb in the Brit ish Museum
(towards 600 B.C.), we find nothing except Phoenician imports of
porcelain or stone scarabs, both strongly Egyptian in character.
During the 6th century a few of the semi-Egyptian stones of
Sardinia make their appearance. But In the latter part of the
century these oriental products tend to die out, and we have in
their place the native works of Etruscan artists. These engrav-
ings stand in the closest relation to Greek works of the close of
the 6th century and many imported Greek scarabs also occur.
The Etruscan scarab has its beetle form more minutely
engraved than that of the Greeks. It is further distinguished
in the better examples, alike from the Greek and the Egyptian
form, by a small border of a sort of petal ornament round the
lower edge of the beetle. Like the earlier Greek scarabs it has
the cable border round the design, but the border continued b
use in Etruria when it had been abandoned in Greece. The
scarabaeoid form does not occur in Etruscan deposits. Etmscan
engraving begins when Greek art was approaching maturity,
with studies, sometimes stiff and cramped, of the heroic nude
form. Some of the Greek deities such as Athena and Hermes
occur, together with the winged personages of Greek mythology.
To the heroic types the names of Greek legend are attached, with
modifications of form, such as TTTE for Tydcus, and KAIINE
for Capaneus. Sometimes the names are appropriate and some-
times they are assigned at random. The subjects include certain
favourite incidents in the Trojan and Theban cycles (e.g. the
death of Capaneus); myths of Heracles; athletes, horsemen, a
few scenes of dairy life. Certain schemes of composition are
frequent. In particular, a figure too large for the field, standing
and bending over, is made to serve for many types. The engrav-
ing of the finer Etruscan gems is minute and precise, marked with
elegance and command of the material. Its fault is its want of
original inspiration. Special mention must be made of a very
numerous group of cornelian scarabs, roughly engraved for the
most part with cup-shaped sinkings (whence they are known as
gems a globolo tondo) roughly joined together by furrows. Not-
withstanding their apparent rudeness, these gems are shown,
by the conditions in which, they are found, to be comparatively
late works of the 4th century. Furtw&ngler ingeniously suggests
that the rough execution was intended to emphasize the shining
surfaces of the cup-sinkings, rather than to produce any particular
intaglio subject. (For an elaborate classification of the Etruscan
scarabs see Furtwangler, Cesckickte, p. 170.)
The Cameos. — After the beginning of the regal period, in the
4th century B.C., the introduction of more splendid materials
from the East was turned to good account by the development
of the cameo, i.e. of gem-carving in relief (for the origin of the
word see Cameo). But in Its simpler forms the principle of the
cameo necessarily dates from the beginning of the art. Thus a
Hon in rock-crystal was found in the very early royal tomb of
Nagada (de Morgan, Rtehtrckes, Tombeau de Ncgadah, p. 193).
The Egyptian scarab, on its rounded side, had been naturalisli-
cally carved in relief in beetle form. Steatite engravings in
relief (notably the harvest festival vase from Hagia Triadt)
were found in the Cretan deposits. Subjects are found carved in
the round in hard stone in Mycenaean graves. When we come
to historical Greece and to Etruria the cameo of later times is
anticipated by various attempts to modify the traditional form
of the scarab. An example in cornelian was found at Orvieto in*
1874 in a tomb along with vases dating from the beginning of
the 5th century B.C., and it will be seen from the engraving of
this gem (Arch. Zeit , 1877, pi. xi. fig. 3) that, while the design
on the face is in intaglio, the half-length figure of a Gorgon on
the back is engraved in relief. Compare a cornelian fragment,
apparently cut from the back of a scarabaeoid, now in the British
Museum. As further examples of the same rare form of cameo,
the following gems in the British Museum may be mentioned:—
(1) a cornelian cut from back of a scarabaeoid, with head of
Gorgon surrounded by wings; (2) cornelian scarabaeoid:
Gorgon running to left; on face of the gem an intaglio of Thetis
giving armour to Achilles; (3) steatite scarabaeoid, already
mentioned, signed by Syries, head of a satyr, full face, with
intaglio of citharisL There is, however, no evidence at present
available to show that the cameo proper bad been introduced
in Greece before the time of Alexander. The earliest examples
found in known conditions are derived from Crimean tombs of
the middle of the 3rd century B.C.
Among the most splendid of ancient cameos are those at St
Petersburg and Vienna, each representing a monarch of tho
Diadochi and his consort (Furtwangler, pi. 53). There is much
controversy as to the persons represented, but the cameos are
probably works of the 3rd century.
The materials which ancient artists used for cutting into
cameos were chiefly those siliceous minerals which, under a
variety of names, present various strata or bands of two or more
distinct colours. The minerals, under different
GEM
567
essentially the chalcedonic variety of quarts, and the differences
of colour they present art due to the presence of variable pro-
portions of iron and other foreign ingredients. These banded
stones, when cut parallel to the layers of different colours, and
when only two coloured bands — white and black, or sometimes
white and black and brown— art present, are known as onyxes;
but when they have with the onyx bands layers of cornelian or
sard, they arc termed sardenyxes. The sardonyx, which was the
favourite stone of ancient cameo-engravers, and the material in
which their masterpieces were cut, was procured from India, and
the increased intercourse with the East after the death of
Alexander the Great had a marked influence on the development
of the art.
Akin in their nature to the great regal cameos, which from the
nature of the case are cut on a nearly plane surface, are the cups
and vases cut out of a homogeneous stone and therefore capable of
being worked in the round. A few examples of such works survive.
The most famous are the Famesc Taxza and the cup of the
Ptolemies. The Tazza, which is now in the National M useum at
Naples, was bought by Lorenzo dc' Medici from Pope Paul II. in
I47i> It is a Urge shallow bowl of sardonyx, 8 in. in diameter
On its exterior surface is a Gorgoneion upon an aegis; in the
interior is an allegorical design, relating to the Nile flood. The
cup of the Ptolemies, formerly known as the cup of St Denis, is
preserved in the Cabinet des Medaillcsof the French Ribliotheque
Nationale. It is a cup 4} in. high and 5 J in. in diameter, carved
out of oriental sardonyx, and richly decorated With Dionysiac
emblems and attributes in relief.
Tlit Cameo in the Roman Empire. — During the 1st century of
the empire the engraver's art alike in cameo and in intaglio was
at a high degree of excellence. The artist in cameo look full
advantage of his rich opportunities in the way of sumptuous
materials, and of the requirements of an imperial court. The two
most famous examples of this art which have come down to the
present day are the Great Agate of the Sainte Chapelle in the
Bibliothcquc Nationale, Paris, and the Augustus Cameo in the
Vienna Collection. The former was pledged among other valuables
in 1244 by Baldwin II. of Constantinople to Saint Louis. It is
mentioned in 1344 as " Le Camahieu,"
having been sent in that year to Rome
for the inspection of Pope Clement VI.
It is a sardonyx of five layers of ir-
regular shape, like all classical gems,
measuring 12 in. by 10) in. It repre-
sents on its upper part the deified
members of the Julian house. The
centre is occupied with the reception
Fie. 10 — Artacon Frag- of Germanicus on his return from his
ment of Sardonyx Cameo, great German campaign by the em-
(Brit. Mus.) pcror Tiberius and his mother Liria.
The lower division is filled with a
group of captives in attitudes expressive of woe and deep
dejection. The Vienna gem (Gemma augnstea), an onyx of
two layers measuring Sj in. by 7I, is a work of still greater
artistic interest. The upper portion is occupied with an
allegorical representation of the coronation of Augustus, the
emperor being represented as Jupiter with Livia as the god-
dess Roma at his side. In the composition deities of Earth
and Sea, and several members of the family of Augustus, are
introduced; on the exergue or lower portion are Roman soldiers
preparing a trophy, barbarian captives and female figures.
This gem was in the 15th century at the abbey of St Sernin at
Toulouse. According to tradition it had been placed there by
Charlemagne. It came into the possession of the emperor
Rudolph II. in the i6th century for the enormous sum of 12,000
gold ducats. The principal cameo in the collection of the British
Museum was acquired at the final dispersion of the Marlborough
Collection in 1809. It is a sardonyx measuring 8} in. by 6 in.,
and appears to represent a Roman emperor and empress in the
forms of Serapis and His. Here also, in imperial times as in the
Hellenistic period, side by side with the great cameos, we meet
with works carved out In the round. Noted examples of such
work are the Brunswick vase Cat Brunswick), with the subject
of Triptolemus; the Berlin vase with the lustration of a new-bora
imperial prince; and the Waddcsdon vase in the British Museum,
with a vine in relief set in a rich enamelled Renaissance mount.
Hardly less precious than the cameos in sardonyx were the
imitations carved out of coloured glass The material was not
costly, but its extreme fragility made the work of extreme
difficulty. Examples of such work are the Barberinl or Portland
vase, deposited in the British Museum, with scenes supposed to bt
connected with the story of Peleus and Thetis; and the " vase of
blue glass " from Pompeii, in the museum at Naples (see Mau and
Kelsey, p. 408). The world's great cameos,, which are hardly
more than a dozen in number, have not been found by excavation.
They remained as precious objects in imperial and ecclesiastical
treasuries and passed thence to the royal and national collections
of modern Europe.
The Intaglio in tmt Roman Empire.*— Tht art of engraving la
intaglio was also at a high level of excellence in the beginning of
the Roman empire. This is to be inferred alike from the admir*
able portraits of the xst century a.d., and from the number of
signed gems bearing Roman artists' names, such as Aulut,
Gnaius and the like, which could hardiy belong to any other
period. It is impossible, however, to found any argument upon
the artists' signatures without taking into account the intricate
questions of authenticity which are discussed in the following
section.
Signed Gems.— The number of gems which have, or purport to
have, the name ot the artist inscribed upon them is very large.
A great many of the supposed signatures are modern forgeries,
dating from the period between 1724 (when the book of Stosch,
Gemmae antiquae coclatae, scalptorum nominibus insigtiitae,
first drew general attention to the subject) and 1833, when the
multitude of forged signatures (about 1800 in number) in the coU
lection of Prince Poniatowski made the whole pursuit ridiculous.
It is known, however, that forged signatures were current before
17 24 (see Stosch, p. xxL), and in the period immediately following
they were very numerous. Thus Laurence Natter (Milkodt de
graver en pierrcs fines (1754)1 p. xx*-) confesses that, whenever
desired, he made copies. For example, he copied a Venus (Brit.
Mus. No. 2206), converting the figure into a Dana? and affixing
the name of Autos which he found on the Venus. Cf. Mariette,
Traitt (1750), i. p. 101.
The question which of the multitude of supposed signatures;
can be accepted as genuine has been a subject of prolonged and
intricate controversy. In the period immediately following the
Poniatowski forgeries the extreme height of scepticism is repre-
sented by Kochler. who only acknowledged five gems (Koehlcr,
Hi. p. 206) as having genuine signatures. In recent years the
subject has been principally dealt with by Furtwangler, whose
conclusion is to admit a considerable number of gems rejected
by his predecessors.
It must suffice here to point out a few general principles.
In the first place a certain number of gems recently discovered
have inscriptions which are undoubtedly genuine and which
record the names of the engravers. The form of the signature
may be a nominative with a verb, a nominative without a verb
or a genitive. The artists in this class arc Syncs, Dcxamenus,
Epimcnes and Semon, mentioned above, and a few others.
Another group of gems which must be accepted consists of stones
whose known history goes back to a period at which a forged
inscription was impossible. Thus a bust of Athena in the Berlin
Collection, signed by Eutyches, was seen by Cyriac of Ancona in
1445. A glass cameo signed by Hcrophilus, son of Dioscoridcs,
now at Vienna, was, in the 17th century, in the monastery of
Echternach, where it had probably been from old times. The
portrait of Julia, daughter of Titus, by Euodos (now in the Biblio-
theque Nationale) was formerly a part of a reliquary presented to
the abbey of St Denis by Charles the Bold. Another group of
undoubtedly genuine signatures occurs on cameos (in stone and
paste) which have the inscriptions in relief, and therefore as part
of the original design. Such are the works of Atbenion, and of
Quintus, ton of Alcxas.
568
GEM
For the great majority of signed genu which do not Call into
these categories the reader must refer to the discussions of
Furtw&ngler and others (see Bibliography below). It must
suffice to say that Furtw&ngtar arrives at the result that we have
in all genuine signatures of at least fifty ancient gem-engravers.
Gem-Engraving in the Later Empire.— In the following centuries
the art of intaglio engraving, which was still at a high degree of
perfection in the first century of the Roman empire, became
more mechanical. The designs have a very characteristic ap-
pearance, due to the method of production with rough and hasty
Strokes of the wheel only. A collection of gems found in England,
such as that in the possession of the corporation of Bath, shows
the feeble character in particular of the gems current in the
provinces. Except in portraiture, and in grylli or conceits, in
which various things are combined into one, often with much
skill, the subjects were as a rule only variations or adaptations
of old types banded down from the Creeks. When new and
distinctly Roman subjects occur, such as the finding of the bead
on the Capitol, or Faustulus, or the she-wolf with the twins,
both the stones and the workmanship are poor. In such cases,
where the design stirs a genuine national interest, it may happen
that very little of artistic rendering will be acceptable rather than
otherwise, and much more is this true when the design is a symbol
of some article of faith, as in the carry Christian gems. There
both the art and the material are at what may be called the lowest
level. The usual subjects on the early Christian gems are the
fish, anchor, .ship, dove, the good shepherd, and, according to
Fio. ii.— Chris- Fig. 12.— Gnostic Fie. 13.— Satwmun
tian Gem. The Good Gem. (Brit. M us.) Gem. (6rit. Mus.)
Shcpherd.(Brit.Mus.)
Clemens, the lyre. Under the Gnostics, however, with whom
there was more of speculation than of faith, symbolism was
developed to an extent which no art could realize without the
aid of writing. A gem was to them a talisman more or less
elaborate with long, but for the most part quite unintelligible,
engraved formulae. The difficulty is to make out how the stones
were carried; many fpedmens exist, but none show signs of
mounting. The materials are usually haematite or jasper. As
regards the designs, it is clear that Egyptian sources have been
most drawn upon. But the symbolism is also largely associated
with Mithraic worship. The name Abraxas, or more correctly
Abrasax, which, from its frequency on these gems, has led to
their being called also " Abraxas gems," is, when the Greek
letters of which it is composed are treated as Greek numerals,
equal to 36s, the number of days in a year, and the same is the
case with MEIQPA2.
More interesting, from the occasionally forcible portraiture
and the splendour of some of the jacinths employed, are the
Sassanian gems, which as a class may be said to represent the
last stage of true gem-engraving in ancient times.
The art of cameo-engraving, which, as we have seen, attained
Its greatest splendour at the beginning of the empire, followed on
the whole a similar course. It waned in the early part of the
3rd century after the death of the emperor Scverus, but under
the first Christian emperor Constant inc it enjoyed a brief period
of revival Fine cameo portraits of Constantine arc extant;
and it was during or shortly after his reign that Christian
Scripture subjects began to appear on cameos. That class of
subjects constituted the staple of such work— generally rude
and artistically debased— as continued to be cultivated under the
Byzantine empire down to nearly the epoch of the Renaissance.
From the Byzantine period downwanl one peculiarly of gem-
engraving becomes noticeable. Cameo-work as compared with
intaglios in classical times was rare and infrequent, but now and
onwards the opposite b the case, intaglio-sinking having almost
died out, and cameos being chiefly produced. Commercial
intercourse with the East still secured for the engravers a supply
of magnificent sardonyxes, although blood-stone and other
non-banded stones were very commonly used for works in relief.
Cameos during the long dark ages were used chiefly for the decora-
tion of reliquaries and other altar furniture, and as such their
designs were purely ecclesiastical or scriptural. To this period
also belongs the class of complimentary or motto cameos, which,
containing only inscriptions and an ornamental border, executed
in nicolo stones, were used as personal gifts and adornments.
In medieval times antique cameos were held in peculiar venera-
tion on account of the belief, then universal, in their potency
as medicinal charms. This power was supposed to be derived
from their origin, of which two theories, equally satisfactory,
were current. By the one they were held to be the work of the
children of Israel during their sojourn in the wilderness (hence
the name Puna <f Israel), while the other theory held them to
be direct products of nature, the engraved figures pointing to
the peculiar virtue lodged in them. Interpreters less mystically
inclined found Biblical interpretations for the subjects. Thus
the cameo of the Sainte Chapclle was supposed to represent the
triumph of Joseph in Egypt. A cameo with Poseidon, Athena
and her serpent was Adam and Eve.
The revival of the glyptic arts in western Europe dates from
the pontificate of the Venetian Paul II. (1464-147 1), himself
an ardent lover and collector of gems, to which passion, indeed,
it is gravely affirmed he was a martyr, having died of a cold
caught by the multiplicity of gems exposed on his fingers. The
cameos of the early part of the 16th century rival in beauty of
execution the finest classical works, and, indeed, many of them
pass in the cabinets of collectors for genuine antiques, which
they closely imitated. The Oriental sardonyx was not available
for the purposes of the Renaissance artists, who were conse-
quently obliged to content themselves with the colder German
agate onyx. The scarcity of worthy materials, led them to use
the backs of ancient cameos, or to improve on classical works of
inferior value executed on good material, and probably to this
cause must also be assigned the development of shell cameos,
which are rarely found, of an older period.
Among the means of distinguishing antique cameos from
cinquecenlo work, the kind of stone is one of the best tests, the
classical artists having used only rich and warm-tinted Oriental
stones, which further are frequently drilled through their dia-
meter with a minute hole, from having been used by their original
Oriental possessors in the form of beads. The cinquecenlo artists
also, as a rule, worked their subjects in high relief, and resorted
to undercutting, no case of which is found in the flat low work
of classical times. The projecting portions of antique work
exhibit a dull chalky appearance, which,
however, fabricators learned to imitate
in various ways, one of which was by
cramming the gizzards of turkey fowls
with the gems. Another index of an-
tiquity is found in the different methods
of working adopted in classical and
Renaissance times. The tools employed
by the Renaissance engraver were the
drill and the wheel, while the ancient
artist also employed the diamond point.
The gem-engraver's art again during
the 18th century revived under an even-
greater amount of encouragement from
men of wealth and rank. In this last „. vfc. MiT-. !?* x 7
period the names of engravers who Vkhkr ' < Bnt - Mu »->
succeeded best in imitating classical designs were Natter,
Pichlcr (fig. 14), and the Englishmen Marchant (fig. 15) and
Burch. Compared with Greek gems, it will be seen that what
GEM, ARTIFICIAL
Flo. 15.— Nereid and Sea-bull by
Marchant. (Brit. Mus.)
at first sight is attractive as refined and delicate is after all an
exaggerated minuteness of execution, entirely devoid of the
ancient spirit. The success with which modern engravers imposed
on collectors is recorded in many instances, of which one may be
taken as an instructive
type. In the Biblio-
theque Nationale is a
gem (ChabouiUet's cata-
logue, No. 2337), famil-
iarly known as the
signet of Michelangelo,
the subject being a
Bacchanalian scene. So
much did he admire it,
the story says, that he
copied from it one of the groups in his paintings in the Sistine
chapel. The gem, however, is evidently in this part of it a mere
copy from Michelangelo's group, and therefore a subsequent
production, probably by da Pescia.
In our own day the engraving of cameos has practically ceased
to be pursued as an art. Roman manufacturers cut stones in
large quantities to be used as shirt-studs and for setting in finger-
rings; and in Home and Paris an extensive trade is carried on in
the cutting of shell cameos, which are largely imported into
England and mounted as brooches by Birmingham jewelry
manufacturers. The principal shell used is the large bull's-
mouth shell (Cassis rufa), found in East Indian seas, which has
a sard-like underlayer. The black helmet (Cassis luberosa) of
the West Indian seas, the horned helmet (C. cornuta) of Mada-
gascar, and the pinky queen's conch (Slrombtts gigas) of the
West Indies are also employed. The famous potter Josiah
Wedgwood introduced a method of making imitations of cameos
in pottery by producing white figures on a coloured ground,
this constituting the peculiarity of what is now known as
Wedgwood ware.
Gem Collectors.— The habit of gem-collecting is recorded first
in the instance of Ismenias, a musician of Cyprus, who appears
to have lived in the 4th century B.C. But though individual
collectors are not again mentioned till the time of Mithradates,
whose cabinet was carried off to Rome by Pompey, still it is to
be inferred that they existed, if not pretty generally, yet in such
places as Cyrene, where the passion for gems was so great that
the thriftiest person owned one worth xo minas, and where,
according to Aelian (Var. hist. jai. 30), the skill in engraving
was astonishing. The first cabinet (dactyl iothcea) in Rome was
that of Scaurus, a stepson of Sulla. Caesar is said to have formed
six cabinets for public exhibition, and from the time of Augustus
all men of refinement were supposed to be judges both of the art
and of the quality of the stones.
In the middle ages the chief collections were incorporated in
works of art in the church treasuries. The first collector of
modern times was, as already mentioned, Pope Paul II., who was
followed by a long succession of princely and noble collectors such
as Lorenzo dc* Medici and the great earl of Arundel. The col-
lection of the latter passed Into the hands of the dukes of Marl-
borough and thence into the possession of Mr David Bromilow.
The collection was finally dispersed by auction in June 1800.
In modern times the principal collections arc contained in state
museums. The cabinets of Vienna and of the Bibh'othc'quc
Nationale are incomparably rich in the historic cameos. Those
of the British Museum and of Berlin are the strongest in their
range over the whole field of the gem-engraver's art.
Bibliography. — For the fullest general account of the subject
(with especial attention to the genu of classical antiquity) sec A.
KurtwJnglcr, Die ami ken Gemmen, Gesckichte der Slcinschneiderkunsi
im kiassischen Altcrlum, in 3 vols (1900). Sec also E. Babclon, La
Gravure en pier res fines, catnies cl intailles (1894); A. H. Smith,
" Gemma " and " Sculptura," in the 3rd edition of Smith's Diet, oj
Antiquilifi; J. H. Midiilcton. The Engraved Gems pf Classical Times
(1891). Much curious information is in the works of C. W. King:
Handbook of Engraved Gems (1866); Antique Gems (1866): 7*4
Natural Hitfory. Ancient and Modern, of Precious Stones and Gems\
and oj the Precious Metals (1865); Autigue Gtms and Rings fr vols.,
if*?
S69
igravees
1886).
'etrie, "Royal
ind, XVI nth
9; Amelineau,
rendu, pp. 78.
gs' Did. of Ike
m, with three
irew and other
ct, Dc Voguft,
132. pis. 14-ifc
\c Studies, xiv*
» and onwards.
wMeuna, s.v.
lignaturc*, set
it/ den Namen
hani, vol. iil.
Ober einigo
tburg, 1851JJ
• a ftV +H-037;
888), pp. 105,
snach, Pierre*
nodern public
\buug der go-
luseum, A. H.
\iuseum (DepU
Bibliothequt
pierres gravest
Catalogue da
1, 1792); con-
L p. 105. The
of present-day
\nes . . . apud
tmae antiquae
irdam, 1724);
Saren de Stoseh
Alteu (1856) j
le older work*,
ritdiices, avec
iur pastes from
1 A Descriptm
fed Gems . . .
f Baron Mun-
.;A.H.Sm.)
ns " does not
atlon by artl-
he product is
with the one
m posit ion the
in. Could we
coal or lamp-
evaporation of
out, it would
amond. This
duct would be
it products of
rnt thing from
ws. Here the
r glass having
t wanting the
have actually
al means, and
one-fiftieth of
soning leading
ing to warrant
akc diamonds
le exception of
. The nearest
iy in 1880 and
t been verified
he probability
was in reality
570
GEM, ARTIFICIAL
Attempts have been* made by two methods to make carbon
crystallize in the transparent form. One is to crystallize it slowly
from a solution in which it has been, dissolved. The difficulty is
to find a solvent. Many organic and some inorganic bodies hold
carbon so loosely combined that it can be separated out under the
influence of chemical action, heat or electricity, but invariably
the carbon assumes the black amorphous form. The other
method is to try to fuse the carbon by fierce heat, when from
analogy it is argued that on cooling it will solidify to a dear limpid
crystal. The progress of science in other directions has now
made it pretty certain that the true mode of making diamond
artificially is by a combination of these two methods. Until
recently it was assumed that carbon was non-volatile at any
attainable temperature, but it is now known that at a tempera-
ture of about 3600 C. it volatilizes readily, passing without
liquefying directly from the solid to the gaseous slate. Very few
bodies act in this manner, the great majority when heated at
atmospheric pressure to a sufficient temperature passing through
the intermediate condition of liquidity. Some few, however,
which when heated at atmospheric pressure do not liquefy, when
heated at higher pressures in closed vessels obey the common rule
and first become liquid and then volatilize. Sir James Dewar
found the critical pressure of carbon to be about 15 tons on the
sq. in.; that Is to "say, if heated to its critical temperature (3600
G), and at the same time subjected to a pressure of 15 tons to
the sq. in., it will assume the liquid form. Enormous as such
pressures and temperatures may appear to be, they have been
exceeded in some of Sir Andrew Noble's and Sir F. Abel's re-
searches; in their investigations on the gases from gunpowder
and cordite fired in closed steel chambers, these chemists ob-
tained pressures as great as 95 tons to the sq. in., and temperatures
as high as 4000° C Here then, if the observations are correct,
we have sufficient temperature and enough pressure to liquefy
carbon; and, were there only sufficient time for these to act on
the carbon, there is little doubt that the artificial formation of
diamonds would soon pass from the microscopic stage to a scale
more likely to satisfy the requirements of science, if not those
of personal adornment.
It has long been known that the metal iron m a molten state
dissolves carbon and deposits it on cooling as black opaque
graphite. Moissan carried out a laborious and systematic series
of experiments on the solubility of carbon in iron and other
metals, and came to the conclusion that whereas at ordinary
pressures the carbon separates from the solidifying iron in the
form of graphite, if the pressure be greatly increased the carbon
on separation will form liquid drops, which on solidifying will
assume the crystalline shape and become true diamond. Many
other metals dissolve carbon, but molten iron has been found to
be the best solvent. The quantity entering into solution increases
with the temperature of the metaL But temperature alone is not
enough ; pressure must be superadded. Here Moissan ingeniously
made use of a property which molten iron possesses in common
with some few other liquids— water, for instance— of increasing
in volume in the act of passing from the liquid to the solid state.
Pure iron is mixed with carbon obtained from the calcination of
sugar, and the whole is rapidly heated in a carbon crucible in an
electric furnace, using a current of 700 amperes and 40 volts. The
Iron melts like wax and saturates itself with carbon. After a few
minutes' heating to a temperature above 4000° Cr-a tempera-
ture at which the lime furnace begins to melt and the iron
volatilizes in clouds— the dazzling, fiery crucible is lifted out and
plunged beneath the surface of cold water, where it is held till it
sinks below a red heat. The sudden cooling solidifies the outer
akin of molten metal and holds the inner liquid mass in an iron
grip. The expansion of the inner liquid on solidifying produces
enormous pressure, and under this stress the dissolved carbon
Separates out in a hard, transparent, dense form — in fact, as
diamond. The succeeding operations are long and tedious.
The metallic ingot is attacked with hot aqua regia till no iron is
left undissolved. The bulky residue consists chiefly of graphite,
together with translucent flakes of chestnut-coloured carbon,
hsrd bUck opaque carbon of a density oi from j-o to 3*5, black
diamonds— carbonado, in fact— and a small quantity of trans-
parent colourless diamonds showing crystalline structure.
Besides these there may be corundum and carbide of silicon,
arising from impurities in the materials employed. Heating
with strong sulphuric acid, with hydrofluoric acid, with nitric
acid and potassium chlorate, and fusing with potassium fluoride-
operations repeated over and over again — at last eliminate the
graphite and impurities and leave the true diamond untouched.
The precious residue on microscopic examination shows many
pieces of black diamond, and other colourless transparent pieces,
some amorphous, others crystalline. Although many fragments
of crystals are seen, the writer has scarcely ever met with a
complete crystal. All appear broken up, as if, on being liberated
from the intense pressure under which they were formed, they
burst asunder. Direct evidence of this phenomenon has been
seen. A very fine piece of diamond, prepared in the way just
described and carefully mounted on a microscopic slide, exploded
during the night and covered the slide with fragments. This
bursting paroxysm is not unknown at the Kimberley mines.
Sir William Crookcs in 1006 communicated to the Royal
Society a paper on a new formation of diamond. Sir Andrew
Noble has shown that in the explosion of cordite in closed steel
cylinders pressures of over 50 tons to the sq. in. and a temperature
probably reaching 5400 were obtained. Here then we have
conditions favourable for the liquefaction of carbon, and if the
time of explosion were sufficient to allow the reactions to take
place we should expect to get liquid carbon solidified in the
crystalline state. Experiment proved the truth of these anticipa-
tions. Working with specially prepared explosive containing a
little excess of carbon Sir Andrew Noble collected the residue
left in the steel cylinder. This residue was submitted by Sir
William Crookcs to the lengthy operations already described
in the account of H. Moissan 's fused iron experiment. Finally,
minute crystals were obtained which showed octahedral planes
with dark boundaries due to high refracting index. The position
and angles of their faces, and cleavages, the absence of bi-
refringence, and their high refractive index all showed that the
crystals were true diamond.
The artificial diamonds, so far, have not been larger than
microscopic specimens, and none has measured more than about
half a millimetre across. That, however, is quite enough to show
the correctness of the train of reasoning leading up to the achieve-
ment, and there is no reason to doubt that, working on a larger
scale, larger diamonds will result. Diamonds so made burn in
the air when heated to a high temperature, with formation of
carbonic acid; and in lustre, crystalline form, optical properties,
density and hardness, they are identical with the natural stone.
It having been shown that diamond is formed by the separation
of carbon from molten iron under pressure, it became of interest
to see if in some large metallurgical operations similar conditions
might not prevail. A special form of steel is made at some
large establishments by cooling the molten metal under intense
hydraulic pressure. In some samples of the steel so made
Professor Rosel, of the university of Bern, has found microscopic
diamonds. The higher the temperature at which the steel has
been melted the more diamonds it contains, and it has even been
suggested that the hardness of steel in some measure may be
due to the carbon distributed throughout its mass being in this
adamantine form. The largest artificial diamond yet formed
was found in a block of steel and slag from a furnace in Luxem-
bourg; it is clear and crystalline, and measures about one-fiftieth
of an inch across.
A striking confirmation of the theory that natural diamonds
have been produced from their solution in masses of molten
iron, the metal from which has gradually oxidized and been
washed away under cycles of atmospheric influences, is afforded
by the occurrence of diamonds in a meteorite. On a broad open
plain in Arizona, over an area of about 5 ra. in diameter, lie
scattered thousands of masses of metallic iron, the fragments
varying in weight from half a ton to a fraction of an ounce. There
is little doubt that these fragments formed part of a meteoric
shower, although no record exists as to when the fall took place.
GEM, ARTIFICIAL
57»
Near the centre, where most of the fragments have been found,
is a crater with raised edges, three-quarters of a mile in diameter
and 600 ft. deep, bearing just the appearance which would be
produced had a mighty mass of iron — a falling star — struck the
ground, scattered it in all directions, and buried itself deeply
under the surface, fragments eroded from the surface forming
the pieces now met with. Altogether ten tons of this iron have
been collected, and specimens of the Canyon Diablo meteorite
are in most collectors' cabinets. Dr A. E. Foote, a mineralogist,
when cutting a section of this meteorite, found the tools injured
by something vastly harder than metallic iron, and an emery
wheel used for grinding it was ruined. He attacked the specimen
chemically, and soon afterwards announced to the scientific
world that the Canyon Diablo meteorite contained diamonds,
both black and transparent. This startling discovery was
subsequently verified by Professors C Friedcl and H. Moissan,
and also by Sir W. Crookes.
The Ruby*— It is evident that of the other precious stones only
the most prised are worth producing artificially. Apart from
their inferior hardness and colour, the demand for what are
known as "semi-precious stones" would not pay for the
necessarily great expenses of the factory. Moreover, were it to
be known that they were being produced artificially the demand —
never very great — would almost cease. The only other gems,
therefore, which need be mentioned in connexion with their
artificial formation arc those of the corundum or sapphire class,
which include all the most highly prized gems, rivalling, and
sometimes exceeding, the diamond in value. Here a remarkable
and little-known fact deserves notice. Excepting the diamond
and sapphire, each of the precious stones— the emerald, the
topas and amethyst — possesses a more noble, a harder, and
more highly-prized counterpart of itself, alike in colour, but
superior in brilliancy and hardness; still more strange, the
precious stone to which its special name is usually attached
is the variety the least prized. The ruby itself might almost
be included in the same category. The true ruby consists of
the earth alumina, in a dear, crystalline form, having a minute
quantity of the clement chromium as the colouring matter. It
is often called the " Oriental Ruby," or red sapphire, and when
of a paler colour, the " Pink Sapphire." But the ruby as met
with in jewellers' shops of inferior standing is usually no true
ruby, but a " spinel ruby " or " balas ruby," sometimes very
beautiful in colour, but softer than the Oriental ruby, and
different in chemical composition, consisting essentially of alumina
and magnesia and a little silica, with the colouring matter
chromium. The colourless basis of the true Oriental precious
stones being taken as crystallized alumina or while sapphire,
when the colouring matter is red the stone is called ruby, when
blue sapphire, when green Oriental emerald, when orange-yellow
Oriental topaz, and when violet Oriental amethyst. Clear,
colourless crystals are known as white sapphire, and arc very
valuable. It is evident, therefore, that whosoever succeeds in
making artificially clear crystals of white sapphire has the
power, by introducing appropriate colouring matter, to make
the Oriental ruby, sapphire, emerald, topaz and amethyst. All
of these stones, even when of small size, are costly and readily
saleable, while when they are of fine quality and large size they
are highly prized, a ruby of fine colour, and free from flaws, a
few carats in weight, being of more value than a diamond of
the same weight.
This being the case, it is not surprising that repeated attempts
have been made to effect the crystallization of alumina. This
is npt a matter of difficulty, but unfortunately the crystals
generally form thin plates, of good colour, but too thin to be
useful as gems. In 1837 M. A. A. Gaudin made true rubies, of
microscopic size, by fusing alum in a carbon crucible at a very
high temperature, and adding a little chromium as colouring
matter. In 1S47 J. J. Ebclmcn produced the white sapphire
and rose-coloured spinel by fusing the constituents at a high
temperature in boracie add. Shortly afterwarda he produced
the ruby by employing borax as tbt solvent. The boradc acid 1
was found to be too volatile to allow the alumina to crystallize, <
but the use of borax made the necessary difference. But it was
not till about the year 1877 that E. Fremy and C. Feil first
published a method whereby it was possible to produce a crys-
tallized alumina from which small stones could be cut. They
first formed lead aluminate by the fusion together of lead oxide
and alumina. This was kept In a state of fusion in a fireclay
crucible (in the composition of which silica enters largely).
Under the influence of the high temperature the silica of the
crucible gradually decomposes the lead aluminate, forming lead
silicate, which remains in the liquid state, and alumina, which
crystallizes as white sapphire. By the admixture of * or 3%
of a chromium compound with original materials the resulting
white sapphire became ruby. More recently Edmond Fremy
and A. Verneuil obtained artificial rubies by reacting St a red
heat wfth barium fluoride on amorphous alumina containing
a small quantity of chromium. The rubies obtained in this
manner are thus described by Fremy and Verneuil: "Their
crystalline form h regular; their lustre is adamantine; they
present the beautiful colour of the ruby; they are perfectly
transparent, have the hardness of the ruby, and easily scratch
topaz. They resemble the natural ruby in becoming dark when
heated, resuming their rose-colour on cooling." Des Cloizeaux
says of them that " under the microscope some of the crystals
show bubbles. In converging polarized light the coloured rings
and the negative black cross are of a remarkable regularity.**
Other experimentalists have attacked the problem in other
directions. Besides those already mentioned, L. Eisner, H.H De
Scnarmont, Saintc-Gaire Deville, and H Caron and H. Debray
have succeeded with more or less success in producing rubies.
The general plan adopted has been to form a mixture of salts
fusible at a red heat, forming a liquid in which alumina will
dissolve. Alumina Is now added till the fused mass will take up
no -more, and the crurible is left in the furnace for a long time,
sometimes extending over weeks. The solvent slowly volatilizes,
and the alumina Is deposited in crystals, coloured by whatever
colouring oxide has been added.
Mention has been made above of a stone frequently substituted
for the true ruby, called the " spinel " or " balas" ruby. The
spinel and ruDy occur together in nature, stones from Burma
being as often spinel as true Oriental ruby. In the artificial
production of the ruby It sometimes happens that spinel crystal-
lizes out when true Oriental ruby is expected. The fusion bath
is so arranged that only red-coloured alumina shall crystallize out,
but it is difficult to have all the materials of such purity as to
ensure the complete absence of silica and magnesia. In this
case, when these impurities have accumulated to a certain point
they unite with the alumina, and spinel then separates, as it
crystallizes more easily than ruby. When all the magnesia and
silica have been eliminated in this way the bath resumes its
deposition of crystalline ruby. Rubies of fine colour and of
considerable size have been shown in London, made on the
Continent by a secret process. The writer has seen several cot
stones so made weighing over a carat each, the uncut crystals
measuring half an inch along a crystal edge, and weighing over
70 grains, and a clear plate of ruby cut from a single crystal
weighing over 10 grains. Ruby has been made by Sir W.
Roberts- Austen as a by-product in the production of metallic
chromium. Oxide of chromium and aluminium powder are
intimately mixed together in a refractory crucible, and the
mixture is ignited at the upper part. The aluminium and
chromium oxide react with evolution of so much heat that the
reduced chromium is melted. Such is the intensity of the reaction
that the resulting alumina Is also completely fused, floating as a
liquid on the molten chromium. Sometimes the alumina fakes
up the right amount or chromium to enable it to assume the ruby
colour. On cooling the melted alumina crystallizes In, large
flakes, which on examination by transmitted light are seen to be
true ruby. The development of the red colour is said by C.
Greville- Williams only to take place at a white heat. It is not due
to the presence of chromic add, but to a reaction between alumina
and chromic oxide, which requires an elevated temperature.
Artifidally made but real rubles have been put on the market;
572
GEMBLOUX— GEMINIANI
prepared by a process of fusion by A. Verncuil. He finds that
certain conditions have to be fulfilled in order to get the alumina in
a transparent form. The temperature must not be higher than is
absolutely necessary for fusion. The melted product must always
be in the same part of the oxyhydrogen flame, and the point of
contact between the melted product and the support should be
reduced to as small an area as possible. M. Verncuil uses a
vertical blowpipe flame directed on a support capable of move-
ment up and down by means of a screw, so that the fused product
may be removed from the zone of fusion as it gets higher by
.addition of fresh material. The material employed is either
composed of small, valueless rubies, or alumina coloured with the
right amount of chromium. It is very finely powdered and fed in
through the blowpipe orifice, whence it is blown in a highly
heated condition into the zone of fusion. The support is a small
cylinder of alumina placed in the axis of the blowpipe. As the
operation proceeds the fine grains of powder driven on to the
support in the zone of fusion form a cone which gradually rises
and broadens out until it becomes of sufficient size to be used for
cutting. Rubies prepared in this way have the same specific
gravity and hardness as the natural ruby, and they are also
dichroic, and in the vacuum tube under the influence of the
cathode stream they phosphoresce with a discontinuous spectrum
•bowing the strong alumina line in the red. When properly cut
and mounted it is almost impossible to distinguish them from
natural stones.
The Sapphire .— Auguste Daubrec has shown that when a full'
quantity of chromium is added to the bath from which white
sapphire crystallizes the colour is that of ruby, but when much
less chromium is added the colour is blue, forming the true
Oriental sapphire. The real colouring matter of the Oriental
sapphire is not definitely known, some chemists considering it to
be chromium and others cobalt. Artificial sapphires have been
made of a fair size and perfectly transparent by the addition
of cobalt to the igneous bath of alumina, but the writer does
not consider them equal in colour to true Oriental sapphire.
The Oriental Emerald. — The stone known as emerald consists
chemically of silica, alumina and glucina. Like the ruby, it owes
its colour to chromium, but in a different state of oxidation. As
already mentioned, there is another stone which consists of
.crystallized alumina coloured with chromium, but holding the
chromium in a different state of oxidation. This is called the
Oriental emerald, and, owing to its beauty of colour, its hardness
and rarity, it is more highly prized than the emerald itself and
commands higher prices. The Oriental emerald has been
produced artificially in the same way as the ruby, by adding a
larger amount of chromium to the alumina bath and regulating
the temperature.
The Oriental A mdkysl.— The amethyst Is rock crystal (quartz)
of a bluish-violet colour. It is one of the least valuable of the
precious stones. The sapphire, however, is found occasionally of
a beautiful violet colour; it is then called the Oriental amethyst,
. and, on account of its beauty and rarity, is of great value. It is
evident that if to the igneous bath of alumina some colouring
matter, such as manganese, is added capable of communicating
• violet colour to the crystals of alumina, the Oriental amethyst
will be the result. Oriental amethyst has been so formed artifici-
ally, but the stone being known only as a curiosity to mineralogists
and experts in precious stones, and the public not being able to
discriminate between the violet sapphire and amethystine quartz,
there is no demand for the artificial stone.
The Oriental Topaz.— The topaz is what is called a semi-
precious stone. It occurs of many colours, from clear white to
pink, orange, yellow and pale green. The usual colour is from
straw-yellow to sherry colour. The exact composition of the
colouring matter is not known; it is not entirely of mineral
origin, as it changes colour and sometimes fades altogether on
exposure to light. Chemically the topaz consists of alumina,
silica and fluorine. It is not so hard as the sapphire. There is
also a yellow variety of quartz, which is sometimes called " fabe
topaz." The Oriental topaz, on the other hand, is a precious
•tone of great value. It consists of clear crystalline sapphire
coloured with a small quantity of ferric oxide. It has been
produced artificially by adding iron instead of chromium to the
matrix from which the white sapphire crystallizes.
The Zircon.— Tht zircon is a very beautiful stone, varying in
colour, like the topaz, from red and yellow to green and blue.
It is sometimes met with colourless, and such arc its refractive
powers and brilliancy that it has been mistaken for diamond.
It is a compound of silica and zirconia. H. Sainte-Claire Deville
formed the zircon artificially by passing silicon fluoride at a red
heat over the oxide zirconia in a porcelain tube. Octahedral
crystals of zircon are then produced, which have the same
crystalline form, appearance and optical qualities as the natural
zircon.
Bibliography.— Sir William Crookcs, " A New Formation of
Diamond." Proe. Roy. Soc. vol. Ixxvi. p. 458; " Diamond*." a
lecture delivered before the British Association at Kimbcrley,
South Africa, 5th September, 1905. Chemical News, vol. xcil. pp.
i£5i 147. 159; J- J- Ebelmen, ''Sur la production artificiellc des
pauTcs durcs, Comptes rendus, vol. xxv. p. 279; " Sur unc nouvelle
mlthodc pour obtcnir, par la voie scene, des combinations crystal-
Usees, et sur scs applications a la reproduction de plusieurs especes
minlrales," Comptes rendus, vol. xxv. p. 661 ; Edmond Frfcmy and
C Feil, " Sur ta production artificiellc du corindon, du rubis, et de
different* silicates crystallisoes," Comptes rendu*, vol. Ixxxv. p.
1029 ; C. Fricdel, " Sur lexistence du diamant dans le fer metcoriqne
de Canon Diablo," Comptes rendus, vol. cxv. p. 1037, vol. cxvi
p. 290; H. Moissan, "£tude de la meteorite de Canon Diablo,"
Comptes rendus, vol. cxvi. p. 288; " Experiences sur la reproduction
du diamant," Comptes rendus, vol. cxviii. p. 320: " Sur quctques
experiences relatives a la preparation du diamant, Comptes rendus,
vol. cxxiiL p. 206; Le Pour etectrique (Paris, 1897); H. Sainte-Claire
Deville and H. Caron, " Sur un nouvcau mode de production a
l'ctat cristaltis6d'un certain nombrc d'especes chimiques et minera-
logiquca," Comptes rendus. vol. xlvt p. 764: A. Verncuil, " Pro-
duction artificiclle des rubis par fusion," ibid. vol. exxxv. p. 791;
J. Boyer, La Synthase des pierres prtcieuses (Paris, 1909). (W. C.)
GEMBLOUX, a town In the province of Namur and on the
borders of Brabant, Belgium, 25 m. S.E. of Brussels on the main
line to Namur and Luxemburg. Pop. (1904) 4643. It is a busy
place with large railway and engine works, and the junction for
several branch lines. On the 31st of January 1578 Don John
of Austria gained here a signal victory over the army of the
provinces led by Antony de Goignies.
GEMINI (" The Twins," i.e. Castor and Pollux), in astronomy,
the third sign in the zodiac, denoted by the symbol II. It is
also a constellation, mentioned by Eudoxus (4th century B.C.)
and Aratus (3rd century B.C.), and catalogued by Ptolemy, 25
stars, Tycho Brahe 25, and Hevelius 38. By the Egyptians this
constellation was symbolized as a couple of young kids; the
Greeks altered this symbol to two children, variously said to be
Castor and Pollux, Hercules and Apollo, or Triptolemus and
Iasion; the Arabians used the symbol of a pair of peacocks.
Interesting objects in this constellation are: « Geminorum or
Castor, a very fine double star of magnitudes 2*0 and s-8, the
fainter component is a spectroscopic binary; 1? Ceminorum, a
long period (231 days) variable, the extreme range in magnitude
being 3-2 to 4; f Geminorum, a short period variable, 10-25 days,
the extreme range in magnitude being 3-7 to 4-5; Now
Geminorum, a " new " star discovered in 1003 by H. H. Tamer
of Oxford; and the star duster M.35 Geminorum, a fine and
bright, but loose, cluster, with very little central condensation.
GEMINIANI, FRANCESCO (c. 1680-1762), Italian violinist,
was born at Lucca about 1680. He received lessons in music
from Alessandro Scarlatti, and studied the violin under Lunati
(Gobbo) and afterwards under Corelli. In 1714 he arrived in
London, where he was taken under the special protection of the
earl of Essex, and made a living by teaching and writing musk.
In 1 7x5 he played his violin concertos with Handel at the English
court. After visiting Paris and residing there for some time,
he returned to England in 1755. In 1761 he went to Dublin,
where a servant robbed him of a musical manuscript on which
he had bestowed much time and labour. His vexation at this
loss is said to have hastened his death on the 17th of September
1762. He appears to have been a first-rate violinist, but most
of his compositions are dry and deficient in melody. His Art
of Ploying lee Violin is a good work of it* kind, but his Cnida
GEMISTUS PLETHO— GENEALOGY
573
armonica is an inferior production. He published a number of
solos for the violin, three sets of violin concertos, twelve violin
trios, The Art oj Accompaniment on the Harpsichord, Organ, &c.,
Lessons for the Harpsichord and some other works.
GBMISTUS PLETHO [or Plethon), OEORQIUS (c. 1355-1450),
Greek Platonic philosopher and scholar, one of the chief
pioneers of the revival of learning in Western Europe, was
a Bytantine by birth who settled at Mistra in the Peloponncse,
the site of ancient Sparta. He changed his name from
Gemistus to the equivalent Flctho (" the full "), perhaps
owing to the similarity of sound between that name and
that of his master Plato. He invented a religious system
founded on the speculative mysticism of the Ncoplatonists, and
founded a sect, the members of which believed that the new
creed would supersede all existing forms of belief. But he is
chiefly memorable for having introduced Tlato to the Western
world. This took place upon his visit to Florence in 1439, as
one of the deputies from Constantinople on occasion of the general
council. Cardinal Bcssarion became his disciple; he produced
a great impression upon Cosimo dc' Medici; and though not
himself making any very important contribution to the study
of Plato, be effectually shook the exclusive domination which
Aristotle had exercised overEuropcan thought for eight centuries.
He promoted the union of the Greek and Latin Churches as far
as possible, but his efforts in this direction bore no permanent
fruit. He probably died before the capture of Constantinople.
The most important of his published works arc treatises on the
distinction between Plato and Aristotle as philosophers (published
at Venice in 1540); on the religion of Zoroaster (Paris, 1538);
on the condition of the Peloponncse (cd. A. EUisscn in Analektcn
der mittcl- und neugriechischen Liter alur, iv.) ; and the N£/jc4 (cd.
C. Alexandre, Paris, 1858). In addition to these he compiled
several volumes of excerpts from ancient authors, and wrote a
number of works on geography, music and other subjects, many
of which still exist in MS. in various European libraries.
\U der Philosophic der Renais-
ds, The Renaissance in Italy
'zantine Reformer," in Journal
on Plctho's scheme of political
^ as tct forth in the pamphlets
and his son Theodore, despot
und Pletho (1844). Most of
Mignc, Patrotona Graeca, clx. ;
iotkeca Craeca (ed. Harks), xii.
GEHMI PASS, a pass (7641 ft.) leading from Frutigcn in the
Swiss canton of Bern to Lcukcrbad in the Swiss canton of the
Valais. It is much frequented by travellers in summer. From
Kandersteg (7} m. by road above Frutigcn, which is xa m. by
rail fiom Spies on the Bernc-Intcrlaken line) a mule path leads
to the summit of the pass, passing over the Spitalmattc plain,
where in 178a and again in 1895 a great avalanche fell from the
Allels (11,930 ft.) to the S.E., causing on both occasions great
loss of life and property. The mule path descends on the south
side of the pass by an extraordinary scries of zigzags, made
accessible for mules (though no rider is now allowed to descend
on mule-back) by a band of Tirolese workmen in 1740-1741.
They are cut in a very steep wall of rock, about 1800 ft. in height,
and lead down to the village of Lcukerbad, which is 9 J m. by
carriage road past Leuk above the Susten station in the Rhone
valley and on the Simplon line. (W. A. B. C)
GENDARMERIE, originally a' body of troops in France
composed of gendarmes or men-at-arms. In the days of chivalry,
they were mounted and armed cap-a-pie, exactly as were the
lords and knights, with whom they constituted the most important
part of an army. They were attended each by five soldiers of
inferior rank and more lightly armed. In the later middlcages
the men-at-arms were furnished by owners of fiefs. But after
the Hundred Years* War this feudal gendarmerie was replaced
by the compagnics oVordonnance which Charles VII. formed when
the English were driven out of France, and which were distributed
throughout the whole extent of the kingdom for preserving order
and maintaining the king's authority. These companies, fifteen
to Bomber, were composed of ico lances or gendarmes iully
equipped, each of whom was attended by at least three archers,
one coutiUier (soldier armed with a cutlass) and one farlet (soldier's
servant). The states-general of Orleans (1439) had voted a
yearly subsidy of 1, 200,000 livres in perpetuity to keep up this
national soldiery, which replaced, and in fact was recruited
chiefly amongst, tht bands of mercenaries who for about a
century had made France their prey. The number and com-
position of the compagnies d'ordottnance were changed more than
once before the reign of Louis XIV. This sovereign on his
accession to the throne found only eight companies of gendarmes
surviving out of an original total of more than one hundred, but
after the victory of Flcurus (1690), which had been decided by
their courage, he increased their number to sixteen. The four
first companies (which were practically guard troops) were
designated by the names of Gendarmes icossais, Gendarmes
anglais, Gendarmes bourguignons and Gendarmes fiamands, from
the nationality of the soldiers who had originally composed them;
but at that time they consisted entirely of French soldiers and
officers. These four companies had a captain-general, who was
the king. The fifth company was that of the queen; and the
others bore the name of the princes who respectively commanded
them. This organization was dissolved in 1788. The Revolution
swept away all these institutions of the monarchy, and, with
the exception of a short revival of the Gendarmes de la garde at
the Restoration, henceforward the word "gendarmerie"
possesses an altogether different significance— viz. military
police.
GENEALOGY (from the Gr. yhot, family, and XAyot,
theory), a pedigree or list of ancestors, or the study of family
history.
1. Biblical Genealogies. — The aims and methods of ancient
genealogists require to be carefully considered before the value
of the numerous ancestral lists in the Bible can be properly
estimated. Many of the old " genealogies," like those of Greece,
have arisen from the desire to explain the origin of the various
groups which they include. Information relating to the sub-
division of tribes, their relation to each other, the intermingling
of populations and the like are thus frequently represented in
the form of genealogies. The " sons " of a " father " often stand
merely for the branches of a family as they existed at some one
period, and since in course of time tribal relations would vary,
lists which have originated at different periods will present
discrepancies. It is obvious that many of the Biblical names are
nothing more than personifications of nations, tribes, towns,
&c, which are grouped together to convey some idea of the bond
by which they were believed to be connected.
For the personification of a people or tribe, cp. Gen. xxxiv. 30
(" Jacob said ... I am a few men "), Josh. xvii. 14 (" the children
of Joseph said ... I am a numerous people "}, Ex. xiv. 25 (^ Egypt
The interpretation of ethnological or statistical genealogies
inayeasfly be pushed too far. Every case has to be Judged open
574
GENEALOGY
its own merits, and due allowance must be made both for the
ambition of the weaker to claim or to strengthen an alliance with
the stronger, and for the not unnatural desire of clans or indi-
viduals to magnify the "greatness of their ancestry. The first
step must always be the careful comparison of related lists in
order to test the consistency of the tradition. Next, these must
be critically studied in the light of all available historical material,
though indeed such evidence is not necessarily conclusive.
Finally, (a) literary criticism must be employed to determine if
possible the dates of such lists, since obviously a contemporary
register is more trustworthy lhan one which is centuries later; (6)
a critical estimate of the character of the names and of their use
in various periods of Old Testament history is' of importance in
estimating the antiquity of the list 1 — for example, many of the
names in Chronicles attributed to the time of David are indubit-
ably exilic or post-exilic; and (c) principles of ordinary historical
probability are as necessary here as in dealing with the genealogies
of other ancient peoples, and attention must be paid to such
features as fluctuation in the number of links, representation of
theories inconsistent with the growth of national life, schemes of
relationship not in accordance with sociological conditions, &c.
The Biblical genealogies commence with " the generations of
the heaven and earth," and by a process of elimination pass from
Adam and Eve by successive steps to Jacob and to his sons
(the tribes), and finally to the subdivisions of each tribe (cp.
I Chron. i.-ix. i). According to this theory every Israelite could
trace back his descent to Jacob, the common father of the whole
nation (Josh. vii. 17 seq., x Sam. x. 21). Such a scheme, however,
is full of manifest improbabilities. It demands that every tribe
and every clan should have been a homogeneous group whidi had
preserved its unity from the earliest times, that family records
extending back for several centuries were In existence, and that
inch a tribe as Simeon was able to maintain its independence in
spite of the tradition that it lost its autonomy in very early
times (Gen. xlix. 7). The whole conception of the unity of
the tribes cannot be referred to a date previous to the time
of David, and in the older writings a David or a Jeroboam
was sufficiently described as the son of Jesse or of Ncbat. The
genealogical real as represented in the Old Testament is chiefly of
niter growth, and the exceptions are due to interpolation (Josh,
vii. x 18, contrast v. 24), or to the desire to modify or qualify an
older notice. This, in the case of Saul (x Sam. ix. x), has led to
textual corruption; a list of such a length as his should have
reached back to one of the " sons " of Benjamin (cf . e.g. Gen.
xlvi. 21), else it were purposeless. The genealogies, too, are often
inconsistent amongst themselves and in contradiction to their
object. They show, for example, that the population of southern
Judah, so far from being "Israelite" was half-Edomite (see
Judah), and several of the clans in this district bear names
which indicate their original affinity with Midian or Edom.
Moreover, there was a free intermixture of races, and many cities
had a Canaanite (i.e. pre-Israelite) population which must have
been gradually absorbed by the Israelites (cf. Judg. {.). That
spirit of religious exciusiveness which marked later Judaism did
not become prominent before the Dcutcronomic reformation (sec
Deuteronomy), and it is under its influence that the writings
begin to emphasize the importance of maintaining the purity of
Israelite blood, although by this time the fusion was complete
(see Judg. iii. 6) and for practical purposes a distinction between
Canaanltes and Israelites within the borders of Palestine could
1 G. B. Gray's Hebrew Proper Names (1806), with bis article in
the Expositor (Sept. 1897). pp. 173-190* should be consulted for the
Application and range of Hebrew names in O.T.
;). It has been urged that (A) and («*) stood upon a lower
the rest, or were of later origin; or that Bilbah point*
an associated with Reuben (Gen. xxxv. 22) or Edom
n. xxxvi. 27), whilst Zilpah represents an Aramaean
dition may have combined distinct schemes, and the
[he wives were Aramaean at least coincides with the
: that Aramaean elements predominated in certain of
ribes. The numlwr " twelve " is artificial and can be
\y by counting Manasseh and Ephraim as one or. by
'i, ami a careful study of Old Testament history makes it
mcult to recover the tribes as historical units. See. on
, the articles on the several tribes, B. Luther, Zeit. d.
ns. (1901), pp. I sqq.; G. B. Gray, Expoiitor (March
25-240, and in Ency. Bib., art. "Tribes "; and H. \V.
lugh treatment of the tribes in the last-mentioned work.
of purity of descent shows itself conspicuously in
)cutcronomic1aw(Deut.vii. i-3,xxiii. j-8), and in the
lebcmiah and Ezra (Ezr. ix. 1-4, xi sqq.; Nch. xiii.
desire to prove the continuity of the race, enforced
rience of the exile, gave the impetus to genealogical
my of the extant lists proceed from this age when the
:al succession of names was a memory of the past.
1 with special force to the lists in Chronicles which
hed schemes of the Levitical divisions by the side of
npts, with consequent confusion and contradiction,
i mediate ancestors of Ethan appear in the time of
Chron. xxix. 12), but he with Asaiah and Hcman are
ries of David, and their genealogies from Levi down-
tin a very unequal number of Links (1 Chron. vi.).
Application of genealogical method the account of the
of priests and Levites by David (x Chron. xxiv.)
ly names which belong solely to post-exilic days, thus
hat the scribes desired to show that the honourable
Lheir time were not unknown centuries previously,
we find the results of much skill and labour, often in
with definite theories, but a thorough investigation
r weakness and often quite incidentally furnishes
dence of another nature.
Kcessive
t of the
fchen all
o which
luthun).
cd sense
t porta nt
the two
lite elan
nongihc
icnt, re*
There
r) and of
cv. 5-10,
we have
Libnah)
imbcr of
nging to
with the
azarfep.
a ciass-
tnncctcd
included
ml that
for example, obviously a southerner, should have been
t as a Lcvite, and the work ascribed by the chroniclers
te closing years of David's life may be influenced liy
that it was through him these mixed populations first
ortancc Sec further David ; Jews; Levites.
ie of Joscphus every priest was supposed to be able
descent, and perhaps from the time of Ezra down-
were carefully kept. But when Anna is called an
ike ii. 36), or Paul a Benjamite (Rom. xi. x), family
5 probably the sole support to the ckim, although the
; had not become entirely extinct. The genealogies of
d to two of the gospels are intended to prove that He
f David. But not that alone, for in Matt. i. he is
to Abraham the father of the Jews, whilst in Luke iii.
econd Adam, b traced back to the first man. The
: hopelessly inconsistent; not because one of them
neof Mary, but because they represent independent
rhat in Matthew is characteristically arranged io
GENEALOGY
575
three series of fourteen generations each through the king* of
Judah, whilst Luke's passes through an almost unknown son of
David; in spite of this, however, both converge in the person of
ZerubbabcL
See further, A. C. Hervey, Genealogies of Our Lord; H. von Soden,
Ency. Bib. ii. coL 1666 sqq.; B. W. Bacon, Hastings' DicL Bib. ii.
Marriage (2nd~ed., 'especially en. I). (S.A.C.)
7. Greek and Raman Genealogies. — A passing reference only is
needed to the intricate genealogies of gods and sons of gods
which form so conspicuous a feature in classical literature.* In
every one of the numerous states into which ancient Greece was
divided there were aristocratic families, whose genealogies as a
rule went back to prehistoric times, their first ancestor being
some hero of divine descent, from whom, or from some distin-
guished younger ancestor, they derived their names. Many of
these families were, as families, undoubtedly of great antiquity
even at the beginning of the historical period; and in several
instances they continued to maintain a conspicuous and separate
existence for cent uries. The element of family pride is prominent
fn the poetry of the Megarian Thcoguis; and in an inscription
belonging to the 2nd century B.C. the recipient of certain honours
from the community of Gythium is represented as the thirty-
ninth in direct descent from the Dioscuri and the forty-first from
Heracles. Even in Athens, long after the constitution had
become thoroughly democratic, some of the clans continued to be
known as Eupatridae (of noble family); and Alcibiadcs, for
example, as a member of the phratria of the Eurysacidac, traced
bis origin through many generations to Eqrysaces, who was
represented as having been the first of the Aeacidae to settle in
Attica. The Corinthian Bacchiadae traced their descent back to
Heracles, but took their name from Bacchis, a younger ancestor.
It is very doubtful, however, whether such pedigrees as this were
very seriously put forward by those who claimed them; and it is
certain that, almost along the whole line, they were unsupported
by evidence. 3 We have the authority of Pollux (via. in) for
stating that the Athenian ytvtt, of which there were thirty in each
tpernta, were organized without any exclusive regard being
had to blood-relationship; they were constantly receiving
accessions from without; and the public written registers of
births, adoptions and the like do not appear to have been pre-
served with such care a* would have made it possible to verify a
pedigree for any considerable portion even of the strictly historical
period.'
The great antiquity of the early Roman (patrician) genies, who
universally traced themselves back to illustrious ancestors, is
indisputable; and the rigid cxclusivcness with which each pre-
served its her cd Hales gcnliliciae or sacra geiililicia is sufficiently
illustrated by the fact that towards the dose of the republic
there were not more than fifty patrician families (Dion. Halic. i.
85). Yet even in these it is obvious that, owing to the frequency
of resort to the well-recognized practice of adoption, while there
was every guarantee for the historical identity of the family,
there was none (documents apart) for the personal genealogy of
the individual. There is no evidence that sufficient records of
1 On the subject generally see articles " Gcnos " and " Gens,**
by A. H. Grccniclgc. in Smith's Dictionary of Creek and Roman
Antiquities (trd cd.. 1800), where the chief authorities are given.
' The fondness of Euripides for genealogies is ridiculed by Aris-
tophanes (Acharuians, 47).
* All the earlier Greek historians appear to have constructed their
narratives on a turned genealogical bases. The four books of
Hecatacus of Miletus dealt respectively with the traditions about
Deucalion, about Heracles and the Itcraclidae. about the early
settlements in Peloponnesus, and about those in Asia Minor; he
further made a pedigree for himself, in which his sixteenth ancestor
wis a god. The works of Hcllanicus of Lesbos bore titles
(AcwaAiunic and the like) which sufficiently explain their nature;
his disciple. Damages of Sig.:um. was the author of genealogical
histories of Trojan heroes; Apollodorus' of Athens made use of three
books of r«r«aXo?i«A by Acusilaus of Argos; Phcrccydcs of Lcros
also wrote yotaXoyl**. See J. A. F. Topffer. Attiseke GeneaUgk
(iMa): also J. H. Schubart. QnmeHL genml. kismricne (1 83*);
G. MafckschcncL, D* feiwa/og»co Craotorum paUi (itfoJ«
pedigree were kept during the earlier centuries of the Roman
commonwealth, although the leading houses drew up genealogical
tables, and their family pedigree was painted on the walls of the
entrance haU. In later times, it is true, even plebeian families
began toesubliah a prescriptive right (known as the;*! imaginum)
to preserve in small wooden shrines in their halls the busts (or
rather, wax portrait masks fastened on to busts) of those of their
members who had attained to curule office, and to exhibit these
in public on-appropriate occasions. Under these imagine*
major um* it became usual to inscribe on the wall their respective
iiiuli, the relationship of each to each being indicated by meant of
connecting lines; and thus arose the stemmata gentiiicia, which
at a later time began to b£ copied into family records. In the
case of plebeian families (whose stemmata in no case went
farther back than. 366 B.C.) these written genealogies were
probably trustworthy enough; but in the case of patrician who
went back to Aeneas,' so much cannot, it is obvious, be said;
and from a comparatively early period it was clearly recognized
that such records lent themselves too readily to the devices of the
falsifier and the forger to deserve confidence or reverence (Pliny,
U.N. xxxv. a; Juv. viii. 1).
Thus, parvenus were known to place the busts of fictitious
ancestors in the shrines and to engage needy literary men to trace
back their descent even to Aeneas himself.
The many and great social changes which marked the closing
centuries of the Western empire almost invariably militated
with great strength against the maintenance of an aristocracy
of birth ; and from the time of Constantine the dignity of patrician
ceased to be hereditary.*
3. Modern.— Two forces have combined to give genealogy
its importance during the period of modern history:, the laws
of inheritance, particularly those which govern the descent of
real estate, and the desire to assert the privileges of a heredftary
aristocracy. But it is long before genealogies are found in the
posscssionof private families. The succession of kingsand princes
are in the chronicle book; the line of the founders and patrons
of abbeys arc recorded by the monks with curious embclhahment
of legend. But the famous suit of Scrope against Grosvenor
will illustrate the late appearance of private genealogies in
England. In 1385 Sir Richard Scrope, lord of Bolton, displaying
his banner in the host that invaded Scotland, found that hit
arms of a golden bend in a blue field were borne by a knight of
the Chester palatinate, one Sir Robert Grosvenor. He carried
the dispute to a court of chivalry, whose decision in his favour
was confirmed on appeal to the king. Grosvenor asserted that
he derived his right from an ancestor, Sir Gilbert Grosvenor,
who had come over with the Conqueror, while an intervening
claimant, a Cornish squire named Thomas Carminowe, boasted
that his own ancestors had borne the like arms since the days of
King Arthur's Round Table. It is remarkable that in support of
the false statements made by the claimants no written genealogy
is produced. The evidence of tombs and monuments and the
reports of ancient men are advanced, but no pedigree is exhibited
in a case which hangs upon genealogy. It is possible that the art
of pedigree-making had its first impulse in England from the
many genealogies constructed to make men familiar with the
claims of Edward III. to the crown of France, a second crop of
such royal pedigrees being raised in later generations during
the contests of York and Lancaster. But it is not until after
the close of the middle ages that genealogies multiply in men's
houses and are collected into volumes. The medieval baron,
knight or squire, although proud of the nobility of his race,
was content to let it rest upon legend handed down the
* The.chief authority
I*. Mornmscn, Rdmischt
* At the funeral of [
kings, of Romulus, of t
" the rest of the Claudia
c The Roman stemm
interest for the older iik
lo J. Glandorp's Desert i
tentis Julme (1576) of I
Eyfa^raMfaNLSee
57^
GENEALOGY
: generations. The exact line of his descent was sought only when
it was demanded for a plea in the king's court* to support his
title to his lands.
From the first the work of the genealogist in England had that
taint of inaccuracy tempered with forgery from which it has
not yet been cleansed. The medieval kings, like the Welsh
gentry of later ages, traced their lines to the household of Eden
garden, while lesser men, even as early as the 14th century,
eagerly asserted their descent from a companion of the Conqueror.
Yet beside these false imaginations we find the law courts,
whose business was often a clash of pedigrees, dealing with
genealogies centuries long which, constructed as it would seem
from worthy evidences, will often bear the test of modern
criticism.
Genealogies in great plenty are found in manuscripts and
printed volumes from the 16th century onward. Remarkable
among these are the descents recorded in the Visitation Books
of the heralds, who, armed with commissions from the crown,
the first of which was issued in 30 Hen. VIII., perambulated
the English counties, viewing arms and registering pedigrees.
The notes in their register books range from the simple registra-
tion of a man's name and arms to entries of pedigrees many
generations long. To the 1 heralds these visitations were rare
opportunities of obtaining fees from the visited, and the value
of the pedigrees registered is notably unequal. Although it
has always been the boast of the College of Arms that Visitation
records may be produced as evidence in the law courts, few of
these officially recorded genealogies are wholly trustworthy.
Many of the officers of arms who recorded them were, even by
the testimony of their comrades, of indifferent character, and
even when the visiting herald was an honourable man and an
industrious he had little time to spare for the investigation of
any single genealogy. Deeds and evidences in private hands
may have been hastily examined m some instances — indeed, a
herald's summons invites their production — and monuments
were often viewed in the churches, but for the most part men's
memories and the hearsay of the country-side made the backbone
of the pedigree. The further the pedigree is carried beyond the
memory of living men the less trustworthy does it become. The
principal visitations took place in the reigns of Elizabeth, James
I. and Charles II. No commission has been issued since the
accession of William and Mary, but from that time onwards
large numbers of genealogies have been recorded in the registers
of the College of Arms, the modern ones being compiled with a
care which contrasts remarkably with the unsupported state-
ments of the Tudor heralds.
Outside the doors of the College of Arms genealogy has now
been for some centuries a favourite study of antiquaries, whose
researches have been of the utmost value to the historian, the
topographer and the biographer. County histories, following
the example of Dugdale's Warwickshire folios, have given much
space to the elucidation of genealogies and to the amassing of
material from which they may be constructed. Dugdale's
great work on the English baronage heads another host of works
occupied with the genealogy of English noble families, and the
second edition of " G.E.C.'s " Compute Peerage shows the mighty
advance of the modern critical spirit. Nevertheless, the aoth
century has not yet seen the abandoning of all the genealogical
fables nourished by the Elizabethan pedigree-mongers, and the
ancestry of many noble houses as recorded in popular works of
reference is still derived from mythical forefathers. Thus the
dukes of Norfolk, who, by their office of earl marshal are patrons
of the heralds, are provided with a 10th-century Hereward for an
ancestor; the dukes of Bedford, descendants of a 15th-century
burgess of Weymouth, are traced to the knightly house of
Russell of Kingston Russell, and the dukes of Westminster to
the mythical Gilbert le Grosvenor who " came, over in the
train of the Conqueror."
Genealogical research has, however, made great advance
during the last generation. The critical spirit shown in such
worksasRound'sJ/udrttsfi Peerage and Family History (root) has
Msssukd with effective ridicule the methods of dishonest pedigree-
makers. Much raw material of genealogy has been made
available for all by the publication of parish registers, marriage-
licence allegations, monumental inscriptions and the like, and
above all by the mass of evidences contained in the volumes
issued by the Public Record Office.
Within a small space it is impossible to set forth in detail the
methods by which an English genealogy may be traced. But
those who are setting out upon the task may be warned at the
outset to avoid guesswork based upon the possession of a surname
which may be shared by a dozen families between whom is no
tie of kinship. A man whose family name is Howard may be
presumed to descend from an ancestor for whom Howard was
a personal name: it may not be presumed that this ancestor
was he in whom the dukes of Norfolk have their origin. A
genealogy should not be allowed to stray from facts which can
be supported by evidence. A man may know that bis grand-
father was John Stiles who died in 1850 at the age of fifty-five.
It does not follow that this John is identical with the John Stiles
who is found as baptized in 1795 at Blackacre, the son of William
Stiles. But if John the grandfather names in his letters a sister
named Isabel Nokes, while the will of William Stiles gives legacies
to his son and daughter John Stiles and Isabel Nokes, we may,
agree that reasonable proof has been given of the added genera-
tion. A new pedigree should begin with the carefully tested
statements of living members of a family. The next step should
be to collate such family records as bible entries, letters and
diaries, and inscriptions on mourning rings, with monumental
inscriptions of acknowledged members of the family. From
such beginnings the genealogist will continue his search through
the registers of parishes with which the family has been connected;
wills and administrations registered in the various probate courts
form, with parish registers, the backbone of most middle-class
family histories. Court rolls of manors in which members of the
family were tenants give, when existing and accessible, proofs
which may carry back a line, however obscure, through many
descents. When these have been exhausted the records of legal
proceedings, and notably those of the court of chancery, may be
searched. Few English households have been able in the past
to avoid an appeal to the chancery court, and the bill and answer
of a chancery plaintiff and defendant will often tell the story of a
family quarrel in which a score of kinsfolk arc involved, and the
pleadings may contain the material for a family tree of many
branching generations. Coram Rege and De Banco rolls may
even, in the course of a dispute over a knight's fee or a manor
carry a pedigree to the Conquest of England, although such good
fortune can hardly be expected by the searcher out of an un-
distinguished line. In proving a genealogy it must be remembered
that in the descent of an estate in land must be sought the best
evidence for a pedigree.
At the present lime the study of genealogy grows rapidly in
English estimation. It is no less popular in America, where
societies and private persons have of late years published a vast
number of genealogies, many of which combine the results of
laborious research in American records with extravagant and
unfounded claims concerning the European origin of the families
dealt with. A family with the surname of Cuthbert has been
known to hail St Cuthbert of Lindisfarnc as its progenitor, and
one surnamed Ebcrhardt has incorporated in its pedigree such
German princes of old times as were found to have Ebcrhardt
for a Christian name.
Genealogy in modern France has, with a few honourable
exceptions, fallen into the hands of the popular pedigree-makers,
whose concern is to gratify the vanity of their employers. Italy
likewise has not yet shaken off the influence of those venal
genealogists who, three hundred years ago, sold pedigrees cheaply
to all comers. But much laborious genealogical inquiry had
been made in Germany since the days of Hiibncr, and even in
Russia there has been some attempt to apply modern standards
of criticism to the chronicles of the swarming descendants of the
blood of Rurik.
In no way is the gap made by the Dark Ages between ancient
and modem fctaXory mote tnaxksd than by the fact that 00
GENELLI— GENERAL
577
European family makes a serious claim to bridge it with its
genealogy. The unsupported claim of the Roman house of
Massimo to a descent from Fabius Maximus is respectable beside
such legends as that which made Levis- Mirepoix head of the
priestly tribe of Levi, but even the boast of such remote ancestry
has now become rare. The ancient sovereign houses of EuYope
are, for the most part, content to attach themselves to some
ancestor who, when the mist that followed the fall of the Western
empire begins to lift, is seen rallying with his sword some group
of spearmen.
ab
su
no
ft
Pii
G<
A.
o:
Be
Sa
Op
coi
ac
frc
theparicment of Paris and his book suppressed.
Tfte 17th century saw the production in England of Dugdalc's
great Baronage (1675-1676), a work which still holds a respectable
place by reason of its citation of authorities, and of Sandford's
history of the royal house. In the same century Andre* Duchesne,
the historian of the Montmorcncys, Pierre d'llozicr, the chronicler
of the house of La Rochefoucauld, Rittershusius. ImhofT, Spencr,
Lor.t.ieier and many others contribute to the body of continental
genealogies. Pierre de Cuibours, known as Pcre Anaelmc dc Ste
Marie, published in 167^ the first edition of his magnificent Hi slot re
gfntalogiqne de la maison royale de France, des pairs, grands
officiers de la couronne el de la maison dn roy el des anciens oarons
du royaume. Of this encyclopaedic work a third and complete
edition appeared in 17*6-1733. A modern edition under the editor-
ship of M. Potier dc Courcy began to be issued in 1873, but remains
incomplete. Among 18th-century work Tohann Hlibner's Biblio-
tkeca genealogica (1729) and Genealogiscke TaMltn (1725-1733)1
with Lenient commentary on the latter work (e. 1756), may be
signalized, with Gatterer's Handbuck der Genealogie (1761) and his
Abriss der Genealogie (1788), the latter an early manual on the
science of genealogy. Hcrgott's Genealotia diploma tica attgnstae
genlis HabsSurgieae (1737) IS tne imperial genealogy compiled by
the emperor's own historiographer.
Modern peerages in England may be said to date from that of
Arthur Collins, whose one- volume first edition was published in
1709. The fifth edition appeared in 1778, in ciqht volumes, to be
republished in 1812 by Sir Kgerton Brydgcs, the " Baotist Hatton "
of Disraeli's novel, who corrected many legendary pedigree?, besides
inserting his own forged descent from a common ancestor with the
dukes of Chandos. From this work and from the Irish peerage of
Lodge (as re-edited by Archdall) most of the later peerages nave
quarried their material. With these may lie named the baronetages
of Wotton and Betham. Of modern popular peerages and baronet-
ages that of Burke has been published since 1822 in many editions
and now appears yearly. Mo*t important for the historian are the
Complete Peerage of G. E. C(ockaync] (2nd cd., 1910). and the
Complete Baronetage of the same author. The Peerage of Scotland
(1769) of Sir Robert Douglas of (llcnbervic came to a second edition
in 1813, edited by J. P. Wood, and the whole work has been revised
and re-edited by Sir James Balfour Paul (1004. &c). Of the popular
manuals of English untitled families, Burke's Genealogical and
Heraldic Dictionary of tke Commoners (1833-1838) is now brought
up to date from time to time and reissued as the Landed Gentry.
Lists of pedigrees in Knglish printed works arc supplied by Mar-
shall's Genealogist's Guide (1903), while pedigrees in tne manuscript
collections of the British Museum are indexed in the list of R. Sims
terial will be found in such
told and Genealogist, the Tofo-
a topographic* el genealogica,
nd the Ancestor. In Germany
the Berlin Heraldic and Genea-
Leeww is a similar publication
ralogiral methods will be found
'igrre, 2 vols. (I^rndon, 1910),
author. The Harlcian Society
1 Herald's Visitations; and the
is, supplying a key to a vast
marriage licences, are of still
istory of the Counties of England
includes genealogies of the ancient English county families still
"wfore
ikops,
Victor
ubert
1863-
4 the
tftoni
uario
intcr-
rseab
>utch
ussia
is the
royal
with
with
xlern
stoire
el de gtntalogie de tous les Hats dn flobc (1888-1893). The best
manual for the English genealogist is Walter Rye's Records and
Record Searching (1897). wf,ilc an ill-arranged but valuable biblio-
graphy of English and foreign works on the subject is that of George
Gatfidd (1892). (0. Ba.)
GENELLI, GIOVANNI BUONAVENTURA (1798-1868),
German painter, was born at Berlin on the 28th of September
1798. He was the son of Janus Gcnclli, a painter whose land*,
scapes are still preserved in the Schloss at Berlin, and grandson
to Joseph Gcnclli, a Roman embroiderer employed to found a
school of gobelins by Frederick the Great. Buonaventura
Gcnclli first took lessons from his father and then became a
student of the Berlin academy. After serving his time in the
guards he went with a stipend to Rome, where he lived ten years,
a friend and assistant to Koch the landscape painter, a colleague
of the sculptor Ernst Hahnel (1811-1891), Reinhart, Ovcrbcck
and FUhrich, all of whom made a name in art. In 1830 he was
commissioned by Dr H artel to adorn a villa at Leipzig with
frescoes, but quarrelling with this patron he withdrew to Munich/
where he earned a scanty livelihood at first, though he succeeded
at last in acquiring repute as an illustrative and figure draughts-,
man. In 1859 he was appointed a professor at Weimar, where
he died on the 13th of November 1868. Gcnclli painted few
pictures, and it is very rare to find his canvases in public
galleries, but there are six of his compositions in oil in the Schack
collection at Munich. These and numerous water-colours, as
well as designs for engravings and lithographs, reveal an artist
of considerable power whose ideal was the antique, but who
was also fascinated by the works of Michelangelo. Though a
German by birth, his spirit was unlike that of Ovcrbcck or
Fuhrich, whose art was reminiscent of the old masters of their
own country. He seemed to hark back to the land of his fathers
and endeavour to revive the traditions of the Italian Renaissance.
Subtle in thought and powerfully conceived, his composition!
are usually mythological, but full of matter, energetic and fiery
in execution, and marked almost invariably by daring effects of
foreshortening. Impeded by straitened means, the artist seems
frequently to have drawn from imagination rather than from
life, and much of his anatomy of muscle is in consequence
conventional and false. But none the less Genelli merits hit
reputation as a bold and imaginative artist, and his name
deserves to be remembered beyond the narrow limits of the
early schools of Munich and Weimar.
GENERAL (Lat. generalise of or relating to a genus, kind or
class), a term which, from its pointing to all or most of the
members of a class, the whole of an area, &c, as opposed to" par-
ticular " or to " local," is hence used in various shades of meaning,
for that which is prevalent, usual, widespread or miscellaneous,
indefinite, vague. It has been added to the titles of various
officials, military officers and others; thus the head of a religious
order is the " superior-general," more usually the " general/'
and we find the same combination in such offices as that of
"accountant-general," "postmaster-general," "attorney-" or
" solidtoT-gencral/'and many others, the additional word implying
that the official in question is of superior rank, as having a wider
57»
GENERATION— GENESIS
authority or sphere of activity. This is the use that accounts
(or the application of the term, as a substantive, to a military
officer of superior rank, a " general officer," or " general," who
commands or administers bodies of troops larger than a regiment,
or consisting of more than one arm of the service (see also
Officers). It was towatds the end of the 16th century that the
Word began to be used in its present sense as a noun, and in the
armies of the time the "general" was commander-in-chief,
the " lieutenant-general " commander of the horse and second
in command of the army, and the " major-general " (strictly
" sergeant-major-general ") commander of the foot and chief
of the staff. Field marshals, who have now the highest rank,
were formerly subordinate to the general officers. These titles-
general, lieutenant-general and major-general— are still applied
in most armies to the first, second and third grades of general
officer, and in the French service until 1870 the chief of the staff
of the army bore the title of major-general. In the German
and Russian services the three grades are qualified by the addition
of the words " of cavalry," of infantry " and " of artillery."
The French service possesses only two grades, "general of
brigade " and " general of division." The Austrian service has
two ranks of general officers peculiar to itself, "lieutenant
field marshal," equivalent to lieutenant-general, and Fcldzeug-
mcister (master of the ordnance), equivalent to the German
general of infantry or artillery. There is also the rank of
" general of cavalry." The Spanish army still retains the old
term " captain-general." In the German service General
Oberst (colonel-general) and General Feldzeugmeisler (master-
general of ordnance) are ranks intermediate between that of
full general and that of general field marshal. It may be noted
that during the 17th century " general " was not confined to a
commanding officer of an army, and was also equivalent to
"admiral"; thus when under the Protectorate the office of
lord high admiral was put into commission, the three first com-
missioners, Blake, Edward Popham and Richard Deane, were
styled " generals at sea."
GENERATION (from Lat. generate, to beget, procreate; genus,
stock, race), the act of procreation or begetting, hence any one of
the various methods by which plants, animals or substances are
produced. As applied to the result of procreation, " generation "
is used of the offspring of the same parents, taken as one degree
in descent from a common ancestor, or, widely, of the body
of living persons born at or near the same time; thus the word is
also used of the age or period of a generation, usually taken as
about thirty years, or three generations to a century. As a term
in biology or physiology, generation is synonymous with the
Gr. pioykvtatt and the Ger. Zeugung, and may comprehend the
whole history of the first origin and continued reproduction of
Jiving bodies, whether plants or animals; but it is frequently
restricted to the sexual reproduction of animals. The subject
may be divided into the following branches, viz.: (1) the first
origin of life and living beings, (1) non-sexual or agamic repro-
duction, and (3) gamic or sexual reproduction. For the first two
of these topics see Abiootnesw, Biogenesis and Biology; for
the third and more extensive division, including (r) the formation
and fecundation of the ovum, and (2) the development of the em-
bryo in different animals, see Reproduction and Embryology.
GENESIS (Gr. ybeots, becoming; the term being used in
English as a synonym for origin or process of coming into being),
the name of the first book in the Bible, which derives its title
from the Septuagint rendering of ch. ii. 4. It is the first of the
five books (the Pentateuch), or, with the inclusion of Joshua, of
the six (the Hexateuch), which cover the history of the Hebrews
to their occupation of Canaan. The " genesis " of Hebrew
history begins with records of antediluvian times: the creation of
the world, of the first pair of human beings, and the origin of sin
(i.-iii.), the civilization and moral degeneration of mankind, the
history of man to the time of Noah (iv.-vi. 8), the flood (vi.
<Hx.), the confusion of languages and the divisions of the human
race (x.-xi.). Turning next to the descendants of Shem, the book
deals with Abraham (xii.-xxv. 18), Isaac and Jacob (xxv. 10-
xxxv.), the " fathers " of the tribes of Israel, and concludes with
the personal history of Joseph, and the descent of his father
Jacob (or Israel) and his brethren into the land of Egypt
(xxxvh.-l.). The book of Genesis, as a whole, is closely connected
with the subsequent oppression of the sons of Israel, the revelation
of Yahweh the God of their fathers (Ex. iii. 6, 15 seq., vi. 2-8),
the " exodus " of the Israelites to the land promised to their
fathers (Ex. xiii. 5, Deut. i. 8, xxvi. 3 sqq., xxxiv. 4) and its con*
quest (Josh. i. 6, xxiv.); cf. also the summaries Neh. ix~ 7 sqq.,
Pm. cv. 6 sqq.
The. words, " these are the generations of the heavens and of the
earth when they' were created " (ii. 4), introduce an account of the
creation of the world, which, however, is preceded by a lasftsfcl
relatively later and less primitive record (i. a— ii. 3). The '
differences between the two accounts lie partly in the style and
partly in the form and contents of the narratives, i. i-u. 3 is marked
by stereotyped formulae (" and God [Eldtom] said . . . and it
1st rv.
is 00
Num.
of the
same source is lourw in v. 20.
After the birth of
19 sqa.) comes the I
part 01 the account ol
xiii. 33), least of all <
division of the human
The excerpt with its
form a prelude to tl
(vi. 5). Noah, tho f
the hero in the Hcbr
Duplicates (vi. 5-8, <
with vii. 2; or vii. 11
to the use of two sour
later narrative, whk
(vi. 9-22; vii. 6, 11,
ix. 1- 1 7), is almost
length of the flood C
apparently lasted on!
collects seven pairs ol
after leaving the ark, and Yahweh promises not to curse the ground
or to smite living things again. But in the later, he takes only one
pair, and subsequently EJohim blesses Noah and makes a covenant
never again to destroy all flesh by a flood * The covenant (character-
istic of the latest narratives in Genesis) also prohibits the shedding
of blood (cf. the story of Cain and Abel in the earlier source). Man-
kind is now made to descend from the three sons of Noah. The
older story, however, continues with another step in the history of
civilization, and to Noah is ascribed the cult of the vine, the abuse
of which leads to the utterance of a curse upon Canaan and a blessing
upon Shem and Japheth fix. 20-27). The table of nations in x.
(" the generations of the sons of Noah ") preserves several signs of
composite origin (contrast e.g. x. 7 with w. 28 sq., Ludim v. 13 « ilk
v. 22, and the Canaanitc families v. 16 with the dispersion " after-
wards," v. 18, &c); see Canaan; Gekvalogy; Nimroo. The
history of the primitive age concludes with the story of the tower
Kd to
flood
anas
OAB).
rasted
PS?
The
Noah
d the
flood
Noah
rifices
1 The abrupt introduction of a small poem (iv. 23 seq.) was long
' J — J —i to the ' r ~ " • *
1654).
1 The divergences of detail, with corresponding stylistic variations.
ago regarded as due to the use of separate sources (so the Calvinist
Isaac de la Peyrere, 1654).
were recognised long ago («.f . by Father Simon in 168a).
of Babel (xi. i-q). which, starting from a popular etymology of Babe'
(" gate of GodT ), as though from Balbcl {" confusion "J, tells hoi
Yahwch feared lest mankindshoukl become too powerful (cf.iii. 22-24)
and seeks to explain the origin of the numerous languages in use
It is independent of x., which already assumes a confusion of tongue
(w. 5, 20, 31), tbe existence, of Babel (9. 10), and gives a different
account of the rise of the various races. This incident in the journey
eastwards (xi. 2) is equally independent of the story of the Deluge
and of Noah's family (see Wcllhauscn, Prolegomena, p. 316}. Tm
continuation of the chapter, " the generations of Shcm " (xi. 10-27,
see the Sheraite genealogy inx.21 sqq., and contrast the ages witn
vi. 3), is in the same stereotyped style as ch. v., and prepares the
way for the history of the patriarchs.
The " generations of Tcrah " (xi. 27) lead to the introduction d
the first preat patriarch Abraham fa.*.).' There is a twofold account
of his migration to Bethel with his nephew Lot; the more statistical
form in xi. 31 sq., xii. 4b, 5 belongs to the latest source. The state-
ment that the Canaanitc was then in .the land (xii. 6, cf . xiii. 7) points
to a time long after the Israelite conquest, when readers needed
such a reminder (so Hobbes in his Leviathan, 1651). A famine forces
him to descend into Egypt, where a otory of Sarai (here at least 65
years of age; see xii. 4, xvii. 17) is one of three variants of a similar
peculiar incident {cf. xx. 1-17, xxvi. 6-14). The passage is an in-
sertion (xii. 10-xiit. 2; xii. 9, xiii. 3 seq. being harmonistic). The
thread is resumed in the account of the separation of the patriarch
and his nephew Lot, who divide the land between them. Abraham
occupies Canaan, but moves south to Hebron, which, according to
Josh. xiv. IS, was formerly known as Kirjath-Arba. Lot dwells in
the basin of the Jordan, and his history is continued in the •tbry
of the destruction of Sodoin and Gomorrah (xviii.-xix.; Hos. xi. 8,
Deut. xxix. 23 speak of Admah and Zeboim). Lot is saved and
becomes the ancestor of the Moabitcs and Ammonites, who are
thus closely related to the descendants of Abraham (note xix. 37,
"unto this day"). The great war with Amraphcl and Chcdorlaomcr
— the defeat of a world-conquering army by 318 men — with the
episode of Melchizedek, noteworthy; for the reference to Jerusalem
{xiv. 18, cf. Ps. Ixxvi. 2), has nothing in common with the context
(see Abraham ; Melchkf.drk). It treats as individuals the place-
names Mamre and Eshcol (xiv. 13, cf. Num. xiii. 23 seq.), and by
mentioning Dan (v. 14) anticipates the events in Josh. xix. 47, Judg.
xviii. 29." A cycle of narratives deals with the promise that the
barren Sarai (SarahJ should bear a child whose descendants would
inhabit the land of Canaan. The importance of the tradition for the
history of Israel explains both the prominence given to it (cf. already
xii. 7, xiii. 14-17) and their present complicated character (due to
repeated revision). The older narratives comprise (a) the promise
that Abraham shall have a son of his own flesh (xv.) — the account
is composite ;* (M the birth of Ishmacl, Abraham's son by Hagar,
their exile, and Yahwch's promise (xvi., with a separate framework
in w. la, 3, 15 sea.) — before the birth of Isaac; and {c) the promise
of a son to Sarai (xviii. 1-15), now combined with the story of Lot
and the overthrow of Sodom. The latest source (xvii.) is marked
by the solemn covenant between Yahwch and Abraham, the revela-
tion of God Almighty (Kl-Shaddai, cf. Ex. vi. 3), and the institution
of circumcision (otherwise treated in Ex. iv. 26, Josh. v. 2 seq.).
The more elevated character of this source as contrasted with xv.
and xviii. is as striking as the difference of religious tone in the two
accounts of the creation (above). Abraham now travels thence
(xx. 1. Hebron, see xviii. i), and his adventure in the land of Abime-
lech. king of Gcrar (xx.), is a duplicate of xii. (above). It is con-
tinued in xxi. 22-34, which has a close parallel in the life of Isaac
fxxvi., hdow). ls.iac i* born in accordance with the divine promise
(xviii. 10 at Hebron); the scene is the south of Palestine. The
story of the dismissal of Hagar and Ishmael, and the revelation
(xxi. 8-21) cannot be separated from xvi. 4-14. where w». 9 seq. are
intended to harmonize the passages. Although about sixteen years
intervene (see xvi. 16; xxi. 5. 8), Ishmacl is a young child who has
to be carried (xxi. 15), but the Hebrew text of xxi. 14 (not, however,
the Srptuagint) endeavours to remove the discrepancy. 4 " After
these thing* " comes the offering of Isaac which implicitly annuls
the sacrifice of the first-born, a not unfamiliar rite in Palestine as
the denunciations prove (cf. Ezck. xvi. 20 seq., xx. 26; Mic. vi. 7;
Is. lvii. O, ami thus marks an advance, e.g. upon the story of
Jcphthah s daughter (Judj. xi.). The story may be contrasted with
the Phoenician account of the sacrifice by Cronos (to be identified
with El) of his only son, which practically justified the horrid custom.
1 As early as 1685 Jean le Clerc observed that Ur of the Chaldees
(Chasdim) in xi. 28 anticipate* Chesed in xxii. 22, and implied some
knowledge of the land of the Chaldacans (cf . Ezek. i. 3, xi. 24).
'The Catholic prictt Andrew du Maes 057O) already pointed to
the names Hebron and Dan as signs of post-Mosaic date.
* Note the repetitions in w. 2 and 3; Abraham's faith, nr. 4*6,
and his request, v. 8; contrast the time of day, r. 3 and ». 12, and
the dates, t*. 13 and v. 16. In nr. 12-15 there >* a reference to the
bondage in Egypt.
* These and other chronological embarrassments, now rccognued
as doe to the framework of the post-exilic writer (P), have long been
observe d by Spinoza, 1671.
GENESIS 579
of the cave of Machpclah
of great importance for the
te references to the death of
it source (xxiit.xxv. 7-na).*
pposes that Isaac Is sole heir
&it is probable that xxv. 5,
ce. ft is noteworthy that
(xxiv. 4, 7, 10; contrast the
\\ : xv. 7}. In xxv. 1 sqq.
1 Chron. 1. 32 seq.) Keturah
of various Arab tribes, e.g.
x.7).
(xxv. 12 sqq.) the narrative
ixv. 19 sqq.). The story of
ocvi.) finds a parallel in the
e new explanation of Beer-
illcl story in xii., the absence
iitorial references to xxi. in
w. 15, 18, On the whole, the story of Isaac's wife at Gcrar is briefer
and not so elevated as that of Sarah, but the parallel to xxi. 22-34
is more detailed. The birth of Esau and Jacob (xxv. 21-34) intro-
duces the story of Jacob's craft when Isaac is on the point of death
(xxvii.). Jacob flees to Labaa at Haran to escape Esau's hatred
(xxvii. 41-45) ; but, according to the latest source (P), he is charged
by Isaac to go to Paddan-Aram, and take a wife there, and his father
transfers to nim the blessing of Abraham (xxvii. 46-xxviii. 9). On
his way to Haran he stops at Bethel (formerly Luz, according to
Judg. 1. 22-26), where a vision prompts him to accept the God of the
place should be return in peace to his father's home (xxviii. 10-22).
He passes to the land of the children of the east " (xxix. 1), and
the scenes which follow are scarcely situated at Haran, the famous
and ancient scat of the worship of the moon-god, but in the desert.
Here he resides fifteen years or more, and by the daughters of Laban
and their handmaidens becomes the " father " of the tribes of Israel.
There are numerous traces of composition from different sources,
but a satisfactory analysis is impossible.' The flight of Jacob and
his household (from Paddan-Aram, xxxi. 18 P) leads over " the
River " (v. 21, %je. the Euphrates); though the Bcvcn days' journey
of this concourse of men and cattle suggests that he came to Gileaa,
not from Haran (300 m. distant), but from some nearer locality.
This is to be taken with the evidence against Haran already noticed,
with the use of the term " children of the east " (xxix. 1 ; cf . Ter.
xlix. 28; Ezck. xxv. 4, lo), and with the details of Laban's kindred
(xxii. 20-24). 7 The arrival at Mahanaim (" [two ?1 camps ") gives
rise to specific allusions to the meaning of the nauic (xxxii. 1 seq.,
7-12, 13-21); cf. also the plays upon Jabbok, Israel and Peniel in
xxxii. 22-32. He meets Esau (xxxii. 3-21, xxxiii. 1-16, another
reference to Pcnicl, " face of God," in v. 10), but they part. Jacob
now comes to Shechem " in peace " (cf. the phrase in xxviii. 21),
where he buys land and erects an altar (xxxiii. 18-20, cf. Abraham
in xii. 6 seq.). There is a remarkable story of the violation of bis
daughter Dinah by Shechem, the son of Hamor the Hivite (xxxiv.).
It has been heavily revised: note the alternating prominence of
Hamor and Shechem, the condemnation of Simeon ana Levi for their
vengeance (cf. the curse in xlix. 5-7), the destruction of the city
Shechem by all the sons of Jacob, and the survival of the Hamorites
as a family centuries later (xxxiii. 19, Judg. ix. 28). The narrative
continues with Jacob's journey to Bethel, the death of Deborah
(who accompanied Rebckah to Palestine 140 years previously, see
xxiv. 59, and the latest source in xxv. 20, xxxv. 28), the death of
Rachel (xxxv. 16-20, contrast xxxvu. 10), and ceases abruptly in the
middle of a sentence (xxxv. 22, but see xlix. 3-4). The latest source
(xxxv. 9-13, 15, 226-29} gives another account of the origin of the
names Israel (cf. xxxii. 28) and Bethel (cf. xxviii. 19), and the
genealogy wrongly includes Benjamin among the sons born outside
Palestine (w. 24-26). In narrating Jacob's leisurely return to Irvine
ait Hebron, the writers guite ignore the many years which have
elapsed since he left his lather at the point of death in Beersheba
(xxvii. 1,2,7, 10,41).
" The generations of Esau, the same is Edom," provide much
valuable material for the study of Israel's rival (xxxvi.). The
chapter gives yet another account of the separation of lacob and
Esau (with n>. 6-8, cf. Abraham and Lot, xiii. 5 seq.), and describes
the latter's withdrawal to Seir (cf. already xxxii. 3; xxxiii. 14- 16).
\l includes lists of diverse origin (e.g. vv. 2-5, contrast xxvi. 34,
ucviii. 9); various "dukes" (R.V. marg. "chiefs"), or rather
, * Points of resemblance in xxiii. with Babylonian usage have
jf ten been exaggerated ; comparison " shows noteworthy differences "
IT. G. PinchesT^ he Old Testament, p.238) ; sec Carpenter and Harford-
Battersby, Hexateiuh, i. 64, Driver. Gen. p. 230, and Addenda.
• Note, e.g., the sudden introduction of xxix. 15, the curious
position of v. 24 (due to P), the double play upon the names Zebulun
ind Joseph, xxx. 20. 23 seq., the internal intricacies in the agreement,
b. w. 31-43: the difficulties in the reference to the latter in xxxi. 6
iqq. (especially v. 10).
? See Ed. Meyer (and B. Luther), DielsraeHkm undikre Nachbar-
44mm* (1906), pp. 938 sqq.; also the shrewd remarks of C. T. Bekc,
Triginet btbticae (1834), pp. 123 sqq.
580
GENESIS
the most- obvious intricacies. The Graf-WeHhaosen literary
theory has gained the assent of almost all trained and unbiased
biblical scholars, it has not been shaken by the more recent light
from external evidence, and no alternative theory has as yet been
produced. The internal features of Genesis demand some formu-
lated theory, more precise than the indefinite concessions of
the 1 7th century, beyond which the opponents of modern literary
criticism scarcely advance, and the Graf-Wellhausen theory, in
spite of the numerous difficulties which it leaves untouched, is
the only adequate starting-point for the study of the book.
According to this, Genesis is a post-exilic work composed of a
post-exilic priestly source (P) and non-priestly earlier sources
which differ markedly from P in language, style and religions
standpoint, but much less markedly from one and another*
These sources can be traced elsewhere in the Pentateuch and
Joshua, and P itself is related to the post-exilic works Chronicles,
Ezra and Nehcmiah. In its present form Genesis is an indis-
pensable portion of the biblical history, and consequently its
literary growth cannot be viewed apart from that of the
books which follow. On internal grounds it appears that the
Pentateuch and Joshua, as they now read, virtually come in
between an older history by " Deuteronomic " compilers (easily
recognizable in Judges and Kings), and the later treatment of the
monarchy in Chronicles, where the influence of the circle which
produced P and the present Mosaic legislation is quite discernible.
There have been stages where earlier extant sources have been
cut down, adjusted or revised by compilers who have incorporated
fresh material, and it is the later compilers of Genesis who have
made the book a fairly knit whole. The technical investigation
of the literary problems (especially the extent of the earlier
sources) is a work of great complexity, and, for ordinary purposes,
it is more important to obtain a preliminary appreciation of the
general features of the contents of Genesis.
That the records of the pre-historic ages in Gen. L-xJ. are at
complete variance with modern science and archaeological
research is unquestionable. 7 But although it is im-
possible to regard them any longer either as genuine trm&i—a.
history or as subjects for an allegorical interpretation
(which would prove the accuracy of any record) they are of
distinct value as human documents. They reflect the ideas
and thoughts of the Hebrews, they illustrate their conceptions of
God and the universe, and they furnish material for a comparison
of lite moral development of the Hebrews with that of other
early races. Some of the traditions are closely akin to those
current in ancient Babylonia, but a careful and impartial com-
parison at once illustrates in a striking manner the relative
moral and spiritual superiority of our writers. On these subjects
see. further Cosmogony; Deluge.*
The records of the patriarchal age, xii.-l. are very variously
estimated, although the great majority of scholars agree that
they are not contemporary and that they cannot be used, as they
' stand, for prc-Mosaic limes. Apart from the ordinary arguments
of historical criticism, it is to be noticed that external evi-
dence does not support the assumption that the records preserve
• On the course of modern criticism and on the various source*:
, P, J (Judacan or Yahwist), E (Ephraimite or Elohist). see Bisls
] (014 Test. Criticism). The passages usually assigned to P in Genesis
! arc: i. i-ii. 4a; v. 1-28. 30-32; vi. 9-22; vii. 6 (and parts of 7-9),
< 11, 13-160, 18-21, 24; viu. l-2a, 36-5, 13a, 14-19; ix. I -17. 28-29:
i x. 1-7, 20, 22-23, 31-32; xi. 10-27, 31-32: xii. 46-5; xiiu 6, itb-u*.
xvi. la, 3, 15-16; xvii.; xix. 29; xxi. 10, 26-5; xxiii.; xxv. 7-110,
12-17, 19-20, 266; xxvi. 34-35; xx vii. 46-xxvui. 9; xxix. 24, 28*,
29; xxxi. 18&; xxxiii. 18a; xxxiv. 1-20, 4, 6, 8-10, 13-18, 20-24.
I part of 25. 27-29; xxxv. 9-13, 15, 226-29; xxxvi. (in the main);
I xxxvii. 1-20; xli. 46: xlvi. 6-27; xlvii. 5-6a» 7-11, 276-28; xlviti.
3-7; xlix. la. 286-33, !• 12-13.
1 » Sec on this, especially, S. R. Driver's Genesis in the "Westminster
Commentaries " (seventh ed.. 1909).
4 • The above is typical of modern biblical criticism which b
I compelled to recognize the human clement (and can thus have no
a priori preconceptions in approaching the Old Testament), but at
I the same time reveals ever more decisively the presence of purifying
1 influences, without which the records of Israel would have had no
l permanent interest or value. They thus gain a new value which
cannot be impaired when it is realized that their significance is quite
eh indcpetvdtnl ot th&iir origins.
GENESIS
58*
genuine pre-Mosaic history. There are no grounds for any
arbitrary distinction between the " nre-historic " pre-Abrahamic
age and the later age. External evidence, which recognizes no
universal deluge and no dispersal of mankind in the third millen-
nium B.C., throws its own light upon the opening centuries of
the second. It has revealed conditions which are not reflected
in Genesis, and important facts upon which the book is silent —
unless, indeed, there is a passing allusion to the great Babylonian
monarch Khammurabi in the Amraphel of Gen. ziv. Any careful
perusal of modern attempts to recover historical facts or an
historical outline from the book will show how very inadequate
the material proves to be, and the reconstructions will be found to
depend upon an interpretation of the narratives which is often
liberal and not rarely precarious, and to imply such reshaping and
rewriting of the presumed facts that the cautious reader can place
little reliance on them. Whatever future research may bring, it
cannot remove the internal peculiarities which combine to show
that Genesis preserves, not literal history, but popular traditions
of the past. External evidence has proved the antiquity of
various elements, but not that of the form or context in which
they now appear; and the difference is an important one. We
have now a background upon which to view the book, and, on the
one hand, it has become obvious that the records preserve — as is
only to be expected — Oriental customs, beliefs and modes of
thought. But it has not been demonstrated that these are
exclusively pre-Mosaic. On the other hand, a better acquaint-
ance with the ancient political, sociological and religious con-
ditions has made it increasingly difficult to interpret the records
as a whole literally, or even to find a place in pre-Mosaic Palestine
for the lives of the patriarchs as they are depicted. 1 Nevertheless,
though one cannot look to Genesis for the history of the early part
of the second millennium B.C., the study of what was thought of
the past, proves in this, as in many other cases, to be more
instructive than the facts of the past, and it is distinctly more
important for the biblical student and the theologian to under-
stand the thought of the ages immediately preceding the founda-
tion of Judaism in the 5th century B.C. than the actual history of
many centuries earlier.
A noteworthy feature is the frequent personification of peoples,
tribes or clans (see Genealogy: BMical). Midian {ix. the
Midianites) is a son of Abraham; Canaan is a son of
2JJJJJ*' Ham (ix. 22), and Cush the son of Ham is the father
ttmtmM. of Ramah and grandfather of the famous S. Arabian
state Sheba and the traders of Dedan (x. 6 sq., cf.
Ezek. xxvii. 00-22). Bethucl the father of Rcbckah is the brother
of the tribal names Uz and Buz (xxii. 21 sqq. f cf. Jcr. xxv. 20, 23).
Jacob is otherwise known as Israel and becomes the father of
the tribes of Israel; Joseph is the father of Ephraim and
Manasseh, and incidents in the life of Judah lead to the birth
of Perez and Zerah, Judaean clans. This personification is
entirely natural to the Oriental, and though " primitive " is not
necessarily an ancient traiL* It gives rise to what may be
termed the "prophetical interpretation of history" (S. R.
Driver, Genesis, p. 1 1 1), where the character, fortunes or history
of the apparent individual are practically descriptive of the
people or tribe which, according to tradition, is named after or
descended from him. The utterance of Noah over Canaan,
Shem and Japheth (ix. 25 sqq.) f of Isaac over Esau and Jacob
(xxvii.), of Jacob over his sons (xlix.) or grandsons (xlviii.),
would have no meaning to Israelites unless they had some con-
nexion with and interest for contemporary life and thought.
Herein lies the force of the description of the wild and independent
Ishmael (xvi. 12), the "father" of certain well-known tribes
(xxv. 13-15); or the contrast between the skilful hunter Esau
and the quiet and respectable Jacob (xxv. 27), and between the
1 See the remark* of W. R. Smith, Eng. Hist. Rt*. (1888), pp. 128
seq, (from the sociological side), and for general considerations,
A. A. Bevan, CriL Rev. (1893), pp. 138 *oq.; S. R. Driver, Genesis,
pp. xliiL sqq.
* Cf. Amos i. 1 1 ; I Chron. ii.iv. (note iv. 10), the Book of Jubilees
(see above), and also Arabian mage (W. R. Smith, Kinship nn4
Mmrrmue, ch. L). For modem examples, see E. Littmana, Orient.
Slmd.T%ioi»MUekt (ed. BesoJd, 1906), prX 942-958.
tiller Cain who becomes the typical nomad and the pastoral Abel
(iv. 1-15). The interest of the struggles between Jacob and
Esau lay, not in the history of individuals of the distant past,
but in the fact that the names actually represented Israel and
its near rival Edom. These features are in entire accordance
with Oriental usage and give expression to current belief, existing
relationships, or to a poetical foreshadowing of historical vicissi-
tudes. But in the effort to understand them as they were
originally understood it is very obvious that this method of
interpretation can be pressed too far It would be precarious
to insist that the entrances into Palestine of Abraham and Jacob
(or Israel) typified two distinct immigrations. The separation
of Abraham from Lot (cf. Lotan, an Edomite name), of Isaac
from Hagar-IshmacI, or of Jacob from Esau-Edom scarcely
points to the relative antiquity of the origin of these non-
Israelite peoples who, to judgo from the evidence, were closely
related. Or, if the " sons " of Jacob had Aramaean mothers,
to prove that those which arc derived from the wives were upon
a higher level than the " sons " of the concubines is more difficult
than to allow that certain of the tribes must have contained
some element of Aramaean blood (cf. 1 Chron. vii. 14, and see
Ashe*; Gad; Manasseh). Some of the names arc dearly
not those of known clans or tribes (e.g. Abraham, Isaac), and
many of the details of the narratives obviously have no natural
ethnological meaning. Stories of heroic ancestors and of tribal
cponyms intermingle; personal, tribal and national traits are
interwoven. The entrance of Jacob or Israel with his sons
suggests that of the children of Israel. The story of Simeon
and Levi at Shechcm is clearly not that of two individuals,
sons of the patriarch Israel; in fact the story actually uses the
term " wrought folly in Israel " (cf. Jud. xx. 6, 10), and the
individual Shechcm, the son of Hamor, cannot be separated
from the city, the scene of the incidents. Yet Jacob's life with
Laban has many purely individual trails. And, further, there
intervenes a remarkable passage with an account of his conflict
with the divine being who fears the dawn and is unwilling to
reveal his name. In a few verses the " wrestling " ('-& -J) of
Jacob (yd'&qdb) is associated with the Jabbok (yabbdq); his
" striving " explains his name Israel; at Pcnicl he sees " the
face of God," and when touched on his vulnerable spot— the
hollow of the thigh — he is lamed, hence " the children of Israel
eat not the sinew of the hip which is upon the hollow of the
thigh unto this day " (xxxii. 24-32). Other examples of the fusion
of different features can be readily found. Three divine beings
appear to Abraham at the sacred tree of Hebron, and when the
birth of Isaac (from sdhaq, " laugh ") is foretold, the account of
Sarah's behaviour is merely a popular and trivial story suggested
by the child's name (xviii. 12-15; see also xviL 17, xxi. 6, 9).
An extremely fine passage then describes the patriarch's inter-
cession for Sodom and Gomorrah, and the narrative passes on
to the catastrophe which explains the Dead Sea and its desert
region and has parallels elsewhere (e.g. the Greek legend of Zeus
and Hermes in Phrygia). Lot escapes to Zoar, the name gives
rise to the pun on the " little " city (xix. 20), and his wife, on
looking back, becomes one of those pillars of salt which still
invite speculation. Finally the names of his children Moab and
Ammon are explained by an incident when he is a cave-dweller
on a mountain.
To primitive minds which speculated upon the u why and where-
fore " of what they saw around them, the narratives of Genesis
afforded an answer. They preserve, in fact, some of the popular
philosophy and belief of the Hebrews. They furnwh what must
have been a satisfactory origin of the names Edom, Moaband Ammon,
Mahanaim and Succoth, Bethel, Bccrsheba, &c. They explain why
Shechcm, Bethel and Beersheba were ancient sanctuaries (sec further
below); why the serpent writhes alone the ground (iii. 14); and
why the hip sinew might not be eaten (xxxii. 32). To these and a
hundred other questions the national and tribal stories— of which
no doubt only a few have survived, and of which other forms, earlier
or later, more crude or more refined, were doubtless current— furnish
an evidently adequate answer. Myth and legend, fact and fiction,
the common stock of oral tradition, have been handed down, and
thus constitute one of the most valuable sources for popular Hebrew
The book \a not to \* YnAsjaA tans, vq wifc^WfciA «*>s»a** <k>a*
582
GENESIS
■worthy
cteristic
ientally
•>3-33)
for the
i.. Job),
mtcd as
modern
gs with
ern un-
hildlike
■ cultus.
■cs, and
cllers to
ate the
> notice
' writes
of all a
Tativcs.
i truest
though
i, there-
hat the
ifc and
natcrial
The Book of Jubilees (not earlier than the 2nd century B.C.)
presents the history in another form. It retains some of the
canonical matter, often with considerable reshaping,
j^ rtr omits many details (especially those to which exception
could be taken), and adds much that is novel. The
chronological system of the latest source in Genesis becomes an
elaborate reckoning of heavenly origin. Written under the
obvious influence of later religious aims, it is especially valuable
because one can readily compare the two methods of presenting
the old traditions.' There is the same kind of personification,
fresh examples of the " prophetical interpretation of history,"
and by the side of the older " primitive " thought are ideas
which can only belong to this later period. In each case we have
merely a selection of current traditional lore. For example,
Cen. vi. 1-4 mentions the marriage of divine beings with the
daughters of men and the birth of Nephillm or giants (cf . Num.
xiii. jj). Later allusions to this myth (e.g. B a inch iii. 26-38,
Book of Enoch vi. sqq., 2 Peter ii. 4, &c.) are not based upon this
passage; the fragment itself is all that remains of some more
organic written myth which, as is well-known, has parallels
among other peoples.' Old myths underlie the account of the
creation and the garden of Eden, and traces of other versions
or forms appear elsewhere in the Old Testament. Again, the
Old Testament throws no light upon the redemption of Abraham
(Is. xxix. 22), although the Targums and other sources profess
to be well-informed. The isolated reference to Jacob's conquest
of Shcchem in Gen. xlviii. 22 must have belonged to another
context, and later writings give in a later and thoroughly in-
credible form allied traditions. In Hosea xii. 4, Jacob's wrestling
is mentioned before the scene at Bethel (Gen. xxxii. 24 sqq.,
xxviii. 11 sqq.). The overthrow of Sodom and Gomorrah is
described in Genesis (xviii. scq.), but Hosea refers only to that
of Admah and Zcboim (xi. 8, cf. Deut. xxix. 23, Gen. x. 10V—
different versions of the great catastrophe were doubtless current.
Consequently investigation must start with the particular
1 The Book of Jubilees also enables the student to test the argu-
ments based upon any study restricted to Genesis alone. Thus it
shows that the " primitive features of Genesis afford a criterion
which ip sociological rather than chronological. This is often
ignored. For example, the conveyance of the field of MachpcUh
(xxiii.) is conspicuous for the absence of any reference to a written
contract in contrast to the " business " methods in Jer. xxxii.
This does not prove that Gen. xxiii. is early, because writing was
used in Palestine about 1400 B.C., and. on the other hand, the more
simple forms of agreement are still familiar after the time of Jeremiah
(e.g. Ruth. Proverbs). Similarly, no safe argument can be baaed
upon the institution of blood-revenge in Gen. iv.. when one observes
the undeveloped conditions among the Trachonitcs of the time of
Herod the Great (J°**phu*, Aut. xvi. 9, 1)1 or the varying usages
among modern tribes. »
'On the Jewish tortus, see R. 1 1. Charles, Book of Jubilees (190a),
PP-33~9>
details which happen to be preserved, and tbjese not nerewrfly
in their original or in their only form. Since the antiquity of
dements of tradition is independent of the shape in which they
appear before us, a careful distinction must be drawn between
those details which do not admit of being dated or located and
those which do. There is evidence for the existence of the
names Abram, Jacob and Joseph previous to 000 B.C., but
this does not prove the antiquity of the present narratives
encircling them. Babylonian tablets of the creation date from
the 7th century B.C., but their contents are many centuries
earlier (viz. the age of Khammurabi), whereas the Phoenician
myths of the origin of things are preserved in a late form by the
late writers Damascias and Philo of Byblus. Gen. xiv., which
may preserve some knowledge of the reign of Khammurabi, is
on internal literary grounds of the post-exilic age, and it is at
least a coincidence that the Babylonian texts, often quoted in
support of the genuineness of the narrative, belong to about the
same period and use early Babylonian history for purely didactic
purposes.' In general, just as the Book of Jubilees, whOe
presenting many elements of old tradition, betrays on decisive
internal grounds an age later than Genesis itself, so, in turn,
there is sufficient conclusive evidence that Genesis in its present
form includes older features, but belongs to the age to which
(on quite independent grounds) the rest of the Pentateuch must
be ascribed.
Popular tradition often ignores events of historical importance,
or, as repeated experience shows, will represent them in such a
form that the true historical kernel could never have
been recovered without some external clue. The
absence of definite references to the events of the
Israelite monarchy does not necessarily point to the
priority of the traditions in Genesis or their later date. Neverthe-
less, some allusion to national fortunes is reflected in the exalta-
tion of Jacob (Israel) over Esau (Edom), and in the promise that
the latter should break the yoke from his neck. 4 Israelite kings
arc foreshadowed (xvii. 6, xxxv. n, P), and Israel's kingdom has
the ideal limits as ascribed to Solomon (xv. 18, see 1 Kings iv. 21;
but cf. art. Solomon). Judah is promised a world-wide kir.r,
(xlix.8-10). though elsewhere the supremacy of Joseph rouses the
jealousy of his " brothers " (xxxvii. 8). Different dates and
circles of interest arc thus manifest. The cursing and dispersion
of Simeon and Levi (xlix. 5-7) recall the fact that Simeon's
cities were in the territory of Judah (Josh.xix. 1,0), and that the
Levitical priests are later scattered and commended to the
benevolence of the Israelites. But the curse obviously represents
an attitude quite opposed to the blessing pronounced upon Levi
by Moses (Deut. xxxiii. 8-1 1). The Edomite genealogies (xxxvi.)
represent a more extensive people than the references in the
popular stories suggest, and the latter by no means indicate that
Edom had so important a career as we actually gather from a few
allusions to its kings (xxxvi. 31-30).* The references to Philis-
tines are anachronistic for the pre-Mosaic age, and it is clear that
the tradition of a solemn covenant with a Philistine king and his
general (xxi. 22 seq., xxvi. 26 sqq.) does not belong to the age or
the circle which remembered the grievous oppressions of the
Philistines or felt contempt for these " uncircumcised " enemies
of Israel*. Finally, the thread of the tradition unmistak-
ably represents a national unity of the twelve sons (tribes) of
GENESIS
583
Israel; but this unity was not felt at certain periods of dis-
organization, and the idea of including Judab among the sons of
Israel could not have arisen at a time when Israel and Judah
were rival kingdoms. 1 In so far as the traditions can be read in the
light of biblical history it is evident that they belong to different
ages and represent different national, tribal, or local standpoints.
Another noteworthy feature is the interest taken in sacred
sites. Certain places are distinguished by theophanies or by the
erection of an altar (lit. place of sacrificial slaughter),
Jj*J2Jf and incidents are narrated with a very intelligible
Jh ^y purpose. Afixpah in Gilead is the scene of a covenant
or treaty between Jacob and his Aramaean relative
commemorated by a pillar (Massibok). It was otherwise known
for an annual religious ceremony, the traditional origin of which is
related in the story of Jephthah's vow and sacrifice (Judg. xi.),
and its priests are denounced by Hosea (v. 1). Shechem, the
famous city of the Samaritans (" the foolish nation," Ecclus. I,
26), where Joseph was buried (Josh. xxiv. 32), had a sanctuary
and a sacred pillar and tree. It was the scene of the coronation
(a religious ceremony) of Abimclech (Judg- ix.)» and Rehoboam
(x Rings xii. 1). The pillar was ascribed to Joshua (Josh. xxiv.
26 scq.), and although Jacob set up at Shcchcm an " altar," the
verb suggests that the original object was a pillar (Gen. xxxiii.
20). The first ancestor of Israel, on the other band, is merely
associated with a theophany at an oracular tree (xii. 6). The Bcn-
jamite Bethel was especially famous in Israelite religious history.
The story tell* how Jacob discovered its sanctity,— it was the
gate of heaven, — made a covenant with its God, established the
sacred pillar, and instituted its tithes (xxviii.). The prophetess
Deborah dwelt under a palm-tree near Bethel (Judg. iv. 5), and
her name is also that of the foster-mother of Rebckah who was
buried near Bethel beneath the " oak of weeping " (xxxv. 8).
Bochim ("weeping") elsewhere receives its name when an
angel appeared to the Israelites (Judg. ii. 1, Scptuagint adds
Bethel). To the prophets Hosea and Amos the culms of Bethel
was superstitious and immoral, even though it was Yah wen
himself who was worshipped there (see Bethel). South of
Hebron lay Beersheba, an important centre and place of pilgrim-
age, with a special numen by whom oaths were taken (Amos
viii. 14, see Sept. and the commentaries). Isaac built its altar,
and Isaac's God guarded Jacob in his journeying (xxxi. 29,
xlvi. x). This patriarch and his " brother " lshmacl are closely
associated with the district south of Judah, both are connected
with Bccr-lchai-roi (xxiv. 62. Sept. xxv. 11), whose fountain was
the scene of a theophany (xvi.), and their traditions arc thus
localized in the district of Kadcsh famous in the events of the
Exodus (cf. xvi. 14, xxi. 21 , xxv. 18, Ex. xv. 22). (See Exodus,
The.) Abraham planted a sacred tree at Beersheba and invoked
" the everlasting God " (xxi. 33). But the patriarch is more
closely identified with Hebron, which had a sanctuary (cf . 2 Sam.
xv. 7 scq.), and an altar which he built " unto Yahwch " (xiii. 18).
The sacred oak of Mamre was famous in the time of Joscphus
(B. J. iv. 9, 7), it was later a haunt of " angels " (Sozomcn), and
Constantinc was obliged to put down the heathenish cult us.
The place still has its holy tree. Beneath the oak there appeared
the three divine beings, and in the cave of Machpclah the illustrious
ancestor and his wife were buried. The story of his descent into
Egypt and the plaguing of Pharaoh is a secondary insertion
(xii. io-xiii. 2), and where the patriarch appears at Beersheba it is
in incidents which tend to connect him with his " son " Isaac.
There is a very distinct tendency to emphasize the importance of
Hebron. Taken from primitive giants by the non-Israelite clan
Caleb (9.*.) it has now become predominant in the patriarchal
traditions. Jacob leaves his dying father at Beersheba (xxviii.
so), but according to the latest source he returns to him at Hebron
(xxxv. 27), and here, north of Beersheba, he continues to live
(xxxvii. 14, xlvL 1-5). The cave of Macbpelah became the, grave
of Isaac, Rebekah and Leah (but not Rachel); and though Jacob
1 In a Sam. m. 43 (original text) the men of Israel claim to be
the first-born rather than Judah: cf. 1 Chron. v. 1 seq.. where the
birthright (after Reuben was degraded) is explicitly conferred upon
Joseph iEfihnim and AfinwrhK
appears to be buried beyond the Jordan, it is the latest source
which places his grave at Hebron (1. 1-1 1 and 12 seq.). So in still
later tradition, all the sons of Jacob with the exception of
Joseph find their last resting-place at Hebron, and in Jewish
prayers for the dead it is besought that their souls may be
bound up with those of the patriarchs, or that they may go to the
cave of Machpelah and thence to the Cherubim.* The increasing
prominence of the old Caicbite locality is not the least interesting
phase in the comparative study of the patriarchal traditions.
The association of the ancestors of Israel with certain sites is a
feature which 1 finds analogies even in modern Palestine. There
arc old centres of cult which have never lost the veneration of the
people; the shrines are known as the tombs of saints or watts
(patrons) with such orthodox names as St George, Elijah, &c
Traditions justify the reputation for sanctity, and not only are
similar stories told of distinct figures, but there are varying
traditions of a single figure.* The places have retained their
sacred character despite political and religious vicissitudes;
they arc far older than their present names, and such is the con-
servatism of the east that it is not surprising when, for example,
a sacred tomb at Gezer stands quite close to the site of an ancient
holy place, about 3000 years old, the existence of which was
first made known in the course of excavation. Genesis preserves
a selection of traditions relating to a few of the old Palestinian
centres of cult. We cannot suppose that these first gained their
sacred character in the pre-Mosaic " patriarchal " age, there is in
any case the obvious difficulty of bridging the gap between the
descent into Egypt and the Exodus, and it is dear that when
the Israelites entered Palestine they came among a people whose
religion, tradition and thought were fully established. It b only
in accordance with analogy if stories were current in Israel of
the institution of the sacred places, and closer study shows that
we do not preserve the original version of these traditions. 4
A venerated tree in modern Palestine will owe its sanctity
to some tradition, associating it, it may be, with some
saint; the Israelites in their turn held the belief that the
sacred tree at Hebron was one beneath which their first an-
cestor sat when three divine beings revealed themselves to him.
But it is noteworthy that Yahwch alone is now prominent;
the tradition has been revised, apparently in writing, and, later,
the author of Jubilees (xvi.) ignores the triad. At Bcer-Iahai-roi
an El (" god ") appeared to Hagar, whence the name of her
child lshmacl; but the writer prefers the unambiguous proper
name Yahwch, and, what is more, the divine being is now
Yahweh's angel— the Almighty's subordinate (xvi.). The older
traits show themselves partly in the manifestation of various
Els, and partly in the cruder anthropomorphism of the earlier
sources. Later hands have by no means eliminated or modified
them altogether, and in xxxi. 53 one can still perceive that the
present text has endeavoured to obscure the older belief that
the God of Abraham was not the God of his " brother " Nahor
(see the commentaries). The sacred pillar erected by Jacob at
Bethel was solemnly anointed with oil, and it (and not the place)
was regarded as the abode of the Deity (xxviii. 18, 22). This
agrees with all that is known of stone-cults, but it is quite obvious
that this interesting example of popular belief is far below the
religious ideas of the writer of the chapter in its present form. 1
There were many places where it could be said that Yahweh
had recorded his name and would bless his worshippers (Ex.
xx. 24). They were abhorrent to the advanced ethical teaching*
of prophets and of those imbued with the spirit of Deuteronomy
(cf. 2 Kings xviii. 4 with v. 22), and it is patent from Jeremiah,
"Cf. Joscphus, Antiq. ii. 8, 2; Test, of xii. Patriarchs: Acts vii.
16 (where Shechem is an error); Oesterlcy and Box, Rdiiion and
Worship of the Synagogue* pp. 340 seq.; M. G. Dampicr, in Church
and Synagogue (1909), p. 78.
•See J. P. Peters. Early Heb. Story (1904). pp. 81 sqq.; S. A.
Cook, Relit.. ofAnc. Palestine (1908), pp. 19 sqq.
* In like manner the Babylonian story of the flood has been revised
and adapted to the Hebrew Noah (cf. Nippur, ad fin.). m
*The writer in Jub. xxvii. 37 treats the pillar as a M uga."
Another useful example of reviston is to be found in Josh. sxL.
where what was regarded (by a reviser) as an object u nwxthi «&
taereusioaoi^ataNkvbttmi wand*
58*
GENESIS
Exekicl and Is. lvi.-lxvi. thai even at a late date opinion varied
as to bow Yabwch was to be served. 1 It is significant, therefore,
that the narratives in Genesis, (apart from P) reflect a certain
tolerant attitude; there is much that is contrary to prophetical
thought, but even the latest compilers have not obliterated all
features that, from a strict standpoint, could appear distasteful.
Although the priestly source shows how the lore could be reshaped,
and Jubilees represents later efforts along similar lines, it is
evident that for ordinary readers the patriarchal traditions could
pot be presented in an entirely new form, and that to achieve
their aims the writers could not be at direct variance with
current thought.
It will now be understood why several scholars have sought to
recover earlier forms of the traditions, the stages through which the
material has passed, and the place of the earlier forms and stages
in the history and religion of Israel. These labours arc indispensable
for scientific biblical study, and are most fruitful when they depend
upon comprehensi • example,
one observes the us f to regard
the occupant of tl .tor of his
clients, deeper sign o the pro-
tective care of Abn ? motherly
sympathy of Rachc : perceives
the tendency to lot an almost
divine being, there i »t riarchal
figures were endoi attributes.
But here the same considera-
tions throw no ligh patriarchs.
It is impossible to he present
narratives, and the oblcms.*
From a careful s w is beyond
doubt that Genesis preserves only a selection of traditions of
various ages and interests, and often not in their
mttnm original form. Wc have relatively little tradition
from North Israel; Beershcba, Bcer-lahai-roi and
Hebron are more prominent than even Bethel or Shechcm,
while there are no stories of Gilgal, Shiloh or Dan. Yet in the
nature of the case there must have been a great store of local
tradition accessible to some writers and at some periods. 3
Interest is taken not in Phoenicia, Damascus or the northern
tribes, but in the cast and south, in Gilcad, Ammon, Moab and
Ishmacl. Particular attention is paid to Edom and Jacob, and
there is good evidence for a dose relationship between Edomitc
and allied names and those of South Palestine (including Simeon
and Judah). Especially significant, too, is the interest in tradi-
tions which affected the South of Palestine, that district which is
of importance for the history of Israel in the wilderness and of
the Levites. 4 It is noteworthy, therefore, that while different
peoples had their own theories of their earliest history, the first-
born of the first human pair is Cain, the eponym of the Kenitcs,
and the ancestor of the beginnings of civilization (iv. 17, 20-22).
This " Kcnite " version had its own view of the institution of
the worship of Yahweh (iv. 26); it appears to have ignored
the Deluge, and it implies the existence of a fuller corpus of
written tradition. Elsewhere, in the records of the Exodus,
there arc traces of specific traditions associated with Kadcsh,
Kenites, Caleb and Jcrabmecl, and with a movement into
Judah, all originally independent of their present context. Like
the prominence of the traditions of Hebron and its hero Abraham,
these features cannot be merely casual. 1
■ WW ww|#Hi»« ■^.■•^■wmw »a«W^ia% Wtn* lUBVIil^ \V« •>««•• WM.IIU%«4 «*9
pre-propnetical, though non-prophetical would be a safer term), sec
Hebrew Religion.
' Among recent efforts to find and explain mythical elements, see
especially Stucken, Astralmythe*' H. wincklcr, Crsthukle Israels,
vol. ii. ; and P. Jensen, Das G il tame sch- Epos in der WelUilUratur.
1 Again the analogy of the modern East is instructive. Especially
interesting are the traditions associating the same figure or incident
with widely separated localities.
* See Exodus, The; Levitbs. On this feature see Luther and
Meyer, op. cit. pp. 158 scq., 227 sqq., 259, 279, 305, 386, 443. Their
researches on this subject are indispensable for a critical study of
Genesis.
• The notion of an Eve (tanas*. " serpent ") as the first woman
'may be conjecturally associated with {a) the frequent traditions of
the serpent-origin of clans, and (b) with evidence which seems to
connect the Levites and allied families with some kind of serpent-
*m/t (ate Meyer, op. cit. pp. 116. 426 scq., 443, and art. Sekfent-
Womsmr). The account cfwmkmd as it now reads (ii. stQ.)i»m
The fact that one is not dealing with literal history complicates
the question of the nomadic or semi-nomadic life of the Israelite
ancestors.* They arc tent-dwellers, shepherds, sojourners (xvii. 8,
xxiii. 4, xxviii. 4, xxxvi. 7, xxxvii. 1), and we breathe the air of the
open country. But the impression gained from the narratives is
of course due to the narrators. The movements of the patriarchs
serve mainly to connect them with traditions which were originally
independent. When Abraham separates from Lot he settles in
" the land of-Canaan," while Lot dwells in " the cities of the plain "
(xiii. 12). Isaac at Becrsheba enters into an alliance with the
Philistines (xxvi. 12 sqq.), while Jacob seems to settle at Shcchcro
(xxxiv.), and there or at Dothan, a few miles north, his sons pasture
their father's flock (xxxvii. 12 sqq.). T Indeed, according to an
isolated fragment Jacob conquered Shcchem and gave it to Joseph
las not given birth to)
ire (J u o* xxxiv. 1-9,
ted as settling among
a Canaanite — accord-
vi. 10; Jub. xxxiv. 30,
itions have been sub-
it into Egypt of Jacob
c Israelites. But the
is historical problems.
e handful of people-
Abraham xii. 10. and
of which is practically
of similar subdivisions
Jacob to Moses allow
difficulties are not re*
iachir (I. 23, note Ex.
hands of Moses (Num.
to became the grand-
rried a descendant in
. On the other hand
jndent of the Exodus;
founds certain cities,
10 becomes the mother
er the whole course of
' Joshua) has no real
connexion with pre- Mosaic patriarchal history. If we reinterpret
the history of the family and its descent into Egypt, and belittle
its increase into a nation, and if wc figure to ourselves a more gradual
occupation of Palestine, wc destroy the entire continuity of history
as it was understood by those who compiled the biblical history,
and we have no evidence for any confident reconstruction. With
such thoroughness have the compilers given effect to their views
that only on closer examination is it found that even at a relatively
late period fundamentally differing traditions still existed, and that
those which belonged to circles which did not recognize the Exodus
have been subordinated and adjusted by writers to whom this was
the profoundesi event in their past.'
That the journey of Jacob-Israel from his Aramaean relatives
into Palestine hints at some pre-Mosaic immigration is possible,
but has not been either proved or disproved. The
details point rather to a reflection of the entrance of
the children of Israel, elsewhere ascribed to the leader- mmtifrnt'
ship of Joshua (q.v.). Though the latter proceeded to
Gilgal, a variant tradition, now almost lost, seems to have re-
corded an immediate journey to Shechcm (Deut. xxvii. 1-10,
Josh. viii. 30-35) previous to Joshua's great campaigns (Josh,
x. scq., cf. Jacob's wars). His religious gathering at Shechem
several respects less primitive (contrast vi. 1 scq.), and the present
story of Cain and his murder of Abel really places the former in
an unfavourable light.
• Sec the discussion between B. D. Eerdmans and G. A. Smith
in the Expositor (Aug.-Oct. 1908), and the former's AltUsl. Sludien,
ii. (1908), passim.
' xxxiv. (note v. 9) indicates a possible alliance with Shechemites.
and xxxv. 4 (taken literally) implies a residence long enough for a
religious reform to be necessary. Yet the present aim of the narra-
tives is to link together the traditions and emphasize Jacob's return
from Laban to his dying father (xxviii. 21 ; xxxi. 3. 13, 18; xxxii. 9;
xxxv. 1,27).
• Cf. Benjamin's descendants in 1 Chron. viii. 6 scq. and sec on
the naive and primitive character of these traditions, Kittel. com-
ment, ad lot.
• That there are traditions in Genesis which do not form the
prelude to Exodus is very generally recognized by those who agree
that the Israelites after entering Palestine took over some of the
indigenous lore (whether from the Canaanites or from a presumed
earlier layer of Israelites). This adoption of native tradition by
new settlers, however, cannot be confined to any single period.
See further, Luther and Meyer, op. cit. pp. 108. no, 156. 227 s-rq.,
254 scq., 414 scq., 433; on traditions related to the descent into
Egypt, it. 122 sqq., i«i scq., 260; and on the story of Joseph
(en. *xxv M -xxaom. sqvS, %% ma. VbAkvcmIrsl cycle used to form a
CC4uaec£o&Vtak, < luiYttx, vb. vv- \sa-W*
Tb»
GENESIS
5«S
before the dismissal of the tribes finds its parallel in Jacob's
reforms before leaving for Bethel (xxiv.; cf. ». 26, Gen. xxxv. 4).
Owing, perhaps, to the locale of the writers, wc hear relatively
little of the northern tribes. Judah and Simeon are the first
to conquer their lot, and the " house of Joseph " proceeds south
to Bethel, where the story of the " weeping " at Bochim finds a
parallel in the "oak of weeping" (Gen. xxxv. 8). In Gen.
xxxviii. " at that time Judah went down from his brethren " —
in xxxvii. they are at Shechem or Dothan — and settled among
Canaanites, and there is a fragmentary allusion to a similar
alliance of Simeon (xlvL zo) The trend of the two series of
traditions is too dose to be accidental, yet the present sequence
of the narratives in Joshua and Judges associates them with the
Exodus. Further, Jacob's move to Shechem, Bethel and the
south is parallel to that of Abraham, but his history actually
rcpresentsa twofold course. On the one hand, he is the Aramaean
(Deut. xxvi. 5), the favourite son of his Aramaean mother. On
the other, Rebekah is brought to Bcer-labai-roi (xxiv.), Jacob
belongs to the south and he leaves Bccrshcba for his lengthy
sojourn beyond the Jordan. His separation from Esau, the
revelation at Bethel, and the new name Israel axe recorded twice,
and if the entrance into Palestine reflects one ethnological
tradition, the possibility that his departure from Bccrshcba
reflects another, finds support (a) in the genealogies which
associate the nomad "father" of the southern clans Caleb
and Jerahmeel with Gilcad (1 Chron. ii. ai), and (6) in the
hints of an "exodus" from the district of Kadesh north-
wards.
The history of an immigration into Palestine from beyond the
Jordan would take various shapes in local tradition. In Genesis
it is preserved from the southern point of view. The northern
standpoint appears when Rachel, mot her of Joseph and Benjamin,
is the favoured wife in contrast to the despised Leah, mother of
•Judah and Simeon; when Joseph is supreme among his brethren;
and when Judah is included among the " sons " of Israel. It is
possible that the application of the traditional immigration to
the history of the tribes is secondary. This at all events suggests
itself when xxxiv. extends to the history of all the sons, incidents
which originally concerned Simeon and Levi alone, and which
may have represented the Shechemite version of a u Levitical "
tradition (see Levites). However this may be, it is necessary
to account for the nomadic colouring of the narratives (cf.
Meyer, pp. 505, 47a) and the prominence of southern interests,
and it would be in accordance with biblical evidence elsewhere
if northern tradition had been taken over and adapted to the
standpoint of the southern members of Israel, with the incorpora-
tion of local tradition which could only have originated in the
south. 1 These and other indications point to a late date in
biblical history. There is a manifest difference between the
religious importance of Shechem in the traditions of Joshua
(xxiv.) and Jacob's reforms when he leaves behind him the
heathen symbols before journeying to the holy site of Bethel
(Gen. xxxv. 4). There is even some polemic against marriage
with Shechemites (xxxiv.; more emphatic in Jub. xxx.), while
in the story of the Hebronite Abraham, Bethel itself is avoided
and Shechem is of little significance. Again-, the present object
of xxxviii. is to trace the origin of certain Judacan subdivisions
after the death of the wicked Er and Onan. It is purely local
and is interested in Shclah, and more especially in Peres and
Zerah, names of families or clans of the post-exilic age.* Else-
* Cf. the late " Deuteronomic H form of Judges where a hero of
Kcntzzitc origin (and therefore closely connected with Caleb) stands
at the head of the Israelite "judges"; also, from another aspect,
the specifically Judacan and anti- Israelite treatment of the history
of the monarchy. But in each case the feature belongs to a relatively
late stage in the literary history of the books; see Judges; Samuel,
Books op; Kings. v , ,
* M ahaUlel (son of Kenan, another form of Cam, v. ia) is also a
prominent ancestor in Perex (Neh. xi. 4). and Zerah claimed the
renowned sages of Solomon's day (1 Chron. ii. 6, 1 Kings iv. 31).
The story implies that Perex surpassed his " brother " clan Zerah
(xxxviii. 27-30), and in fact Perex is ultimately reckoned the head
of the Judacan subdivisions (1 Chron. ti. a sqq.), and thus is the
reputed ancestor of the Davidic dynasty (Ruth iv. 12. 18 sqq.).
where, in 1 Chron. ii. and iv., the genealogies represent a Judah
composed of clans from the south (Caleb and Jerahmeel) and
of small families or guilds, Shelah included. It is not the Judah
of the monarchy or of the post-exilic Babylonian-Israelite
community. But the mixed elements were ultimately reckoned
among the descendants of Judah, through Hezron the " father **
of Caleb and Jerahmeel, and just as the southern groups finally, '
became incorporated in Israel, so it is to be observed that
although Hebron and Abraham have gained the first place in the
patriarchal history, the traditions are no longer specifically
Calebite, but are part of the common Israelite heritage.
We are taken to a period in biblical history when, though the
historical sources are almost inexplicably scanty, the narratives
of the past were approaching their present shape. Some time
after the fall of Jerusalem (587 B.C.) there was a movement from
the south of Judah northwards to the vicinity of Jerusalem
(Bethlehem, Kirjath-jearim, &c), where, as can be gathered from
x Chron. ii., were congregated Kenite and Rcchabite communities
and families of scribes. Names related to those of Edomite and
kindred groups are found in the late genealogies of both Judah.
and $enjamin, and recur even among families of the time of
Nchemiah.' The same obscure period witnessed the advent of
southern families, 4 the revival of the Davidic dynasty and its
mysterious disappearance, the outbreak of fierce hatred of Edom,
the return of exiles from Babylonia, the separation of Judah
from Samaria and the rise of bitter anti-Samaritan feeling. It
closes with the reorganisation associated with Ezra and Nchemiah
and the compilation of the historical books in practically their
present form. It contains diverse interests and changing stand-
points by which it is possible to explain the presence of purely
southern tradition, the southern treatment of national history,
and the antipathy to northern claims. As has already been
mentioned, the specifically southern writings have everywhere
been modified or adjusted to other standpoints, or have been
almost entirely subordinated, and it is noteworthy, therefore,
that in narratives elsewhere which reflect rivalries and conflicts
among the priestly families, there is sometimes an animus
against those whose names and traditions point to a southern
origin (see Levttzb).
Thus the book of Genesis represents the result of efforts to
systematize the earliest history, and to make it a worthy prelude
to the Mosaic legislation which formed the charter of ^, MM , QL
Judaism as it was established in or about the 5th
century B.C. It goes back to traditions of the most varied
character, whose tone was originally more in accord with earlier
religion and thought. Though these have been made more
edifying, they have not lost their charm and interest. The latest
source, it is true, is without their freshness and life, but it is a
matter for thankfulness that the simple compilers were con-
servative, and have neither presented a work entirely on the lines
of P, nor rewritten their material as was done by the author of
Jubilees and by Josephus. It is obvious that from Jubilees alone
it would have been impossible to conceive the form which the
traditions had taken a few centuries previously— viz. in Genesis
Also, from P alone it would have been equally impossible to
recover the non-priestly forms. But while there is no immeasur-
able gulf between the canonical book of Genesis and Jubilees, the
internal study of the former reveals traces of earlier traditions
most profoundly different as regards thought and contents. It
The sympathies of these traditions are as suggestive as their presence
in the canonical history, which, it must be remembered, ultimately
passed through the hands of Judaean compilers. #
» Neh. iii. 9, 14; see Meyer, pp. 300, 430 ; S. A. Cook, CnftcaJ
Notes on 0.7*. History, p. 58 n. 2. While the evidence point* to an
early close relationship among S. Palestinian groups (Edom, Ithmael
&c; cf. Meyer, p. 446), there are many allusions to subsequent
treacherous attacks which made Edom execrable. Here again
biblical criticism cannot at present determine precisely when or
precisely why the changed attitude began; see EDoat; Jsws t
li 20, 22,
•Although the movement reflected in 1 Chron. li. is scarcely
pre-exilic, yet naturally there had always been a close relation
between Judah and the south, as the Assyrian inscription of the
latter part of the *th century *.c. Ve&Rtt*.
586
GENET— GENEVA
is not otherwise when one looks below the traditional history
elsewhere {e.g. Samuel, Rings). An explanation may be found in
the vicissitudes of the age. The movement from the south,
which seems to account for a considerable cycle of the patriarchal
traditions, belongs to the age after the downfall of the Israelite
and(later)the Judaean monarchies when there were vital political
and social changes. The removal of prominent inhabitants, by
Assyria and later by Babylonia, the introduction of colonists
from distant lands, and the movements of restless tribes around
Palestine were more fatal to the continuity of trustworthy
tradition than to the persistence of popular thought. New
conditions arose as the population was reorganized, a new Israel
claimed to be the heirs of the past (cf . e.g. the Samaritans, E». iv.
2, Joseph. Antiq. ix. 14, 3; xL 8, 6), and not until after these
vicissitudes did the book of Genesis begin to assume its present
shape. 1 (See Jews; Palestine: History.)
The above pages handle only the more important details for the
study of a book which, as regards contents and literary history,
cannot be separated from the scries to which it forms the intro-
duction. As regards the literary-critical problems it is clear that
with the elimination of P we have the sources (minor adjustment
and revision excepted) which were accessible to the last compiler
in the post-exilic age. Most critics have inclined to date these
source* (1 and E) as early as possible, "
of secondary and of relatively late
xxii., E) showB that one must work t
In P's age, and that one can rely <
can be approximately dated. It is usi
character of ) and E as a mark of ;
regular survival of primitive mode
tradition outside more cultured arc
J and E arc non-prophetical and
not been proved that the present J am
or the Dcutcronoraic reforms of Josia
Die Israiliten und ihre Nackbartt&mme (1906) the present writer is
indebted for many valuable suggestions and hints. Fuller biblio-
graphical information will be found in the works already mentioned,
in the articles in the Ency. Bib. (G. F. Moore), and Hastings's Dut.
(G. A. Smith), and in the volume by J. Skinner in the elaborate and
encyclopaedic International Critical Series. (S. A. C.)
GENET, typically a south European carnivorous mammal
referable to the Vherridae or family of civets, but also taken to
include several allied species from Africa. The true genet
(GeneUa vulgaris or GeneUa genetta) occurs throughout the south
of Europe and in Palestine, as well as North Africa. The fur is of
a dark-grey colour, thickly spotted with black, and having a dirk
streak along the back, while the tail, which is nearly as long as the
inconsistencies are involved. The present J and E reflect a re-
shaping and readjustment of earlier tradition which is found else-
where, and the suggestion that they are not far removed from
the age of the priestly writers and redactors does not conflict
with what is known of language, forms of religious thought,
cies of tradition. We reach thus approximately the age
[-Deuteronomic editors were able to utilise such records
or tendencies of tradition.
when post- Deuteronomic ed ._
as JudgTl. xvii. sqq.. a Sam. bc-xx. (see Judges; Samuel, Books
Of), which are equally valuable as specimens of current thought
and of written tradition. In conclusion, the tendency of criticism
has been to recognise " schools " of J and E extending into the exile,
thus making the three sources J, E and P more nearly contempor-
aneous. The most recent conservative authority also inclines
to a similar contemporaneity (" collaboration " or " co-operation "),
but at an impossibly early date (J- Orr, Problem of the O. T.. 1905.
J legend _
xiv.) and thus restored the Law which had been lost ; a view which,
through the early Christian Fathers, gained currency and has en-
joyed a certain popularity to the present day. But when once
revision or rewriting is conceded, there is absolutely no guarantee
that the present Pentateuch is in any way identical with the five
books which tradition ascribed to Moses («\v.), and the necessity
for a comprehensive critical investigation of the present contents
■Mikes itself felt.*
Lttbiature.— Only a few of the numerous works can be men-
Of those written from a conservative or traditional stand-
1 The south of Palestine, if less disturbed by these changes, may
well have had access to older authoritative material.
* For Orr*s other concessions bearing upon Genesis, see op. cit.,
pp. 9 seq.. 87, 93. and (on J. E, P) 196, 345, 340. These, like the
concessions of other apologetic writers, Tar outweigh the often
hypercritical, irrelevant, and superficial objections brought against
the literary and historical criticism of Genesis.
The Genet {Genctta vulgaris).
body, is ringed with black and white. The genet is rare in the
south of France, but commoner in Spain, where it frequents the
banks of streams, and feeds on small mammals and birds. It
differs from the true civets in that the anal pouch is a mere
depression, and contains only a faint trace of the highly character-
istic odour of the former. In south-western Europe and North
Africa it is sought for its soft and beautifully spotted fur. In
some parts of Europe, the genet, which is easily tamed, is kept
like a cat for destroying mice and other vermin.
GENEVA, a city of Ontario county, New York, U.S.A., at the
N. end of Seneca Lake, about 52 m. S.E. of Rochester. Pop.
(1890) 7557; (1900) 10,433 (of whom 1916 were foreign-born);
(1910 census) 12,446. It Is served by the New York Central
& Hudson River, and the Lehigh Valley railways, and by the
Cayuga & Seneca Canal It is an attractively built city, and hat
good mineral springs. Malt, tinware, flour aiid grist-mill products,
GENEVA
587
hotter*, stoves and ranges, optical siippfiee, wall-paper, cereals,
canoed foods* cutlery, tin cans and wagons are manufactured,
and there are also extensive nurseries. The total value of the
factory product in 1005 was $4,051,064, an increase of 82*3 %
since 1900, Geneva has a public library, a city hospital and
hygienic institute. It is the seat of the New York State
Agricultural Experiment Station and of Hobert College (non-
sectarian), which was first planned in 181 2, was founded in i8aa
(the majority of its incorporators being members of the Protestant
Episcopal church) as successor to Geneva Academy, received a
full charter as Geneva College in 1825, and was renamed
Hobart Free College in 185a and Bobart College in i860, in
honour of Bishop John Henry Hobart. The college had in 100&-
1909 107 students, a 1 instructors, and a library of 50,000 volumes
and 15,000 pamphlets. A co-ordinate woman's college, the
William Smith school for women, opened in 1908, was endowed fn
1006 by William Smith of Geneva, who at the same time provided
for a Hall of Sdence and for further instruction in science,
especially in biology and psychology. In 1888 the Smith Observa-
tory was built at Geneva, being maintained by William Smith,
and placed in charge of Dr William Robert Brooks, professor of
astronomy in Hobart College. The municipality owns its water-
supply system. Geneva was first settled about 1787 almost on
the she of the Indian village of Kanadasega, which was destroyed
in 1779 during Gen. John Sullivan's expedition against the
Indians in western New York. It was chartered as a dty in 1808.
GEKBVA (Fr. Genhe, Ger. Genf, Itai. Gima, Late Lat.
Cebtntm, though Genawa in good Latin), a dty and canton of
Switzerland, situated at the extreme south-west corner both of
the country and of the Lake of Geneva or Lake Leman. The
canton is, save Zug, the smallest in the Swiss Confederation,
while the dty, long the most populous in the land, Is now sur-
passed by Zurich and by Basel.
The canton has an area of 108*9 sq. m -> of whkh 88*5 sq. m. are
classed as " productive " (forests covering 9-9 sq. m. and vine-
yards 6-8 sq. m., the rest being cultivated land). Of
^L^ the " unproductive n 20-3 sq. m., 1 1 \ are accounted for
by that portion of the Lake of Geneva which belongs to
the canton. It is entirely surrounded by French territory (the
department of Haute Savoie lying to the south, and that of. the
Ain to the west and the north), save for about 3} m. on the
extreme north, where it borders on the Swiss canton of Vaud.
The Rhone flows through it from east to west, and then along its
south-west edge, the total length of the river in or within the
canton being about 13 m., as it is very sinuous. The turbid Arve is
by far its largest tributary (left), and flows from the snows of the
chain of Mont Blanc, the only other affluent of any size being
the London (right). Market gardens, orchards, and vineyards
occupy a large proportion of the soil (outside the dty), the
apparent fertility of which is largely due to the unremitting
industry of the inhabitants. In 1001 there were 6586 cows,
3881 hones, 2468 swine and 2048 bee-hives In the canton.
Besides building materials, such as sandstone, slate, 8rc, the only
mineral to be found within the canton is bituminous shale, the
products of which can be used for petroleum and asphalt. The
broad-gauge railways in the canton have a length of x8] m., and
include bits of the main lines towards Paris and Lausanne (for
Bern or the Simplon), while there are also 72} m. of electric
tramways. The canton was admitted into the Swiss Confedera-
tion in 181 5 only, and ranks as the junior of the 23 cantons.
In 1815-1816 it was created by adding to the old territory
belonging to the city (just around it, with the outlying districts of
Jussy, Genthod, Satigny and Cartigny) 16 communes (to the south
and east, including Carouge and Chine) ceded by Savoy, and 6
communes (to the north, including Versoix), cut off from the
French district of Gex.
In 1900 there were, not counting the dty, 37*813 inhabitants
in the canton, or, including the dty, 132,609, the dty alone having
thus a population of 104,706. (In the following statistics those
for the dty are enclosed within brackets.) In 1000 this popula-
tion was thus divided in point of religion: Romanists, 67,162
(49*065), Protestants, 63,400 ($2,1*1), and Jews 1119 (to8i).
In point of language 109,741 (84,159) were French-apeiking,
13*343 (",004) German-speaking, and 734$ (6574) Italian-
speaking, while there were also 89 (76) Romonsch- ^^
speaking persons. More remarkable are the results as ffnnrtal
to n a tion a li ty: 43.55© (31 1607) were Genevese dtisens, «•«<*>.
and 36,415 (30,582) Swiss dtisens of other cantons;
Of the s*M* (42*607) foreigners, there were 34.377 (26,018)
French, 10, ax 1 (91 26) Italians, 4653 (4383) subjects of the German
empire, 583 (468) British subjects, 832 (777) Russians, and 285
(351) dtisens of the United States of America. In the canton
there were 10,8s x (5683) inhabited houses, while the number
of separate households was 35,45© (28,631). Two points as to
these statistics deserve to be noted. The number of foreign
residents is steadily rising, for in 1900 there were only 7946$
(63,189) Swiss in all as against 53,644 (43,607) foreigners. One
result of this foreign iminigration, particularly from France and
Italy, has been the rapid increase of Romanists, who now form
the majority in the canton, while in the dty they were still
slightly less numerous than the Protestants in 1900; later
(local) statistics give in the Canton 75,400 Romanists 10*64,200
Protestants, and in the city 53,638 Romanists to 51,221 Pro-
testants. Geneva has always been a favourite residence of
foreigners, though few ran ever have expected to bear that the
M protestant Rome " has now a Romanist majority as regards
its inhabitants. Galiffe (Genh$ hist. * a nM ido g .) estimates
the population in 1356 at 5800, and in 1404 at 6490, in both
cases within the fortifications. In 1536 the old dty acquired the
outlying districts mentioned above, as well as the suburb of
St Gervais on the right bank of the Rhone, so that in 1545 the
number is given as 12,500, reduced by 1573 to 11, 00a After
the revocation of the Edict of Nantes (1685) it rose, by 1698,
to 16,934. Thenceforward the progress was fairly steady:
18,500 (1711); «4,7i3 (1783); 26,140 (1789). After the creation
of the canton (1815) the numbers were (those for the dty are
enclosed within brackets) 48,489 (25,289), the dty rising in 1837
to 33,714, and in 1843 to 36,453. The result of the Federal
censuses (begun in 1850) are as follows: in 1850, 64,146 (43,127);
in i860, 83,876 (59,826); in 1870, 88,791 (65,606); in x88o,
99,713 (76,197)* *nd "l x888, 105,509 (81,407).
The canton comprises 3 administrative districts: the 13
communes on the right bank and the 34 on the left bank each
form one, while the dty proper, on both sides of the
river, forms one district and one commune. From mmL
1815 to 1842 the dty and the cantonal government
was the same. But at that date the dty obtained its inde-
pendence, and is now ruled by a town council of 41 members,
and an executive of 5 members, the election in each case being
made direct by the dtisens, and the term of office being 4 years.
The existing cantonal constitution dates, in most of its main
features, from 1847. The legislature or Grand Constil (now com-
posed of 100 members) b elected (in the proportion of 1 member
for every 1000 inhabitants or fraction over 500) for 3 yean
by a direct popular vote, subject (since 1892) to the principles
of proportional representation, while the executive or constil
tfitat (7 members) is elected (no proportional representation)
by a popular vote for 3 years. By the latest enactments (one
dating from 1905) 2500 dtisens can claim a vote (" facultative
referendum ") as to any legislative project, or can exerdse the
" right of initiative " as to any such project or as to the revision
of the cantonal constitution. The canton sends 2 members
(elected by a popular vote) to the Federal Sl&nderatk, and 7 to
the Federal Nationalraih.
The Consistory rules the Established Protestant Church, and
fa now composed of 31 members, 25 being laymen and 6 (formerly
1 5) clerics, while the " venerable company of pastors " ^rr,^,
(pastors actually holding cures) has greatly lost its
former importance and can now only submit proposals to the
Consistory. The Christian Catholic Church fa also established"
at Geneva (since 1873) and is governed by the e+nstil suptricur,
composed of 35 lay members and 5 derics. No other religious
denominations are " established " at Geneva. But the Romanists
(who form 13 % of the electors) are steadily growing in numbers
588
GENEVA
and in influence, while the Christian Catholics are losing ground
rapidly, the highest number of votes received by a candidate
for the conseil suptriemr having fallen from 9003 in 1874 to 806
In 1890 and 507 in 1006, while they are abandoning the country
churches (some were lost as early as 1892) which they had taken
from the Romanists in the course of the Kulturkompf,
The fairs of Geneva (held 4 times a year) are mentioned as
early as 1262, and attained the height of their prosperity about
to-ta- _ r# 1450, but declined after Louis XL's grants of 1462-
mmm * r ' ,463 m favour of the fairs of Lyons. Among the
chief articles brought to these fairs (which were largely fre-
quented by Italian, French and Swiss merchants) were doth,
silk, armour, groceries, wine, Umber and salt, this last coming
mainly from Provence. The manufacturers of Geneva formed
in 1487 no fewer than 38 gilds, including tailors, hatters, mercers,
weavers, tanners, saddle-makers, furriers, shoe-makers, painters
on glass, ftc. Goldsmiths are mentioned as early as 129a
Printing was introduced in 1478 by Steinschaber of Schweinfurth,
and flourished much in the 16th century, though the rigorous
supervision exercised by the Consistory greatly hampered the
Estiennes (Stephanus) in their enterprises. Nowadays the best
known industry at Geneva is that of watchmaking, which was
introduced in 1587 by Charles Cusin of-Autun, and two years
later regulations as to the trade were issued. In 1685 there were
in Geneva 100 master watchmakers, employing 300 work-people,
who turned out 5000 pieces a year, while in 1760 this trade
employed 4000 work-people. Of recent years its prosperity
has diminished greatly, so that the watchmaking and jewelry
trades in 1902 numbered respectively but 38 and 32 of the 394
establishments in Geneva which were subject to the factory
laws. Lately, huge establishments have been constructed for
the utilization of the power contained in the Rhone. The local
commerce of Geneva is much aided by the fact that the city is
nearly entirely surrounded by" free zones," in which no customs
duties are levied, though the districts are politically French:
this privilege was given to Gez in 18 14, and to the Savoyard
districts in i860, when they were also neutralized.
Considering the small size of Geneva, till recently,it is surprising
how many celebrated persons have been connected with it as
natives or as residents. Here are a few of the principal,
JSt*^ special articles being devoted to many of them in this
work. In the 16th century, besides Calvin and Bonivaxd,
we have Isaac Casaubon, the scholar; Robert and Henri Estienne,
the printers, and, from 1572 to 1574, Joseph Scaliger himself,
though but for a short time. J. J. Rousseau is, of course, the
great Genevese of the z8th century. At that period, and in the
19th century, Geneva was a centre of light, especially in the case
.of various of the physical sciences. Among the scientific
celebrities were de Saussure, the most many-aided of all; de
Gandolle and Boissier, the botanists; Alphonse Favre and
Necker, the geologists; Marignac, the chemist; Dcluc, the
physicist, and Plantamour, the astronomer. Charles Bonnet
was both a scientific man and a philosopher, while Amiel belonged
to the latter class only. Pradier and Chaponniere, the sculptors;
Arlaud, Diday and Calame, the artists; Mallet, who revealed
Scandinavia to the literary world; Necker, the minister;
Sismondi, the historian of the Italian republics; General Dufour,
author of the great survey which bears the name of the " Dufour
Map," have each a niche in the Temple of Fame. Of a less
severe type were Cherbuliez, the novelist; TGpffer, who spread
a taste for pedestrianism among Swiss youth; Ducbosal, the
poet; Marc Monnier, the litterateur; not to mention the names
of any persons still living, or of politicians of any date.
The city of Geneva is situated at the south-western extremity
of the beautiful lake of the same name, whence the " arrowy
Rhone " flows westwards under the seven bridges by
2l*J r which the two halves of the town communicate with
r ---J- each other. To the south is the valley of the Arve
(descending from the snows of the Mont Blanc chain),
which unites with that of the Rhone a little below the town;
while behind the Arve the grey and barren rocks of the Petit
Saiive rise like m wall, which in turn is overtopped by the distant
and ethereal snows of Mont Blanc Yet the actual site of the
town as not as picturesque as that of several other spots in
Switzerland. Though the cathedral crowns the hillock round
which dusters the old part of the town, a targe portion of the
newer town is built on the alluvial flats on either bank of the
Rhone. Since the demolition of the fortifications in 1849 the
town has extended in every direction, and particularly on the
right bank of the Rhone. It possesses many edifices, public
and private, which are handsome or elegant, but it has almost
nothing to which the memory reverts as a masterpiece of archi-
tectural art. It is possible that this is, in part, due to the artistic
blight of the Calvinism which so long dominated the town. But,
while lacking the medieval appearance of Fribourg or Bern, or
Sion or Coire, the great number of modem fine buildings in
Geneva, hotels, villas, &c, gives it an air of prosperity and
comfort that attracts many visitors, though on others modern
French architecture produces a blinding glare. On the other
hand, there are broad quays along the river, while public gardens
afford grateful shade.
The cathedral (Protestant) of St Pierre is the finest of the older
buildings in the city, but is a second-rate building, though as
E. A. Freeman remarks, " it is an excellent example of a small
cathedral of its own style and plan, with unusually little later
alteration." The hillock on which it rises was no doubt the site of
earlier churches, but the present Transitional building dates only
from the 12th and 13th centuries, while its portico was built in the
x8lh century, after the model of the Pantheon at Rome. It
contains a few sepulchral monuments, removed from the cloisters
(pulled down in 1721), and a fine modern organ, but the historical
old bell La CUmtnce has been replaced by a newer and larger one
which bears the same name, More interesting than the church
itself is the adjoining chapel of the Maccabees, built in the 15th
century, and recently restored. Near the cathedral are the
arsenal (now housing the historical museum, in which are pre-
served many relics of the " Escalade " of 1602, including the
famous ladders) , and the maison de ville or town hafl. The latter
building is first mentioned in 1448, but most of the present
building dates from far later times, though the quaint paved
spiral pathway (taking the place of a staircase in the interior) was
made in the middle of the 16th century. In the Salle du Conseil
d'£kU some curious 15th-century frescoes have lately been
discovered, while the old Salle des Festins is now known as the
Salle derAJabama, in memory of the arbitration tribunal of 1872.
In the xsth-century Tour Baudet, adjoining the Town Hall, are
preserved the rich archives of the city. Not far away is the
palais de justice, built in 1709 as a hospital, but used as a court
house since 1858. On the tie in the Rhone stands the tower
(built c. x 219) of the old castle belonging to the bishop. Among
the modern buildings we may mention the following, the
University ( founded in 1559, but raised to the rank of a University
in 1873 only), the Athcnee, the Conservatoire de Musique, the
Victoria Hall (a concert hall, presented In 1904 to the city by
Mr Barton, formerly H.B.M.'s Consul), the theatre, the Salle dela
Reformation (for religious lectures and popular concerts), the
Bailment Electoral, the Russian church and the new post office.
At present the museums of various kinds at Geneva are widely
dispersed, but a huge new building in course of construction (1006)
will ultimately house most of them. The Musee Rath contains
pictures and sculptures; the Musee Fol, antiquities of various
dates; the Musee des Arts Decoratifs. inter alia, a fine collection of
prints; the Musee Industrie!, industrial objects and models; the
Musee Archeologique, prehistoric and archaeological remains; the
Musee d'HistoireNaturelle, scientific collections, and the Musee
Epigraphique, a considerable number of inscriptions. Some way
out of the town is the Musee Ariana (extensive art collections),
left, witha fine park, in 1800 to the city by a rich citizen, Gustave
Revilliod. The public library is in the university buildings and
contains many valuable MSS. and printed books. Geneva boasts
also of a fine observatory and of a number of technical schools
(watchmaking, chemistry, medicine, commerce, fine arts, &c.).
some of which are really annexes of the university, which in June
1906 was attended by 1158 matriculated students, of whom 903
GENEVA
589
were non-Swiss, the Russians (47 s in number) forming the
majority of the foreign students. Geneva is well supplied with
charitable institutions, hospitals, &c. Among other remarkable
sights of the city may be mentioned the great hydraulic establish-
ment (built 1882-1809) of the Fonts Matrices du Rhine (turbines),
the singular monument set up to the memory of the late duke of
Brunswick who left his fortune to the city in 1873, and the tie
Jean-Jacques Rousseau now connected with the Pont des Bcrgues.
The house occupied by Rousseau is No. 40 in the Grand' Rue,
while No. 13 in the same street is on the site of Calvin's house,
though not the actual dwelling inhabited by him.
The real name of the city is Genava, that being the form under
which it appears in almost all the known documents up to the
tBstotTt 7th century, a.d., the variation Genua (which has led to
great confusion with Genoa) being also found in the 6th
century. But Geneva and Gehenna are of later date. The first
mention of the city is made by Caesar (Bell. Galli. i. 6-7) who tells
us that it was the last oppidum of the Allobroges, and the nearest
to the territory of the Helvetia, with which it was connected by a
bridge that, for military reasons, he was forced to destroy.
Inscriptions of later date state that ft was only a vicus of the
Viennese province, while mentioning the fact that a gild of
boatmen flourished there. But the many Roman remains found
on the original site(in the region of the cathedral) of the city show
that it must have been of some importance, and that it possessed
a considerable commerce. About 400 the Notitia Galliarmm calls
it a chtias (so that it then had a municipal administration of its
own), and reckons it as first among those of the Viennese. Prob-
ably this rise in dignity was connected with the establishment of a
bishop's see there, the first bishop certainly known, Isaac, being
heard of about 400 in a letter addressed by St Eucherius to
Salvrus, while, in 450, a letter of St Leo states that the see was
then a suffragan of the archbishopric of Vienne. It is possible
that there may be some ground for the local tradition that
Christianity was introduced into this region by Dionysius and
Paracodus, who successively occupied the see of Vienne, but
another tradition that the first bishop was named St Naaarius
rests on a confusion, as that saint belongs to Genoa and not to
Geneva.
About the middle of the 5th century a.d. it came into the
possession of the Burgundians, who held it as late as 527 (thus
leaving no room for any occupation by the Ostrogoths), and in
534 passed into the hands of the Franks. The Burgundian kings
seem to have made Geneva one of their principal residences, and
the Notitia (above named) tells us that the dty was restaurata by
Ring Gundibald (d. 516) which is generally supposed to mean
that he first surrounded it with a wall, the dty then comprising
little more than the hill on which the present cathedral stands.
That building is of course of much later date, but it seems certain
that when (c. 513-516) Sigismund, son of King Gundibald, built
a stone church on the site, it took the place of an earlier wooden
church, constructed on Roman foundations, all three layers
being dearly visible at the present day. We know that St
A vitus, archbishop of Vienne (d. 518), preached a sermon (pre-
served to us) at the dedication of a church at Geneva which had
been built on the site of one burnt by the enemy, and the bits of
half-burnt wood found in the second of the two layers mentioned
above, seem to make it probable that the reference is to Sigis-
mund's church. But Geneva was in no sense one of the great
dties of the region, though it is mentioned in the Antonine
Itinerary and in the Ptulingcr Tabic (both 4th century \s>.), no
doubt owing to its important position on the bank of the Rhone,
which then rose to the foot of the hill on which the original dty
stood. This is no doubt the reason why, apart from some passing
allusions (for instance, Charles the Great hdd a council of war
there in 773, on his first journey to Italy), we hear very little
about it.
In 1032, with the rest of the kingdom of Burgundy or Aries, it
reverted to the emperor Conrad II.,wbo was crowned king at
Payerne in 1033, and in 1034 was recognised as such at Geneva
by a great assembly of nobles from Germany, Burgundy and
Italy, this rather unwilling surrender signifying the union of
those 3 kingdoms. It is said that Conrad granted the temporal
sovereignty of the dty to the bishop, who, in 1x62, was raised
to the rank of a prince of the Holy Roman Empire, being elected,
from x2i 5, by the chapter, but, after 1418, named directly by the
pope himself.
Like many other prince-bishops, the ruler of Geneva had to
defend his rights: without against powerful neighbours, and
within against the rising power of the dtizens. These struggles
constitute the entire political history of Geneva np to about
1 535. w hen a new epoch of unrest opens with the adoption of
Protestantism. The first foe without was the family of the counts
of the Genevois (the region south of the'dty and in the neighbour-
hood of Annecy), who were also " protectors " (advocali) of the
church of Geneva, and are first heard of in the nth and 12th
centuries. Their influence was probably never stronger than
during the rule as bishop (1118-1119) of Guy, the brother of the
reigning count. But his successor, Humbert de Grammont,
resumed the grants made to the count, and in x 125 by the Accord
of Seyssd, the count fully acknowledged the suzerainty of the
bishop. A fresh struggle under Bishop Ardutius (1x35-1 185)
ended in the confirmation by Frederick Barbarossa, as emperor,
of the position of the bishop as subject to no one but himself
(1 x 53), this declaration being strengthened by the elevation of the
bishop and his successors to the rank of princes of the empire
(1162).
In x 2 50 the counts of Savoy first appear in connexion with
Geneva, being mortgagees of the Genevois family, and, in 1263,
practically their heirs as " protectors " of the dty. It was thus
natural that the dtizens should invoke the aid of Savoy against
their bishop, Robert of the Genevois (1276-1287). But Count
Amadeus of Savoy not merely seised (1 287) the castle built by the
bishops (about 1219) on the lie, but also (1288) the office of
needemimu [vidornne], the official through whom the bishop
exercised his minor judicial rights. The new bishop, William of
Conflans (1287-1205) could recover ndther, and in zsoo had to
formally recognize the position of Savoy (which was thus legalized)
in his own cathedral dty. It was during this struggle that about
1287 (these privileges were finally sanctioned by the bishop In
1309) the dtizens organized themselves into a commune or
corporation, elected 4 syndics, and showed their independent
position by causing a seal for the dty to be prepared. The bishop
was thus* threatened on two sides by foes of whom* the influence
was rising, and against whom his struggles were of no avail In
1365 the count obtained from the emperor the office of imperial
vicar over Geneva, but the next bishop William of Marcossay
(1366-1377 : he began the construction of a new wall round the
greatly extended dty, a process not completed till 1428) secured
the withdrawal of this usurpation (1366-1367), which the count
finally renounced (1371). One of that bishop's successors,
Adhexnar Fabri (1385-1388) codified and confirmed all the
franchises, rights and privileges of the dtizens (1387), this grant
being the Magna Carta of the dty of Geneva. In 1401 Amadeus
YTII. of Savoy bought the county of the Genevois, as the dynasty
of its rulers had become extinct. Geneva was now surrounded on
all sides by the dominions of the bouse of Savoy.
Amadeus did homage, in 1405, to the bishop for those of the
newly acquired lands which he held from the bishop. But, after
his power had been strengthened by his devation (14x7) by the
emperor to the rank of a duke, and by his succession to the
prindpality of Piedmont (14x8, long held by a cadet branch of his
house), Amadeus tried to purchase Geneva from its bishop, John
of Piefre-Sds6 or Rochetaillee (1418-14"). This offer was
refused both by theJ>ishop and by the dtizens, while in 1420 the
emperor Sigismund declared that he alone was the suzerain of the
dty, and forbade any one to attack it or harm it in any fashion.
Oddly enough Amadeus did in the end get hold of the dty, for,
having been elected pope under the name of Felix V., be named
himself to the vacant see of Geneva (1444), and kept it, after his
resignation of the Papacy in 1449* tOl his death in 1451 • For the
most part of this period he resided in Geneva. From 1451 to
1532 the see was almost continuously held by a cadet of the house
cd Savoy ^bicn\Swi\xt»X«\\\. i&Otat\<a.*3R»»*£~
59°
GENEVA
Most probably Geneva would soon have become an integral
part of the realms of the house of Savoy had it not been for the
appearance of a new protector on the scene— the Swiss confedera-
tion. In the early 15th century the town of Fribourg made an
alliance with Geneva for commercial purposes (the cloth ware-
houses of Fribourg at Geneva being enlarged in 1432 and 1465),
as the cloth manufactured at Fribourg found a market in the
fairs of Geneva (which are mentioned as early as 1 262, and were
at the height of their prosperity about 1450) . Hie duke, however,
was no better inclined towards the Swiss than towards Geneva.
He struck a blow at both, when, in 1461-1463, he induced ms son-
in-law, Louis XL of France, to forbid French merchants to attend
the fairs of Geneva, altering also the days of the fairs at Lyons
(established in 1430 and increased in number in 1463) so as to make
them clash with those fixed for the. fairs of Geneva. This nearly
ruined Geneva, which, too, in 1477 had to pay a large indem-
nity to the Swiss army that, after the defeat of Charles the Bold,
duke of Burgundy, advanced to take vengeance on the dominions
of his ally, Yolande, dowager duchess of Savoy and sister of Louis
XI., as well as on the bishop of Geneva, her brother-in-law. But,
after this payment, the bishop made an alliance with the Swiss.
A prolonged attempt was made (151 7-1 530) by the reigning duke
of Savoy, Charles IIL (1504-1553), to secure Geneva for his
family, at first wkh the help of his bastard cousin John (1513-'
1522), the last of his house to hold the see. In this struggle the
syndic, Philibert Berthelier, succeeded in concluding (1519) an
alliance with Fribourg, which, however, had to be given up
almost immediately. It split the dtiaens into two parties; the
Eidgcnots relying on the Swiss, while the Mamdus (mamdukes)
supported the duke. Berthelier was executed in 1 5 19, and Ame
Levrier in 1524, but Bezanaon Hugues (d.1531) took their place,
and in 1526 succeeded in renewing the alliance with Fribourg and
adding to it one with Bern. This much enraged the duke, who
took active steps against the dtizens, and tried (1527) to carry
off the bishop, Pierre de la Baume (1522-1544), who soon found
it best to make his submission.
The Genevese, thus abandoned by their natural protector,
looked to the Swiss for help. They sent (October 1530) a con-
siderable army to save the dty. This armed intervention
compelled the duke to sign the treaty of St Julien (19th October)
by which he engaged not to trouble the Genevese any more,
agreeing that if he did so the two towns of Fribourg and Bern
should have the right to occupy his barony of Vaud. The two
towns also, by the decision given as arbitrators at Payerne (30th
December 1530), upheld their alliance with Geneva, condemned
the duke to pay all the expenses of the war, and confirmed the
clause as to their right to occupy Vaud; they also surrounding
the Cxercise of the powers of vidoinne by the duke with so many
restrictions that in 1 532 the duke, after much resistance, formally
agreed to recognize the alliance of Geneva with the two towns and
not to annoy the Genevese any more. Thus a legal tie between
Geneva and two of the Swiss cantons was established, while the
duke did not any longer venture to annoy the Genevese, as he dung
to his fine barony of Vaud. In the course of this struggle (and
especially after the last episcopal vidoinne had left the town in
1526) the municipal authorities of the dty greatly developed, a
pand ctmieU of 200 members being set up in imitation of those at
.Bern and at Fribourg, while within the larger assembly there was
a pctil eonseU of 60 members for more confidential business.
Thus 1530 marks the date at which Geneva became its own
mistress within, while allied externally with the Swiss confedera-
tion. But hardly had this settlement been readied when a fresh
dement of discord threatened to wholly upset matters— the
adoption of Protestant principles by the dty. Just before this
event, however, the fortifications were once more (1534) rebuilt
(bits still remain) and extended so as to take in several new
suburbs, induding that of St Gervais on the right bank of the
Rhone which, till then, seems to have been unenclosed (151 1-
15*7).
In 1532 William Fard, a Protestant preacher from Dauphine,
who had converted Vaud, &c., to the new belief, first came to
Geneva and settled there in 1 533. But although Bern supported
the Reform, Fribourg did not, and in 1534 withdrew from its
alliance with Geneva, while directly afterwards the duke of Savoy
made a fresh attempt to seize the city. On the 10th of August
1535 the Protestant faith was formally adopted by Geneva, but
an offer of help from France having been refused, as the dty was
unwilling to give up any of its sovereign rights, the duke's party
continued its intrigues. Finally Bern, fearing that Geneva might
fall to France instead of to itself, sent an army to protect the dty
(January 1536), but, not being able to persuade the citizens to
give up their freedom, had to content itself with the conquest of
the barony of Vaud and of the bishopric of Lausanne, thus acquir-
ing rich territories, while becoming close neighbours of Geneva
(January and March 2 536). Meanwhile Farel had been advancing
the cause of religious reform, which was definitively adopted on
the s 1st of May 1 536. In July 1536 a French refugee, John Calviu
(q.v.), came to Geneva for a night, but was detained by Fard who
found in him a powerful helper. The opposition party of the
Libtrtius succeeded in getting them both exiled in 1538, but, in
September 1541, Calvin was recalled (Fard spending the rest of
his life at Neuchatel, where he died 1565) to Geneva. Bora in
1 509, he was then about 3 2 years of age. He set up this theocracy
in Geneva, and ruled the reorganized republic with a strong hand
till his death in 1564, when he was succeeded by the milder
Theodore de Beza (1510-1605).
The great blot on Calvin's rule was his intolerance of other
thinkers, as exemplified by his burning of Gruet (1547) *nd of
Servetus (1553). But, on the other hand, he founded (1559) the
Academy, which, originally meant as a seminary for his preachers,
later greatly extended its scope, and in 1873 assumed the rank of
a University. The strict rule of Calvin drove out many old
Genevese families, while he caused to be received as dtiaens
many French, Italian and English refugees, so that Geneva
became not merely the " Protestant Rome " but also quite a
cosmopolitan little dty. The Bernese often interfered with the
internal affairs of Geneva (while Calvin, a Frenchman, naturally
looked towards France), and refused to allow the dty to conclude
any alliances save with itself. That alliance was finally renewed
in 1558, while in 1560 the Romanist cantons made one with the
duke of Savoy, a zealous supporter of the old faith. In 1564,
after long negotiations, Bern restored to the duke part of its
conquests of 1536, viz. Gex, the Genevois and the Chablais,
Geneva bring thus once more placed amid the dominions of tlbe
duke; though by the same treaty (that of Lausanne, October
1564, Calvin having died the preceding May) the alliance of Bern
with Geneva was maintained. In 1579 Geneva was induded in
the alliance conduded by France with Bern and Solcure, while in
x 584 Zurich joined Bern in another alliance with Geneva. The
struggle widened as Geneva became a pawn in the great attempt
of the duke of Savoy to bring back his subjects to the old faith,
his efforts being seconded by Francois de Sales, the " apostle of
the Chablais. " But the king of France, for political reasons,
opposed Savoy, with whom, however, he made peace in 1601:
In December 1602 Francois de Sales was consecrated bishop of
Geneva (since 1535 the bishops had lived at Annecy), and a few
days later the duke of Savoy made a final attempt to get hold of
the dty by a surprise attack in the night of n-iath December
X602 (Old Style), known in history as the " Escalade," as ladders
were used to scale the dty walls. It wis successfully repelled,
over 200 of the foe being slain, while 17 Genevese only perished.
Filled with joy at their rescue from this attack, the dtizens
crowded to their cathedral, where Beza (then 83 years of age)
bid them to sing the 124 th Psalm which has ever since been sung
on the anniversary of this great delivery. The peace of St Julien
(21st of July 1603) marked the final defeat of the duke of Savoy
in the long struggle waged (since 1290) by his house against the
dty of Geneva.
In the charter of 1387 we hear only of the amstS g§ninl
(composed of all male beads of families) which acted as the legis-
lature, and elected annually the executive of 4 syndics; no
doubt this form of rule existed earlier than 1387. Even before
X387 there was also the petit conseil or couseil ordinaire or cotaeQ
ttroi!, a body not recognized by the law, though it became very
GENEVA
powerful; it was composed of the 4 syndics, with several other
counsellors, and acted originally as the adviser of the syndics
who were legally responsible for the rule of the city. In 1457
we first hear of the Council of the Fifty (re-established in 150a
and later known as the Sixty), and in 1526 of the Council of the
Two Hundred (established in imitation of those of Bern and
Fribourg), both being summoned in special cases of urgency.
The members of both were named by the petit ctnstil, of which,
in turn, the members were confirmed or not by the Two Hundred.
By the Constitution of x 543 the conseil general had only the right
of choosing the 4 syndics out of a list of 8 presented by the
petti conseil and the Two Hundred, which therefore really elected
them, subject to a formal approbation on the part of the larger
body. This system was slightly modified in 1 568, the constitution
of that date lasting till 1794. The conseil gtniral fell more and
more into the background, the members of the other councils
gradually obtained the privilege of being irremovable, and the
system of co-optation resulted in the creation of a close monopoly
of political offices in the hands of a few leading families.
During the 17th and x8th centuries, while the Romanist
majority of the Swiss cantons steadily refused to accept Geneva
as even a subordinate member of the Confederation, the city
itself was distracted on several occasions by attempts of the
citizens, as a whole, to gain some share in the aristocratic govern-
ment of the town, though these attempts were only partially
successful But the last half of the x8th century marks the most
brilliant period in the literary history of Geneva, whether as
regards natives or resident foreigners, while in the succeeding
half century the number of Genevese scientific celebrities is
remarkable. In 1704 the effects of the French Revolution were
shown in the more liberal constitution granted by the city
government. But in 1798 the city was annexed to France and
became the capital of the French department of Leman (to be
carefully distinguished from the Swiss canton of Le'man, that is
Vaud, of the Helvetic Republic, also set up in 1798), while in
1 80a, by the Concordat, the ancient bishopric of Geneva was
suppressed. On the fall of Napoleon (18x3) the city recovered
its independence, and finally, in 18x5, was received as the junior
member of the Swiss confederation, several bits of French and
Savoyard territory (as pointed out above) being added to the
narrow bounds of the old Genevese Republic in order to give
the town some protection against its non-Swiss neighbours.
The constitution of 1814 set up a common form of government
for the city and the canton, the city not obtaining its municipal
independence till the constitution of 1842. From 1535 to 1798
public worship according to the Romanist form had been strictly
forbidden. In 1799 already the first attempts were made to re-
establish it, and in 1803 the church of St Germain was handed
over to the Romanists. The constitution of 1814, looking for-
ward to the annexation of Romanist districts to the city territory
to form the new canton, guaranteed to that body the freedom
of worship, at any rate in these newly gained districts. In 18x9
the canton (the new portions of which were inhabited mainly
by Romanists) was annexed to the bishopric of Lausanne, the
bishop in 1821 being authorized to add M and of Geneva" to
bis episcopal style. After the adventure of the " Escalade "
the fortifications were once more strengthened and extended,
these works being completed about x 726. But, in 182s, some of
the bastions were converted into promenades, while in 1849 the
rest of the fortifications were pulled down so as to allow the city
to expand and gradually assume its present aspect.
When Geneva recovered its political independence in 1814 a
new constitution was drawn up, but it was very reactionary,
for there is no mention in it of the sovereignty of the people.
It set up a conseil rcpresentotif or legislature of 950 members,
which named the conseil d'Slat or executive, while it was itself
elected by a limited class, for the electoral qualification was
the annual payment of direct taxes to the amount of 20 Swiss
livres or about 23 shillings. It was not till 1842 that this system,
though much criticized, was modified. In the early part of 1841
the " Third of March Association " was formed to watch over
the interests of the citizens, and in November of that year the
59'
ilar demonstration to summon
n 1842 elaborated a new con.
e citizens. Besides bestowing
ct from that of the canton, it
a/ or legislature, and a caused
both elected for the term of 4
1 not seem liberal enough to
> government gave way to the
4-1878), who drew up a con-
»pular vote on the 2 xst of May
id than that of 1842, and in its
that date till 1864 the Radicals
\ being an able man, though
Jutism. Under his sway the
loped, but the finances were
:ame more and more a radical
i Geneve," sighed the conser-
te des grandes vflles, et pour
grandedes petite* vflles." In
secure his re-election to the
efeat, and the Federal troops
estore order.
conservative) ruled from 1865
; the finances of the state. In
supremacy under their new
9) and kept it till 1878. This
lie to the irritation caused by
attempt to revive thebishopric
1824-1891) was named in 1864
of Hebron in portibus, acting
ausanne. Early in 1873 the
ic of Geneva," but he was.ex-
witzerland, not returning till
ausanne, being made cardinal
nt enacted severe laws as to
,ve privileges to the Christian
d in 1874 in Switzerland, had
at Geneva by Pere Hyadnthe,
mists therefore were no longer
e persecuted in divers ways,
a their favour. The Democrats
traduced the "Referendum"
ition, but, their policy of the
saving been rejected by the
9 the Radicals. The Radicals
ats held the reins of power till
dor.. In 1891 they introduced
uU constitution, and in 289s
resentation so far as regards
Ltini did much to increase the
In 1897 the Radicals came in
orges Favon (1843-1001) till
s distant relative of James
f attempted to rule by aid of
uctuated as the demands of
n the 30th of June 1907 the
jd on the separation of Church
n genmois. 1,
Bdloc, Le Cardinal MermUlad
rckes sur Us engines des eriches
Mirg, 1906); J. D. Blavignac.
and Etudes sur Geneve depuis
>!*., Geneva, 1872-1874): Fr.
print) (2 vols., Geneva, 1867);
r V sihde (Geneva, 1892); Ch.
'* Geneve, 1550^79^ (Geneva.
the au temps de Calvin (Geneva,
d Geneve an temps it Thiodoee
e. La Guerre feedele de Genkwe
205-1320 (Geneva, X907); H.
*ton de Geneve {~ % "
(Geneva, 1905);
a minute topo-
f Geneva, an .
■one, 1905)1 E. Dttnant, U*
592 GENEVA CONVENTION
Nicaragua and Colombia abstaining and the conference was held
at Geneva in July 1006, when a lull revised convention was
adopted, which now takes the place of that of 1864. 1 The
adoption of the new Geneva Convention entailed a revision of
the above-mentioned Hague Convention and a new edition of the
latter is one of the documents adopted at the Peace Conference
of X007.
The new Geneva Convention consists of thirty-three articles
divided into the following chapters, (I) the wounded and sick;
(ii.) medical units and establishments; (iii.) personnel; (iv.)
material; (v.) convoys of evacuation; (vi.) the distinctive
emblem; (vii.) application and carrying out of the Convention
(viii.) prevention of abuses and infractions; (ix.) general pro-
The essential parts of the new Hague Convention of 1907
(18th of October) adapting the above conventions to maritime
warfare as follows: (N.B. The alterations are in italics. The
parts of the older convention of 1899 which have been suppressed
are in brackets).
L Military hospital-ships, that is to say, ships constructed or
assigned by states specially and solely for the purpose of assisting
the wounded, skk or shipwrecked, ana the names of -which shall
have been communicated to the belligerent powers at the commence-
ment or during the course of hostilities, and in any case before they
are employed, shall be respected and cannot be captured white
hostilities hut.
These ships, moreover, are not on the same footing as mmvof-war
as regards their stay in a neutral port.
ii. Hospital-ships, equipped wholly or In part at the cost of private
individuals or omcially-recogniied Relief Societies, shall likewist
be respected and exempt from capture, provided the belligerent
power to whom they belong has given them an official coountssioa
and has notified their names to the hostile power at the commence-
ment of or during hostilities, and in any case before tbeyareemployed.
These ships should be furnished with a certificate from the com-
petent authorities, declaring that they had been under their control
while fitting out and on final departure.
iii. Hospital-ships, equipped wholly or in part at the cost of
private individuals or officially-recognized Societies of neutral
countries shall be respected and exempt from capture (if the neutral
power to whom they belong has given them an official cosnmisrioa
and notified their names to the belligerent powess at the commence-
ment of or during hostilities, and in any case before they are em-
ployed) on conditio* that they are placed under the orders of om of
the belligerents, with Ike previous consent of their own Government and
with the authorisation of the belligerent, and on condition that the taller
shall have notified their names to the enemy at the commencement or
duringthe course of hostilities, in any event, before they are employed.
iv. The ships mentioned in Articles 2., n. and in. shall afford relief
and assistance to the wounded, sick and shipwrecked of the bel-
ligerents independently of their nationality.
The governments engage not to use these ships for any military,
purpose.
These ships must not in any way hamper the movements of the
combatants.
During and after an engagement they will act at their own risk
and peril.
The belligerents will have the right to control and visit them,
they can refuse to help them, order them off. make them cake s
certain course, and put a commissioner on board; they can even
detain them, if important circumstances require It.
As far as possible the belligerents shall inscribe in the sailing
papers of the hospital-ships the orders they give them.
v. The military hospital-ships shall be distinguished by being
painted white outside with a horizontal band of green about a metre
and a half in breadth.
The ships mentioned in Articles ii. and iii. shall be distinguished
by being painted white outside with a horizontal band of red about
a metre and a half in breadth.
The boats of the ships above mentioned, as also small craft which
may be used for hospital work, shall be distinguished by similar
All hospital-ships shall make themselves known by hoisting,
together with their national flag { the white flag with a red crow
provided by the Geneva Convention, end, in addition, if they belong
to a neutral Slate, by hoisting on the mainmast the national flag of the
beUifitrent under whose direction they are placed.
Hospital-ships which, under the terms of Article *»., are detained by
1 Another International Conference held in December 1004 at the
Hague dealt with the status of hospital-ships in time of war. Great
Britain did not take part in this Conference. Her abstention,
however, was not owing to any objection of principle, but purely
to considerations of domestic legislation.
GENEVA, LAKE OF— GENEVIEVE, ST
the enemy, must lower the national flag of the belligerent under whom
they were acting.
The abort-mentioned vessels and boats, desiring at night-lime la
ensure the respect due to them, shall, with the consent of the belligerenl
whom they are accompanying, take the necessary steps that the special
painting denoting them shall be sufficiently conspicuous.
vi. [Neutral merchantmen, yacht* or vessels, having, or taking on
board, sick, wounded or shipwrecked of the bcUigcrcnts, cannot be
captured for so doing, but they are liable to capture (or any violation
of neutrality ihcy may have' committed.)
The distinctive signs provided by Article v. can only be used, whether
in time of peace or m time of war, to protect ships therein mentioned.
vii. In the case of a fight on board a war-ship, the hospitals shall be
respecJtd and shall receive as much consideration as possible.
These hospitals and their belongings are, subject to the laws of war,
but shall not be employed for any other purpose so long as they shall be
necessary for the suk ana wounded.
Nevertheless, the commander who has them under his orders, may
make use of them in case of important military necessity, but he shall
first ensure the safely of the sick and wounded on board.
vui. The protection due to kospital- ships and to hospitals on board
war-ships shall cease if they are used aQdtnst Ihe enemy.
The fact that the crew of hospital- ships, and attached to hospitals on
war-ships, are armed for the maintenance of order and for the defence
of the sick or wounded, and. the existence of a radio-telegraph ic tnstalla-
iion on board, is not considered as a justification for withdrawing the
above-mentioned protection.
ix. Belligerents may appeal to the charitable seal of commanders of
neutral merchant vessels, yachts or other craft, to take on board and look
after the sick and wounded.
Ships having responded to this appeal, as well as those who have
spontaneously taken on board suk, wounded or shiptcreikcd men. shall
hitre the advantage of a special protection and of certain immunities.
In no case shall they be liable to capture on account of such transport;
but subject to any promise made to them they are liable to capture for
any violation of neutrality they may have committed.
Jvii.|x. The religious, medical or hospital staff of any captured
ship is inviolable, and its members cannot be made prisoners of war.
On leaving the ship they take with them the objects and surgical
instruments which arc their own private property.
This staff shall continue to discharge its duties while necessary,
and can afterwards leave when the commander-in-chief considers it
possible.
The belligerents must guarantee to the staff that has fallen into
their hands |thc enjoyment of their salaries intact | the same allow-
ances and pay as those of per ions of the same rank in their own navy.
Iviii.J xi. Sailors and soldiers, and other persons officially attached
to navies or armies, who are taken on board when sick or wounded,
to whatever nation they belong, shall be [protected] respected and
looked after by the captors.
xii. Every vessel of u-ar of a belligerent party may claim the return
of the wounded, sick or shipwrecked who are on board military hospital-
ships, hospital-ships of aid societies or of private individuals, merchant
ships, yachts or other craft, whatever be the nationality of these vessels.
xiii. 7/ the wounded, suk or shipwrtched are received on board a
neutral ship of war, it shall be provided, as far as possible, that they
may take no further part in war operations.
xiv. The shipwrecked, wounded or sick of one of the belligerents
who fall into the hands of the other, arc prisoners of war. The
captor must decide, according to circumstances, if it is best to keep
them or send them to a port of his own country, to a neutral purt,
or even to a hostile port. In the last case, prisoners thus repatriated
cannot serve as long as the war lasts.
xv. The shipwrecked, wounded or sick who arc landed at a neutral
port with the consent of the local authorities, must, failing a contrary
arrangement between the neutral State and the belligerents, lie
guarded by the neutral State, so that they may not be again able to
take part in the military operations.
T'
*he
GENEVA, LAKE OF, the largest lake of which any portion
belongs to Switzerland, and indeed in central Europe. It is
called Lacus Lemannus by the old Latin and Greek writers, in
4th century a.d. Lacus Lausonius or Loso rules, in the middle ages
generally Lac de Lausanne, but from the 16th century onwards
Lac de Geneve, though from l be end of the i8lh century the name
Lac Uman was revived— according to Prof. Forcl Le Uman is the
proper form. Its area is estimated at 223 sq.m. (Swiss Topo-
graphical Bureau) or 225J sq. m. (Forcl), of which about 140 sq.
m. (134} sq. ra. Forcl) arc politically Swiss (123) sq. m. belonging
to the canton of Vaud, 11 J sq. m. to that of Geneva, and 5 sq. m.
to that of the Valais), the remainder (83 sq.m.) being French since
the annexation of Savoy in i860— the entire lake it included an
the territory (Swiss or Savoyard) neutralized by the congress of
Vienna in 18x5. The French part takes in ■early the whole of
xi to*
The expenses of hospital treatment and internment shall be borne by
t Slate to which the shipwrecked, wounded or sick belong. (T. Ba.)
593
nities, which
t its east end,
Quits it at its
ily important
the Vcveyse
rhkh the east
i towards the
le lake, from
The coast-line
i south shore
mean depth
:. Bureau) or
lth (between
is 5 m. The
the* strait of
les the Grand
rater portion
ar) being the
1 area of but
is long been
we get from
i»ch the river
ottom of the
Tithing of the
The limit of
ry 1891 Prof,
imer. Apart
ich is highest
Alpine snows
le temporary
ire to shore.
1 and trans-
it Geneva is
le lake, while
tutes for the
odal) and 10
he binodal).
s rather over
are irregular.
ise (from the
ns or vent da
The storm
icva) and the
ortion of the
iss lakes, one
Lhonc to fish
but twenty
fera. u the
1 in the 19th
is, have been
laced on the
eneva by aa
t Compagnie
and in 1875
llanc." But
he red lateen
ailway along
>ile f Morges,
:o Vittencuve
r the lake at
it Evian and
1 the harbour
e the surface
1 to be altars
farthest from
m of Switser-
was reduced
> be the real
rnment map
. A. Forel's
1-1904): also
lulour du lac
, A. B. C)
>atroness of
According
near Paris;
ut accounts
> the legend,
iuced by St
Lhe religious
Is, where she
r her austere
594
GENEVIfcVE OF BRABANT— GENIUS
when Attila with his army was threatening the city, she persuaded
the inhabitants to remain on the island and encouraged them by
an assurance, justified by subsequent events, that the attack
would come to nothing (451)- She is also said to have had
great influence over Childcric, father of Clovis, and in 460 to have
caused a church to be built over the tomb of St Denis. Her
death occurred about 51* and she was buried in the church of the
Holy Apostles, popularly known as the church of St Genevieve.
In 1793 the body was taken from the new church, built in her
honour by Louis XV., when it became the Pantheon, and burnt
on the Place dc Greve; but the relics were enshrined in a chapel
of the neighbouring church of St £tienne du Mont, where they
still attract pilgrims; her festival is celebrated with great pomp
on the 3rd of January. The frescoes of the Pantheon by Puvis de
Chavannes are based upon the legend of the saint.
Bibliography. — The main source is the anonymous Vita s.
Cenovefae virginis Parisiorum, published in 1687 by D. P. Char-
penticr. The genuineness of this life was attacked by B. Krusch
{Neves Archiv, 1893 and 1894) and defended by L. Duchesne.
Bibtiotkeque de VEuU des Charles (1893). Bulletin critique (1897),
473. Krusch continued to bold that the life was an 8th-century
forgery (Script ores rer. Iderov. iii. 204-338). See A. Poll hast,
BiUiothem medii aevi (133 1, 133a), and G. Kurth, Clevis, ii. 240-354.
The legends and miracles are given in thtBo\laMiis*%' AciaSancterum,
January 1st ; there is a short sketch by Henri Lesctre, Ste Genevieve,
m " Les Saints " series (Paris, 1900).
QENEVlftVB, Genoveva or Genovefa, OF BRABANT,
heroine of medieval legend. Her story is a typical example of the
widespread tale of the chaste wife falsely accused and repudiated,
generally on the word of a rejected suitor. Genovefa of Brabant
was said to be the wife of the palatine Siegfried of Treves, and was
falsely accused by the majordomo Golo. Sentenced to death she
was spared by the executioner, and lived for six years with her
son in a cave in the Ardennes nourished by a roe. Siegfried, who
had meanwhile found out Golo's treachery, was chasing the roc
when he discovered her hiding-place, and reinstated Her in her
former honour. Her story is said to rest on the history of Marie
of Brabant, wife of Louis II., duke of Bavaria, and count-palatine
of the Rhine, who was tried by her husband and beheaded on the
18th of January 1256, for supposed infidelity, a crime for which
Louis afterwards had to do penance. The change in name may
have been due to the cult of St Genevieve, patroness of Paris.
The tale first obtained wide popularity in V Innocence rcconnue, ou
vie deSainlc Genevieve dc Brabant (pr. 1638) by the Jesuit Rene de
Ceri&ier (1603-1662), and was a frequent subject for dramatic
representation m Germany. With Genovefa's history may be
compared the Scandinavian ballads of Ravengaard og M&mering,
which exist in many recensions. These deal with the history of
Gunild, who married Henry, duke of Brunswick and Schleswig.
When Duke Henry went to the wars he left bis wife in charge of
Ravengaard, who accused her of infidelity. Gunild is cleared
by the victory of her champion Memering, the " smallest of
Christian men." The Scottish ballad of Sir Aldingar is a version
of the same story. The heroine Gunhilda is said to have been the
daughter of Canute the Great and Emma. She married in 1036
King Henry, afterwards the emperor Henry III., and there was
nothing in her domestic history to warrant the legend, which is
given as authentic history by William of Malmesbury {De gestis
regum Anglorum % lib. ii. § 188). She was called Cunigund after her
marriage, and perhaps was confused with St Cunigund, the wife
of the emperor Henry II. In the Karlamagnus'saga the innocent
wife is Otiva, sister of Charlemagne and wife of King Hugo, and in
the French Carolingian cycle the emperor's wife Sibillc (La Rdne
Sibille) or Blanchcfleur (Macaire). Other forms of the legend are
to be found in the story of Doolin's mother in Doon delfoyence,
the English romance of Sir Triamour, in the story of the mother of
Octavian in Octavian the Em per or, in the German folk book
Historic von der geduldigen Kdnirin Crescenlia, based on a 13th-
century poem to be found in the Kaiserchronik; and the English
Erl of Toulouse (c. 1400). In the last-named romance it has been
suggested that the story gives the relations between Bernard I.
count of Toulouse, son of the Guillaume d'Orange of the Caro-
lingran romances, and the empress Judith, second wife of Louis
tbePiom.
Set F. J. Child, English and Scottish Popular Ballads, vol. ii.
'1886), art. "Sir Aldingar"; S. Grundtvig. Danske Koempeviur
Copenhagen, 1867); "Sir Triamore," in Bishop Percy's Folio US..
ed. Hales and Furnivall, vol. ii. (London, 1 86a); The Romanee ef
Octavian, ed. E. M. Goldsmid (Aungcrvylc Soc.. Edinburgh. 1882);
The Erl of Toulousand the Emperes of Almayn, ed. G. LUdtke ( Berlin.
1881); B. Scuffert. Die Legende von der Pfalzgrafin Genovefa (Wurz-
burg, 1877); B. Gob, Pfalzgrafin Genovefa in der deutschen Diehtung
(Lcipcig, 1897); R. Kohlvr. " Die deutschen Volkshuchcr von der
Pfalzgrafin Genovefa," in Zeitschr.fur deutsche Phdologie (1874).
GENGA, GIROLAMO (c. 1476-1 551), Italian painter and
architect, was born in Urbino about 1476. At the age of ten
he was apprenticed to the woollen trade, but showed so much
inclination for drawing that he was sent to study under an
obscure painter, and at thirteen under Luca Signorclli, with
whom he remained a considerable while, frequently painting
the accessories of his pictures. He was afterwards for three
years with Pietro Perugino, in company with Raphael. He
next worked in Florence and Siena, along with Timoteo della
Vile; and in the latter city he painted various compositions
for Pandolfo Pctrucci, the leading local statesman. Returning
to Urbino, he was employed by Duke Guidobaldo in the decora-
tions of his palace, and showed extraordinary aptitude for
theatrical adornments. Thence he went to Rome; and in the
church of S. Caterina da Siena, in that capital, is one of his most
distinguished works, " The Resurrection," remarkable both for
design and for colouring. He studied the Roman antiquities
with zeal, and measured a number of edifices; this practice,
combining with his previous mastery of perspective, qualified
him to shine as an architect. Francesco Maria della Rovere,
the reigning duke of Urbino, recalled Genga, and commissioned
him to execute works in connexion with his marriage-festivities.
This prince being soon afterwards expelled by Pope Leo X.,
Genga followed him to Mantua, whence he went for a time to
Pesaro. The duke of Urbino was eventually restored to his
dominions; he took Genga with him, and appointed him the
ducal architect. As he neared the dose of his career, Genga
retired to a house in the vicinity of Urbino, continuing still to
produce designs in pencil; one, of the " Conversion of St Paul,**
was particularly admired. Here he died on the nth of July
1551. Genga was a sculptor and musician as well as painter and
architect. He was jovial, an excellent talker, and kindly to his
friends. His principal pupil was Francesco Menzocchi. His
own son Bartolommeo (1 518-1558) became an architect of
celebrity. In Genga's paintings there is a great deal of freedom,
and a certain peculiarity of character consonant with bis versatile,
lively and social temperament. One of his leading works is
in the church of S. Agoslino in Ccscna — a triptych in oil-colours,
representing the " Annunciation," " God the Father in Glory,"
and the " Madonna and Child.*' Among his architectural
labours are the church of San Giovanni Battista in Pesaro;
the bishop's palace at Sinigaglia; the facade of the cathedral
of Mantua, ranking high among the productions of the 16th
century; and a new palace for the duke of Urbino, built on the
Monte Imperiale. He was also concerned in the fortifications
of Pesaro.
GENISTA, in botany, a genus of about eighty species of shrubs
belonging to the natural order Leguminosae, and natives of
Europe, western Asia and North Africa. Three are native in
Britain. G. anglica Is the needle-furze or petty whin, found
on heaths and moist moors, a spinous plant with slender
spreading branches 1 to 2 ft. long, very small leaves and short
racemes of small yellow papilionaceous flowers. The pollen is
emitted in a shower when an insect alights on it. G. Unci aria,
dyer's green-weed, the flowers of which yield a yellow dye, has
no spines. Other species are grown on rock- work or as green-
house plants.
GENIUS (from Lat. genere, gignere), a term which originally
meant, in Roman mythology, a generative and protecting spirit,
who has no exact parallel in Greek religion, and at least in his
earlier aspect is of purely Italian origin as one of the deities of
family or household. Every man has his genius, who is not his
creator, but only comes into being with him and is allotted to
• him it nvs \&i\b. Ka «. cxcita t \k\twci\\«. >tat v^v^ Vk tKtfxvttsd
GENLIS
595
to man, his place being taken by a Juno (cp. Juno Lucina,
the goddess of childbirth) in the case of women. The male and
female spirit may thus be distinguished respectively as the
protector of generation and of parturition (lulela generandi,
pariendi), although the female appears less prominent. It is
the genius of the paterfamilias that keeps the marriage bed,
named after him lectus genialis and dedicated to him, under his
special protection. The genius of a man, as his higher intellect ual
self, accompanies him from the cradle to the grave. In many
ways he exercises a decisive influence on the man's character
and mode of life (Horace, Epistles, ii. 2. 187). The responsi-
bility for happiness or unhappiness, good or bad fortune, lay
with the genius; but this does not suppose the existence of two
genii for man, the one good and the other bad (ayaBodalfmtp,
Ka«oSa(|tfi)v),anidca borrowed from the Greek philosophers. The
Roman genius, representing man's natural optimism, always
endeavoured to guide him to happiness; that man was intended
to enjoy life is shown by the fact that the Roman spoke of in-
dulging or cheating his genius of his due according as he enjoyed
himself or failed to do so, when he had the opportunity. A man's
birthday was naturally a suitable occasion for honouring his
genius, and on that occasion offerings of incense, wine, garlands,
and cakes were made (Tibullus ii. 2; Ovid, Tristia, iii. ij. 18).
As the representative of a man's higher self and participating
in a divine nature, the genius could be sworn by, and a person
could take an oath by his own or some one else's genius. When
under Greek influence the Roman idea of the gods became more
and more anthropomorphized, a genius was assigned to them,
not however as a dist inct personality. Thus wc hear of the genius
of Jupiter (Jovis Genio, C.l.L. i. 603), Mars, Juno, Pluto,
Priapus. In a more extended sense the genius is also the
generator and preserver of human society, as manifested in the
family, corporate unions, the city, and the state generally. Thus,
the genius publicus Populi Romani — probably distinct from the
genius Urbis Romae, to whom an old shield on the Capitol was
dedicated, with an inscription expressing doubt as to the sex
{Genio . . . she mas sive femina)— stood in the forum near
the temple of Concord, in the form of a bearded man, crowned
with a diadem, and carrying a cornu copiae and sceptre. It
frequently appears on the coins of Trajan and Hadrian. Sacrifice,
not confined to bloodless offerings like those of the genius of
the house, was offered to him annually on the 8th of October.
There were genii of cities, colonies, and even of provinces; of
artists, business people and craftsmen; of cooks, gladiators,
standard-bearers, a legion, a century, and of the army generally
(genius sanctus castrorum peregrinorum toliusque exercitus). In
imperial times the genius of Augustus and of the reigning
emperor, as part of the sacra of the imperial family, were publicly
worshipped. It was a common practice (often compulsory) to
swear by the genius of the emperor, and any one who swore
falsely was flogged. Localities also, such as theatres, baths,
stables, streets, and markets, had their own genius. The word
thus gradually lost its original meaning; the nameless local
genii became an expression for the universality of the dmnnm
numen and were sometimes identified with the higher gods.
The local genius was usually represented by a snake, the symbol
of the fruitfulness of the earth and of perpetual youth. Hence
snakes were usually kept in houses (Virgil, A en. v. 95; Persius
i. 113), their death in which was considered a bad omen. The
personal genius usually appeared as a handsome youth in a toga,
with head sometimes veiled and sometimes bare, carrying a
drinking cup and cornu copiae, frequently in the position of one
offering sacrifice.
See W. H. Roscher, Lexikon der Mythotogie. and article by J. A.
Hild in Darembcrg and Saglio, Dicixonnaxre des atUiquilis, where
full references to ancient and modern authorities are given; L.
Preller, Rdmiscke Afythologie, 3rd ed., by H . Jordan ; G. Wissowa,
Religion und Kultur der Rdmer.
Apart from the Latin use of the term, the plural " genii "
(with a singular " genie ") is used in English, as equivalent to
the Arabic jimm, for a class of spirits, good or bad, such as are
described, for Instance, in Tke Arabian Nights. But " genus "
}tweU has become the reguUr English word for the highest
conceivable form of original ability, something altogether
extraordinary and beyond even supreme educational prowess,
and differing, in kind apparently, from "talent," which is
usually distinguished as marked intellectual capacity short
only of the inexplicable and unique endowment to which the
term " genius " is confined. The attempt, however, to define
either quality, or to discriminate accurately between them, has
given rise to continual controversy, and there is no agreement
as to the nature of either; and the commonly quoted definitions
of genius—such as Carlyle's " transcendant capacity of taking
trouble, first of all," 1 in which the last three words are usually
forgotten— are either admittedly incomplete or are of the
nature of epigrams. Nor can it be said that any substantial
light has been thrown on the matter by the modern physiological
school, Lombroso and others, who regard the eccentricity of genius
as its prime factor, and study it as a form of mental derangement.
The error here is partly in ignoring the history of the word, and
partly in misrepresenting the nature of the fact. There are many
cases, no doubt, in which persons really insane, of one type or
another, or with a history of physical degeneration or epilepsy,
have shown remarkable originality, which may be described
as genius, but there are at least just as many in whom no such
physical abnormality can be observed. The word "genius"
itself however has only gradually been used in English to express
the degree of original greatness which is beyond ordinary powers
of explanation, &*. far beyond the capacity of the normal human
bei ng in creative work ; and it is a convenient term(like Nietzsche's
" superman ") for application to those rare individuals who in
the course of evolution reveal from time to time the heights to
which humanity may develop, in literature, art r science, or
administrative life. The English usage was originally derived,
naturally enough, from the Roman ideas contained in the term
(with the analogy of the Greek ftafpur), and in the 16th and
17th centuries we find it equivalent simply to "distinctive
character or spirit," a meaning still commonly given to the word.
The more modem sense is not even mentioned in Johnson's Die-
tionary, and represents an 18th-century development, primarily
due to the influence of German writers; the meaning of " dis-
tinctive natural capacity or endowment " had gradually been
applied specially to creative minds such as those of poets and
artists, by contrast with those whose mental ability was due to
the results of education and study, and the -antithesis has
extended since, through constant discussions over the attempt
to differentiate between the real nature of genius and that of
" talent," until we now speak of the exceptional person not
merely as having genius but as " a genius." This phraseology
appears to indicate some reversion to the original Roman usage,
and the identification of the great man with a generative spirit
Modern theories on the nature of " genius " should be studied
with considerable detachment, but there is much that is interesting
and thought-provoking in such works as J. F. Nisbct's insanity of
Genius (1801), Sir Francis Gallon's Hereditary Genius (new ed.,
1892), and C. Lombroso's Man of Genius (Eng. trans., 1891).
GENUS, 8l£PHANIE-FiUCn£ DU CREST DB SAINT*
AUBIN. Contuse de (1746-1830), French writer and educator,
was born of a noble but impoverished Burgundian family, at
Champcery, near Atftun, on the 25th of January 1 746. When six
years of age she was received as a canoness into the noble chapter
of Alix, near Lyons, with the title of Madame la Comtesse de
Lancy, taken from the town of Bourbon-Lancy. Her entire
education, however, was conducted at home. In 1758, in Paris,
her skill as a harpist and her vivacious wit speedily attracted
admiration. In her sixteenth year she was married to Charles
Brulart de Gcnlis, a colonel of grenadiers, who afterwards
became marquis de Sillery, but this was not allowed to interfere
with her determination to remedy her incomplete education, and
to satisfy a taste for acquiring and imparting knowledge. Some
years later, through the influence of her aunt, Madame de
Montesson, who had been clandestinely married to the duke of
Orleans, she entered the Palais Royal aa lady-in-waiting to the
duchess of Chartres (1 7 70). She acted with great energy and seal
as go ve rn es s to the daugjhtert <A the (ftn&j ,vsd ^m& <st v^v
* ftcfcrkkteGrttA.Wvsu\sf*i.
596
GENNA— GENNADIUS
appointed by the duke of Chart res to the responsible office of
gonerneur of his sons, a bold step which led to the resignation of
all the tutors as well as to much social scandal, though there is no
reason to suppose that the intellectual interests of her pupils
suffered on that account. The better to carry out her ingenious
theories of education, she wrote several works for their use, the
best known of which are the Tkedtre d'tducaUon (4 vols., 1770-
.1780), a collection of short comedies for young people, Lts
Annates de la vertu (2 vols., 1781) and Adele et Theodore (3 vols.,
178a). Sainte-Beuve tells how she anticipated many modern
methods of teaching. History was taught with the help of magic
lantern slides and her pupils learnt botany from a practical
botanist during their walks. In 1 789 Madame de Genlis showed
herself favourable to the Revolution, but the fall of the Girondins
in 1793 compelled her to take refuge in Switzerland along with her
pupil Mademoiselle d 'Orleans. In this year her husband, the
marquis de Sillery, from whom she had been separated since 1782,
was guillotined. An " adopted " daughter, Pamela, 1 had been
married to Lord Edward Fitzgerald (q.v.) in the preceding
December.
In 1704 Madame de Genlis' fixed her residence at Berlin, but,
having been expelled by the orders of King Frederick William,
she afterwards settled in Hamburg, where she supported herself
for some years by writing and painting. After the revolution of
18th Brumaire (1709) she was permitted to return to France,
and was received with favour by Napoleon, who gave her apart-
ments at the arsenal, and afterwards assigned her a pension of
6000 francs. During this period she wrote largely, and pro-
duced, in addition to some historical novels, her best romance,
Mademoiselle de Clermont (1802). Madame de Genlis had lost
her influence over her old pupil Louis Philippe, who visited her
but seldom, although he allowed her a small pension. Her
government pension was discontinued by Louis XVIII., and she
supported herself largely by her pen. Her later years were
occupied largely with literary quarrels, notably with that which
arose out of the publication of the Diners du Baron d'Holbach
(1822), a volume in which she set forth with a good deal of
sarcastic cleverness the intolerance, the fanaticism, and the
eccentricities of the " philosophes " of the 18th century. She
survived until the 31st of December 1830, and saw her former
pupil, Louis Philippe, seated on the throne of France:
and used technically by anthropologists to describe a class of
social and religious ordinances based on sanctions which derive
their validity from a vague sense of mysterious- danger which
results from disobedience to them. These prohibitions— or
system of things forbidden— affect the relations, permanent and
temporary, of individuals (either as members of a tribe, village,
dan or household, or as occupying an official position in the
village or clan) towards other persons or groups of persons and
towards material objects which possess intrinsic sanctity. The
term is extended to the communal rites performed by the village,
dan or household, either as magical ceremonies or as prophy-
lactics on special occasions when the social, commensal, conjugal
and alimentary relations of the group affected are subjected to
temporary modifications. These practices and beliefs are observed
among the hill tribes of Assam from the Abors and Mishmis on
the north to tbeLusheis on the south, all linguistically members
'See Genld CntopbeU. Edward €mdP%mdofiX»rtr old (1905).
of the Tibeto-Burman group, and among the Khasis, members of
the Mon-Khmcr group. Genna and taboo (?.t.) are products of
an identical levd of culture and similar psychological processes,
and provide the mechanism of the social and religious systems.
Permanent Gennas. — The only universal genna is that which
forbids the intermarriage of members of the same dan. In some
cases in Manipur animals are genna to the tribe — i.e. they must
not be killed or eaten — but tribal differentiation is, in practice,
based on dialectical distinctions rather than on tribal gennas.
The village as such possesses no permanent gennas, but the clans,
as the units of marriage under the law of exogamy, have distinct
elementary gennas, especially the clan to which the priest -chief
belongs. The most important individual gennas are those which
protect the priest-chief from impurity or contact with " sacred "
substances such as the flesh of animals used in sacrifices. He may
ndther eat in a strange house, nor utter words of abuse, nor take
an oath in a dispute, except in his representative capadty on
behalf of his village. The first-fruits are genna to the village
until be eats, thus establishing an opposition between him and his
co-villagers. Married and unmarried women are subject to ali-
mentary gennas; thus unmarried girls. are forbidden the flesh of
any male animal or of any female animal dying gravid.
Ritual Gennas. — Ritual gennas are held annually to foster the
rice crops, all other industries and activities being genna (for*
bidden) during the cultivating season, to secure good hunting, to
avert sickness, especially epidemics, to take omens, and to lay
finally to rest the ghosts of all that have died within the year.
The village gates are closed, men and women eat apart, and con-
jugal relations are suspended. Spedal village gennas are held
when rain is needed, when a villager dies in any manner out of the
ordinary, as women in childbirth, when an animal gives birth to
still-born offspring, and when any permanent genna has been
violated. Clan gennas are held for all ordinary cases of death.
Household gennas arc held on the occasions of birth (when the
aliment and conduct of the father are specially regulated),
naming, ear-piercing, the first hair-cutting, sickness, and, in certain
areas, tattooing. Individuals are subjected to temporary gennas
as warriors both before and after a head-hunting raid, pregnant
women, married persons at the beginning of their married life,
the wives of the priest-chief, and those who from ambition or
pride of wealth seek to perpetuate their names by erecting a
stone monument, an act which confers the right to wear the
distinctive dothes of the priest-chief which otherwise are genua
to the whole village. Ritual gennas are of varying duration.
Some last for a month while others are complete in two days. As
religious or magical rites, they prevent danger or establish and
restore normal relations with powers which are potentially
harmful or require placatkra.
Authorities.— Official records of the government of India. No*
n O855). *7 0859). 68 (1870); ColonefT. H. Lewin. Uitt Tracts
liitagongji Report on the Census of^AssamJ l \^\)^ynA. i. Report,
n (»855). 27 (1859). 68 (1870); ColonefT. H. Lewin. Hitt Tracts
of Chittagong: Report on the Census of Assam (1801). vol. i. Report,
note by A. W. Davis, p. 237 seq.; Major P.R. T. Gordon, The
Kkasis (1907); T. C. Hodson, Journal of the Royal AntkropOmial
Instituit, vol. xxxvi. (1906). (T. C. H.)
GENNADIUS II. [as layman Georgios Scholauos] (d. &
1468), patriarch of Constantinople from 1454 to 1456, philosopher
and theologian, was one of the last representatives of Byzantine
learning. Extremdy little is known of his life, but he appears to
have been born at Constantinople about 1400 and to have entered
the service of the emperor John VII. Paleologus as imperial
judge or counsellor. Georgios first appears conspicuously
in history as present at the great coundl hdd in 1438.1t
Ferrara and Florence with the object of bringing about a union
between the Greek and Latin Churches. At the same council
was present the celebrated Platonist, Gemistus Pie t ho, the most
powerful opponent of the then dominant Arisloteliaiu'sm, and
consequently the special object of reprobation to Georgios.
In church matters, as in philosophy, the two were opposed —
Pletho maintaining strongly the principles of the Greek Church,
and being unwilling to accept union through compromise,
while Georgios, more politic and cautious, pressed the necessity
for union and was Instrumental in drawing up a form which from
1 Ua vagjueaa* msA us&uuVt inVgoaA* anaqaxkVn YsAk^pASav
GENOA
597
He was at a disadvantage because, being a layman, he could not
directly take part in the discussions of the council. But on his re-
turn to Greece his views changed, and he violently and obstinately
opposed the union he had previously urged. In 1448 he became a
monk at Pantokrator and took the name Gennadius. In 1453,
after the capture of Constantinople by the Turks, Mahommed II.,
finding that the patriarchal chair had been vacant for some time,
resolved to elect some one to the office, and the choice fell on
Gennadius. While holding the episcopal office Gennadius drew
up, apparently for the use of Mahommed, a lucid confession or
exposition of the Christian faith, which was translated into Turkish
by Ahmed, judge of Beroea, and first printed by A. Brassicanus
at Vienna in 1530. After a couple of years Gennadius found the
position of patriarch under a Turkish sultan so irksome that he
retired to the monastery of John the Baptist near Serrae in
Macedonia, where he died about 1468. About one hundred of
his alleged writings exist, the majority in manuscript and of
doubtful authenticity.
The fullest account of his writings is given In Gass, Gennadius
and Pletko (Berlin, 1844), the second part of which contains Plctho's
Contra Gennadi urn. Sec also F. Schulue. Gesch. der Phil. d. Renais-
sance, i. (1874). A list of the known writings of Gennadius is given
in Fabricius, Btbliothrca Graeca. cd. llarles, vol. xi., and what has
been printed b to be found in Migne, Patrol. Gr. vol. cbc
GENOA (anc Genua, Ital. Geneva, Ft. Gines), the chief port
of Liguria, Italy, and capital of the province of Genoa, 119 m.
N.W. of Leghorn by rail. Pop. (1906) 255,294 (town); 267,248
(commune). The town is situated on the Gulf of Genoa, and is
the chief port and commercial town of Italy, the scat of an
archbishop and a university, the headquarters of the IV. Italian
army corps, and a strong fortress. The city, as seen from the
sea, is " built nobly," and deserves the title it has acquired or
assumed of the Superb. Finding only a small space of level
ground along the shore, it has been obliged to climb the lower
bills of the Ligurian Alps, which afford many a coign of vantage
for the effective display of its architectural magnificence. The
original nucleus of the city is that portion which lies to the east
of the port in the neighbourhood of the old pier (Molo Vccchio).
In the 10th century it began to feci a lack of room within the
limits of its fortifications; and accordingly, in the middle of
the 1 2th century, it was found necessary to extend the line of
circumvallation. Even this second circuit, however, was of
small compass, and it was not till 1320-1330 that a third line
took in the greater part of the modern site of the city proper.
This presented about 3 m. of rampart towards the land side,
and can still be easily traced from point to point through the
city, though large portions, especially towards the east, have
been dismantled. The present line of circumvallation dates
from 1626-1632, the period when the independence of Genoa
was threatened by the dukes of Savoy. From the mouth of
the Bisagno in the cast, and from the lighthouse point in the west,
it stretches inland over hill and dale to the great fort of Sperone,
i.e. the Spur, on the summits of Monte Peraldo at a height of
1650 ft.,— the circuit being little less than um., and all the
important points along the line being defended by forts or
batteries.
A portion of the enclosed area is open country, dotted only here
and there with houses and gardens. There are eight gates, the
more important being Porta Pila and Porta Romana towards the
east, and the Porta Lantema or Lighthouse Gate to the west. The
main architectural features of Genoa are its medieval churches,
with striped facades of black, and white marble, and its magnifi-
cent 16th-century palaces. The earlier churches of Genoa show
a mixture of French Romanesque and the Pisan style— they are
mostly basilicas with transepts, and as a rule a small dome;
the pillars are sometimes ancient columns, and sometimes
formed of alternate layers of black and white marble. The
facades are simple, without galleries, having only pilasters
projecting from the wall, and are also alternately black and
white. This style continued in Gothic times also. The oldest
n S. Maria di Castello (nth century), the columns and capitals
of which are almost all antique. S. Cosma, S. Donato (with
remain* of the 10th-century building) and others belong to the
12th century, and S. Giovanni di Pre, S. Agostino (with a fine
campanile), S. Stefano, S. Matteo and others to the 13th. The
famous painting of the martyrdom of S. Stephen, by Giulb
Romano, carried off by Napoleon in x8n, was restored to S.
Stefano in 181 5. S. Matteo, the church of the D'Oria or Doria
family, was founded in n 26 by Martino Doria. The facade
dates from 1278, and the interior of the edifice dates in the main
from 1543. In the crypt is the tomb of Andrea Doria by
Montorsoli, and above the main altar hangs the dagger presented
to the doge by Pope Paul III. To the left of the church is an
exquisite cloister of 1308 with double columns, in which a number
of inscriptions relating to the Doria family and also the statue
of Andrea Doria by Montorsoli are preserved. The little square
in front of the church is surrounded by Gothic palaces of the Doria
family. Of the churches the principal is the comparatively
small cathedral of S. Lorenzo. Tradition makes its first founda-
tion contemporary with St Lawrence himself; and a document
of 987 implies that it was even then the metropolitan church.
Reconstructed about the end of the nth and beginning of the
1 2th century, it was formally consecrated by Pope Gelasius IL
on the iSth of October 1118; and since then it has undergone
a large number of extensive though partial renovations. The
facade, wkh its three elaborate doorways, belongs to the 14th
century and is a copy of French models of the 13th. The two
side portals with Romanesque sculptures belong to the 12th-
14th centuries. Some pagan reliefs are built into the tower.
The interior was rebuilt in 1307, the old columns being used.
The belfry, which rises above the right-hand doorway, was erected
about 1520 by the doge, Ottaviano da Campofragoso, and the
cupola was erected after the designs of the architect Galcazzo
Alcssi in 1567. The fine Early Renaissance (1448) sculptural
decorations of the chapel of S. John the Baptist were due to
Domenieo Gagini of Bissone on the Lake of Lugano, who later
transferred his activities to Naples and Palermo, and other
Lombard masters. An edict of Innocent VIII. forbids women
to enter the chapel except on one day in the year. In the
treasury of the cathedral is a magnificent silver monstrance
dating from 1553, and an octagonal bowl, the Sacro Catino,
brought from Cacsarea in nox, which corresponds to the de-
scriptions given of the Holy Grail, and was long regarded as an
emerald of matchless value, but was found when broken at Paris,
whither it had been carried by Napoleon I., to be only a remark-
able piece of ancient glass. The choir-stalls are a very fine
work of the 15th century and later, with intarsias. Near the
cathedral is a small 12th-century (?) cloister.
Of older date than the cathedral is the church of S. Ambrose
and S. Andrew, if its first foundation be correctly assigned to
the Milanese bishop Honoratus of the 6th century; but the
present edifice is due to the Society of Jesus, who obtained
possession of the church in 1 587. The interior is richly decorated
and contains the " Circumcision " and " St Ignatius " by Rubens,
and the " Assumption " of Guido Rcni. The Annunziata del
Guastato is one of the largest churches in the dty, erected in
1587. It is a cruciform structure, with a dome, and the central
nave Is supported by fourteen Corinthian columns of white
marble. To the otherwise unfinished brick facade a portal borne
by marble columns was added in 1843. The interior is covered
with gilding and frescoes of the X7th century, and is somewhat
overloaded with rich decoration, while a range of white marble
columns supports the nave. Santa Maria dellc Vigne probably
dates from the 9th century, but the present structure was erected
in 1586. The campanile, however, is a remarkable work of the
13th century. Adjoining the church is a ruined cloister of the
nth century. San Siro, originally the " Church of the Apostles"
and the cathedral of Genoa, was rebuilt by the Benedictines in
the nth century, and restored and enlarged by the Theatines
in 1576, the facade being added in 1830; in this church in 1339
Simone Boccanera was elected first doge of Genoa. Santa Maria
di Carignano, or more correctly Santa Maria Assunta e SS.
Fabiano e SebastUno, belongs mainly to the xoth century, and
was designed by Galeaxxo AlestJ, in imitation of Bramantrt
plan for S. Petet** %1 fcot&fc* %*AV ^n» \ksa\ V5M| k «a««fcsA.\n
6oo
GENOVESI— GENSONNE
mainly in Corsica, formed during this period the most stabh
element in the state, until in 1528 the national spirit appeared t<
regain its ancient vigour when Andrea Doria succeeded ii
throwing off the French domination and restoring the old form ol
government. It was at this very period— the dose of the 1 51 h anc
commencement of the x6th century — that the genius and daring ol
a Genoese mariner, Christopher Columbus, gave to Spain that new
world, which might have become the possession of his native
state, had Genoa been able to supply him with the ships and sea-
men which he so earnestly entreated her to furnish. The govern-
ment as restored by Andrea Doria, with certain modifications
tending to impart to it a more conservative character, remained
unchanged until the outbreak of the French Revolution and the
creation of the Ligurian republic. During this long period ol
nearly three centuries, in which the most dramatic incident is lh<
conspiracy of Ficschi, the Genoese found no small compensation
for their lost traffic in the East in the vast profits which they made
as the bankers of the Spanish crown and outfitters of the Spanish
armies and fleets both in the old world and the new, and Genoa,
more fortunate than many of the other cities of Italy, was
comparatively immune from foreign domination.
At the end of the 1 7th century the city was bombarded by the
French, and in 1746, after the defeat of Piacenza, surrendered to
the Austrians, who were, however, soon driven out. A revolt in
Corsica, which began in 1729, was suppressed with the help of the
French, who in 1768 took possession of the island for them-
selves (see Corsica: History).
The short-lived Ligurian republic was soon swallowed up in the
French empire, not, however, until Genoa had been made to
experience, by the terrible privations of the siege when Ma&sena
held the city against the Austrians ( 1 800), all that was meant by a
participation in the vicissitudes of the French Revolution. In
1814 Genoa rose against the French, on the assurance given by
Lord William Bentinck that the allies would restore to the re-
public its independence. It had, however, been determined by a
secret clause of the treaty of Paris that Genoa should be incorpor-
ated with the dominions of the king of Sardinia. The discontent
created at the time by the provision of the treaty of Paris as
confirmed by the congress of Vienna had doubtless no slight share
in keeping alive in Genoa the republican spirit which, through the
influence of a young Genoese citizen, Joseph Mazzini, assumed
forms of permanent menace not only to the Sardinian monarchy
but to all the established governments of the peninsula. Even
the material benefits accruing from the union with Sardinia and
the constitutional liberty accorded to all his subjects by King
Charles Albert were unable to prevent the republican outbreak of
1848, when, after a short and sharp struggle, the city, momentarily
seized by the republican party, was recovered by General Alfonao
La Marmora.
Among the ea
Bartolommeo Fai
and Paolo Parte
Agostino Gtustini
history of the cil
for the ecclemstii
artists were treat
works are Brtfquitj
Serra, La Storia
Varcsi. Storia dell
1839): Canale, I
istoria della repub
rep. di Geneva dal
Zur Verfassunt*-
kundert (Kalbe ar
History (London,
was edited by Ric
menta kistortae p
interesting mattci
storia patria (1861
itoria % e beJU arti.
by Lorenzo I snare
GENOVESI, ANTONIO (1712-1760), Italian writer on philo-
sophy and political economy, was born at Casliglionc, near
Salerno, on the 1st of November 1712. He was educated for the
cbarch, mad, Mftcrsome betiLUkn, took order* in 1 736 at Salerno,
where be was appointed professor of eloquence at the theological
seminary. During this period of his life he began the study el
philosophy, being especially attracted by Locke. Dissatisfied
with ecclesiastical life, Genovesi resigned his post, and qualified
as an advocate at Rome. Finding law as distasteful as theology,
he devoted himself entirely to philosophy, of which he was
appointed extraordinary professor in the university of Naples,
His first works were Element* Uetaphysicae (1743 el seq.) and
Logica (1 745). The former is divided into four parts, Ontosophy,
Cosmosophy, Theosophy, Psychosophy, supplemented by a
treatise on ethics and a dissertation on first causes. The LogU,
an eminently practical work, written from the point of view of
Locke, is in five parts, dealing with (1) the nature of the human
mind, its faculties and operations; (2) ideas and their kinds; (3)
the true and the false, and the various degrees of knowledge; (4)
reasoning and argumentation; (5) method and the ordering of
our thoughts. If Genovesi does not take a high rank in philo-
sophy, he deserves the credit of having introduced the new order
of ideas into Italy, at the same lime preserving a just mean
between the two extremes of sensualism and idealism. Although
bitterly opposed by the partisans of scholastic routine, Genovesi
found influential patrons, amongst them Bartolomeo Intkri, a
Florentine, who in 1754 founded the first Italian or European
chair of political economy (commerce and mechanics), on con*
dition that Genovesi should be the first professor, and that it
should never be held by an ecclesiastic The fruit of Genovesi s
professorial labours was the Lesions di Commercio, the first
complete and systematic work in Italian on economics. On the
whole be belongs to the " Mercantile " school, though he does net
regard money as the only form of wealth. Specially noteworthy
in the Laioni are the sections on human wants as the foundation
of economical theory, on labour as the source of wealth, on
personal services as economic factors, and on the united working
of the great industrial functions. He advocated freedom of tht
corn trade, reduction of the number of religious communities, and
deprecated regulation of the interest on loans. In the spirit of
his age he denounced the relics of medieval institutions, such as
entails and tenures in mortmain. Gioja's more important treatise
owes much to Genovesi 's lectures. Genovesi died on the 22nd of
September 1769.
See C. Ugoni, Delia letteratura iialiana neila seconia metd del socolo
XVIII (1820-1822) ; A. Fabroni. Vitoc Italorum dottrina excel
Untium (1778-1709); R. Bobba, Commemorasione di A. Cemousi
(Benevento, 1867).
GENSONN& ARHAND (1758-1793)* French politician, the
son of a military surgeon, was born at Bordeaux on the 10th of
August 1758. He studied law, and at the outbreak of the
Revolution was an advocate of the parlement of Bordeaux. In
1790 he became procureur of the Commune, and in July 1791 was
elected by the newly created department of the Girondc a member
of the court of appeal. In the same year he was elected deputy for
the department to the Legislative Assembly. As reporter of the
diplomatic committee, in which he supported the policy of Brissot,
he proposed two of the most revolutionary measures passed by
ibe Assembly: the decree of accusation against the king's brothers
(January 1, 1 792), and the declaration of war against the king of
Bohemia and Hungary (April 20, 1 792)'. He was vigorous in his
denunciations of the intrigues of the court and of the " Austrian
:ommittec "; but the violence of the extreme democrats, admin*
iling in the events of the 10th of August, alarmed him; and
when he was returned to the National Convention, he attacked
he Commune of Paris (October 24 and 25). At the trial of Loots
KVl. he supported an appeal to the people, but voted for the
Icalh sentence. As a member of the Committee of General
Defence, and as president of the Convention (March 7-21, 1793)*
ic shared in the bitter attacks of the Girondists on the Mountain;
md on the fatal day of the 2nd of June his name was among the
irst of those inscribed on the prosecution list. He was tried by
he Revolutionary Tribunal on the 24th of October 1793, con-
lemned to death and guillotined on the 31st of the month,
iisplaying on the scaffold a stoic fortitude. Gcnsorme was
iccounted one of the most brilliant of the little band of brilliant
GENTIAN— GENTIANACEAE
60 1
orators from the Gironde, though his eloquence was somewhat
cold and he always read his speeches.
GENTIAN, botanically Gcntiano, a large genus of herbaceous
plants belonging to the natural order Gentianaceae. The genus
comprises about 300 species, — most of them perennial plants
with tufted growth, growing in hilly or mountainous districts,
chiefly in the northern hemisphere, some of the blue-flowered
species, ascending to a height of 16,000 ft. in the Himalaya
Mountains. The leaves are opposite, entire and smooth, and
often strongly ribbed. The flowers have a persistent 4- to 5-
lobed calyx and a 4- to 5-lobed tubular corolla; the stamens
are equal in number to the lobes of the corolla. The ovary is
one-celled, with two stigmas, either separate and rolled back
or contiguous and funnel-shaped. The fruit when ripe separates
into two valves, and contains numerous small seeds. The
majority of the genus are remarkable for the deep or brilliant
blue colour of their blossoms, comparatively few having yellow,
white, or more rarely red flowers; the last are almost exclusively
found in the Andes.
Only a few species occur in Britain. G. amardla (fclwort)
and G. camptstris are small annual species growing on chalky
or calcareous hills, and bear in autumn somewhat tubular pale
purple flowers; the latter is most easily distinguished by having
two of the lobes of the calyx. larger than the other two, while
the former has the parts of the calyx in fives, and equal in size.
Some intermediate forms between these two species occur,
although rarely, in England; one of these, G. gcrmonico, has
larger flowers of a bluer tint, spreading branches, and a stouter
stem. Some of these forms flower in spring. G. pnetmonanthe,
the Calathian violet, is a rather rare perennial species, growing
In moist heathy places from Cumberland to Dorsetshire. Its
average height is from 6 to 9 in. It has linear leaves, and a
bright blue corolla ij in. long, marked externally with five
greenish bands, is without hairs in its throat, and fa found in
perfection about the end of August. It is the handsomest of
the British species; two varieties of it are known in cultivation,
one with spotted and the other with white flowers. G. werna
and G. nivalis are small species with brilliant blue flowers and
small leaves. The former is a rare and local perennial, occurring,
however, in Teesdale and the county of Clare in Ireland in toler-
able abundance. It has a tufted habit of growth, and each stem
bears only one flower. It is sometimes cultivated as an edging
for flower borders. G. nivalis in Britain occurs only on a few
of the loftiest Scottish mountains. It differs from the last in
being an annual, and having a more isolated habit of growth, and
in the stem bearing several flowers. On the Swiss mountains
these beautiful little plants arc very abundant; and the splendid
blue colour of masses of gentian in flower is a sight which, when
once seen, can never be forgotten. For ornamental purposes
several species are cultivated. The great difficulty of growing
them successfully renders them, however, less common than would
otherwise be the case; although very hardy when once estab-
lished, they are very impatient of removal, and rarely flower
well until the third year after planting. Of the ornamental
species found in British gardens some of the prettiest are G.
acaulis, G. vtrna, G. pyrtnaica, G. bavarico, G. septemfida and
G. gdida. Perhaps the handsomest and most easily grown is
the first named, often called Gentiartello, which produces its
large intensely blue flowers early in the spring.
All the species of the genus arc remarkable for possessing an
intense but pure bitter taste and tonic properties. About forty
species are used in medicine in different parts of the world. The
name of felwort given to G. amardla, but occasionally applied
to the whole genus, is stated by Dr Prior to be given in allusion
to these properties— fd meaning gall, and wort a plant. In the
same way the Chinese call G. osdepiadca, and the Japanese C
Buergeri, " dragon's gall plants," in common with several other
very bitter plants whose roots they use in medicine. G. campestris
is sometimes used in Sweden and other northern countries as a
substitute for hops.
By far the most Important of the spedes used In medicine fc
&. falto, a large handsome plant 3 or 4 ft. Ugh, growing ki open
grassy places on the Alps, Apennines and Pyrenees, as well as
on some of the mountainous ranges of France and Germany,
extending as far east as Bosnia and the Danubian principalities.
It has large oval strongly-ribbed leaves and dense whorls of
conspicuous yellow flowers. Its use in medicine is of very ancient
date. Pliny and Dioscorides mention that the plant was noticed
by Gentius, a king of the Iuyrians, living 180-167 B.C., from
whom the name Gentian* is supposed to be derived. During
the middle ages it was much employed in the cure of disease,
and as an ingredient in counter-poisons. In 1552 Hieronymus
Bock (Tragus) (1408-1554), * German priest, physician and
botanist, mentions the use of the root as a means of dilating
wounds.
The root, which is the part used in medicine, is tough and
flexible, scarcer/ branched, and of a brownish colour and spongy
texture. It has a pure bitter taste and faint distinctive odour.
The bitter principle, known as gentianm, is a glucoside, soluble
in water and alcohol. It can be decomposed into glucose and
gentiopicrin by the action of dilute mineral adds. It b not
precipitated by tannin or subacetate of lead. A solution of
caustic potash or soda forms with gentianin a yellow solution,
and the tincture of the root to which either of these alkalis has
been added loses its bitterness in a few days. Gentian root also
contains genliank acid (C u H,oO»), which is inert and tasteless.
It forms pale yellow silky crystals, very slightly soluble in water
or ether, but soluble in hot strong alcohol and in aqueous alkaline
solutions. This substance is also called gentianin, gentisin and
gentisic acid.
The root also contains 12 to 15% of an uncrystallizable
sugar called gentianose, of which fact advantage has long been
taken in Switzerland and Bavaria for the production of a bitter
cordial spirit called Enzianbranntwein. The use of this spirit,
especially in Switzerland, has sometimes been followed by
poisonous symptoms, which have been doubtfully attributed
to inherent narcotic properties possessed by some spedes of
gentian, the roots of which may have been indiscriminately
collected with it; but it is quite possible that it may be due to
the contamination of the root with that of Veratrum album, a
poisonous plant growing at the same altitude, and having leaves
extremely similar in appearance and size to those of G. lutta.
Gentian is one of the most efficient of the class of substances
which act upon the stomach so as to invigorate digestion and
thereby increase the general nutrition, without exerting any
direct influence upon any other portion of the body than the
alimentary canal. Having a pleasant taste and being non-
astringent (owing to the absence of tannic acid), it is the most
widdy used of all bitter tonics. The British Pharmacopoeia
contains an aqueous extract (dose, 2-8 grains), a compound
infusion with orange and kmon peel (dose, |-i ounce), and a
compound tincture with orange peel and cardamoms (dose \-i
drachm). It is used in dyspepsia, chlorosis, anaemia and
various other diseases, in which the tone of the stomach and
alimentary canal is deficient , and is sometimes added to purgative
medicines to increase and improve their action. In veterinary
medidne It is also used as a tonic, and enters into a well-known
compound called diapente as a chief ingredient.
GENTIANACEAE (the gentian family), in botany, an order of
Dicotyledons belonging to the sub-class Sympetalae or Gamo-
petalae, and containing about 750 species in 64 genera. It has
a world-wide distribution, and representatives adapted to very
various conditions, induding, for instance, alpine plants, like
the true gentians (Genliana), meadow plants such as the British
Cklota perfoltata(yeWow-won)or ErytkncaCetUamrium(,cenUMTy) ,
marsh plants such as Mcnyantkes trifoliate (bog-bean), floating
water plants such as Umnanlhcmum, or steppe and sea-coast
plants such as Ckendia. They are annual or perennial herbs,
rarely becoming shrubby, and generally growing erect, with s
characteristic forked manner of branching; the Asiatic genus
Crowfurdia has a climbing stem; they are often low-growing
and caespitosa* as in tbe ajptpe gentians*
The leaves are la decustatlns; pairs (that b» each pair b m ja
p|aneatritfea*^^tftt»*\ww^<«wjr^ ^
602
GENTILE— GENTILESCHI
Mtnyanlkts and a few allied aquatic or man '
alternate or radical. Several genera, chie!
phytes, forming slender low-growing hcrbi
chlorophyll and with leaves reduced to
and Leiphaimot, mainly tropical America
generally cymose, often dichasial, recalling
the lateral branches often becoming monc
reduced to a few flowers or one only, as
flowers are hermaphrodite, and regular wi
with reduction to 2 In the pistil; in Chlora 1
in each whorl. The calyx generally font
tegmenta which usually overlap in the bud.
variety in form; thus among the British
Chlora, funnel-shaped in Erylhrtua, and
funnel-shaped or salver-shaped in Genti
Ceatrtl figure «o4 ft* 1-4 tftcrCarCs, Bw Imtinmt
Gtniuxna Amanita.
l, A small form, natural sue.
3, Calyx and protruding style.
3, Corolla, bid open.
4, Capsule, bursting into two valves, an
•bowing the seeds attached to the
margins.
3, Florafdiagrara.
visited by Lepidoptera.
Gentiana, the largest genus, contains near!
distributed over Europe (including arctic),
mountain* of Asia, south-east Australia 1
whole of North America and along the A
dot* not occur in Africa. Bitter princip^. ,
vegetative parts, especially in the rhizomes and roots, and have
given a medicinal value to many species, e.g. Gentiana lutca and
others.
GENTILE, in the English Bible, the term generally applied
to those who were not of the Jewish race. It is an adaptation
of the Lat. gcntUis, of or belonging to the same gens, the clan or
family; as denned in Paulus ex Festo "gentUis dicitur et ez
eodem genere ortus et is qui simili nomine; ut ait Cincius,
gentiles mini sunt, qui meo nomine appellant ur." In post-
Augustan Latin gcntilis became wider in meaning, following the
usage of gens, in the sense of race, nation, and meant " national,'*
belonging to the same race. Later still the word came to mean
" foreign," ».«. other than Roman, and was so used in the Vulgate,
with gtntes, to translate the Hebrew goyyim, nations, LXX. &n,
the non-Israelitish peoples (see further Jews).
GENTILE OA FABRIANO (c. 1370-c. 1450), Italian painter,
was born at Fabriano about 1370. He is said to have been a
pupil of Allegretto di Nuzio, and has been supposed to have
received most of his early instruction from Fra Angelica, to
whose manner his bears in some respects a close similarity.
About 141 z he went to Venice, where by order of the doge and
senate he was engaged to adorn the great hall of the ducal
palace with frescoes from the life of Barbarossa. He executed
this work so entirely to the satisfaction of his employers that
they granted him a pension for life, and accorded him the privilege
of wearing the habit of a Venetian noble. About 142 a he went
to Florence, where in 1423 he painted aa " Adoration of the Magi"
for the church of Santa Trinita, which is preserved in the Florence
Accademia; this painting is considered his best work now extant
To the same period belongs a " Madonna and Child," which is now
in the Berlin Museum. He bad by this time attained a wide
reputation, and was engaged to paint pictures for variouschurches,
more particularly Siena, Perugia, Cubbio and Fabriano. About
1426 he was called to Rome by Martin V. to adorn the church
of St John Lateran with frescoes from the life of John the
Baptist. He also executed a portrait of the pope attended by
ten cardinals, and in the church of St Francesco Romano a
painting of the " Virgin and Child attended by St Benedict and
St Joseph," which was much esteemed by Michelangelo, but is
no longer in existence. Gentile da Fabriano died about 145a
Michelangelo said of him that his works resembled bis name,
meaning noble or refined. They are full of a quiet and serene
joyousness, and he has a naive and innocent delight in splendour
and in gold ornaments, with which, however, his pictures are
not overloaded.
GENTILESCHI, ARTEMISIA and ORAZIO DB\ - Italian
painters.
Obazio (c. 1565-1646) is generally named Orasio Lomi dc'
Gentileschi; it appears that De' Gcntileschi was his correct
surname, Lomi being the surname which his mother had borne
during her first marriage. He was born at Pisa, and studied under
his half-brother Aurelio Lomi, whom in course of time be sur-
passed. He afterwards went to Rome, and was associated with
the landscape-painter Agostino Tasi, executing the figures for the
landscape backgrounds of this artist in the Palazzo RospigUosi,
and it is said in the great hall of the Quirinal Palace, although by
some authorities the figures in the last-named building are
ascribed to Lanfranco. His best works are " Saints Cecilia and
Valerian," in the Palazzo Borghese, Rome; " David after the
death of Goliath," in the Palazzo Doria, Genoa; and some works
in the royal palace, Turin, noticeable for vivid and uncommos
colouring. At an advanced age Gentileschi went to England at
the invitation of Charles I., and he was employed in the palace at
Greenwich. Vandyck included him in bis portraits of a hundred
illustrious men. His works generally are strong in shadow end
positive in colour. He died in England in 1646.
Artemisia (1500-1642), Orazio's daughter, studied first under
Guido, acquired much renown for portrait-painting, and con-
■derably excelled her father's fame. She was a beautiful and
elegant woman; her likeness, limned by her own hand, is to be
seen in Hampton Court. Her most celebrated composition is
14 Juc\to%*dH^<A«T*v" fe\ta\H&akGalkzy;<»Uijily a west
ot ijrafolax cutsgy, wnA ^naiufixjut \sraA. <A esaoa&t* Vust&v
GENTILI
603
but repulsive and unwomanly in its physical horror. She
accompanied her father to England, but did not remain there
long; the best picture which she produced for Charles I. was
" David with the head of Goliath." Artemisia refused an offer
of marriage from Agoslino Tasi, and bestowed her hand on Pier
Antonio Schiattesi, continuing, however, to use her own sur-
name. She settled in Naples, whither she returned after her
English sojourn; she lived there in no little splendour, and
there she died in 1642. She had a daughter and perhaps other
children.
' 0BNTILI, ALBBRICO (1 552-1608) , Italian jurist, who has great
claims to be considered the founder of the science of international
law, second son of Matteo Gentili, a physician of noble family and
scientific eminence, was born on the 14th of January 155a at
Sangmesfo, a small town of the march of Ancona which looks
down from the slopes of the Apennines upon the distant Adriatic.
After taking the degree of doctor of civil law at the university of
Perugia, and holding a judicial office at Ascoli, he returned to his
native city, and was entrusted with the task of recasting its
statutes, but, sharing the Protestant opinions of his father,
shared also, together with a brother, Scipio, afterwards a famous
professor at Altdorf, his flight to Carniola, where in 1579 Matteo
was appointed physician to the duchy. The Inquisition con-
demned the fugitives as contumacious, and they soon received
orders to quit the dominions of Austria.
Albcrico set out for England, travelling by way of Tubingen and
Heidelberg, and everywhere meeting with the reception to which
his already high reputation entitled him. He arrived at Oxford
in the autumn of 1580, with a commendatory letter from the earl
of Leicester, at that time chancellor of the university, and was
shortly afterwards qualified to teach by being admitted to the
same degree which he had taken at Perugia. His lectures on
Roman law soon became famous, and the dialogues, disputations
and commentaries, which he published henceforth in rapid
succession, established his position as an accomplished civilian,
of the older and severer type, and secured his appointment in
1587 to the regius professorship of civil law. It was, however,
rather by an application of the old learning to the new questions
suggested by the modern relations of states that his labours
have produced their most lasting result. In z 584 he was consulted
by. government as to the proper course to be pursued with
Mendoza, the Spanish ambassador, who had been detected in
plotting against Elizabeth. He chose the topic to which his
attention had thus been directed as a subject for a disputation
when Leicester and Sir Philip Sidney visited the schools at
Oxford in the same year; and this was six months later expanded
into a book, the De legationibus libri ires. In 1588 Alberico
selected the law of war as the subject of the law disputations at the
annual " Act " which took place in July; and in the autumn
published in London the De Jure Belli commentalio prima. A
second and a third Commentatio followed, and the whole matter,
with large additions and improvements, appeared at Hanau, in
1508, as the De Jure Belli libri tres. It was doubtless in conse-
quence of the reputation gained by these works that Gentili
became henceforth more and more engaged in forensic practice,
and resided chiefly in London, leaving his Oxford work to be
partly discharged by a deputy. In 1600 he was admitted to be a
member of Gray's Inn, and in 1605 was appointed standing counsel
to the king of Spain. He died on the 19th of June 1608, and was
buried, by the side of Dr Matteo Gentili, who had followed his son
to England, in the churchyard of St Helen's, Bishopsgate. By
his wife, Hester de Peigni, he left two sons, Robert and Matthew,
and a daughter, Anna, who married Sir John Colt. His notes of
the cases in which he was engaged for the Spaniards were post-
humously published in 1613 at Hanau, as Hispanicae advocationis
libri duo. This was in accordance with his last wishes; but his
direction that the remainder of his MSS. should be burnt was not
complied with, since fifteen volumes of them found their way, at
the beginning of the 19th century, from Amsterdam to the
Bodleian library.
The true history of Gentili and of hU principal writings has
only been ascertained in recent yean, in consequence of a revived
appreciation of the services which he rendered to international
law. The movement to do him honour originated in 1875 in
England, as the result of the inaugural lecture of Prof. T. E.
Holland, and was warmly taken up in Italy. In spreading
through Europe it encountered two curious cross-currents of
opinion, — one the ultra-Catholic, which three centuries before had
ordered his name to be erased from ail public documents and
placed his works in the Index; another the narrowly-Dutch,
which is, it seems, needlessly careful of the supremacy of Grotius.
These t wo currents resulted respectively in a bust of GarciaMorcno
being placed in the Vatican, and in the unveiling in x886, with
much international oratory, of a fine statue of Grotius at Delft.
The English committee, under the honorary presidency of Prince
Leopold, in 1877 erected a monument to the memory of Gentili in
St Helen's church, and saw to the publication of a new edition of
the De Jure Belli. The Italian committee, of which Prince (after-
wards King) Humbert was honorary president, was less successful.
It was only in 1008, the tercentenary of the death of Alberico,
that the statue of the great heretic was at length unveiled in his
native city by the minister of public instruction, in the presence
of numerous deputations from Italian cities and universities.
Preceding writers had dealt with various international questions,
but they dealt with them singly, and with a servile submission to
the decisions of the church. It was left to Gentili to grasp as a
whole the relations of states one to another, to distinguish
international questions from questions with which they are
more or less intimately connected, and to attempt their solution
by principles entirely independent of the authority of Rome.
He uses the reasonings of the civil and even the canon law, but
he proclaims as his real guide the Jus Naturae, the highest
common sense of mankind, by which historical precedents are to
be criticized and, if necessary, set aside.
His faults are not few. His style is prolix, obscure, and to the
modern reader pedantic enough; but a comparison of his
greatest work with what had been written upon the same subject
by, for instance, Belli, or Soto, or even Ayala, will show that he
greatly improved upon his predecessors, not only by the fulness
with which he has worked out points of detail, but also by clearly
separating the law of war from martial law, and by placing the
subject once for all upon a non-theological basis. If, on the other
hand, the same work be compared with the DeJure Belli el Pacts of
Grotius, it is at once evident that the later writer is indebted to
the earlier, not only for a large portion of his illustrative erudition,
but also for all that is commendable in the method. and arrange-
ment of the treatise.
of the writings of Gentili,
cation : De juris interprets
et episL ouae ad jus chile
De legatumibus libri Ires
clio (London, 1584-1586);
586) ; De naseendi tempore
rcasprima (London, 1567);
£7) ; De jure belli comm.
-1589); tertia (1589); De
; Ad til. de Malef. et Math.
U libri Ires (Hanau, 1598);
. De actoribus et de cbusu
mendacii (Hanau, 1599); De ludis scenicis epist. duae (Middlcburg,
1600) ; Ad I. liaccabaeorum et de linguarum misiura dirj>. (Frankfurt,
1600); Lectumes VirgilianOe (Hanau, 1600); De nuptiis libri septem
(1601); In lit. si ouis principi, et ad let. Jul. maiest. (Hanau, 1604);
De latin, vet. Biol. (Hanau, 1604); De libra Pyano (Oxon, 1604);
Laudes Aead. Perns, et Oxon. (Hanau, 1605); De unione Angluu
et Scotiae (London, 1605) ; Disputationes tres, de libris jur. rati., de
librisjur. civ., de latinitate vet. vers. (Hanau, 1605); Regales disfiul.
tres. de pot. regis obsoluta, de unione regnorum, de vi cnium (London,
1605); Hispanicae advocationis libri duo (Hanau. 1613); In tit.
de verb, signif. (Hanau, 1614); De legal is in lest. (Amsterdam,
1661) An edition of the Opera omnia, commenced at Naples in
' s death of the publisher, Gravier, after the
numerous unpublished writings, Gentili
umea were lost " pessimo pontificiorum
)ly that they were left behind in his flight
tracts by the Abate Benigni in Colucd.
dissertation by W. Rescer annexed to the
ra Gymnasium for 1807; an inaugural
J* T. £. \fettantMs»ristiu*V»a» v3S-^
604
GENTLE— GENTLEMAN
the commonwealth be medleth little) what soever it cost him, ht
will both array and ami himself accordingly, and show the more
manly courage, and all the tokens of the person which he repre>
senteth. No man hath hurt by it but himself, who peradventurc
will go in wider buskins than his legs will bear, or at our proverb
saith, now and then bear a bigger sail than his boat is able to
In this way Shakespeare himself was turned, by the grant of
his coat of arms, from a " vagabond " into a gentleman.
The fundamental idea of '* gentry," symbolised in this grant
of coat-armour, had come to be that of the essential superiority
of the fighting man; and, as SeMcn points out (p. 707), the
fiction was usually maintained in the granting of arms ** to aa
ennobled person though of the long Robe wherein he bath little
use of them as they mean a shield." At the last the wearing
of a sword on all occasions was the outward and visible sign of a
" gentleman "; and the custom survives in the sword worn with
" court dress." This idea that a gentleman must have a coat
of arms, and that no one is a "gentleman" without one a,
however, of comparatively late growth, the outcotneof the natural
desire of the heralds to magnify their office and collect fees for
registering coats; and the same is true of the conception of
" gentlemen " as a separate class. That a distinct order of
"gentry" existed in England very early has, indeed, been
often assumed, and is supported by weighty authorities. Thus,
the late Professor Freeman (Ency. BriL xvii. p. 540 b, oth ed.)
said: "Early in the nth century the order of 'gentlemen'
as a separate class seems to be forming as something new. By
the time of the conquest of England the distinction seems to
have been fully established." Stubbs {Const. Hist., ed. 187S,
iii. 544, 548) takes the same view. Sir George Sitwell, however,
has conclusively proved that this opinion is based on a wrong
conception of the conditions of medieval society, and that it is
wholly opposed to the documentary evidence. The fundamental
social cleavage in the middle ages was between the Mobiles, Le.
the tenants in chivalry, whether earls, barons, knights, esquires
or franklins, and the ignobiles, i.e. the villeins, citiaens and
burgesses;* and between the most powerful noble and the
humblest franklin there was, until the 15th century, no M separate
class of gentlemen." Even so late as 1400 the word M gentleman "
still only had the sense of generosus, and could not be used at a
personal description denoting rank or quality, or as the title of
a class. Yet after 141 3 we find it increasingly so used; and the
list of landowners in 1431, printed in Feudal Aids, contains
besides knights, esquires, yeomen and husbandmen (».«. house-
holders), a fair number who arc classed as " gentilman."
Sir George Sitwell gives a lucid explanation of this development,
the incidents of which are instructive and occasionally amusiDg.
The immediate cause was the statute 1 Henry V. cap. v. of 1413,
which laid down that in all original writs of action, personal
appeals and indictments, in which process of outlawry lies, the
" estate degree or mystery " of the defendant must be stated,
as well as his present or former domicile. Now the Black Death
(1340) had put the traditional social organization out of gear.
Before that the younger sons of the nobiles had received their
share of the farm stock, bought or hired land, and settled down as
agriculturists in their native villages. Under the new conditions
« Description of England, bk. ii. ch. v. p. 128. Henry Peacham,
In his Compleat Gentleman (1634), takes this matter more seriously.
" Neither must we honour or esteem," he writes, " those ennobled,
or made gentle in blood, who by mechanic and base means have
raked 1 ... ■ v purchased an ill coat (of
arms) 1 >laycr upon the stage, lor
wcanni y hangeth not upon the
airy e« Iced of itself essential and
absolui 161) he deplores the abuar
of hen produced M all the world
I over su the commendable activity
of the omen would soon be "at
rare in ." See also an amusing
instant iven in '* The Gentility of
Kichar the Ancestor, vol. ii- (Jar/
1902).
■Even this classification would seem to need modifying. For
certain of the great patrician families of the cities were certainly
GENTLEMAN
605
this became increasingly Impossible, and they were forced to
seek their fortunes abroad in the French wars, or at home as
hangers-on of the great nobles. These men, under the old system,
had no definite status; but they were generosi, men of birth,
and, being now forced to describe themselves, they disdained
to be classed with franklins (now sinking in the social scale),
still more with yeomen or husbandmen; they chose, therefore,
to be described as " gentlemen." On the character of these
earliest "gentlemen " the records throw a lurid light. According
to Sir George Sit well (p. 76), " the premier gentleman of England,
as the matter now stands, is ( Robert Erdeswykc of Stafford,
guntilman,' " who had served among the men-at-arms of Lord
Talbot at Agincourt (ib. note) He is typical of his class.
" Fortunately — for the gentle reader will no doubt be anxious
to follow in his footsteps — some particulars of his life may be
gleaned from the public records. He was charged at (he
Staffordshire Assizes with housebreaking, wounding with
intent to kill, and procuring the murder of one Thomas Page,
who was cut to pieces while on his knees begging for his
life." If any earlier claimant to the title of " gentleman "
be discovered, Sir George Sitwcll predicts that it will be within
the same year (14 14) and in connexion with some similar dis-
reputable proceedings. 1
From these unpromising beginnings the separate order of
" gentlemen " was very slowly evolved. The first " gentleman "
commemorated on an existing monument was John Daundclyon
of Margate (d. c. 1445); the first gentleman to enter the House
of Commons, hitherto composed mainly of " valets," was
" William Weston, gcntylman "; but even in the latter half of
the 1 5th century the order was not clearly established. As to the
connexion of " gent il esse " with the official grant or recognition
of coat-armour, that is a profitable fiction invented and upheld
by the heralds; for coat -armour was but the badge assumed by
gentlemen to distinguish them in battle, and many gentlemen of
long descent never had occasion to assume it, and never did.
This fiction, however, had its effect ; and by the 16th century,
as has been already pointed out, the official view had become
clearly established that " gentlemen *' constituted a distinct
order, and that the badge of this distinction was the heralds'
recognition of the right to bear arms. It is unfortunate that this
view, which is quite unhistorical and contradicted by the present
practice of many undoubtedly " gentle " families of long descent,
has of late years been given a wide currency in popular manuals
of heraldry.
In this narrow sense, however, the word " gentleman " has
long since become obsolete. The idea of " gentry " in the
continental sense of noblesse is extinct in England, and is likely
to remain so, in spite of the efforts of certain enthusiasts to
revive it (see A. C. Fox-Davies, Armorial Families, Edinburgh,
1895). That it once existed has been sufficiently shown; but
the whole spirit and tendency of English constitutional and social
development tended to its early destruction. The comparative
good order of England was not favourable to the continuance
of a class, developed during the foreign and civil wars of the
14th and 15th centuries, for whom fighting was the sole honour-
able occupation. The younger sons of noble families became
apprentices in the cities, and there grew up a new aristocracy
of trade. Merchants are still " citizens " to William Harrison;
but he adds " they often change estate with gentlemen, as gentle-
men do with them, by a mutual conversion of the one into the
other." A frontier line between classes so indefinite could not
be maintained, especially as in England there was never a
" nobiliary prefix " to stamp a person as a gentleman by his
1 The designation " gentflman " is, indeed, found tome two
centuries earlier. In the Inquisitio maneriorum Ecclisiae S. Pauli
Londin. of a.d. 1222 (W. A. Hale, Domesday of St Paul's, Camden
Soc., 1858, p. 80) occurs the entry* : Adam gentilmd dim acrd, p' tit. d.
This is probably the earliest record of the " grand old name of
gentleman "; but Adam, who held half an acre at a rent of three
-pence — less by half than that held by " Ralph the bondsman"
(Rad* le bunde) in the same list—was certainly not a " gentleman."
Geatiluaa " here was a nickname, perhaps suggested by Adam's
name, and thus in some sort anticipating the .wit of the famous
couplet repeated by John Ball's rebels.
irname, as in France or Germany * The process was hastened,
loreover, by the corruption of the Heralds' College and by the
ise with which coats of arms could be assumed without a shadow
[ claim; which tended to bring the "science of armory"
ito contempt. The word " gentleman " as an index of rank
ad already become of doubtful value before the great political
nd social changes of the 19th century gave to it a wider and
(sentially higher significance. The change is well illustrated
1 the definitions given in the successive editions of the En-
tclopaedia BriUinnica. In the 5th edition (1815) " a gentleman
one, who without any title, bears a coat of arms, or whose
nccstors have been freemen." In the 7th edition (1845) it
ill implies a definite social status: " All above the rank of
somen." In the 8th edition (1856) this is still its " most ex-
-nded sense "; " in a more limited sense " it is defined in the
tme words as those quoted above from the 5th edition; but
le writer adds, " By courtesy this title is generally accorded
> all persons above the rank of common tradesmen when their
lanners are indicative of a certain amount of refinement and
itelligence." The Reform Bill of 183s has done its work; the
middle classes" have come into their own; and the word
gentleman " has come in common use to signify not a distinction
' blood, but a distinction of position, education and manners,
he test is no longer good birth, or the right to bear arms, but
le capacity to mingle on equal terms in good society. In its
st use, moreover, " gentleman " involves a certain superior
andard of conduct, due, to quote the 8th edition once more,
1 " that self-respect and intellectual refinement which manifest
icmsclves in unrestrained yet delicate manners." The word
gentle," originally implying a certain social status, had very
irly come to be associated with the standard of manners
;pcctcd from that status. Thus by a sort of punning process
le " gentleman " becomes a " gentle-man." Chaucer in the
clibocus (c. 1386) says: " Certcs he sholde not be called a
ntil man, that . . . ne dooth his diligence and bisynesse, to
pen his good name "; and in the Wife of Balk's Tale:
" Loke who that is most vertuous alway
Prive and apert, and most entendeth ay
To do the gcntil dedes that he can
And take nun for the grctest gentilman,"
id in the Romance of Ike Rose (c. 1400) we find " he is gcntil
rcause he doth as longeth to a gentilman." This use develops
rough the centuries, until in 1714 we have Steele, in the
tiler (No. 207), laying down that " the appellation of Gentle-
an is never to be affixed to a man's circumstances, but to his
ehaviour in them," a limitation over-narrow even for the present
iy. In this connexion, too, may be quoted the old story, told
r some — very improbably — of James II., of the monarch who
plied to a lady petitioning him to. make her son a gentleman, "I
uld make him a nobleman, but God Almighty could not make
m a gentleman." Selden, however, in referring to similar
srics " that no Charter can make a Gentleman, which is cited as
tt of the mouth of some great Princes that have said it," adds
at " they without question understood Gentleman for Generos us
the anticnt sense, or as if it came from Ccntilis in that sense, as
ntil is denotes one of a noble Family, or indeed for a Gentleman
- birth." For " no creation could make a man of another
ood than he is." The word " gentleman," used in the wide
nse with which birth and circumstances have nothing to do, is
ccssarily incapable of strict definition. For " to behave like a
ntleman " may mean little or much, according to the person by
10m the phrase is used; " to spend money like a gentleman "
ay even be no great praise; but " to conduct a business like a
ntleman " implies a standard at least as high as that involved
1 The prefix " de " attached to some English names is in no
use " nobiliary." In Latin documents de was the equivalent of the
lglUh " of," as de la of " at " (so de la Pole for Atte Poole, cf.
en names as Attwood. Actwater). In English this "of " was in
e 15th century dropped; e.g. the grandson of Johannes de Stoke
ohn of Stoke) in a 14th-century document becomes John Stoke.
modern times, under the influence of romanticism, the prefix
Jc"haa been In some cases" revived "under a m is concept i on, e.g.
le Trafford." " de Hoghton." Very rarely it is correctly rcukwtd
derived tiosa % Aontan. \fc»ob*«mt, *-v fe^tei .
6o8
GEODESY
arc of France by P. F. A. Mechain and J. B. J. Delambre had
for its end the determination of the true length of the " metre "
which was to be the legal standard of length of France (see
Eabth, Figure or toe).
The basis of every extensive survey is an accurate triangulation,
and the operations of geodesy consist in the measurement, by
theodolites, of the angles of the triangles; the measurement of
one or more sides of these triangles on the ground, the determin-
ation by astronomical observations of die azimuth of the whole
network of triangles; the determination of the actual position
of the same on the surface of the earth by observations, first for
latitude at some of the stations, and secondly lor longitude; the
determination of altitude for all stations.
For the computation, the points of the actual surface of the
earth are imagined as projected along their plumb lines on the
mathematical figure, which is given by the stationary sea-level,
and the extension of the sea through the continents by a system
of imaginary canals. For many purposes the mathematical
surface is assumed to be a plane; in other cases a sphere of
radius 6371 kilometres (20,900,000 ft.)- In the case of extensive
operations the surface must be considered as a compressed
ellipsoid of rotation, whose minor axis coincides with the earth's
axis, and whose compression, flattening, or ellipticity is about
1/208.
Measurement of Base Lines.
1 o determine by actual measurement on the ground the length of a
side of one of the triangles (" base line "). wherefrom to infer the
lengths of all the other sides in the triangulation. is not the least
difficult operation of a trigonometrical survey. When the problem
b stated thus— To determine the number of times that a certain
standard or unit of length is contained between two finely marked
points on the surface of the earth at a distance of some miles asunder,
so that the error of the result may be pronounced to lie between
certain very narrow limits, — then the question demands very
serious consideration. The representation of the unit of length by
means of the distance between two fine lines on the surface of a bar
of metal at a certain temperature is never itself free from uncertainty
and probable error, owing to the difficulty of knowing at any moment
the precise temperature of the bar; and the transference of this
unit, or a multiple of it, to a measuring bar will be affected not
only with errors of observation, but with errors arising from un-
certainty of temperature of both bars. If the measuring bar be not
self-compensating for temperature, its expansion must be determined
by very careful experiments. The thermometers required for (his
purpose must be very carefully studied, and their errors of division
and index error determined.
In order to avoid the difficulty in exactly determining the tempera-
ture of a bar by the mercury thermometer, F. W. Bessel introduced
in 1834 near Konigsbcrg a compound bar which constituted a
metallic thermometer. 1 A zinc bar is bid on an iron bar two toiaes
long, both bars being perfectly planed and in free contact, the sine
bar being slightly shorter and the two bars rigidly united at one end.
As the temperature varies, the difference of the lengths of the bare,
as perceived by the other end, also varies, and affords a quantitative
correction for temperature variations, which b applied to reduce the
length to standard temperature. During the measurement of the
base line the bars were not allowed to come into contact, the interval
being measured by the insertion of gb*s wedges. The results of the
comparisons of four measuring rods with one another and with the
standards were elaborately computed by the method of least-squares.
The probable error of the measured length of 935 toises (about
6000 ft.) has been estimated as 1/863500 or i-2|t (m denoting a
Cillionth). With this apparatus fourteen base lines were measured
Prussia and some neighbouring states; in these cases a somewhat
higher degree of accuracy was obtained.
The principal triangulation of Great Britain and Ireland has seven
base lines: five have been measured by steel chains, and two,
more exactly, by the compensation bars of General T. F. Colby, an |fl
apparatus introduced in 1827-1828 at Lough Foylein Ireland. Ten
base lines were measured in India in 1831-1869 by t be sameapparatus.
This is a system of six compound-bars self-correcting for temperature.
The bars may be thus described : Two bars, one of brass and the
other of iron, are bid in parallelism side by side, firmly united at
their centres, from which they may freely expand or contract ; at
the standard temperature they are of the same length. Let AD be
one bar, A'B' the other; draw lines through the corresponding
extremities AA' (ro P) and BB' (to Q). and make A'P-B^Q, AA*
being equal to BB'. If the ratio A'P/AP equals the ratio of the co-
efficient! of expansion of the bars A'B' and AB, then, obviously,
the distance P Q is constant (or nearly so). In the actual instrument
1 An arrangement acting similarly had been previously introduced
by Bard*.
Ice the bars.
:ing allowed
1 accurately
constructed
I913 ft. In
impensation
e operations
he probable
h is at Cape
its the brass
e differences
*e four were
Terences are
error shows
the average
Sir Thomas
rxtension of
tion will be
of Lacoti&s
as Marb-ar,
r Sir David
&c. i8g6.
(trove in hb
isted of four
13 ft.) long;
r presenting
ies a contact
of the lever
and longer
ic pbne end
the contact
Each bar
^ inclination
the end of a
bar a stake
pper surface
easured line
this disk is
a theodolite
1 a direction
cb base the
these seven
dards, read-
ore, and the
found that
seven basts
\ is similar;
rests on one
measured in
he measure-
niUr to the
implicated,
ftersurunncr
> of platinum
ic levels and
microscopes
ixes vertical.
of a transit
leasurement,
those micro-
and C. By
idicating the
le.
loved by the
d a distance
id a simplifi-
ed provided
was used in
The accuracy
to *o-8 M-
1.
me accuracy
dy measure-
ant to notice
ry. An ira-
rin of Stock-
metres lon<:
n in use are
in of to Ic*.'
this method.
I by emplov-
lickel (36 • J
roal changes
1« A**
ReneBcnoit
GEODESY
at ordinary temperature*: this alloy was discovered in 1896 by
BenAit and Guillaumc of the International Bureau of Weights and
Measures at Breteuil. Apparently the future of base-line measure-
ments rests with the invar wires of the Jaderin apparatus; next
comes Potto's apparatus with invar bars 4 to 5 metres long.
Results have been obtained in the United States, of great im-
portance in view of their accuracy, rapidity of determination and
economy. For the measurement of the arc of meridian in longitude
98* E-, in 1900, nine base lines of a total length of 69*2 km. were
measured in six months. The total cost of one base was $1231.
At the beginning and at the end of the field-season a distance of
exactly 100 m. was measured with R. S. Woodward's " 5-m. ice-
bar " (invented in 1891); by means of the remeasurement of this
length the standardization of the apparatus was done under the same
conditions as existed in the case of the base measurements. For
the measurements there were employed two steel tapes of 100 m.
lone, provided with supports at distances of 25 m., two of 50 m.,
and the duplex apparatus of Eimbeck, consisting of four 5-m. rods.
Each base was divided into sections of about 1000 m. ; one of these,
the " test kilometre," was measured with all the five apparatus,
the others only with two apparatus, mostly tapes. The probable
error was about *o-8 ji, and the day's work a distance of about
2000 m. Each of the four rods of the duplex apparatus consists of
two bars of brass and steel. Mercury thermometers are inserted
in both bars; these serve for the measurement of the length of the
base lines by each of the bars, as they are brought into their con-
secutive positions, the contact being made by an elastic-sliding
contact. The length of the base lines may be calculated for each
bar only, and'atso by the supposition that both bars have the same
temperature. The apparatus thus affords three sets of results,
which mutually control themselves, and the contact adjustments
permit rapid work. The same device has been applied to the older
bimetallic-compensating apparatus of Bache-Wurdemann (six
bases. 1847-1857) and of Schott. There was also employed a single
rod bimetallic apparatus on F. Potto's principle, constructed by the
brothers Repsold for some base lines. Excellent results have been
more recently obtained with invar tapes.
The following results show the lengths of the same German base
lines as measured by different apparatus:
metres.
Base at Berlin 1864 Apparatus of Bessel 2336*3920
,, ., 1880 „ Brunner -3924
Base at Strehlen 1854 „ Bessel 27625824
„ ,. 1879 „ Brunner -5852
Old base at Bonn 1847 „ Bessel 2133-9095
•» ?■ 1892 „ „ -9097
NewbaseatBonn 1892 ,, „ 2512-9612
.... 1892 „ Brunner •9696
It is necessary that the altitude above the level of the sea of every
part of a base line be ascertained by spirit levelling, in order that
the measured length may be reduced to what it would have been
had the measurement been made on the surface of the sea, produced
in imagination. Thus if / be the length of a measuring bar, h its
height at any given position in the measurement, r the radius of
the earth, then the length radially projected on to the level of the
sea is /(i-A/r). In the Salisbury Plain base line the reduction to
the level of the sea is -0-6294 ft.
The total number of base lines measured in Europe up to the
present time is about one hundred and ten, nineteen of which do
not exceed in length 2500 metres, or about ii miles, and three-
one in France, the others in Bavaria —
exceed 19.000 metres. The question
has been frequently discussed whether
or not the advantage of a long base ii
sufficiently great to warrant the ex-
penditure of time that it requires, of
whether as much precision is not obtain-
able in the end by careful triangulation
from a short base. But the answer,
cannot be given generally; it must
C depend on the circumstances of each
particular case. With Jaderin's appa-
ratus, provided with invar wires, base*
of 20 to 30 km. long are obtained with-
out difficulty.
In working away from a base line ab,
stations c, d, «, /are carefully selected sc
as to obtain from well-shaped triangles
gradually increasing sides Before, how-
ever, finally leaving the base line, it ii
usual to verify it by triangulation thus
during the measurement two or mon
points, as p, q (fig. 1), are marked in th<
609
Fzc. 1.
base iii positions such that the lengths o
lifferen
the different segments of the line an
known; then, taking suitable external stations, as *, », the angles
the triangles bhp, fkq, kqk, kqa are measured. From these angle
can be computed the ratios of the segments, which must agree, if al
operations are correctly performed, with the ratios resulting Iron
be measures. Leaving the base line, the sides increase up to 10,
or 50 miles occasionally, but seldom reaching 100 miles. The
riangulation points may other be natural objects presenting them*
elves in suitable positions* such as church towers; or they may be
ibjects specially constructed in stone or wood on mountain tops
t other prominent ground. In every case it is necessary that the
precise centre of the station be marked by some permanent mark.
n India no expense is spared in making permanent the principal
rigonometrical stations— costly towers in masonry being erected,
t is essential that every trigonometrical station shall present a fine
ibject for observation from surrounding stations.
Horitontal Angfes.
In placing the theodolite over a station to be observed from, the
irst point to be attended to is that it shall rest upon a perfectly
olid foundation. The method of obtaining this desideratum must
lepend entirety on the nature of die ground; the instrument must
T possible be supported on rock, or if that be impossible a solid
oundation must be obtained by digging. When the theodolite is
equired to be raised above the surface of the ground in order to
ommand particular points, it is necessary to build two scaffolds. —
he outer one to carry the observatory, the inner one to carry the
nstrument, — and these two edifices must have no point of contact,
tf any cases of high scaffolding have occurred on the English Ordnance
iurvey, as for instance at Thaxted church, where the tower, 80 ft.
ligh, is surmounted by a spire of 90 ft. The scaffold for the ob-
ervatory was carried from the base to the top of the spire; that
or the instrument was raised from a point of the spire 140 ft. above
he ground, having its bearing upon timbers passing through the
pire at that height. Thus the instrument, at a height of 178 ft.
ibovc the ground, was insulated, and not affected by the action of
he wind on the observatory.
At every station it is necessary to examine and correct .the ad-
ustments of the theodolite, which are these: the line of collimation
if the telescope must be perpendicular to its axis of rotation ; this
ixis perpendicular to the vertical axis of the instrument; and the
atter perpendicular to the plane of the horizon. The micrometer
nicroscopes (bust also measure correct quantities on the divided
:irclc or circles. The method of observing is this. Let A. B, C . . .
x the stations to be observed taken in order of azimuth; the
:elescope is first directed to A and the cross-hairs of the telescope
nade to bisect the object presented by A, then the microscopes or
/erniers of the horizontal circle (also of the vertical circle if necessary)
ire read and recorded. The telescope is then turned to B, which
s observed in the same manner; then C and the other stations.
doming round by continuous motion to A, it b again observed, and
' his second reading with the first is some test of
; instrument. In taking this round of angles —
called on the Ordnance Survey — it is desirable
F time between the first and second observations
mall as may be consistent with due care. Before
c the horizontal circle is moved through 20 or
ent set of divisions of the circle is used in each
eliminate the errors of division.
ble that all arcs at a station should contain one
to which all angular measurements are thus
rvations on each arc commencing and ending
ch is on the Ordnance Survey called the " referring
jal for this purpose to select, from among the
to be observed, that one which affords the best'.
observation. For mountain tops a " referring
icted of two rectangular plates of metal in the
same vertical plane, their edges parallel and placed at such a distance
apart that the light of the sky seen through appears as a vertical line
about 10' in width. The beat distance for this object is from
1 to 2 miles.
This method seems at first sight very advantageous ;. but if.
however, it be desired to attain the highest accuracy, it is better,
as shown by General Schreiber of Berlin in 1878, to measure only
single angles, and as many of these as possible between the directions
to be determined. Division-errors are thus more perfectly eliminated,
and errors due to the variation in the stability, ftc., of the instruments
are diminished. This method is rapidly gaining precedence.
The theodolites used in geodesy vary in pattern and in sue— the
horitontal circles ranging from 10 in. to 36 in. in diameter. In
Ramsden's 36- in. theodolite the telescope has a focal length of
36 in. and an aperture of 2-5 in., the ordinarily used magnifying*
power being 54; this last, however, can of course be changed at the
requirements of the observer or of the weather. 1 he probable
error of a single observation of a fine object with this theodolite .
is about 0*2. Fig. 2 represents an altazimuth theodolite of an
improved pattern used on the Ordnance Survey. The hori zonta l
circle of 14-in. diameter is read by three micrometer microscopes;
the vertical circle has a diameter of 12 in., and is read by two micro-
scopes. In the great trigonometrical survey of India the theodolites
used in the more important parts of the work have been of 2 and
3 ft. diameter— the circle read by five equidistant microscopes.
Every angle is measured twice in each position of the zero of Uuj
horizontal circle, of whkh there, as* «NKctJfe| *=•* vV * ** s6eBfc>
6 io GEODESY
sponding uncertainty in the resulting value of the azimuth,— a*
uncertainty which increase* with the latitude and is very larft
in high latitudes. This may be partly remedied by observing in
connexion with the star its reflection in mercury. In determining
the value of " one division " of a level tube, it is necessary to bear
in mind that in-some the value varies considerably with the tempera-
ture. By experiments on the level of Ramsden s 3-foot theodolite,
it was found that though at the ordinary temperature of 66* the
value of a division was about one second, yet at 32 s it was about
five seconds.
ogaay.
tether;
»ngrt\
hands
agonal
object-
trans-
is the
taway
is the
bis eye
variable coUimation error depending on the renith distance of the
star to which it is directed ; and moreover it has been found that io
some cases the personal error of an observer is not the same in the
two positions of the telescope.
To determine the direction of the meridian, it b well to erect two
marks at nearly equal angular distances on either side of the north
meridian line, so that the pole star crosses the vertical of each mark
a short time before and after attaining its greatest eastern aad
western azimuths.
If now the instrument, perfectly levelled, is adjusted to have its,
centre wire on one of the marks, then when elevated to the star,
the star will traverse the wire, and its exact position in the neld at
any moment can be measured by the micrometer wire. Alternate
observations of the star and the terrestrial mark, combined with
careful level readings and reversals of the instrument, will enable
one, even with only one mark, to determine the direction of the
meridian in the course of an hour with a probable error of less than
a second. The second mark enables one to complete the station
more rapidly and gives a check upon the work. As an instance,
at Findlay Seat, in latitude 57° 35', the resulting azimuths of the
two marks were 177* 45' 37*a9*o'«20 and tSa° 17' I5'«6i *o r -ij,
while the angle between the two marks directly measured by a*
theodolite was found to be 4* 31' 37"'43« fc o*'23.
We now come to the consideration of the determination of time
with the transit instrument. Let fig. 3 represent the sphere stereo-
" i of
the star's declination being ft, and the
latitude +. Then to find the hour
angle ZPS-t of the star when observed, in the triangles pPS, p?Z
we have, since £PS-oo+r-*,
-Sin c— sin «i sin 5-f cos m cos * sin (»-r).
Sin m - sin b sin ♦-cos b cos 4> sin a,
Cos m sin a-sin * cos *+cos 6 sin + sin a.
And these equations solve the problem, however large be the errors
of the instrument. Supposing, as usual, a, b, m, a to be small,
we have at once r«n+« sec *+•» tan 6. which is the correction to
the observed time of transit. Or, eliminating m and n by means
of the second and third equations, and putting a for the aenith
distance of the star, I for the observed time of transit, the corrected
time is i-Kasin s+6 cos s-fc)/ cos *, Another very convenient form
for stars near the aenith is t-6 sec *+c sec *+« (tan *— tan*}.
Suppose that in commencing to observe at a station the error of the
chronometer is not known; then having secured for the instrument
a very solid foundation, removed as far as possible level and colli-
mat ion errors, and placed it by estimation nearly in the meridian,
let two stars differing considerably in declination be observed— the
instrument not being reversed between them. From these two
sura, neither of which should be a close circumpolar star, a good
aaorouimatioa to the chronometer error can be obtained; thin
GEODESY
611
let «i, •>, be the apparent dock error* given by these stars if #1, 4
be their declinations the real error it
•-ti+(ti-ti) (tan Han li)/(tan S|-Un *).
Of course this is still only approximate, but it will enable the observe!
(who by the help of a table of natural tangents can compute * in a
few minutes) to find the meridian by placing at the proper time,
which he now knows approximately, the centre wire of his instrument
on the first star that passes— not near the zenith.
The transit instrument is always reversed at least once in the
course of an evening's observing, the level being frequently read and
recorded. It is necessary in most instruments to add a correction
for the difference in size of the pivots.
The transit instrument is also used in the prime vertical for the
determination of latitudes. In the preceding figure let q be the point
in which the northern extremity of the axis of the instrument
produced meets the celestial sphere. Let uZq be the azsmuthal
deviation -a, and b being the level error, Zg— oo°-6; let also
nPq-r and P«-*>. Let S' be the position of a star when observed
on a wire whose distance from the collimation centre is r, positive
when to the south, and let A be the observed hour angle of the star,
via. ZPS'. Then the triangles gPS', «PZ give
-Sin c -sin t cos f-coa i sin i cos (Jk-f r),
Cos + - sin b sin ++cos b cos + cos a,
Sin ^ sin r -cos 6 sin a.
Now when a and 6 are very small, we see from the last two equa-
tions that #•*>-», a» r sin *\ and if we calculate *' by the formula
cot *'-cot * cos h, the first equation leads us to this result—
♦ *«>'+(a sin «+& cos »+c)/cos 1,
the correction for instrumental error being very similar to that
applied to the observed time of transit in the case of meridian
observations. When a is not very small and a is small, the formulae
required are more complicated.
The method of determining latitude by transits in the prime
vertical has the disadvantage of being a somewhat slow process,
and of requiring a very preci.se knowledge of the time, a disadvantage
from which the zenith telescope is free. In principle this instrument
is based on the proposi-
the telescope, which latter carries a- micrometer in its eye-piace,
with a screw of long range for measuring differences of zenith dis-
tance. Two levels are employed for controlling and increasing the
accuracy. For this instrument stars are selected in pairs, passing
north and south of the zenith, culminating within a few minutes
of time and within about twenty minutes (angular) of zenith dis-
tance of each other. When a pair of stars is to be observed, the
telescope is set to the mean of the zenith distances and in the plane
of the meridian. The first star on passing the central meridional
wire is bisected by the micrometer; then the telescope is rotated
very carefully through 180* round the vertical axis, and the second
star on passing through the field is bisected by the micrometer on
the centre wire. The micrometer has thus measured the difference
of the zenith distances, and the calculation to get the latitude is
most simple. Of course it is necessary to read the level, and the
observations are not necessarily confined to the centre wire. In
fact if a, s be the north and south readings of the level for the south
star, *', s* the same for the north star, 7 the value of one division
of the level, m the value of one division of the micrometer, r, r' the
refraction corrections, ft. ix the micrometer readings of the south
and north star, the micrometer being supposed to read from the
zenith, then, supposing the observation made on the centre wire, —
. • , t-to+i'l+ilrrtm+iin+n'-s-sy+Ur-r').
It is of course of the highest importance that the value « of the
screw be well determined. This is clone most effectually by observing
the vertical movement of a close circumpolar star when at its greatest
azimuth.
In a single night with this Instrument a very accurate result,
say with a probable error of about o'-2, could be obtained for
latitude from, say, twenty pair of stars; but when the latitude is
required to be obtained with the highest possible precision, two
nights at least are necessary. The weak point of the zenith telescope
lies in the circumstance that its requirements prevent the selection
of stars whose positions are well fixed ; very frequently it is necessary
declinations of the stars selected for this instrument
served at fixed observatories. The zenith telescope is
made in various sizes from 30 to 54 in. in focal length; a 30-in.
lent for the nighest purposes and is very portable.
to have the 1
specially observed at fixed observatories. The zenith telescope is
made in various sizes tmmMm ••» •-* " : ~ : - ' — ■' •—-*»■• - — :-
telescope is sufficient I . „ . . . , r
The net observation probable-error for one pair of stars is only
*0*-l.
The zenith telescope Is a particularly pleasant Instrument to
work with, and an observer has been known (a sergeant of Royal
Engineers, on one occasion) to take every star in his list during
eleven hours on a stretch, namely, from 6 o'clock p.m. until 5 a.m.,
and this.on a very cold November night on one of the highest points
of the Grampians. Observers accustomed to geodetic operations
attain considerable powers of endurance. Shortly after the com-
mencement of the observations on one of the hills in the Isle of Skye
a storm carried away the wooden houses of the men and left the
observatory roofless. Three observatory roofs were subsequently
demolished, and for some time the observatory was used without a
roof, being filled with snow every night and emptied every morning.
Quite different, however, was the experience of the same party when
on the top of Ben Nevis, 4406 ft. high. For about a fortnight the
state of the atmosphere was unusually calm, so much so, that a
lighted candle could often be carried between the tents of the men
and the observatory, whilst at the foot of the hill the weather was
wild and stormy.
The determination of the difference of longitude between two
stations A and B resolves itself into the determination of the local
time at each of the stations, and the comparison by signals of the
clocks at A and B. Whenever telegraphic lines arc available these
comparisons are made by telegraphy. A small and delicately-made
apparatus introduced into the mechanism of an astronomical clock
or chronometer breaks or doses by the action of the clock an electric
circuit every second. In order to record the minutes as well as
seconds, one second in each minute, namely that numbered o or 60.
is omitted. The seconds are recorded on a chronograph, which
consists of a cylinder revolving uniformly at the rate of one rcvolut ion
per minute covered with white paper, on which a pen having a slow
movement in the direction of the axis of the cylinder describes a
continuous spiral. This pen is deflected through the agency of an
electromagnet every second, and thus the seconds of the clock are
recorded on the chronograph by offsets from the spiral curve. An
observer having his hand on a contact key in the same circuit can
record in the same manner his observed times of tranbits of stars.
The method of determination of difference of longitude is, therefore,
virtually as follows. After the necessary observations for instru-
mental corrections, which are recorded only at the station of obser-
vation, the clock at A is put in connexion with the circuit so as to
write on both chronographs, namely, that at A and that at B.
Then the clock at B is made to write on both chronographs. It is
clear that by this double operation one can eliminate the effect of the
small interval of time consumed in the transmission of signals, for
the difference of longitude obtained from the one chronograph
will be in excess by as much as that obtained from the other will be
in defect. The determination of the personal errors of the observers
in this delicate operation is a matter of the greatest importance.
as therein lies probably the chief source of residual error.
6ia GEODESY
For the sphere a -h-r. and making this simphncation, we obtain tht
theorem previously given by A. M. Legendre. With the term* of tat
fourth order, we have (after Andrac) :
in which «-<rA|i+(m»*/8)|, 3*s -«•-*. *+«•, jJk-a+b+r. For tat
ellipsoid of rotation the measure of curvature b equal to ■/**,
ad per-
L Asa
tendre).
wt t/t;
with its
on any)
tsmost
and let
surface:
hkh U
I of aM
are in-'
• made
at any
at that
point. Imagine now three points in space, A, B, C, such that AB-
BC -c; let the direction cosines of AB be /, m, «, those -of BC l\
m\ «', then x, y, s being the co-ordinates of B, those of A and C wffl
be respectively-—
x— d :y— cm :*—cn
x+cf: y+cm': t+cn'.
Hence the co-ordinates of the middle point M of AC are x+Mf-O,
y+ic(m'-m), *+\c(%'-n), and the direction cosine* of BM are
therefore proportional to / -/: m'-m: n-js. If the angle made
by BC with AB be indefinitely small, the direction cosines of BM
are as il : *m : **. Now if AB, BC be two contiguous dements of
a geodetic, then BM must be a normal to the surface, and since U,
fen, •« are in this case represented by #(dx/<k), i(dyfds), *(*/&)•
and if the equation of the surface be n-o, we have
ffixldu ffiyldu dHliu
which, however, are equivalent to only one equation. In the case
of the spheroid thb equation becomes
d*x d*y ^
which integrated gives ydx-xdy-Cdt, This again may be put in
the form r sin a«C, where a is the azimuth of the geodetic at any
point — the angle between its direction and that of the meridian--
and r the distance of the point from the axis of revolution.
From this it may be shown that the azimuth at A of the geodetic
joining AB is not the same as the astronomical aximuth at A of B
or that determined by the vertical plane AaB. Generally speakinf .
the geodetic lies between the two plane section curves joining A and
B which are formed by the two vertical planes, supposing these points
not «ar apart. If, however, A and B are nearly In the name latitude,
the geodetic may cross (between A and B) that plane curve which
lies nearest the adjacent pole of the spheroid. The condition of
crossing is this. Suppose that for a moment we drop the considera-
tion of the earth's non-sphericity, and draw a perpendicular from
the pole C on AB, meeting it in a between A and B. Then A being
that point which is nearest the pole, the geodetic will cross the plane
curve if AS be between JAB and |AB. If AS lie between thb hut
value and JAB, the geodetic will lie wholly to the north of both
plane curves, that b, supposing both points to be in the northern
hemisphere.
The difference of the azimuths of the vertical section AB and of
the geodetic AB, «.*. the astronomical and geodetic azimuths, is
very small for all observable distances, being approximately:—
Geod. azimuth -Astr. azimuth-^ T^FJnV 00 * ♦ * 11 J,+
jgan a+ sin a) , in wfakh: « and a are the numerical eccentricity
and semi-major axis respectively of the meridian ellipse, + and • am
the latitude and azimuth at A, t • AB, and p and • are the radi of
curvature of the meridian and perpendicular at A. For j-joo
kilometres, only the first term b of moment; its value b o'-ca*
cos' 4 sin 2*. and it lies well within the errors of observation. If we
imagine the geodetic AB. it willgenerally trisect the angles between
the vertical sections at A and S, so that the geodetic at A b near
GEODESY
613
the vertical section AB, and at B near the acctioo BA. 1 The
greatest distance of the vertical sections one from another b
<rs* cos 9 4t *in 2«*/i6s', in which *• and oe are the mean latitude
and azimuth respectively of the middle point of AB. For the value
1*64 kilometres, the maximum distance is 3 mm.
An idea of the course of a longer geodetic line may be gathered
from the following example. Let theline be that joining Cadiz and
St Petersburg, whose approximate positions are —
Cadi*.
Lat. 36° 22' N.
Long. 6° 18' w.
St Petersburg. >
30° 17' E.
If G be the point on the geodetic corresponding to F on that one
of the plane curves which contains the normal at Cadiz (by " corre-
sponding " we mean that F and G are on a meridian) then G is to
the north of F; at a quarter of the whole distance from Cadiz GF
b 458 ft., at half the distance it b 637 ft., and at three-quarters it b
473 ft. The azimuth of the geodetic at Cadiz differs 20* from that
of the vertical plane, which is the astronomical azimuth.
The azimuth of a geodetic tine cannot be observed, so that the
line does not enter of necessity into practical geodesy, although
many formulae connected with its use are of great simplicity and
elegance. The geodetic line has always held a more important place
In the science of geodesy among the mathematicians of France,
Germany and Russia than has been assigned to it in the operations
of the English and Indian triangulations. Although the observed
angles of a triangulation are not geodetic angles, yet in the calcula-
tion of the distance and reciprocal bearings of two points which
arc far apart, and are connected by a long chain of triangles, we may
fall upon the geodetic line in thb manner: —
obtained, namely, from the astronomical observations there— one
can compute the latitudes of all the other points with any degree of
precision that may be considered desirable. It b necessary to employ
for thb purpose formulae which will give results true even for the
longest distances to the second place of decimals of seconds, otherwise
there will arise an accumulation of errors from imperfect calculation
which should always be avoided. For very long distances, eight
places of decimals should be employed in logarithmic calculations;
if seven places only are available very great care will be required to
keep the last place true. Now let «, «/be the latitudes of two stations
A and B; a, •• their mutual azimuths counted from north by east
continuously from o* to 360*; .«* their difference of longitude
measured from west to east; and * the distance AB.
First compute a latitude ft by means of the formula *»«*
+(» cos «)/p, where p is the radius 01 curvature of the meridian at the
latitude +; this will require but four places of logarithms. Then,
in the first two of the following, five place* are sufficient—
J* . j*
* •■5Ja M **«en f i-~sin«otan*,
y-*-£cos<e-|«)-*
s ain(«— jQ
«- »cosfr'+U '
a*-a«wsin(y+i*)-«+x8o°.
Here n b the normal or radius of curvature perpendicular to the
meridian; both n and p correspond to latitude «*i. and *» to latitude
i (*+♦')• For calculations of latitude and longitude, tables of the
logarithmic values of p sin i ', n sin 1 ', and 2*p sin 1 " are necessary.
The following table contains these logarithms for every ten minutes
of latitude from 5a to 53* comouted with the elements a —20926060
and a : 6-295 : 2 94 : —
\*A
plane containing A' and W also contains A but not B: it must
therefore be rotated through a small azimuth in order to contain B.
The correction amounts approximately to— *V cos 8 * sin 2*/aa;
jn the case of ** •■ 1000 m., its value b o**io8 cos V sin 2:
Thb correction b therefore of greater importance in the case of
obs er ved azimuths and horizontal angles than in the previously
considered case of the astronomical and the geodetic azimuths. The
observed azimuths and horizontal angles must therefore also be
correc t ed in the case, where it b required to dispense with geodetic
When the angles of a triangulation have been adjusted by the
method of least squares, and the sides are calculated, the next
process b to calculate the latitudes and longitudes of all the stations
starting from one given point. The calculated latitudes, longitudes
and azimuths, which are designated geodetic latitudes, longitudes
and azimuths, are not to be confounded with the observed latitudes,
longitudes and azimuths, for these last are subject to somewhat
large errors. Supposing the latitudes of a number of stations in the
triangulation to be observed, practically the mean of these determines
the position in latitude of the network, taken as a whole. So the
orientation or general azimuth of the whole b inferred from all the
azimuth observations. The triangulation b then supposed to be
projected on a spheroid of given dements, representing as nearly as
one knows the real figure of the earth. Then, taking the latitude
of one point and the direction of the meridian there aa given—
1 See a paper " On the Course of Geodetic Lines on the Earth's
Surface " in the Phil. Mag. 1870; Helmed, Tktoriem iu kdktrc*
(Mfrtt. 1. 321. ~~
The logarithm in the last column is that required also for the
calculation of spherical^ excesses, the spherical excess of a triangle
being expressed by ab sin C/2p» sin t*.
It is frequently necessary to obtain the co-ordinates of one point
with reference to another point; that is, let a perpendicular arc be
drawn from B to the meridian of A meeting it in P, then, a being
the azimuth of B at A, the co-ordinates of B with reference to A are
AP-* cos (e-Jc), BP-s sin (a-fc),
where « is the spherical excess of APB, viz. s* sin a cos • multiplied
by Ujc quantity whose logarithm b in the fourth column of the above
table.
If it be necessary to determine the geographical latitude and
longitude as well as the azimuths to a greater degree of accuracy
than b given by the above formulae, we make use of the following
formula: given the latitude 4 of A, and the azimuth • and the
distance * of B { to determine the latitude +' and longitude w of B,
and the back azimuth a'. 1 iere it b understood that a' is symmetrical
to a, so that ••+n'-36o*
Let
$ -iA/a, where A - (1 -e» sin V)l
and
f . {* are always very minute quantities even for the longest distances;
then, putting « -90 -*,
. a'+r-ny ejn >(«-»-
♦'-♦'
swn
"posm
«83('+fr-*F)»
here po b the radius of curvature of the meridian for the mean
latitude !(+++')• These formulae are approximate only, but they
«c .1.. ^4^ even for vrrv Ions distances.
F. W. BemsJ (Astr. Neck.,
are sufficiently precise even for very long distances.
For lines of any length the formulae of
1823, iv. 241) are suitable.
If the two points A and B be
defined by that* asMqsK^kkal
616 GEOFFREY (PLANTAGENET)-GEOFFREY OF MONMOUTH
Saintonge in fief against his son. In 1036 Geoffrey Martcl had to
liberate William the Fat, on payment of a heavy ransom, but the
latter having died in 1038, and the second son of William the
Great, Odo, duke of Gascony, having fallen in his turn at the
siege of Mauz6(ioth of March 1030) Geoffrey made peace with his
father in the autumn of 1039, and had his wife's two sons recog-
nized as dukes. About this time, also, he had interfered in the
affairs of Maine, though without much result, for having sided
against Gervais, bishop of Le Mans, who was trying to make
himself guardian of the young count of Maine, Hugh, he had been
beaten and forced to make terms with Gervais in 1038. In 1040
be succeeded his father in Anjou and was able to conquer Touraine
(1044) and assert his authority over Maine (see Anjou). About
1050 he repudiated Agnes, his first wife, and married Grecic, the
Widow of Bcllay, lord of Montreuil-Bcllay (before August 1052),
whom he subsequently left in order to marry Adela, daughter of a
certain Count Odo. Later he returned to Grecie, but again left
her to marry Adelaide the German. When, however, he died on
the 14th of November 1060, at the monastery of St Nicholas at
Angers, he left no children, and transmitted the countship to
.Geoffrey the Bearded, the eldest of his nephews (sec Anjou).
See Louis Halphen, Le Comtt d'Ahjou au XI* sikele (Paris 1906).
•A summary biography \% given by Cclestin Port, Dictionnaire
kistoriaue, geograpkique et btographiqve de Maine-el-Loire (3 vol*.,
Paris-Angers, 1874-1878), vol. ii. pp. 253-253, and a sketch of the
wars by Kate Norgate, England under the Angevin Kings (2 vols.,
London, 1887), vol. i. chs. iii. iv. (L. H.*)
GEOFFREY, surnamed Plantagenet [or Plantegenet]
(1 1 1 3-1 1 5 1), count of Anjou, was the son of Count Fulk the Young
and of Ercraburge (or Arembourg of La Flechc; he was born on
the 24th of August 1 1 13. He is also called " le bcl " or " the
handsome," and received the surname of Plantagenet from the
habit which he is said to have had of wearing in his cap a sprig of
broom {genii). In 1 1 27 he was made a knight, and on the 2nd of
June 1129 married Matilda, daughter of Henry I. of England, and
widow of the emperor Henry V. Some months afterwards he
succeeded to his father, who gave up the countship when he
definitively went to the kingdom of Jerusalem. The years of his
government were spent in subduing the Angevin barons and in
conquering Normandy (see Anjou). In 1151, while returning
from t he siege of Montreuil-Bcllay, he took cold, in consequence of
bathing in the Loir at Chateau-du-Loir, and died on the 7th of
September. HcwasburiedinthecathcdralofLeMans. By his
wife Matilda he had three sons: Henry Plantagenet, born at Le
Mans on Sunday, the 5th of March 11 33; Geoffrey, born at
Argcnian on the 1st of June x 134; and William Long-Sword, born
on the 22nd of July 1136.
See Kate Norgate, England under the Angevin Kings (2 vols.,
London, 1887), vol. i. ens. v.-viii.; Cclestin Port, Dictionnaire
hisloriove, gtographique el biographique de Maine-el-Loire (3 vols.,
Paris-Angers, 1874-1878), vol. ii. pp. 254-256. A history of
Geoffrey le Bel has yet to be written; there is a biography of him
written in the I2th century by Jean, a monk of Marmouticr, llisloria
Gaufrcdi, ducis Normannorum et comitis Andegavorum, published by
Marchegay et Salmon; " Chroniqucs des comtes d 'Anjou " (Sociiit
de I'histoire de France, Paris, 1856), pp. 229-310. (L. H.*)
GEOFFREY (1158-1186), duke of Brittany, fourth son of the
English king Henry II. and his wife Eleanor of Aquitaine, was
born on the 23rd of September 1 1 58. In 1 167 Henry suggested a
marriage between Geoffrey and Constance (d. 1 201), daughter and
heiress of Conan IV., duke of Brittany (d. 1x71); and Conan not
only assented, perhaps under compulsion, to this proposal, but
surrendered the greater part of his unruly duchy to the English
king. Having received the homage of the Breton nobles,
Geoffrey joined his brothers, Henry and Richard, who, in alliance
with Louis VII. of France, were in revolt against their father; but
he mode his peace in 1 174, afterwards helping to restore order in
Brittany and Normandy, and aiding the new French king, Philip
Augustus, to crush some rebellious vassals In July 1181 his
marriage with Constance was celebrated, and practically the
whole of his subsequent life was spent in warfare with his brother
Richard. In 1 183 he made peace with his father, who had come
to Richard's assistance; but a fresh struggle soon broke out for
ihe possession of Anjou, *nd Geoffrey was in Paris treating tor
*M with PbiUp Augustus, wbem he died on tht. 19th ol Angus*
1 1 86. He left a daughter, Eleanor, and his wife bolt *
posthumous son, the unfortunate Arthur.
GEOFFREY (c. 1 1 52-1212), archbishop of York, was s bastard
son of Henry II., king of England. He was distinguished fron
his legitimate half-brothers by his consistent attachment ard
fidelity to his father. He was made bishop of Lincoln at the age
of twenty-one (1173); but though he enjoyed the temporalities
he was never consecrated and resigned the see in 1183. He then
became his father's chancellor, holding a large number of lucrative
benefices in plurality. Richard nominated him archbishop of
York in n8o, but he was not consecrated till 1 ioi, or enthroned
till 1 104* Geoffrey, though of high character, was a man of
uneven temper; his history in chiefly one 6i quarrels, with the
see of Canterbury, with the chancellor Willian Longchatnp, wiih
his half-brothers Richard and John, and especially with his
canons at York. This last dispute kept him in litigation before
Richard and the pope for many years. He led the clergy in their
refusal to be taxed by John and was forced to fly the kingdom in
1207. He died in Normandy on the X2th of December 1212.
See Giraldus Cambrcnsb, Vila Calfridi; Stubba's preface* to
Roger de Hove den, vols. iii. and iv. (Rolls Series). (H. W. C D.)
GEOFFREY DE HONTBRAY (d. 1003), bishop of Coutances
(Constant tens is), a right-hand man of William the Conqueror, was
a type of the great feudal prelate, warrior and administrator at
need. He knew, says Ordcric, more about marshalling mailed
knights than edifying psalm-singing clerks. Obtaining, as a young
man, in 1048, the see of Coutances, by his brother's influence
(see Mowbray), he raised from his fellow nobles and front their
Sicilian spoils funds for completing his cathedral, which *as
consecrated in 1056. With bishop Odo, a warrior like himself,
he was on the battle-field of Hastings, exhorting the Normans tu
victory; and at William's coronation it was be who called oa
them to acclaim their duke as king. His reward in England was a
mighty fief scattered over twelve counties. He accompanied
William on his visit to Normandy (1067), but, returning, led a
royal force tothc relief of Montacutein September 1069. In 107$
he again took the field, leading with Bishop Odo a vast host
against the rebel carl of Norfolk, whose stronghold at Norwich
they besieged and captured.
Meanwhile the Conqueror had invested him with important
judicial functions. In 1072 he had presided over the great
Kentish suit between the primate and Bishop Odo, and about the
same lime over those between the abbot of Ely and hiadespoikn,
and between the bishop of Worcester and the abbot of Ely, and
there is some reason to think that he acted as a Domesday
commissioner (1086), and was placed about the same time in
charge of Northumberland. The bishop, who attended the
Conqueror's funeral, joined in the great rising against William
Rufus next yer.r (1088), making Bristol, with which (as
Domesday shows) he was closely connected and where he had
built a strong cast le, his baseof operations. He burned Bath and
ravaged Somerset, but had submitted to the king before the end
of the year. He appears to have been at Dover with William in
January iooo, but, withdrawing to Normandy, dicdat Coutances
three years later. In his fidelity to Duke Robert he seems to
have there held out for him against his brother Henry, when the
latter obtained the Cotentin.
Sec E. A. Freeman, Norman Conquest and William Rvfus; I. H.
Round, Feudal England; and, for original. authorities, the works of
Ordcric Vitali* and William of Poitteo, and of Florence of Worcester;
the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle; William of Malmcsbury's Gesta pern-
tificum, and Lanfranc's wprks, cd. Giles; Domesday Book.
a. h. r.)
GEOFFREY OF MONMOUTH (d. 1154), bishop of Si Asaph
and writer on early British history, was born about the year 1 100.
Of his early life b'ttle is known, except that he received a liberal
education under the eye of his paternal uncle, Uchtryd, who was
at that time archdeacon, and subsequently bishop, of LlimtaJ
In 1 1 29 Geoffrey appears at Oxford among the witnesses of aa
Oscney charter. He subscribes himself Geoffrey Artnrus;
from this we may perhaps infer that he had already begun his
exVtriiiK&Vs \n, ita iwAufattAue. q( Celtic mythology. A tot
i edition, *\ Vm Hittma fertoww* <w«*>Sa£cra&nftQi*>Q9'<te*'fat>
GEOFFREY OF PARIS— GEOFFRIN
617
1 139, although the text which we possess appears to date from
1 147. This famous work, which the author has the audacity
to place on the same level with the histories of William of
Malmesbury and Henry of Huntingdon, professes to be a transla-
tion from a Celtic source; "a very old book in the British
tongue" which Walter, archdeacon of Oxford, had brought
from Brittany. Walter the archdeacon is a historical personage;
whether his book has any real existence may be fairly questioned.
There is nothing in the matter or the style of the Historic to
preclude us from supposing that Geoffrey drew partly upon
confused traditions, partly on his own powers of invention, and
to a very slight degree upon the accepted authorities for early
British history. His chronology is fantastic and incredible;
William of Newburgh justly remarks that, if we accepted the
events which Geoffrey relates, we should have to suppose that
they had happened in another world. William of Newburgh
wrote, however, in the reign of Richard I. when the reputation
of Geoffrey's work was too well established to be shaken by such
criticisms. The fearless romancer had achieved an immediate
success. He was patronized by Robert, earl of Gloucester, and
by two bishops of Lincoln; he obtained, about 1140, the arch-
deaconry of Lbndaff "on account of his learning "; and in
1 1 51 was promoted to the see of St Asaph.
Before his death the Hisioria Britonum had already become a
model and a quarry for poets and chroniclers. The list of
imitators begins with Geoffrey Gaimar, the author of the Estorie
des EngUs (c. 1 147), and Wace, whose Roman de Brut (1155) is
partly a translation and partly a free paraphrase of the Hist aria.
In the next century the influence of Geoffrey is unmistakably
Attested by the Brut of Layamon, and the rhyming English
chronicle of Robert of Gloucester. Among later historians who
were deceived by the Hisioria Britonum it is only needful to
mention Higdon, Hardyng, Fabyan (1512), Hoiinshcd (1580)
and John Milton. Still greater was the influence of Geoffrey
upon those writers who, like Warner in Albion's England (1586),
and Drayton in Palyolbion (1613), deliberately made their
accounts of English history as poetical as possible. The stories
which Geoffrey preserved or invented were not infrequently
a source of inspiration to literary artists. The earliest English
tragedy, Gorbodmc (1565), the Mirror for Magistrates (15S7), and
Shakespeare's Lear, are instances in point. It was, however,
the Arthurian legend which of all his fabrications attained the
greatest vogue. In the work of expanding and elaborating thjs
theme the successors of Geoffrey went as far beyond him as he
had gone beyond Nennius; but he retains the credit due to the
founder of a great school. Marie de France, who wrote at the
court of Henry II., and Chretien de Troyes, her French con-
temporary, were the earliest of the avowed romancers to take
up the theme. The succeeding age saw the Arthurian story
popularized, through translations of the French romances, as
far afield as Germany and Scandinavia. It produced in England
the Roman du Saint Gracl and the Roman de Merlin, both from
the pen of Robert de Iionron; the Roman de Lancelot', the Roman
de Tristan, which is attributed to a fictitious Lucas de Gast. In
the reign of Edward IV. Sir Thomas Malory paraphrased and
arranged the best episodes of these romances in English prose.
His Morte d' Arthur, printed by Caxton in 1485, epitomizes the
rich mythology which Geoffrey's work had first called into life,
and gave the Arthurian story a lasting place in the English
imagination. The influence of the Hisioria Britonum may be
illustrated in another way, by enumerating the more familiar
of the legends to which it first gave popularity. Of the twelve
books into which it is divided only three (Bits. IX., X., XI.) are
concerned with Arthur. Earlier in the work, however, we have
the adventures of Brutus; of his follower Corineus, the vanquisher
of the Cornish giant Goemagol (Gogmagog); of Locrinus and
his daughter Sabre (immortalized in Milton's Comus); of Bladud
the builder of Bath; of Lear and his daughters; of the three
pairs of brothers, Fcrrex and Porrex, Brcnnius and Brlinus,
Elidure and Pcridurc. The story of Vortigcrn and Rowcna
takes its final form in the Hisioria Britonum; and Merlin makes
his first appearance in the prelude to the Arthur legend. Besides
the Hisioria Britonum Geoffrey is also credited with a Life of
Merlin composed in Latin verse. The authorship of this work
has, however, been disputed, on the ground that the style is dis-
tinctly superior to that of the Hisioria. A minor composition, the
Prophecies of Merlin, was written before z 136, and afterwards incor-
probably the author of the Ckronique tnttrique de Philippe Is
Bel, or Ckronique rimte de Geojfroi de Paris. This work, which
deals with the history of France from 1300 to 1316, contains
7918 verses, and is valuable as that of a writer who had a personal
knowledge of many of the events which he relates. Various short
historical poems have also been attributed to Geoffrey, but there
is no certain information about either his life or his writings.
The Ckronique was published by J. A. Buchoa in his Collection del
chroniques, tome ix. (Paris, 1827), and it has also been printed in
tome xxii. of the Recueil des historiens des Caules et de la France
(Paris. 1865). Sec G. Paris. Histoire de la HlUralurc franchise an
moyen ige (Paris, 1800); and A. Molinicr, Les Sources deV histoire de
France, tome sis. (Paris, 1903).
QBOFFREY THE BAKER (d. c. 1360), English chronicler,
is also called Walter of Swinbroke, and was probably a secular
clerk at Swinbrook in Oxfordshire. He wrote a Chronicom
Angliae temporibus Edwardi II. et Edwardi III., which deals
with the history of England from 1303 to 1356. From the begin-
ning until about 1324 this work is based upon Adam Morimuth's
Coniinuatio chronicarum, but after this date it is valuable and
interesting, containing information not found elsewhere, and
closing with a good account of the battle of Poitiers. The author
obtained his knowledge about the last days of Edward II. from
William Bisschop, a companion of the king's murderers, Thomas
Gurney and John Mallravers. Geoffrey also wrote a Chronic
culum from the creation of the world until 1336, the value of
which is very slight. His writings have been edited with notes
by Sir E. M. Thompson as the Ckronicon Galfridi le Baker de
Swynebroke (Oxford, 1S80). Some doubt exists concerning
Geoffrey's share in the compilation of the Vila et mors Edwardi
II., usually attributed to Sir Thomas de la More, or Moor, and
printed by Camden in his Anglic a scripta. It has been maintained
by Camden and others that More wrote an account of Edward's
reign in French, and that this was translated into Latin by
Geoffrey and used by him in compiling his Ckronicon. Recent
scholarship, however, asserts that More was no writer, and that
the Vita et mors is an extract from Geoffrey's Ckronicon, and
was attributed to More, who was the author's patron. In the
main this conclusion substantiates the verdict of Stubbs, who
has published the Vita et mors in his Chronicles of the reigns of
Edward I. and Edward II. (London, 18A3). The manuscripts
of Geoffrey's works are in the Bodleian library at Oxford.
GEOFFRIN, MARII THftliSB RODET (1600-1777)* *
Frenchwoman who played an interesting part in French literary
and artistic life, was born in Paris in 1690. She married, on the
19th of July 1 7 13, Pierre Francois Geoffrin, a rich manufacturer
and lieutenant-colonel of the National Guard, who died in 175a
It was not till Mmc Geoffrin was nearly fifty years of age that we
begin to hear of her as a power in Parisian society. She had
learned much from Mme de Tenon, and about 1748 began to
gather round her a literary and artistic circle. She had every
week two dinners, on Monday for artists, and on Wednesday for
her friends the Encyclopaedists and other men of letters. She
received many foreigners of distinction, Hume and Horace
Walpole among others. Walpole spent much time in her society
before he was finally attached to Mme du Deffand, and speaks of
her in his letters as a model of common sense. She was indeed
somewhat of a small tyrant in her circle. She had adopted the
pose of an old woman earlier thaa ttexswupf ^u&AAaen**^^ v^
618 GEOFFROY, E. F.— GEOFFROY SAINT-HILAIRE, E.
such it can be called, took the form of being mother and mentor to
her guests, many of whom were indebted to her generosity for
substantial help. Although her aim appears to have been to
have the Encyclopedic in conversation and action around her, she
was extremely displeased with any of her friends who were so
rash as to incur open disgrace. Marraontel lo6t her favour after
the official censure of Bilisaire, and her advanced views did not
prevent her from observing the forms of religion. A devoted
Parisian, Mme Geoffrin rarely left the city, so that her journey to
Poland in 1766 to visit the king, Stanislas Poniatowski, whom she
had known in his early days in Paris, was a great event in her life.
Her experiences induced a sensible gratitude that she had been
born " Fran^aise " and " parlictdiere" In her last illness her
daughter, Therese, marquise de la Fcrtc' Imbault, excluded her
mother's old friends so that she might die as a good Christian, a
proceeding wittily described by the old lady: " My daughter is
like Godfrey de Bouillon, she wished to defend my tomb from
the infidels." Mme Geoffrin died in Paris on the 6th of October
17J7-
See Correspondence inidite in rot Stanislas Autuste Poniatowski el
de Madame Geoffrin, edited by the comte de Mouj? (1875); P. de
Scgur. Le Royaume de la rut Saint-Honori, Madame Geoffrin et sa
fille (1897); *• Tomery. Un Bttrean f esprit en X VI 11' sihclei le
salon de Madame Geoffrin (1895) ; and Janet Aldis, Madame Geoffrin,
her Salon and her Times, 1750-1777 (1905).
GEOFFROY, BTIEUNE FRANCOIS (1672-1731), French
chemist, born in Paris on the 13th of February 1672, was first
an apothecary and then practised medicine. After studying at
Montpellier he accompanied Marshal Tallard on his embassy to
London in 1698 and thence travelled to Holland and Italy.
Returning to Paris he became professor of chemistry at the
Jardin du Roi and of pharmacy and medicine at the College de
France, and dean of the faculty of medicine. He died in Paris on
the 6th of January 1731. His name is best known in connexion
with his tables of affinities (tables des rapports), which he presented
to the French Academy in 17 18 and 1720. These were lists,
prepared by collating observations on the actions of substances
one upon another, showing the varying degrees of affinity exhibited
by analogous bodies for different reagents, and they retained
their vogue for the rest of the century, until displaced by the
profounder conceptions introduced by C. L. Bertbollet. Another
of bis papers dealt with the delusions of the philosopher's stone,
but nevertheless he believed that iron could be artificially formed
in the combustion of vegetable matter. His Tracsatns de materia
medica, published posthumously in 1741, was long celebrated.
His brother Claude Joseph, known as Geoffrey the younger
(1685-1752), was also an apothecary and chemist who, having a
considerable knowledge of botany, devoted himself especially to
the study of the essential oils in plants.
GEOFFROY, JUUEN LOUIS (1743-1814), French critic, was
born at Renncs in 1743. He studied in the school of his native
town and at the College Louis le Grand in Paris. He took orders
and fulfilled for some time the humble functions of an usher,
eventually becoming professor of rhetoric at the College Masarin.
A bad tragedy, Caton, was accepted at the TkS&Ire Francois, but
was never acted. On the death of £tie Freron in 1776 the other
collaborators in the Annie liUiraire asked Geoffrey to succeed him,
and he conducted the journal until in 1792 it ceased to appear.
Geoffrey was a bitter critic of Voltaire and his followers, and
made for himself many enemies. An enthusiastic royalist,
he published with Freron *s brother-in-law, the abbe" Thomas
Royou (1741-1792), » journal, L'Ami d* roi (1790-1792),
which possibly did more harm than good to the king's cause by its
ill-advised partisanship. During the Terror Geoffrey hid in the
neighbourhood of Paris, only returning in 1709. An attempt to
revive the Annie liltiraire failed, and Geoffrey undertook the
dramatic fcuilleton of the Journal des dibats. His scathing
criticisms had a success of notoriety, but their popularity was
ephemeral, and the publication of them (5 vols., 1819-1820) as
Cours de UtUrature dramatique proved a failure. He was also the
author of a perfunctory Commattaire on the works of Racine
prefixed to Lenormant's edition (1808). He died in Paris on the
Mftk c/Febnuuy 1814.
GEOFFROY SAINT-HILAIRE, ETIEKNB (1772-1844). Frenct
naturalist, was the son of Jean Gerard Geoffrey, procurator and
magistrate of £tampes, Scine-et-Oise, where he was born on tat
15th of April 1772. Destined for the church be entered the
college of Navarre, in Paris, where he studied natural philosophy
under M. J. Brisson; and in 1788 he obtained one of the canoat*
cates of 'the chapter of Sainte Croix at Eta m pes, and also a
benefice. Science, however, offered him a more congenial career,
and he gained from his father permission to remain in Paris, and
to attend the lectures at the College de France and the Jardin da
Plantes, on the condition that he should also read law. He
accordingly took up his residence at Cardinal Lemoine's college,
and there became the pdpil and soon the esteemed avrtriatf of
Brisson 's friend, the abbe Hatty, the mineralogist. Having,
before the close of the year 1700, taken the degree of bachelor ia
law, he became a student of medicine, and attended the lectures of
A. F. de Fourcroy at the Jardin des Plantes, and of L. J. If.
Daubenton at the College de France. His studies at Paris were it
length suddenly interrupted, for, in August 1792, Hatty and the
other professors of Lemoine's college, as also those of the college
of Navarre, were arrested by the revolutionists as priests, and
confined in the prison of St Firmin. Through the influence of
Daubenton and others Geoffrey on the 14th of August obtained
an order for the release of Hatty in the name of the Academy;
still the other professors of the two colleges, save C. F. Lhomood,
who had been rescued by his pupil J. L. Tallien, remained ia
confinement. Geoffrey, foreseeing their certain destruction if
they remained in the hands of the revolutionists, determined if
possible to secure their liberty by stratagem. By bribing one of
the officials at St Firmin, and disguising himself as a commissioner
of prisons, he gained admission to his friends, and entreated then
to effect their escape by following him. All, however, dreading
lest their deliverance should render the doom of their fellow*
captives the more certain, refused the offer and one priest only,
who was unknown to Geoffrey, left the prison. Already on the
night of the 2nd of September the massacre of the proscribed had
begun, when Geoffrey, yet int nt on saving the life of his friends
and teachers, repaired to St Firmin. At 4 o'clock on the morning
of the 3rd of September, after eight hours' waiting, he by means
of a ladder assisted the escape of twelve ecclesiastics, not of the
number of his acquaintance, and then the approach of dawn and
the discharge of a gun directed at him warned him, his chief
purpose unaccomplished, to return to his lodgings. Leaving Paris
he retired to £tampcs, where, in consequence of the anxieties of
which he had lately been the prey, and the horrors which he had
witnessed, he was for some time seriously ill. At the beginning
of the winter of 1792 he returned to his studies in Paris, and ia
March of the following year Daubenton, through the interest of
Bcrnardin de Saint Pierre, procured him the office of sub-keeper
and assistant demonstrator of the cabinet of natural history,
vacant by the resignation of B. G. £. Lacepdde. By a law
passed in June 1793, Geoffrey was appointed one of the twelve
professors of the newly constituted museum of natural history,
being assigned the chair of zoology. In the same year he
busied himself with the formation of a menagerie at that
institution.
In 1794 through the introduction of A. H. Tcasier he entered
into correspondence with Georges Cuvier, to whom, after the
perusal of some of his manuscripts, he wrote: " Venes jouer
parrai nous le role de Linnc, d'un autre legislateur de llustoire
naturellc." Shortly after the appointment of Cuvier as *~fct»w»
at the Museum d'Histoire Naturelle, Geoffroy received him Into
his house. The two friends wrote together five memoirs on
natural history, one of which, on the classification of «wiwm«k
puts forward the idea of the subordination of characters upon
which Cuvier based his zoological system. It was in a paper
entitled " Hlstoire des Makis, ou singes de Madagascar, ** written
in 179s, tbat Geoffroy first gave expression to bis views on u the
unity of organic composition," the influence of which is per-
ceptible in all his subsequent writings; nature, he observes,
presents us with only one plan of construction, the same in
pmnrinfc, but varied in its accessory parts.
GEOFFROY SAINT-HILAIRE, I.— GEOGRAPHY
619
S Geoffrey was chosen a member of the great scientific
m to Egypt, and on the capitulation of Alexandria in
[801, he took part in resisting the claim made by the
eneral to the collections of the expedition, declaring that,
t demand persisted in, history would have to record
bo had burnt a library in Alexandria. Early in January
rffroy returned to his accustomed labours in Paris. He
led a member of the academy of sciences of that city
nber 1807. In March of the following year the emperor,
already recognized his national services by the award
•oss of the legion of honour, selected him to visit the
1 of Portugal, for the purpose of procuring collections
m, and in the face of considerable opposition from the
le eventually was successful in retaining them as a
Bt possession for his country. In 1809, the year after
n to France, he was made professor of zoology at the
>f sciences at Paris, and from that period he devoted
nore exclusively than before to anatomical study. In
gave to the world the first part of his celebrated Philo-
talomique, the second volume of which, published in
d subsequent memoirs account for the formation of
ities on the principle of arrest of development, and of
tction of similar parts. When, in 1830, GcofTroy pro-
) apply to the invcrtcbrala his views as to the unity of
omposition, he found a vigorous opponent in Georges
uad the discussion between them, continued up to the
he death of the latter, soon attracted the attention of
tine throughout Europe. Geoffroy, a synthesist, con-
n accordance with his theory of unity of plan in organic
ion, that all animals are formed of the same elements,
ite number, and with the same connexions: homologous
wever they differ in form and size, must remain associated
.me invariable order. With Goethe he held that there
ure a law of compensation or balancing of growth, so
ne organ take on an excess of development, it is at the
of some other part; and he maintained that, since
uYca no sudden leaps, even organs which are superfluous
iven species, if they have played an important part in
eries of the same family, are retained as rudiments,
stlfy to the permanence of the general plan of creation,
is conviction that, owbg to the conditions of life, the
ma had not been perpetuated since the origin of all
ilthough it was not his belief that existing species are
g modified. Cuvicr, who was an analytical observer of
xnittcd only the prevalence of " laws of co-existence "
mony " in animal organs, and maintained the absolute
ility of species, which he declared had been created
egard to the circumstances in which they were placed,
jan contrived with a view to the function it had to
us putting, in Geoffrey's considerations, the effect for
e.
y 1840 GcofTroy became blind, and some months later
paralytic attack. From that time bis strength gradually
m. He resigned his chair at the museum in 1841, and
?aris on the 19th of June 1844.
National
iie analo-
nonsiruo-
'i et des
nposition
mmijeres
t brogrcS'
ulosophie
iption de
nri. with
Cuvicr ( J 773- 1 838). a younger brother of C. Cuvicr, Histoire
des mamtnijcres (4 vols., 1820-1842); besides numerous
n such subjects as the anatomy of marsupials, ruminants
;rical fishes, the vertebrate theory of the skull, the opercula
teratology, palaeontology and the influence of surrounding
is in modifying animal forms.
ie, travaur. et doctrine scicnlifique d'FJienne Geoffroy Saint-
par son fils M. Isidore Geoffroy Saint-lJUaire (Paris and
g, 1847), to which b appended a list of Geoffrey's works;
. in Btog. universale, t. xvi. (1856).
GEOFFROY SAINT-HILAIRB, ISIDORE (i8oe-i86x),'Frencfa
zoologist, son of the preceding, was born at Paris on the x6th of
December 1805. In his earlier years he showed an aptitude for
mathematics, but eventually he devoted himself to the study
of natural history and of medicine, and in 1824 he was appointed
assistant naturalist to his father. On the occasion of his taking
the degree of doctor of medicine in September 1829, he read a
thesis entitled Propositions sur la monstruositt, considtrcc chet
I'komme et Us animaux; and in 1832-1837 was 'published his
great teratological work, Histoire generate et particulate des
anomalies de Porganisalum ckex Vkomme ct les animaux, 3 vols.
8vo. with 20 plates. In 1829 he delivered for bis father the second
part of a course of lectures on ornithology, and during the three
following years he taught zoology at the Athencc, and teratology
at the Ecole pratique. He was elected a member of the academy
of sciences at Paris in 1833, was in 1837 appointed to act as
deputy for his father at the faculty of sciences in Paris, and in
the following year was sent to Bordeaux to organize a similar
faculty there. lie became successively inspector of the academy
of Paris (1840), professor of the museum on the retirement of
his father (1841), inspector-general of the university (1844),
a member of the royal council for public instruction (1845), ana "
on the death of H. M. D. de Blainville, professor of zoology
at the faculty of sciences (1850). In 1854 he founded the
Acclimatisation Society of Paris, of which he was president.
He died at Paris on the xoth of November x86i.
Besides the above-mentioned works, he wrote: Essais do tootogio
giniruU (1841); Vie . . . d'Elienne Ceoffroy Saint-Hilaire (1847);
Acclimatation et domestication des animaux utiles (184Q; 4th «d.,
1861); Lettres sur Us substances alimentaires et partuuliitrement sur
la viands de cketat (1856); and Histoire naturelU ginlraU des rtgnes
organiques (3 vols., 1854-1862), which was not quite completed.
He was the author also of various papers on zoology, comparative
anatomy and palaeontology.
GEOGRAPHY (Gr. yrj, earth, and ypa<t*t», to write), the
exact and organized knowledge of the distribution of phenomena
on the surface of the earth. The fundamental basis of geography
is the vertical relief of the earth's crust, which controls all
mobile distributions. The grander features of the relief of the
lithosphcre or stony crust of the earth control the distribution
of the hydrosphere or collected waters which gather into the
hollows, filling them up to a height corresponding to the volume,
and thus producing the important practical division of the
surface into land and water. The distribution of the mass of
the atmosphere over the surface of the earth is also controlled
by the relief of the crust, its greater or lesser density at the surface
corresponding to the lesser or greater elevation of the surface.
The simplicity of the zonal distribution of solar energy on the
earth's surface, which would characterize a uniform globe, is
entirely destroyed by the dissimilar action of land and water
with regard to radiant heat, and by the influence of crust -forms
on the direction of the resulting circulation. The influence of
physical environment becomes clearer and stronger when the
distribution of plant and animal life is considered, and if it is
less distinct in the case of man, the reason is found in the modifica-
tions of environment consciously produced by human effort.
Geography is a synthetic science, dependent for the data with
which it deals on the results of specialized sciences such as
astronomy, geology, oceanography, meteorology, biology and
anthropology, as well as on topographical description. The
physical and natural sciences arc concerned in geography only
so far as they deal with the forms of the earth's surface, or as
regards the distribution of phenomena. The distinctive task of
geography as a science is to investigate the control exercised by
the crust-forms directly or indirectly upon the various mobile
distributions. This gives to it unity and dcfinitcncss.and renders
superfluous the attempts that have been made from time to
time to define the limits which divide geography from geology
on the one hand and from history on the other. It is essential
to classify the subject-matter of geography in such a manner as
to give prominence not only to facts, but to their mutual relations
and their natural and inevitable order.
The fundamental conception of geocjavbv U taR& % feR3aAtai
1
620 GEOGRAPHY rnu»M
earth by three arguments, two of which could be tested by obser-
vation. These were: (i) that the earth mutt be spherical, became
of the tendency of matter to fall together towards a com- ai**&
mon centre; (2) that only a sphere could always .thr*. w a mattke
circular shadow on the moon during an eclipse; and (3) mri*m
that the shifting of the horizon and the appearance of
new constellations, or the disappearance of familiar stars, as one
travelled from north to south, could only be explained oa the hypo-
thesis that the earth was a sphere. Aristotle, too, save greater
definiteness to the idea of zones conceived by Parmenidcs, who had
pictured a torrid zone uninhabitable by reason of heat, two frigid
zones uninhabitable by reason of cold, and two intermediate temper-
ate zones fit for human occupation. Aristotle defined the temperate
zone as extending from the tropic to the arctic circle, but there Li
some uncertainty as to the precise meaning he gave to the term
" arctic circle." Soon after his time, however, this conception «u
j clearly established, and with so large a generalization the mental
horizon was widened to conceive of a geography which was a SLieoct.
Aristotle had himself shown that in the southern temperate roue
winds similar to those of the northern temperate zone should blow,
but from the opposite direction.
While the theory of the sphere was being elaborated the efforts of
practic.il geographers were steadily directed towards asrfrf.u'niif
the outline and configuration of the oekumene, or habitable nrrlarfls
work!, the only portion of the terrestrial surface known ^JSssi
to the ancients and to the medieval peoples, and still ^tot
retaining a shadow of its old monopoly of geographical m t„ w
attention in its modern name of the " Old World." The "" J
fitting of the oekumene to the sphere was the second theoretical
problem. The circular outline had given way in geographical
opinion to the elliptical with the long axis lying east and west, sod
Aristotle was inclined to view it as a very long and relatively narrow
band almost encircling the globe in the temperate zone. His argu-
ment as to the narrowness of the sea between West Africa and East
Asia, from the occurrence of elephants at both extremities, b difficult
to understand, although it shows that he looked on the distribute*
of animals as a problem of geography.
Pythagoras had speculated as to the existence of antipodes, bat
it was not until the first approximately accurate measurements of
the globe and estimates of the length and breadth of the **•*#*■
oekumene were made by Eratosthenes («. 250 B.C.) that a/<a»
the fact that, as then known, it occupied lesalhan a quarter 1ar><>l
of the surface of the sphere was clearly recognized. It was
natural, if not strictly logical, that the ocean river should be extended
from a narrow stream to a world-embracing sea, and here again
Greek theory, or rather fancy, gave its modern name to the greatest
feature of the globe The old instinctive idea of symmetry must
often have suggested other ockunune balancing the known world
in the other quarters of the otobc. The Stole philosophers, especially
Crates of Mallus, arguing from the love of nature for rife, placed ao
oekumene in each quarter of' the sphere, the three unknown worM-
islands being those of the Antoeci, Pcrioeci and Antipodes. Tim
was a theory not only attractive to the philosophical mind, but
eminently adapted to promote exploration. It had its opponent*,
however, for Herodotus showed that sea-basins existed cut off froa
the ocean, and it is still a matter of controversy how far the prc-
Ptolcmaic geographers believed in a water-connexion between the
Atlantic and Indian oceans. It is quite clear that Pomponius Mela
(c. a.d. 40), following Strabo, held that the southern temperate zone
contained a habitable land, which he designated by the name
Antfchtkorus.
Ari»totle left no work on geography, so that it is impossible to
know what facts he associated with the science of the earth's surface.
The word geography did not appear before Aristotle, j^^
the first use oiit being in the n«pl kAcput, which is one - r# .
of the writings doubtfully ascribed to him, and H. Bergcr J^
considers that the expression was introduced by Eratos- **,**,
thcues.* Aristotle was certainly conversant with many
facts, such as the formation of deltas, coast-erosion, and to a certain
extent the dependence of plants antl animals on their physical
surroundings. He formed a comprehensive theory of the variation
of climate with latitude and season, and was convinced of the neco-
sit - *- of a circulation of water between the sea and rivers, though,
like Plato, he held that this took place by water rising from the sea
through crevices in the rocks, losing its dissolved salts in the process.
He speculated on the differences in the character of races of mankind
living in different climates, and correlated the political forms of
communities with their situation on a seashore, or in the neighbour-
hood of natural strongholds.
Strabo (c. 50 b.c.-a.d. 24) followed Eratosthenes rather thaa
Aristotle, but with sympathies which went out more to the hunua
interests than the mathematical basis of geography. He saws*
compiled a very remarkable work dealing, in large measure
from personal travel, with the countries surrounding the Mediter-
ranean. He may be said to have set the pattern which was follusH
in succeeding ages by the compilers of "political geographies'
* GeschukU der wissensckqfUkhem Erdkmmde dew Gruchen (Leipag.
1891), AbL 3, p. 60.
THEORY]
GEOGRAPHY
621
dealing less with theories than with facts, and Illustrating rather than
formulating the principles of the science.
Claudius Ptolemacus U. a.d. 150) concentrated in his writings the
final outcome of all Greek geographical learning, and passed it across
the gulf of the middle age* by the hand* of the Aral*,
**»* w, V i • to form the htarting-point of the srience in modern time*.
His geography was based more immediately on the work of his
Ptolemy were used by Toscanelli and Columbus in urging a westward
voyage to India; and mainly on this account did the
i TuT i ct 048 " 1 ? °f th * Atlantic rank higher in the history of
0.4*v4A4r. (cfcntinc geography than the laborious feeling out of the
coast-line of Africa. But not until the voyage of Magellan shook
the seal* 11 rope did modern geography begin to
advance trun theory; the rush of new facts
made Pt ilete in a general ion. after having been
the foun ipaphy for a millennium.
The e s reincarnation of a sound theoretical
geograpl the text-books by Peter Apian and
. Apian in his Cosmographtcus liber,
******* and subsequently edited and added to
by Gem title of Cosmographia, based the whole
science 1 measurement. He followed Ptolemy
closely. netion between geography and choro-
graphy. trtistic analogy in a rough diagram.
This sic made much of by most subsequent
writers until Nathanad Carpenter in 1625 pointed out that the
difference between geography and chorography was simply one of
degree, not of kind.
Sebastian Mtinster, on the other hand, in his Cosmographia
universalis of 1544. paid no regard to the mathematical basis of
■ai , Biography, but, following the model of Strabo, described
*■*•■** the world according to its different political divisions,
and entered with great zest into the q uestion of the productions
1 Bunbury's History of Ancient Geography (2 vols., London, 1879),
Miiller's Geographi Graeci minora (2 vols., Paris, 1855, 1861) and
Bergcr*8 Geschickle der wissenschaftlichen Erdkunde dcr Griechen
(4 vols., Leipzig. 1 887- 1893) are standard authorities on the Greek
■The period of the early middle ages is dealt with in Beaaley'a
Damn of Modern Geography (London; part i.. 1807; part u.. 1901;
part iii.. 1906); see also Winstedt, Cosmos IndieopUuties (1910).
Crop!
ng
of countries, and Into the manners and costumes of the various
~ wples. Thus early commenced the separation between what were
mg railed mathematical and political geography, the one subject
appealing mainly to mathematicians, the other to historians.
Throughout the 1 6th and 17th centuries the rapidly accumulating
store of facts as to the extent, outline and mountain and river
systems of the lands of the earth were put in order by the generation
of cartographers of which Mercator was the chief; but the writings
of Apian and Mtinster held the field (or a hundred years without a
serious rival, unless the many annotated editions of Ptolemy might
be so considered. Meanwhile the new facts were the subject of
original study by philosophers and by practical men without reference
to classical traditions. Bacon argued keenly on geographical
matters and was a lover of maps, in which he olwcrvcd and reasoned
upon such resemblances as that between the outlines of South
America ami Africa.
Philip Cluvcr's Jntroducth in grographiam unmr&am lam veterem
auam novam was published in 1024. Geography he defined as
" the description of the whole earth, so far as it is known
to us." It is distinguished from cosmography by dealing """W"*
with the earth alone, not with the universe, and fiom chorography
and topography by dealing wilh the whole earth, not with a country
or a place. The first book, of fourteen short chapters, is concerned
with the general properties of the globe; the remaining six books
treat in considerable detail of the countries of Europe and of the
other continents. Each country is described wilh particular regard.
:c given to
s attention
; published
Carpenter.
trts thereof.
the period
imon sense
prejudice,
asoning to
J principles
lost recent
> examples
evon. He
ic study of
'art, or the
i's surface,
eographers
icr English
ion to the
ries of the
world.
A much more important work in the history of geographical
method is the Geographia generalis of Bcrnhard Varcnius, a German
medical doctor of Leiden, who died at the age of twenty-
eight in 1650, the year of the publication of his book. H"*"*»
Although for a time it was lost sight of on the continent. Sir Isaac
Newton thought so highly of this l>ook that he prepared an annotated
edition which was published in Cambridge in 1673, with the addition
of the plates which had been plan net I by Varcnius, but not produced
by the original publishers. * The reason why this great man took
so much care in correcting and publishing our author was. because
he thought him necessary to be read by his audience, the young
gentlemen of Cambridge, while he was delivering lectures on the same
subject fromrhe Lucasian Chair."* The treatise of Varcnius is a
model of logical arrangement and terse expression ; it is a work of
science and of genius; one of the few of that age which can still be
studied with profit. The English translation renders the definition
thus: " Geography is that part of mixed mathematics which explains
F its parts, depending on quantity, via.
and motion, with the celestial appear-
iken in too limited a sense, for a bare
un tries; and by others too extensively,
ription would have their political con-
include the human side of geography in
rl it as a concession to custom, and in
mparting interest to the sterner details
°' geographywas into two parts-^-(I.)
with the earth in general, and explaining
to particular countries; and (ii.) Special
:h country in turn from the chorographi-
caf or topographical point of view. General geography was divided
into— (1) the Absolute part, dealing with the form, dimensions,
position and substance of the earth, the distribution of land and
water, mountains, woods and deserts, hydrography (including all
the waters of the earth) and the atmosphere; (2) the Relative parr,
including the celestial properties, i.e. latitude, climate zones, k>ngi«
tude, Ac; and (3) the Comparative part, which "considers the
* From translator's preface to the English version by Mr Dugdale
( 1 7A3). ^entitled A Complete System of General Geography, revised
by Dr Peter Shaw (London, \*itf»V
624
GEOGRAPHY
rendered the greatest service to geography by the protection and
encouragement of Eratosthenes, whose labours gave the first ap-
proximate knowledge of the true size of the spherical
earth. The second Euergetes and his successor Ptolemy
Lathyrus (l 18-115 B.C.) furnished Eudoxus with a fleet
to explore the Arabian sea. After two successful voyages, Eudoxus,
impressed with the idea that Africa was surrounded by ocean on the
south, left the Egyptian service, and proceeded to Cadiz and other
Mediterranean centres of trade seeking a patron who would finance
an expedition for the purpose of African discovery; and we learn
from Strabo that the veteran explorer made at least two voyages
southward along the coast of Africa. The Ptolemies continued to
send fleets annually from their Red Sea ports of Berenice and Myoa
Hormus to Arabia, as well as to ports on the coasts of Africa and
India.
The Romans did not encourage navigation and commerce with
the same ardour as their predecessors; still the luxury of Rome,
which gave rise to demands for the varied products
of all the countries of the. known world, led to an active
Tb0
******* trade both by ships and caravans. But it was the military
genius of Rome, and the ambition for universal empire, which lea,
not only to the discovery, but also to the survey of nearly all Europe,
and of large tracts in Asia and Africa. Every new war produced
a new survey and itinerary of the countries which were conquered,
and added one more to the imperishable roads that led from every
quarter of the known world to Rome. In the height of their power
the Romans had surveyed and explored all the coasts of the Medi-
terranean, Italy, Greece, the Balkan Peninsula, Spain, Gaul, western
Germany and southern Britain. In Africa their empire included
Egypt. Carthage, Numidia and Mauritania. In Asia they held
Asia Minor and Syria, had sent expeditions into Arabia, and were
acquainted with the more distant countries formerly invaded by
Alexander, including Persia, Srythia, Bactria and India. Roman
intercourse with India especially led to the extension of geographical
knowledge.
Before the Roman legions were sent into a new region to extend
the limits of the empire, it was usual to send out exploring expeditions
to report as to the nature of the country. It is narrated by Pliny
and Seneca that the emperor Nero sent out two centurions on such
a mission towards the source of the Nile (probably about a.d. 60),
and that the travellers pushed southwards until they reached vast
marshes through which they could not make their way either on
foot or in boats. This seems to indicate that they had penetrated
to about 9 N. Shortly before a.d. 79 Hippalus took advantage of
the regular alternation of the monsoons to make the voyage from
the Red Sea to India across the open ocean out of sight of land.
Even though this sea-route was known, the author of the Pcriplvs
of the Erythraean Sea, published after the time of Pliny, recites the
old itinerary around the coast of the Arabian Gulf. It was. however,
in the reigns of Scvcrus and his immediate successors that Roman
intercourse with India was at its height, and from the writings of
Pausanias (c. 174) it appears that direct communication between
Rome and China had already taken place.
After the division of the Roman empire, Constantinople became
the last refuge of learning, arts and taste; while Alexandria con-
tinued to be the emporium whence were imported the commodities
of the East. The emperor Justinian (483-565), in whose reign the
greatness of the Eastern empire culminated, sent two Nestorian
monks to China, who returned with eggs of the silkworm concealed
in a hollow cane, and thus silk manufactures were established in
the Peloponnesus and the Greek islands. It was also in the reign
of Justinian that Cosmas Indicoplcustcs, an Egyptian merchant,
made several voyages, and afterwards composed his Xpimanuc-i
roroyom+U (Christian Topography), containing, in 'addition to his
absurd cosmogony, a tolerable description of India.
The great outburst of Mahommcdan conquest in the 7th century
was followed by the Arab civilization, having its centres at Bagdad
Thm . 1 and Cordova, in connexion with which geography again
Mamm received a share of attention. The works of the ancient
Greek geographers were translated into. Arabic, and starting with a
sound basis of theoretical knowledge, exploration once more made
progress. From the 9th to the 13th century intelligent .Arab
travellers wrote accounts of what they had seen and heard in distant
lands. The earliest Arabian traveller whose observations have come
down to us is the merchant SuLaiman, who embarked in the Persian
Gulf and made several voyages to India and China, in the middle of
the 9th century. Abu Zaid also wrote on India, and his work is the
most important that we possess before the epoch-making discoveries
of Marco Polo. Masudi, a great traveller who knew from personal
experience all the countries between Spain and China, described the
plains, mountains and seas, the dynasties and peoples, in his Meadows
of Gold, an abstract made by himself of his larger work News 0/ ike
Time. He died in 956, ana was known, from the comprehensive-
ness of his survey, as the Pliny of the East. Amongst his contempo-
raries were Istakhri, who travelled through all the Mahommedan
countries and wrote his Book of Climates in 950, and Ibn Haukal,
whose Book of Roads and Kingdoms, bancd on the work of Istakhri.
was written in 976. ldrisi, the best known of the Arabian eco-
graphicsJ authors, after travelling far and wide in the first half of
4be i*th century, settled in Sicily, where he wrote a treatise descrip-
fPBOGKEH
tive of an armitiary sphere which he had constructed for Roger If.,
the Norman king, and in this work he incorporated all accessib*
results of contemporary travel.
The Northmen of Denmark and Norway, whose piratical advea.
tures were the terror of all the coasts of Europe, and who nfihlished
themselves in Great Britain and Ireland, in France and •£,
Sicily, were also geographical explorers in their rough but ftjitn—a
practical way during the darkest period of the middle ages.
All Northmen were not bent on rapine and plunder; many were
peaceful merchants. Alfred the Great, king of the Saxons it-
England, not only educated his people in the learning of the past
ages; he inserted in the geographical works he translated many
narratives of the travel of nis own time. Thus he placed oa record
the voyages of the merchant Ulfsten in the Baltic, including nr-
ticulara of the geography of Germany. And in particular be told of
the remarkable voyage of Other, a Norwegian of Helgoland, »ho
was the first authentic Arctic explorer, the first to tell of the rounding
of the North Cape and the sight of the midnight sun. Tata voyage
of the middle of the 9th century deserves to be held in happy memory,
for it unites the first Norwegian polar explorer with the first Eagusb
collector of travels. Scandinavian merchants brought the products
of India to England and Ireland. From the 8th to the t Ith century
a commercial route from India passed through Novgorod to the
Baltic, and Arabian coins found in Sweden, and particularly ia
the island of Gotland, prove how closely the enterprise of the North-
men and of the Arabs intertwined. Five-sixths of these coins
preserved at Stockholm were from the mints of the S
dynasty, which reigned in Khorasan and Transoxiana fro
a.d. 900 to 1000. It was the trade with the East that originally give
importance to the city of Visby in Gotland.
In the end of the oth century Iceland was colonized from Norway;
and about 985 the intrepid viking, Eric the Red. discovered Green-
land, and induced some of his Icelandic countrymen to settle on its in-
hospitable shores. His son, Leif Ericsson, and others of ma followers
were concerned in the discovery of the North American coast (see
Vinland). which, but for the isolation of Iceland from the centres
of European awakening, would have had momentous coi
As things were, the importance of this discovery passed un _ _ w
The story of two Venetians,. Nicolo and Antonio Zeno, who gave a
vague account of voyages in the northern seas ia the end of the 13th
century, is no longer to be accepted as history.
At length the long period of barbarism which acco mp a nied and
followed the fall of the Roman empire drew to a close ia Europe.
The Crusadrshad a favourable influence on the intellectual „.__,
state of the Western nations. Interesting regions, 2tto*
known only by the scant reports of pilgrims, were 1
the objects of attention and study; while religious seal,
and the hope of gain, combined with motives of mere
crusaders
„ , , : oat frost
Spain in 1160, travelled by land to Constantinople, and having
visited India and some of the eastern islands, returned to Europe
by way of Egypt after an absence of thirteen years.
Joannes de Piano Carpini, a Franciscan monk, was the head of
one of the missions despatched by Pope Innocent to call the chief
and people of the Tatars to a better mind. He reached ±m *.q
the headquarters of Batu, on the Volga, in February ^ MHMt ' _
1246; and, after some stay, went on to the camp of the Mmrmf%
great khan near Karakorum in. central Asia, aod returned safely
in the autumn of 1247. A few years afterwards, a Fleming named
Rubruquis was sent on a similar mission, and had the merit of being
the first traveller of this era who gave a corrcctaccount of the Caspian
Sea. He ascertained that it had no outlet. At nearly the sane
time Hayton, king of Armenia, made a journey to Karakorum ia
1254, by a route far to the north of that followed by Carpini and
Rubruquis. He was treated with honour and hospitality, aad
returned by way of Samarkand and Tabriz, to his own territory.
The curious narrative of King Hayton was translated by Kbprotk
While the republics of Italy, and above all the state 0/ Venice,
were engaged in distributing the rich products of India and the Far
East over the Western world, it was impossible that motives of
curiosity, as well as a desire of commercial advantage, should not be
awakened to such a degree as to impel some of toe merchants to
visit those remote lands. Among these were the brothers Polo, who
traded with the East and themselves visited Tatary. The recital
of their travels fired the youthful imagination of young Marco Polo,
son of Nicolo, and he set out for the court of Kublai Khan, with his
father and ancle, in 1265. Marco remained for seventeen yean
in the service of the Great Khan, and was employed on msay
important missions. Besides what he learnt from bus own obser-
vation, he collected much information from others concerning
countries which he did not visit. He returned to Europe possessed
of a vast store of knowledge respecting the eastern parts of the
world, and. being afterwards made a prisoner by the Genoese, be
dictated the narrative of his travels during his captivity. The
work of Marco Polo is the most valuable narrative of travels that
appeared during the middle ages, and despite a cold reception and
many denials of the accuracy of the record, its substantial truthfeJ*
ncss Via* been sAsan&amVy \sxnw4
PROGRESS]
Missionaries continued' to do useful geographical work. Among
them were John of Monte Corvino, a Franciscan monk. Andrew of
Perugia. John Marignioli and Friar Jordan us, who visited the west
coast of India, and above all Friar Odoric of Pbrdenone. Odoric
set out on his traveb about 1518, and his journeys embraced parts
of India, the Malay Archipelago. China and even Tibet, where he
was the first European to enter Lhasa, not yet a forbidden city.
Ibn Batata, the great Arab traveller, is separated by a wide space
GEOGRAPHY
625
of time front his countrymen already mentioned, and he finds his
i>roper place in a chronological notice after the days of Marco Polo,
or he did not begin his wanderings until 1323. his career thus coin-
ciding in time with the fabled journeying* of Sir John Mandcville.
While Arab learning flourished during the darkest ages of European
ignorance, the last of the Arab geographers lived to sec the dawn of
the great period of the European awakening. Ibn Baluta went by
land from Tangier to Cairo, then visited Syria, and performed the
tees to Medina and Mecca. After exploring Persia, and again
Tor some time at Mecca, he made a voyage down the Red
ptormth
ft
project
of that
sent 01
reach I
a chech
extendi
coverct
trade 1
mouth
roeu D
followii
todiscx
the sou
Capeo
long-so
nameo
having
Ethiop
which J
of Aby
to leave the country.
ju.11
pilgrimages to Medina and Mecca. After exploring Persia, and again
residing Tor some time at Mecca, he made a voyage down the Red
sea to Yemen, and travelled through that country to Aden. Thence
he visited the African coast, touching at Mombasa and Quiloa^and
then sailed across to Ormux and the Persian Gulf. He crossed
Arabia from Bahrein to Jidda, traversed the Red sea and the dc*crt
to Syene. and descended the Nile to Cairo. After this he rcvWted
Syria and Asia Minor, and crossed the Black sea. the desert from
Astrakhan to Bokhara, and the Hindu Kush. He was in the service
of Muhammad Tughluk. ruler of Delhi, about eight years, and was
sent on an embassy to China, in the course of which the ambassadors
sailed down the west coast of India to Calicut, and then vi*itcd the
Maldivc Islands and Ceylon. Ibn Batuta made the voyage through
the Malay Archipelago to China, and on his return he proceeded
from Malabar to Bagdad and Damascus, ultimately reaching Fez.
the capital of his native country, in November 1340. After a journey
into Spain he set out once more for Central Africa in 1352. and
reached Timbuktu and the Niger, returning to Fez in 1353. His
narrative was committed to writing from his dictation.
The European country which had come the most completely
under the influence of Arab culture now began to send forth explorers
to distant lands, though the impulse came not from the
_. Moors but from Italian merchant navigators in Spanish
VJ*"** service. The peaceful reign of Henry 111. of Castile is
^ Mm famous for the attempts of that prince to extend the
diplomatic relations of Spain to the remotest parts of the earth,
lie sent embassies to all the princes of Christendom and to the
Moors. In 1403 the Spanish king sent a knight of Madrid, Ruy
Gonzalez de Clavijo, to the distant court of Timur, at Samarkand.
He returned in 1406, and wrote a valuable narrative of his travels.
Italians continued to make important journeys in the East
during the 15th century. Among them was Nicolo Conti. who
Sassed through Persia, sailed along the coast of Malabar, visited
umatra, Java and the south of China, returned by the Red sea,
and got home to Venice in 1444 after an absence of twenty-five years.
He related his adventures to Poggio Bracciolini, secretary to Pope
Eugcnius IV.; and the narrative contains much interesting infor-
mation. One of the most remarkable of the Italian travellers was
Ludovico di Varthema, who left his native land in 1502. He went
to Egypt and Syria, and for the sake of visiting the holy cities became
a Mahommedan. He was the first European who gave an account
of the interior of Yemen. He afterwards visited and described
many places in Persia. India and the Malay Archipelago, returning
to Europe in a Portuguese ship after an absence of five years.
In tli
Of the*
The Portuguese, following the lead of Prince Henry, continued to
look for the road to India by the Cape of Good Hope. The sane
end was sought by Christopher Columbus, following the
suggestion of Toscanelli, and under-estimating the dia-
meter of the globe, by sailing due west. The voyages of Columbus
{1492-1498) resulted in the discovery of the West Indies and North
America which barred the way to the Far East. In 1403 the pope,
Alexander VI., issued a bull instituting the famous " line of demar-
cation " running from N. to S. too leagues W. of the Azores, to the
west of which the Spaniards were authorized to explore and to the
east of which the Portuguese received the monopoly of discovery.
The direct line of Portuguese exploration resulted in the discovery
of the Cape route to India by Vasco da Gama (1498), and in 1500
to the independent discovery of South America by Pedro Alvarez
Cabral. The voyages of Columbus and of Vasco da Gama were so
important that it is unnecessary to detail their results in this place.
See Columbus, Christopher; Gama. Vasco da.
The three voyages of Vasco da Gama (who died on the scene of his
labours, at Cochin, in 1524) revolutionized the commerce of the
East. Until then the Venetians held the carrying trade vmmaidM
of India, which was brought by the Persian Gulf and Red amJ^
sea into Syria and Egypt, the Venetians receiving the "*■"*
products of the East at Alexandria and Beirut and distributing
them over Europe. This commerce was a great source of wealth
to Venice; but after the discovery of the new passage round the
Ca|»c, and the conquests of the Portuguese, the trade of the East
passed into other hands.
The discoveries of Columbus awakened a spirit of enterprise in
Spain which continued in full force for a century; adventurers
flocked eagerly across t he At la nt ic. and discovery followed Saaalmr ^
discovery in rapid succession. Many of the companions *P* atvWB
of Columbus continued his work. Vicente YaAcz Pinzon 4<wfc .
in 1500 reached the mouth of the Amazon. In the same " <0rrM *
year Alonso dv Ojeda, accompanied by Juan de la Cosa, from whose
maps we learn much of the discoveries of the loth century navi-
gators, and by a Florentine named Amerigo Vespucci, touched the
coast of South America somewhere near Surinam, following the shore
as far as the Gulf of Maracaibo. Vespucci afterwards made three
voyages to the Brazilian coast; and in 1504 he wrote an account
of his four voyages, which was widely circulated, and became the
means of procuring for its author at the hands of the cartographer
Waldsccmuller in 1507 the disproportionate distinction of giving his
name to the whole continent. In 1508 Alonso de Ojeda obtained the
government of the coast of South America from Cabo de la Vela
calamities that could have happened to South America; lor the
discoverer of the South sea was on the point of sailing with a little
fleet into his unknown ocean, and a humane and judicious man' would
probably have been the conqueror of Peru, instead of the cruel and
ignorant Pizarro. In the year 1519 Panama was founded by
Pedrarias; and the conquest of Peru by Pizarro followed a few years
afterwards. Hcrnan Cortes overran and conquered Mexico from
1518 to 1521. and the discovery and conquest of Guatemala by
Alvarado. the invasion of Florida by De Soto, and of Nueva Granada
by Qucsada, followed in rapid succession. The first detailed account
01 the west coast of South America was written by a keenly observant
old soldier. Pedro de Cieza de Leon, who was travelling in South
America from 1533 to 1550, and published his story at Seville
in 1553.
The great desire of the Spanish government at that time was
to find a westward route to the Moluccas. For this purpose Juan
Diaz de Solis was despatched in October 1515. and in
January 1516 he discovered the mouth of the Rio de la
Plata. He was, however, killed by the natives, and his
westward. He started on the 21st of September 1519, entered the
strait which now bears his name in October 1520. worked his way
through between Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego, and entered 00
626
GEOGRAPHY
mtoGus
the vast Pacific which he crossed without sighting any of its in-
numerable island groups. This was unquestionably the greatest of
the voyages which followed from the impulse of Prince Henry, and it
was rendered possible only by the magnificent courage of the com-
mander in spite of rebellion, mutiny and starvation. It was the
6th of March 1521 when he reached the Ladrone Islands. Thence
Magellan proceeded to the Philippines, and there his career ended
in an unimportant encounter with hostile natives. Eventually a
Biscayan named Sebastian del Cano, sailing home by way of the
Cape of Good Hope, reached San Lucar in command of the " Vic*
tona " on the 6th of September 1532, with eighteen survivors;
this one ship of the squadron which sailed on the quest succeeded
in accomplishing the first circumnavigation of the globe. Del Cano
was received with great distinction by the emperor, who granted
him a globe for his crest, and the motto Primus ctrrumdedisti me.
Partu While the Spaniards were circumnavigating the
™"' world and completing their knowledge of the coasts of
J/rt£ ,-rf Central and South America, the Portuguese were actively
tte East, engaged on similar work as regards Africa and the East
With Abyssinia the mission of CovilhSo led to further intercourse.
In April 1520 Vasco da Gama, as viceroy of the Indies, took a fleet
into the Red sea, and landed an embassy consisting of Dom Rodriguez
de Lima and Father Francisco Alvarez, a priest whose detailed narra-
tive is the earliest and not the least interesting account we possess
of Abyssinia. It was not until 1526 that the embassy was dismissed ;
and not many years afterwards the negus entreated the help of the
Portuguese against Mahommcdan invaders, and the viceroy sent an
expeditionary force, commanded by his brother Cristoforo da Gama,
with 450 musketeers. Da Gama was taken prisoner and killed, but
his followers enabled the Christians of Abyssinia to regain their
power, and a Jesuit mission remained in the country. The Portu-
guese also established a close connexion with the kingdom of Congo
on the west side of Africa, and obtained much information respecting
the interior of the continent. Duartc Lopez, a Portuguese settled
in the country, was sent on a mission to Rome by the king of Congo,
to the coast of North America; and tW details of his 1 . ...
embodied in a letter addressed by him to the king of France frost
Dieppe, in July imi In 1534 Jacques Cartier set out to conduit
the discoveries of Verazzano. and visited Newfoundland and the
Gulf of St Lawrence. In the following year lie made another
voyage, discovered the island of Anticosti, and ascended the St
Lawrence to HocheUga, now Montreal. He returned, after passtof
two winters in Canada; and on another o c casion he also failed to
establish a colony. Admiral de Coligny made several unsuccessful
endeavours to form a colony in Florida under Jean Ribauk
of Dieppe, Rend de Laudonnicre and others, but the settlers
were furiously assailed by the Spaniards and.Jthe attempt was
abandoned.
The reign of Elizabeth is famous for the gallant enterprises that
were undertaken by sea and land to discover and bring to light the
unknown parts of the earth. The great promoter of t*.* ^ .
geographical discovery in the Elizabethan period was trttam
Richard Hakluyt (1553-1616), who was active in the for- ^
mation of the two companies for colonizing Virginia in
1606; and devoted his life to encouraging and recording similar
undertakings. He published much, and! left many valuable papers
at his death, most of which, together with many other narratives,
were published in 1622 in the great work of the Rev. Samuel Purchas,
entitled HakUytms Postkumus, or Purchas his Pit grimes.
It is from these works that our knowledge of the gallant deeds of
the English and other explorers of the Elizabethan age is mainly
derived. The great and splendidly illustrated collections of voyages
and travels of Theodoras de Bry and Hulsius served a similar useful
purpose on the continent of Europe. One important object of
English maritime adventurers of those days was to discover a route
to Cathay by the north-west, a second was to settle Virginia, and a
third was to raid the Spanish settlements in the West Indies. Nor
was the trade to Muscovy and Turkey neglected; while Utterly
a resolute and successful attempt was made to establish direct
commercial relations with India.
The conception of the north-western route to Cathay now leads
the story of exploration, for the first time as far as important and
sustained efforts are concerned, towards the Arctic seas. This part
of the story is fully told under the heading of Polar Regions, and
only the names of Martin Frobisher (1576), John Davis (1JS85),
Henry Hudson (1607) and William Baffin (1616) need be mentioned
here in order to preserve the complete conspectus of the history of
discovery. The Dutch emulated the British in the Arctic seas during
this period, directing their efforts mainly towards the discovery of
a north-cast passage round the northern end of Novaya Zemlya;
and William Barents or Barcndsz (1594-1597) is the most famous
name in this connexion, his boat voyage along the coast of Novaya
Zemlya after losing his ship and wintering in a high latitude, being
major. They sailed in May 1553, but Willoughby and all his crew
perished on the Lapland coast. Chancellor, however, more
fortunate. He reached the White Sea,
overland to Moscow, where he was well r
to have been the founder of the trade bcti
He returned to Archangel and brought h
England. On a second voyage, in 1556,
and three subsequent voyages, led by Si
Pet and Charles Jackman, in small era!
carried on' an examination of the straits -
sea.
The French followed closely on the track of John Cabot, and
Norman and Breton fishermen frequented the banks of Newfound-
land at the beginning of the 16th century. In 1524 Francis I. sent
Giovanni da Vensjano of Florence on an expedition of discovery
had
In the interior of South America the Spanish conqnet
explored the region of the Andes from the isthmus of Panama to
Chile. Pedro de Valdivia in 1540 made an expedition into the
country of the Araucanian Indians of Chile, and was the first to
PROGRESS)
explore the eastern base
Patagonia. In 1541 Frai
course of the Amazon fror
A second voyage on the An
Lope de Aguirrc; but it w
written of the great river b
it from its mouth and reac
The voyage of Drake at
Alvaro de MendaAa, wh<
discover the gre
to extend far n
for which now
exploration. A
Pacific, Mendafta discover
tion returned in safety 11
the Peruvian coast led to
to go in chase of him, und<
sailed from Callao in Oct<
the Strait of Magellan, «
to the South sea. The cc
Spain was a complete failu
name of " Port Famine," 1
he found the starving rci
1595 MendaAa sailed from
expedition to colonize the
Marquesas, he reached lY
where he and many of t\
command of the survivoi
The viceroys of Peru still
colony in the hypothctica
de Quiros, who was pilot t
were sent in command of t
tion. They sailed from C
several islands of the New
of a large island which Quii
From this place Quiros re
the voyage, passed throug
Guinea which bears his nar
and eastern coasts of New
The Portuguese, in the
1640), were under the dor
to some extent damped ; bu
knowledge in Africa. Fat I
in Abyssinia, and explored
Mcndez and Lobo traven
Red sea and the mountaii
and discovered the sources
But the attention of th<
attempts to maintain thei
%*&l m %$$&£
— ■*■•«• successful. Jai
Ocean from 1591 to 1594
turers of London resolved
establishing a trade with tl
1599 Queen Elizabeth gra
East India Company, and
was appointed general of
by John Davis, the great
voyage was eminently su<
Sumatra and at Java, reti
The second voyage was o
it was in the third voyagi
mainland of India was fi
landed at Surat and travc
at the court of the Great
Michclborne in 1605, John
junk. The eighth voyag
operations of the com pa 1
government granted priv
retired in 1623, giving u|
early intercourse between 1
series of letters written by
the tenth voyage of the
Captain Best, who left Er
permanent British factor*
Best who secured a regula
From that time a fleet was
operations greatly incre
and the Eastern Arch i pel
at this time, were not c«
Journeys were also made
taining author of the Crt
Somersetshire, wandered
(161 7) in the company's fa
son arrived in Persia with
He travelled through Ri
Caspian and .Volga. In
at Nizhniy Novgorod and
in 159S Sir Anthony. «*
GEOGRAPHY
627
ambassador.
e Stlva. who
Sir Dormer
las Herbert's
oe's mission
table reports
' hb chaplain
in the East.
t Kaempfer,
is afterwards
mpany. He
w more than
rom Spanish
a long time,
3 ftrfcAs*-
£ phratlom,
J| Utb-ITth
In 1583 Jan
i Portuguese
kfrica, China
ill use to his
)utch Indian
il 1S95> and
h fleet sailed
rr commerce
>s of Rotter-
Strait, under
Mahu died
Cordcs, who
the fleet had
:t for Japan,
fear, 1598. a
ort, a native
raphy. The
he Moluccas
>inted to the
itcs^GcncraL
f Rotterdam
rgen entered
oast of Chile
pgement off
latAcapuko,
Moluccas in
> the Pacific
>f which had
ittod out for
nmanded by
nder Willem
f June 1615,
the entrance
.emaire they
>, which was
»t Friesland,
eon the 31st
e great merit
ea lies in the
s due to the
1st of March
and, having
>rth coast of
:>f September
t of the great
ibtain further
but only ita
the time of
* west coast
ailed " Hout-
7 the Dutch
1. then called
om the black
id council of
' of the south
>ntinent, and
isman. This
hat had been
be. Tasman
mber sighted
i's Land, and
irestern coast
ted to be con*
Dyage proved
ngatabu, oaa
t north coast
boom voyaajt
628
GEOGRAPHY
The French directed their enterprise more in the direction of
North America than of the Indies. One of their moat distinguished
/■torn* at explorers was Samuel Champlain, a captain in the navy,
who, after a remarkable journey through Mexico and the
West Indies from 1500 to 1602, established his historic
connexion with Canada, to the geographical knowledge
of which he made a very large addition.
The principles and methods of surveying and position finding
had by this time become well advanced, and the most remarkable
Mt$ttoa* example of the early application of these improvements
arits la is to be found in the survey of China by Jesuit missionaries.
nt, fits! They first prepared a map of the country round Peking,
which was submitted to the emperor Kang-hi, and,
being satisfied with the accuracy of the European method of survey-
ing, he resolved to have a survey made of the whole empire on the
same principles. This great work was begun in July 1708, and the
completed maps were presented to the emperor in 17 18. The
records preserved in each city were examined, topographical infor-
mation was diligently collected, and the Jesuit fathers checked their
triangulation by meridian altitudes of the sun and pole star and by a
system of remcasurements. The result was a more accurate map of
China than existed, at that time, of any country in Europe. Kang-hi
next ordered a similar map to be made of Tibet, the survey being
executed by two lamas who were carefully trained as surveyors
by the Jesuits at Peking. From these surveys were constructed
the well-known maps which were forwarded to Ouhalde, and which
D'Anville utilized for his atlas.
Several European missionaries had previously found their way
from India to Tibet. Antonio Andrada, in 1624, was the first
Toe tttb European to enter Tibet since the visit of Friar Odoric
ctmtury. * n l S*S- The next journey was that of Fathers Grucbcr
and Oorville about 1660, who succeeded in passing from
China, through Tibet, into India. In 1715 Fathers Desidcri and
Frcyre made their way from Agra, across the Himalayas, to Lhasa,
and the Capuchin Friar Orazio dclla Pcnna resided in that city
from 1735 until 1747. But the most remarkable journey in this
direction was performed by a Dutch traveller named Samuel van dc
Putte. He left Holland in 1718, went by land through Persia to
India, and eventually made his way to Lhasa, where he resided for a
long time. He went thence to China, returned to Lhasa, and was
in India in time to be an eye-witness of the sack of Delhi by Nadir
Atltt Shah in 1737. In 1743 he left India and died at Batavia
on the 27th of September 1745. The premature death
of this illustrious traveller is the more to be lamented because his
vast knowledge died with him. Two English missions sent by
Warren Hastings to Tibet, one led by George Jtoglc in 1774. and the
PROGRESS
Niger, which whs believed by tome
ih the Congo. Mungo Parle, then aa
tman, volunteered hts services, which
iatton, and in 1795 lie succeeded ia
11 the Niger, but was prevented from
abuktu. Five years Later he accepted
it to command an expedition into the
eing to cross from the Gambia to the
river to the sea. After losing most of
id the rest perished in a rapid on the
ittacked from the shore by order of a
received suitable presents. His work,
fact that the Niger was not identical
fork in the direction of the Niger, the
Iful of their old exploring fame, Is
1, an accomplished astronomer, was
entific expedition of discovery to the
Carted in July, crossed the Muchenja
apkal of the Caaembc. where he died
ible record of his adventurous journey;
erda the history of African exploration
c exploration was active during this
leal event of the century, aa regards
surement of an arc of the
vas proposed by the French
estigation with the object
ic degree near the equator and near the
st ermine the figure of the earth. A
; of Charles Marie dc la
uis Godin and Joseph dc Ju
itcd two accomplished naval officers,
tors. The operations were carried oa
the south of Quito; and. in additioa
orable measurement, La Condamine
raphical information during a voyage
: measured was 3* 7" 3" ia length;
> measured bases connected by a scries
ie other south of the equator, oa the
iporaneously, in 1738, Pierre Louis
cis Claude Clairaut, Charles Elienne
Lemon nicr and the Swedish physicist
i meridian in Lapland.
vernments despatched several expedi-
icific and round the world during the
receded by the wonderful j^
uccaneers. The narratives rmKk
Ms, Edward Davis, George r rrrr
illiam Dam pier, can never
are not without geographical value,
specially valuable, and the narratives
el Wafer furnished the best accounts
f Darien. Dampier's literary ability
a commission in the king's service;
>f discovery, during which he explored
and New Guinea, and discovered the
?tween New Guinea and New Britaia,
acob Roggewcin was despatched on a
icross the Pacific by the Dutch West
n he discovered Easter Island oa the
to the Pacific in 1740*1744 was of a'
st more than half his men from scurvy;
fleet that at the very time wbeo the
measuring an arc of the meridian at
n were pillaging along the coast of the
1 of Payta. But a romantic interest
" Wager," one of Anson's fleet, on a
it bore fruit in the charming narrative
:h will endure for all time*. In 1764
voyage of discovery round the world,
liis return to the despatch of another
e command of Captain Samuel Wallis.
of the " Dolphin " commanded by
nder Captain Philip Carteret, sailed ia
were separated on entering the Pacific
Wallis discovered Tahiti on the 10th
detailed account of that island, lie
68. Carteret discovered the Charlotte
itcairn Island on the and of July 1767;
p, which was discovered by Mercians
ic strait separating New Britain from
t head again in February 1 769. Wallis
cry closely by the French expedition
d from Nantes in November 1766.
orm the unpleasant task of delivering
»re he had encouraged the formation
te Spaniards. He then entered the
&$nLvi6a\ Passing through the New
PROGRESS]
GEOGRAPHY
629
Hebrides group he touched at Batavia, and arrived at St Malo after
an absence of two years and four months.
The three voyages of Captain James Cook form an era in the history
of geographical discovery. In 1767 he sailed for Tahiti, with the
object of observing the transit of Venus, accompanied
by two naturalists. Sir Joseph Banks and Or Sounder,
a pupil of Linnaeus, as well as by two astronomers. The
transit was observed on the 3rd of June 1769. After exploring
Tahiti and the Society group. Cook spent six months surveying New
Zealand, which he discovered to be an island, and the coast of New
South Wales from latitude 38* S. to the northern extremity. The
belief in a vast Antarctic continent stretching far into the temperate
zone had never been abandoned, and was vehemently asserted by
Charles Dalrymple, a disappointed candidate nominated by tht
Royal Society for the command of the Transit expedition of 1769.
In 1772 the French explorer Yves Kcrguclcn dc Trcmarcc had dis-
covered the land that bears his name in the South Indian Ocean
without recognizing it to be an island, and naturally believed it
to be part of the southern continent.
Cook's second voyage was mainly intended to settle the question
of the existence of such a continent once for all, and to define the
limits of any land that might exist in navigable seas towards the
Antarctic circle. James Cook at his first attempt reached a south
latitude of 57° 15 . On a second cruise from the Society Islands,
in 1773, he, first of all men. crossed the Antarctic circle, and was
stopped by ice in 7 1 * 10' S. During the second voyage Cook visited
Easter Island, discovered several islands of the New Hebrides and
New Caledonia : and on his way home by Cape Horn, in March 1774,
he discovered the Sandwich Lland group and described South
Georgia. He proved conclusively that any southern continent
that might exist lay under the polar Ice. The third voyage was
intended to attempt the passage from the Pacific to the Atlantic by
the north-cast. The " Resolution" and " Discovery" sailed in
1776. and Cook again took the route by the Cape of Good Hope.
On reaching the North American coast, he proceeded northward.
fixed the position of the western extremity of America and surveyed
Bering Strait. He was stopped by the ice in 70° 41' N., and named
the farthest visible point on the American shore Icy Cape. He then
visited the Asiatic snore and discovered Cape North. Returning to
Hawaii, Cook was murdered by the natives. On the 14th of February
1779. his second, Captain Edward Clerke, took command, and
proceeding to Pctropavlovsk in the following summer, he again
examined the edge of the ice, but only got as far as 70* 33' N. The
ships returned to England in October 1780.
In 1785 the French government carefully fitted out an expedition
of discovery at Brest, which was placed under the command of
Francois La Perousc, an accomplished and experienced officer.
After touching at Conccpcion in Chile and at Easter Island, La
Perouse proceeded to Hawaii and thence to the coast of California,
of which he has given a very interesting account. He then crossed
the Pacific to Macao, and in July 1787 he proceeded to explore the
Gulf of Tartary and the shores of Sakhalin, remaining some time at
Castries Bay. so named after the French minister of marine. Theme
he went to the Kurile Islands and Kamchatka, and sailed from the
far north down the meridian to the Navigator and Friendly Islands.
He was in Botany Bay in January 1788; and sailing thence, the
explorer, his ship and crew were never seen again. 1 heir fate was
long uncertain. In September 1791 Captain Antoine d'Er.tre-
casteaux sailed from Brest with two vessels to seek for tidings.
He visited the New Hebrides. Santa Cruz, New Caledonia and Solo-
mon Islands, and made careful though rough surveys of the Louisiade
Archipelago, islands north of New Britain and part of New Guinea.
D'Entrecasteaux died on board his ship on the 20th of July 1793-
without ascertaining the fate of La P6rouse. Captain Peter Dillon
at length ascertained, in 1828, that the ships of La Perousc had been
wrecked on the island of Vanikoro during a hurricane.
The work of Captain Cook bore fruit in many ways. His master,
Captain William Blteh. was sent in the " Bounty" to convey bread-
fruit plants from Tahiti to the West Indies. He reached Tahiti in
October 1788, and in April 1789 a mutiny broke out, and he, with
several officers and men, was thrust into an open boat in mid-ocean.
During the remarkable voyage he then made to Timor, Bligh
EasseJ amongst the northern islands of the New Hebrides, which
e named the Banks Group, and made several running surveys.
He reached England in March 1790. The " Pandora," under
Captain Edwards, was sent out in starch of the " Bounty," and
discovered the islands of Cherry and Mitre, cast of the Santa Cruz
group, but she was eventually lost on a reef in Torres Strait. In
1790-1 797 Captain Wilson, in the missionary ship " Duff." discovered
the Gambier and other islands, and rediscovered the islands known
to and seen by Quiros, but since called the Duff Group. Another
result of Captain Cook's work was the colonization of Australia.
On the 18th of January 1788 Admiral Phillip and Captain Hunter
arrived in Botany Bay in the " Supply " and " Sirius, ' followed by
six transports, and established a colony at Port Jackson. Surveys
were then undertaken in several directions. In 1795 and 1796
Matthew Flinders and George Bass were engaged on exploring work
in a small boat railed the " Tom Thumb." In 1797, Bass, who had
been a surgeon, made an expedition southwards, continued the work
of Cook from Ram Head, and explored the strait which bears his
name, and in 1708 he and Flinders were surveying pn the east coast
of Van Diemen s land.
Yet another outcome of Captain Cook's work was the voyage of
George Vancouver, who had served as a midshipman in Cook's
second and third voyages. The Spaniards under Quadra bad begun
a survey of north-western America and occupied Nootka Sound,
which their government eventually agreed to surrender. Captain
Vancouver was sent out to receive the cession, and to survey the
coast from Cape Mendocino northwards. He commanded the old
" Discovery," and was at work during the seasons of 1792. 1793 and
1 794, wintering at Hawaii. Returning home in 1795, he completed
his narrative and a valuable series of charts.
The 18th century saw the Arctic coast of North America reached
at two points, as well as the first scientific attempt to reach the
North Pole. The Hudson Bay Company had been in-
corporated in 1670, and its servants toon extended their
operations over a wide area to the north and west of
Canada. In 1741 Captain Christopher Middleton was ordered to
solve the question of a passage from Hudson Bay to the westward.
Leaving Fort Churchill in July 1742, he discovered the Wager river
and Repulse Bay. He was followed by Captain W. Moor in 1746,
and Captain Coats in 1751, who examined the Wager Inlet up to the
end. In November 1769 Samuel Hearne was sent by the Hudson
Bay Company to discover the sea on the north side of America,
but was obliged to return. In February 1770 he set out again from
Fort Prince of Wales; but, after great hardships, he was again
forced to return to the fort. He started once more in December
1 771, and at length reached the Coppermine river, which he surveyed
to its mouth, but his observations are unreliable. With the same
object Alexander Mackenzie, with a party of Canadians, set out from
Fort Chippcwyan on the 3rd of June 1789, and descending the great
river which now bears the explorer's name reached the Arctic sea.
In February 1773 the Royal Society submitted a proposal to the
king for an expedition towards the North Pole. The expedition was
fitted out under Captains Constantinc Phipps and Skcfftngton
Lutwidge. and the highest latitude reached was 80 s 48' N., but no
opening was discovered in the heavy Polar pack. The most im-
portant Arctic work in the 18th century was performed by the
Russians, for they succeeded in delineating the whole of the northern
coast of Siberia. Some of this work was possibly done at a still
earlier date. The Cossack Simon Declined is thought to have made a
voyage, in the summer of 1648, from the river Kolyma, through
Bering Strait (which was rediscovered by Vitus Bering in 1728) to
Anadyr. Between 1738 and 1750 Manin and Stcrlegotf made their
way in small sloops from the mouth of the Yenesci as far north as
75 »5' N. The land from Taimyr to Cape Chelyuskin, the most
northern extremity of Siberia, was mapped in many years of patient
exploration by Chelyuskin, who reached the extreme point
(77' 34' N.) in May 1742. To the east of Cape Chelyuskin the
Russians encountered greater difficulties. They built small vessels
at Yakutsk on the Lena, 900 m. from its mouth, whence the first
expedition was despatched under Lieut. Prontschichcv in 1735. He
sailed from the mouth of the Lena to the mouth of the Olonek,
where he wintered, and on the tst of September 1736 he got as far
as 77° 29' N.. within 5 m. of Cape Chelyuskin. Both he and his
young wife died of scurvy, and the vessel returned. A second
expedition, under Lieut. Laptyey, started from the Lena in 1739,
but encountered masses of drift ice in Chatanga bay, and with this
ended the voyages to the westward of the Lena. Several attempts
were also made to navigate the sea from the Lena to the Kolyma.
In 1736 Lieut. Laptyev sailed, but was stopped by the drift ice in
August, and in 1730, during another trial, he reached the mouth
of the Indigirka, where he wintered. In the season of 1740 he
continued his voyage to beyond the Kolyma, wintering at Nizhni
Kolymslc In September 1740 Vitus Bering sailed from Okhotsk
on a second Arctic voyage with George William Steller on board
as naturalist. In June 1741 he named the magnificent peak on the
roast of North America Mount St Elias and explored the Aleutian
Islands. In November the ship was wrecked on Bering Island;
and the gallant Dane, worn out with scurvy, died there on the
8th of December 1741. In March 1770 a merchant named Liakhov
saw a large herd 01 reindeer coming from the north to the Siberian
coast, which induced him to start in a sledge in the direction whence:
they came. Thus he reached the New Siberian or Liakhov Islands,
and for years afterwards the seekers for fossil ivory resorted to them.
The Russian Captain Vassili Chitschakov in 1765 and 1766 made two
persevering attempts to penetrate the ice north of Spitsbergen,
and reached 80*30' N., while Russian parties twice wintered at Bell
Sound.
In reviewing the progress of geographical discovery thus far. it
has been possible to keep fairly closely to a chronological order/
But in the 19th century and after exploring work was so g^.
generally and steadily maintained in all directions, and trmUkwS
was in so many cases narrowed down from long journeys ^f^^,
to detailed surveys within relatively small areas, that it
becomes desirable to cover the whole period at one view for certain
great division* of the world. (See Africa ; Asia ; Australia ; Polar
Regions; &c) Here, however, may be noticed the development
of geographical societies devoted to the encouragement of exploration
and research. The first of the existing geographical societies was
630
GEOGRAPHY
(PRINCIPLES
that of Paris, rounded in 1823 under the title of La Soci<t6 de
Geographic. The Berlin Geographical Society (Gesellscbaft fur
Erdkunde) is second in order of seniority, having been founded in
1827. The Royal Geographical Society, which was founded in
London In 1830. comes third on the list; but it may be viewed as a
direct result of the earlier African Association founded in ifBS.
Sir fohn Barrow, Sir John Cam Hobhouse (Lord Broughton). Sir
Roderick Murchison, Mr Robert Brown and Mr Bartle Frere formed
the foundation committee of the Royal Geographical Society, and
the first president was Lord Goderich. The action of the society in
supplying practical instruction to intending travellers, in astronomy,
surveying and the various branches of science useful to collectors,
has had much to do with advancement of discovery. Since the war
of 1870 many geographical societies have been established on the
continent of Europe, At the close of the 19th century there were
upwards of too such societies in the world, with more than 50,000
members, and over 150 journals were devoted entirely to geographical
subjects. 1 The great development of photography has been a notable
aid to explorers, not only by placing at their disposal a faithful and
ready means of recording the features of a country and the types
of inhabitants, but by supplying a method of quick and accurate
topographical surveying.
Tbs Principles op Geography
As regards the scope of geography, the order of the various
departments and their inter-relation, there is little difference of
opinion, and the principles of geography' are now generally accepted
by modern geographers. The order in which the various subjects
are treated in the following sketch is the natural succession from
fundamental to dependent facts, which
evolution of the diversities of the earth's en
The fundamental geographical conceptio
relations of space and form. The figure
Mmtkimm earth *" the fir8t <* lhese * ^
2tIiZ»r combination of actual measu
mtm SgT precision on the surface and an]
** m * mr ' positions of the heavenly bodies.
is part of mathematical geography, of whi
and cartography are applications. The
as a planet must be taken into account,
the determination of position and directio
heavenly bodies. The diurnal rotation of the earth furnishes two
fixed points or poles, the axis joining which is fixed or nearly so in its
direction in space. The rotation of the earth thus fixes the directions
of north and south and defines those of cast and west. The angle
which the earth's axis makes with the plane in which the planet
revolves round the sun determines the varying seasonal distribution
of solar radiation over the surface and the mathematical zones of
climate. Another important consequence of rotation is the deviation
produced in moving bodies relatively to the surface. In the form
known as FerrcU's Law this runs: " If a body moves in any direction
on the earth's surface, there is a deflecting force which arises from
the earth's rotation which tends to deflect .it to the right in *he
northern hemisphere but to the left in the southern hemisphere."
The deviation b of importance in the movement of air, of ocean
currents, and to some extent of rivers.'
In popular usage the words " physical geography " have come
to mean geography viewed from a particular standpoint rather
than any special department of the subject. The popular
meaning is better conveyed by the word physiography, a
' term which appears to have been introduced by Linnaeus,
and was reinvented as a substitute for the cosmography of the middle
ages by Professor Huxley. Although the term has since been limited
by some writers to one particular part of the subject, it seems best
* tal and literal n " " '
to maintain the original .
I meaning. In the stricter sense.
physical geography is that part of geography which involves the
processes of contemporary change in the crust and the circulation
of the fluid envelopes. It thus draws upon physics for the explana-
tion of the phenomena with the space-relations of which it is specially
concerned. Physical geography naturally falls into three divisions,
dealing respectively with the surface of the lithosphere— geomor-
J the atmosphere —
mathematical geo-
„ _ related that they cannot
rigidly separated in any discussion.
Geomorphology is the part of geography which deals with terres-
trial relief, including the submarine as well as the subaerial portions
of the crust. The histo ry of the origin of the various forma belo ngs
1 H. Wagner's year-book, Geopapkisckt Jahrbuck, publishedVt
Goths, is the best systematic record of the j *
in all departments; and H " "
annually at Gotha, give*
and geographers of the
ed. Physical geography naturally falls into t
.. respectively with the surface of the lithosp!
phology; the hydrosphere — oceanography; and the
climatology. All these rest upon the facta of 1
graphy. and the three are so closely inter-related
graphy,
be rigid
ematic record of the progress of geography
Haack's Ceofraphen KaUndar, also published
• complete lists of the geographical societies
world.
* This phrase is old, appearing in one of the earliest English works Geog. Mag,
1 geography,' William Cuningham's Cosmograpkical Glass* con- Humboldt
teinyng the pleasant Principles of Cosmograpku, Geograpkie, Hydro-
graphic or Nangation (London, 1559).
■See also S. Gunther, Handamch dor matkem a tischen Goograpki*
(Stuttgart, 1890).
to geology, and can be completely studied only by geological
methods. But the relief of the crust is not a finished piece of sculp-
ture; the forms are for the most part transitional, owing n ft
their characteristic outlines to the process by which they TLT~ ~'''~
are produced ; therefore the geographer must, for strictly w '
geographical purposes, take some account of the processes which are
now in action modifying the forms of the crust. Opinion still differs
as to the extent to which the geographer's work should overlap that
of the geologist.
The primary distinction of the forms of the crust is that between
elevations and depressions. Granting that the geotd or mean
surface of the ocean is a uniform spheroid, the distribution of land
and water approximately indicates a division of the surface of the
{[lobe into two areas, one of elevation and one of depression. The
ncreasing number of measurements of the height of land in all
continents and islands, and the very detailed le veilings in those
countries which have been thoroughly surveyed, enable the average
elevation of the land above sea-level to be fairly estimated, although
many vast gaps in accurate knowledge remain, and the estimate
is not an exact one. The only part of the sea-bed the configuration
of which is at all well known is the zone bordering the coasts where
the depth is less than about 100 fathoms or 200 metres, i.e. those
parts which sailors speak of as " in soundings." Actual or projected
routes for telegraph cables across the deep sea have also been sounded
with extreme accuracy in many cases; but beyond these lines of
sounding the vast spaces of the ocean remain unplumbed save for
the rare researches of scientific expeditions, such as those of the
" Challenger," the " Valdivia," the*' Albatross " and the " Scotia."
Thus the best approximation to the average depth of the ocean is
little more than an expert guess; yet a fair approximation is probable
for the features of sub-oceanic relief are so much more uniform than
those of the land that a smaller number of fixed points is required
to determine them.
The chief element of uncertainty as to the largest features of the
relief of the earth's crust is due to the unexplored area in the Arctic
region and the larger regions of the Antarctic, of which
we know nothing. We know that the earth's surface if
unveiled of water would exhibit a great region of elevation
arranged with a certain rough radiate symmetry round the north
pole, and extending southwards in three unequal arms which taper
to points in the south. A depression surrounds the little-known
south polar region in a continuous ring and extends northwards in
three vast hollows lying between the arms of the elevated area. So
far only is it possible to speak with certainty, but it is permissible
to take a few steps into the twilight of dawning knowledge and
indicate the chief subdivisions which are likely to be established
in the great crust-hollow and the great crust-heap. The boundary
between these should obviously be the mean surface of the
sphere.
Sir John Murray deduced the mean height of the land of the globe
as about 3250 ft. above sea-level, and the mean depth of the oceans
as 2080 fathoms or 12,480 ft. below sea-level. 4 Calculating the area
of the land at 55.000,000 sq. m. (or 286 % of the surface), and that
of the oceans as 137.200.000 sq. m. (or 7»'4% of the surface), he
found that the volume of the land above sea-level was 23.450,000
cub. m., the volume of water below sea-level 323.800.000, and the
total volume of the water equal to about t hth of the volume of the
whole globe. From these data, as revised by A. Supan,' H. R. -Mill
calculated the position of mean sphere-level at about 10,000 ft. or
1700 fathoms below sea-level. He showed that an imaginary
spheroidal shell, concentric with the earth and cutting the slope
between the elevated and depressed areas at the contour-line of 1700
fathoms, would not only leave above it a volume of the crust equal
to the volume of the hollow left below if, but would also divide the
surface of the earth so that the area of the elevated region was
equal to that of the depressed region.*
A similar observation was made almost simultaneously by
Roaneux,' who further speculated on the equilibrium between the
weight of the elevated land mass and that of the total
waters of the ocean, and deduced some interesting rela- ,
as the result of his study. '
hree zones— thecontincnlal ,
transitional area including
1000 fathoms, and the abysmal area
Dcean beyond that depth; and Mill
iean-sphere level, instead of the etn-
as the boundary between the transi-
tu the existing data regarding the
al relief of the globe was made in
. . . gner, whose recalculations of volumes
« " On the Height of the Land and the Depth of the Ocean," Seat.
j. Mag. iv. (1888). p. 1. Estimates had been made previously by
Humboldt, De Lapparent, H. Wagner, and subsequently by Penes
and Heiderich, and for the oceans by Karstens.
* Ptttrmanns Mitteilungen, xxv. (1889), p. 17.
•Ptoe. Roy. Sac. Eton. xvii. O890) p. 185.
' CompSts rendus Acad. Sci, (Fans, 1890). vol. iif. p. 094,
HP«V
principles] GEOGRAPHY 631
■'-"■- ..«-•-•• • -- • • " ^eat «erie8 of cnirt wives from north to south, pving riae
interference to six great elevated mum (the continent*),
I in three groups, each consisting of a northern and a
1 member separated by a minor depression. These elevated
re divided from one another by similar great depressions,
rs: " The surface of each of, our great continental masses of
mbles that of a long and broad arch-like form, of
e see the simplest type in the New World. The f**L.
of the North American arch is sagged down- *y
1 the middle into a central depression which tEl™.
ween two long marginal plateaus, and these *****
are finally crowned by the wrinkled crests which form Its
lern mountain systems. The surface of each of our ocean
actly resembles that of a continent turned upside down,
the Atlantic as our simplest type, we may say that the
rf an ocean basin resembles that of a mighty trough or
buckled up more or less centrally in a medial ridge, which
led by two long and deep marginal hollows, in the cores
still deeper grooves sink to the profoundest depths. This
tentary relationship descends even to the minor features
to. Where the great continental sag sinks bdow the ocean
t have our gulfs and our Mediterraneans, seen in oar type
t, as the Mexican Gulf and Hudson Bay. Where the
xeanic buckle attains the water-line we have our oceanic
teen in our type ocean, as St Helena and the Azores. Al-
the apparent crust-waves are neither equal in size nor
teal in form, this complementary relationship between
ilways discernible. The broad Pacific depression seems to
the broad elevation of the OH World — the narrow trough
tlantic to the narrow continent of America."
tost thorough discussion of the great features of terrestrial
the light of their origin is that by Professor E. Suess, 1 who
ut that the plan of the earth is the result of
vements of the crust— one, subsidence over JSv"
ts, giving rise to oceanic depressions and leaving *" M O f *
inents protuberant; the other, folding along comparatively
wits, giving rise to mountain ranges. This theory of crust
ropped by subsidence is opposed to Lapworth's theory of
st-folds, but geology b the science which has to decide
them.
>rphology is concerned, however, in the suggestions which
:n made as to the cause of the distribution of heap and
1 the larger features of the crust. Elie de Beaumont, in
ilations on the relation between the direction of mountain
id their geological age and character, was feeling towards a
pnsive theory of the forms of crustai relief; but his ideas
geometrical, and his theory that the earth is a spheroid
on a rhombic dodecahedron, the pentagonal faces 01 which
ed the direction of mountain ranges, could not be proved.'
trahedral theory " brought forward by Lowthian Green,'
form of the earth is a spheroid based on a regular tvtra-
is more serviceable, because it accounts for three very
interesting facts of the terrestrial plan — (1) the antipodal
position of continents and ocean basins; (2) the tri-
angular outline of the continents; and (3) the excess of
sea in the southern hemisphere. Recent investigations
have recalled attention to the work of Lowthian Green,
but the question is still in the controversial stage.' The
study of tidal strain in the earth's crust by Sir George
Darwin has led that physicist to indicate the possibility
of the triangular form and southerly direction of the
continents being a result of the differential or tidal
attraction of the sun and moon. More recently Professor
A. E. H. Love has shown that the great features of the
relief of the lithosphere may be expressed by spherical
harmonics of the first, second and third degrees, and their
formation related to gravitational action in a sphere of
unequal density.*
pression; the only partial exception being in the case of southern In any case it is fully recognized that the plan of the earth is so
South America, which is antipodal to eastern Asia, clear as to leave no doubt as to its being due to some general cause
fT Professor C. Lap worth has generalized the grand features which should be capable of detection.
■*JJ.°' of crustai relief in a scheme of attractive simplicity. He If the level of the sea were to become coincident with the mean
nUmAorf * cc * throughout all the chaos of irregular crust-forms the level of the lithosphere, there would result one tri-radiatt land-mass
J3J* * recurrence of a certain harmony, a succession of folds or of nearly uniform outline and one continuous sheet of water
waves which build up all the minor features. 4 One in»^m.iHg.A/i«j. f~r,^v .aa. .aog ,~ t \ — Tm ~
great .H. .f cn». «, «. fa- «». M «,, i. cr^ by « Jgttt'S^&tttt&^teSZ
1 " Area! und mittlcre Erhebung der Land Aachen sowie der Erd- to tern, vols. i. and u. (Paris, 1807, 1900), and
kruMe " in Ger land's Be Urate tur Ceophysik, ii. (1895) p. 667. See ertha SoJlaa as Tim Fact 0$ Ike Earth, vols. L
also Nature, 54 (1896). p. 112. I**)-
' Pttermanns Mittetiungen, xxxv. (1889) p. 19. Notice sur Us sys&me* de Montagues (3 vols.,
' The areas of the continental shelf and lowlands are approxi-
mately equal, and it is an interesting circumstance that, taken as a 'em Glebe (London, 1875).
whole, the actual coast-line comes just midway on the most nearly ', " The Plan of the Earth and its Causes,"
level belt of the earth's surface, excepting the ocean floor. The con- J99) p. 225; Lord Avebury, ibid, xv. (1900)
figuration of the continental slope has been treated in detail by nd. ,c Deformation tetraedncrae de la terre.et
Nansen in Scientific Result* of Norwegian North Polar Expedition, " CombUs rendus Acad. Set. (Paris, 1900),
vol. iv. (1904), where full references to the literature of the subject A. de Lappa rent. ibid. p. 614.
will be found. • See A. E. H. Love, " Gravitational Stability of the Earth," Pkd.
* British Association Report (Edinburgh, 1892), p. 699. Trams, aer. A. vol. ccvii. (1907) p. 171.
633
GEOGRAPHY
broken by few islands. The actual position of sea-level lie* to near
the summit of the crust-heap that the varied relief of the upper
_. portion leads to I
Py line and a great
tmuut The hydrosphere
all in insular masses: the
Asia and Africa; the next
Antarctica; the fourth. Ai
this there is a considerable g
gascar. Sumatra and the vast
in size by regular gradations
island and mainland was tu
discovery of Australia, and
traditionally divided into tt
" parts of the earth," or "
convenient divisions; Amer
quently divided into two. while Australia on its discovery was classed
sometimes as a new continent, sometimes merely as an tsland t some*
times rorapromisinglv as an island-continent, according to individual
opinion. The discovery of the insularity of Greenland might again
give rise to the argument as to the distinction between island and
continent. Although the name of continent was not applied to
large portions of land for any physical reasons, it so happens that
there is a certain physical similarity or homology between them
which is not shared by the smaller islands or peninsulas.
The typical continental form is triangular as regards It* sca-lcvcl
outline. The relief of the surface typically includes a central plain.
rfnnrnftiT * omet » me * dipping below sea-level, bounded by lateral
2rzT/^ highlands or mountain ranges, loftier on one side than
ttatatMm on the other, the higher enclosing a plateau shut in by
mountains. South America and North America' follow
this type most closely ; Eurasia (the land mass of Europe and Asia)
comes next, while Africa and Australia arc farther removed from
the type, and the structure of Antarctica and Greenland is unknown.
If the continuous, unbroken, horizontal extent of land in a con-
tinent is termed its trunk, 1 and the portions cut up by inlets or
channels of the sea into islands and peninsulas the limbs, it is possible
to compare the continents in an instructive manner.
The following table is from the statistics of Professor H. Wagner,*
his metric measurements being transposed into British units:
Comparison of the Continents.
IWUNCIPLES
low coasts, subdividing each group according at the coast-line runs
parallel to or crosses the line of strike of the mountains, or is not
related to mountain structure. A further subdivision depends 00
the character of the inter-relation of land and sea along the shore
producing such types as a fjord-coast, ria-coaat or lagoon-coast.
This extremely elaborate subdivision may be reduced, as Wagner
points out. to three types— the continental coast where the sea comes
up to the solid rock-material of the land ; the marine coast, which is
formed entirely of soft material sorted out by the sea; and the com-
posite coast, in which both forms arc combined.
On large-scale maps it is necessary to show two coast -lines, one
for the highest, the other for the lowest tide; but in small-scale
maps a single line is usually wider than is required to
represent tKe whole breadth of the inter-tidal zone. ____
n a large-
aller bays,
' inflection
ices to the
these two
region,
tell known
e aaa rule
been made to arrive at a definite international agreement r ** ma '
on this subject, and certain terms suggested by a committee were
adopted by the Eighth International Geographical Congress at New
York in 1904. 4 The forms of the ocean floor include the " shelf,"
or shallow sea margin, the " depression," a general term applied to
all submarine hollows, and the elevation." A depression when of
f;reat extent is termed a " basin," when it is of a more or lew round
orm with approximatelyequal diameters, a " trough " when it is
wide and elongated with gently sloping borders, and a " trench "
when narrow and elongated with steeply sloping borders, one of
which rises higher than the other. The extension of a trough or
basin penetrating the land or an elevatbn is termed an " embay -
roent when wide, and a " gully " when long and narrow; and the
deepest part of a de]
1 is termed a '
Old World . .
New World
Eurasia . .
Africa
North America
South America
Australia . .
Asia . . .
Europe '. . .
Area
tout
mil.
aq. m.
35-8
16-2
20-85
11-46
9-26
684
3-43
17-02
3«3
Mean
height,
feet.
2360
2250
2620
2150
2300
1970
1310
3120
980
Area
trunk,
mil.
sq. m.
15-42
11-22
692
676
2-77
ta-93
249
Area
penin-
sulas.
mil.
sq. m.
4-09
0-78
0-02
Ol6
30s
1 04
Area
islands,
mil.
sq. m.
»'34
? i
0-06
050
1 04
0-30
Area
limbs,
mil.
sq. m.
543
024
008
066
409
t-34
Area
limbs.
per
cent.
26
2-1
a5
t-1
19
24
35
The usual classification of islands is into continental and oceanic.
The former class includes all those which rise from the continental
shelf, or show evidence in the character of their rocks of
having at one time been continuous with a neighbouring
continent. The latter rise abruptly from the oceanic abysses.
Oceanic islands are divided according to their geological character
into volcanic islands and those of organic origin, including coral
islands. More elaborate subdivisionsaccording tost ructure, origin and
position have been proposed.' In some cases a piece of land is only
an island at high water, and by imperceptible gradation the form
passes into a peninsula. The typical peninsula is connected with the
mainland by a relatively narrow isthmus; the name is, however, ex-
tended to any limb projecting from the trunk of the mainland, even
when, as in the Indian peninsula, it is connected by its widest part.
Small peninsulas are known as promontories or headlands, and
the extremity as a cape. The opposite form, an inlet of the sea. is
^. mmdm known when wide as a gulf, bay or bight, according
w "*** 10 size and degree of inflection, or as a fjord or ria when
long and narrow. It is convenient to employ a specific name for a
projection of a coast-line leas pronounced than a peninsula, and for
an inlet less pronounced than a bay or bight; ootcurve and incurve
may serve the turn. The varieties of coast-lines were reduced to an
exact classification by Richthofen, who grouped them according to
the height and slope of the land into cliff-coasts (Steilkisten)—
narrow beach coasts with cliffs, wide beach coasts with cliffs, and
1 Rumpf, in German, the language in which this distinction was
first made.
* Lekrbuck der Ceognpkie (Hanover and Leipzig, 1900). Bd. L S.
^*See, for example, F. C. Hahn's Insd-Studicn (Leipzig. 1883).
rpest part of a depression 1
A depression of small extent
termed a " caldron," and a long narrow «...
crossing a part of the continental border is termed
a " furrow." An elevation of great extent which
rises at a very gentle angle from a surrounding
depression is termed a "nsc," one which is res-
tively narrow and steep-sided a " ridge," and one
which is approximately equal in length and breadth
but steep-sided a " plateau," whether it springs
direct from a depression or from a rise. An eleva-
tion of small extent is distinguished as a " dome M
when it is more than 100 fathoms from the surface,
a " bank " when it is nearer the surface than
100 fathoms but deeper than 6 fathoms, and a
" shoal " when it comes within 6 fathoms of the
surface and so becomes a serious danger to ship-
ping. The highest point of an elevation is termed
a " height," if it does not form an island or one
of the minor forms.
The forms of the dry land are of infinite variety, and have been
studied in great detail.* From the descriptive or topographical
point of view, geometrical form alone should be con- . __^
sidcred; but the origin and geological structure of mZnma*
land forms must in many cases be taken into account mfmt -
when dealing with the function they exercise in the control of
mobile distributions. The geographers who have hitherto given
most attention to the forms of the land have been trained as geo-
logists, and consequently there is a general tendency to make origin
or structure the basis of classification rather than form alone.
The fundamental form-elements may be reduced to the sis
proposed by Professor Penck as the basis of his double system of
classification by form and origin.* These may be looked Thaalx
upon as being all derived by various modifications or *r~*"L—.
arrangements of the single form-unit, the slope or inclined j-^jJJJJ:
plane surface. No one form occurs alone, but always
grouped together whh others in various ways to make up districts,
regions and lands of distinctive characters. The form-elements are:
* See Geographical Journal, xxii. (1903) pp. 191-194.
* The most important works on the classification of land forms are
F. von Richthofen, Fuehrer fur Forsckungsreisende (Berlin. 1886);
G. dc la NoSand E. de Margerie. Les Formes du terrain (Paris, 1888);
and above all A. Penck, Morphologic der Erdoberfldcke (2 vols..
Stuttgart, 1894). Compare also A. de Lapporent, Lemons de ft*-
trapkie physique (2nd cd\. Paris, 1898), and W. M. Davis, Physical
Geography (Boston, 1899).
* " Geomorphologie als genetische Wissenschaft." in Report at
Sixth International Ceog. Congress (London, 1895), p. 735 (English
Abstract, p. 748).
PRINCIPLES!
f . The plain or gently Inclined uniform surface.
2. The scarp or steeply inclined slope, this Is
small extent except in the direction of its length.
GEOGRAPHY
633
abraded
r level whirh itself slopes
downwards in the direction of its length. Many varieties of this
towards 1
3. The valley, composed of two lateral parallel slopes inclined
wards a narrow strip of plain at a lower
jwnwards in the direction of its length
fundamental form may be distinguished.
4. The mount, composed of a surface falling away on every side
from a particular place. This place may either be a point, as
in a volcanic cone, or a line, as in a mountain range or ridge of
5 Th<
from all
6. Th«
These
but alwi
mm4lMm4
position
charactei
stone co
rocks, lei
holes am
mena of dry valleys and natural bridges. A sandy beach or desert
owes its character to the mobility of its constituent sand-grains,
which are readily drifted and piled up in the form of dunes. A
region where volcanic activity has led to the embedding of dykes or
bosses of hard rock amongst softer strata produces a plain broken by
abrupt and isolated eminences '
It would be impracticable to go fully into the varieties of each
specific form ; but. partly as an example of modern geographical
^fmmmt mrm. classification, partly became of the exceptional import -
:T~™7^ ance of mountains amongst the features of the land, one
mommtnma exception may be made. The classification of mountains
into types has usually had regard rather to geological
structure than to external form, so that some geologists would even
apply the name of a mountain range to a region not distinguished
by relief from the rest of the country if it bear geological evidence
of having once been a true range. A mountain may be described
(it a cannot be defined) as an elevated region of irregular surface
rising comparatively abruptly from lower ground. The actual
elevation 01 a summit above scale
mountainous character; a gentle
few hundred feet above a tablelan
15,000 ft., could only lie railed a
any abrupt slope of 2000 ft. or m<
be called a mountain, while abn
be called bills. Existing classift
account of any difference in kin
although it is common in the Gen
land, Mitttlgebirgt and Ilockgebirge
The simple classification cmplo;
into mountains of accumulation, n
tains of circumdenudation, is not
by German geographers, who,
adopt a classification dependent c
which is subdivided. The terms <
divisions, cannot be easily translal
English equivalents an the follow
tentatively. —
Richthofen's Classification or Mountains «.
I. Tektonische Cebirge — Tectonic mountains.
(a) Bruckgebirge oder Sckollengebirge — Block mountains.
1. Einsettige SchoUengebirge oiler Sckollenrandgcbirge —
Scarp or tilted block mountains.
(i.) TafelschoUe— Table blocks.
{ii.1 Abrasionsschollc— Abraded blocks.
(iii.) TransgressionsschoUe — Blocks of unconform-
able strata.
2. FUxurgebirge — Flexure mountains.
3. Horstgebirge — Symmetrical block mountains.
(6) FaUungsgebirge — Fold mountains.
1. Homoomorphe Faltungsgtbirge — Homomorphic fold
mountains.
2. Feleromorphe FaUungsgebirge— Hetcromor^Wxc fold
mountains.
1 On this subject see 1. Gcikic. Earth Sculpture (London. 1898);
J. E. Marr, The Scientific Study of Scenery (London. 1900); Sir A.
Geikie, The Scenery and Geology of Scotland (London. 2nd ed.. 1887) ;
Lord Avcburv (Sir J. Lubbock) The Scenery of Switzerland (London.
1896) and The Scenery of England (London, 1902).
' Some geographers distinguish a mountain from a hill by origin ;
thus Professor Seelcy says " a mountain implies elevation and a hill
implies denudation, but the external forms of both are often iden-
tical." Report VI. Int. Ceog. Congress (London. 1895), p. 751.
* " Mountains," in Scot. Ceog. Mag. ii. (1896) p. 145.
4 Fuhrcrfur Forsckungsreuende, pp. 652-685.
II. Rumpfgebirgo odor Abrasumsg tbi r g t' T rent
irfly of mountains.
III. Ausbrurks gthi r g e Eruptive mountains.
IV. AufsckuUungsgcbtrge — Mountains of accumulation.
V. Flackboden— Plateaux.
(a) Abrasunuplatten—Abnded plateaux.
(hi Mannas tfacManrf— Plain of marine erosion.
ic) SckuktungstafeUand— -Horizontally stratified f»hM»n^,
Id) ObergusstafeUand-~Lavi plain.
It) StromlfacUand— River plain.
(fi Ftackbdden der atmospkariscktn Aufsch£ttu*t— Plains of
ring inwards aeolian formation,
of a mount. VI. Erosionsgebtrge — Mountains of erosion,
surface. From the morphological point of view it is more important to
it s region, distinguish the associations of forms, such as the mountain mass
their mode or group of mountains radiating from a centre, with the M . .
rom crustal valleys furrowing their flanks spreading towards every Jf™ - "
y react ions direction : the mountain chain or fine of heights, forming a MnM *
wbile distri- long narrow ridge or series of ridges separated by parallel valleys,
rineral com- the dusecUd ptaleam or highland, divided into mountains of circum-
rmming the denudation by a system of deeply-cut valleys, and the tsotated
ry of a lime- peak, usually a volcanic cone or a hard rock mass left projecting after
>flity of the the softer strata which embedded it have been worn away (Monad-
ns. swallow, nock of Professor Davis).
gent pheno- The geographical distribution of mountains is intimately associated
with the great structural lines of the continents of which they form
the culminating region. Lofty lines of fold mountains ».., _»_
form the " backbones " of North America in the Rocky ZZT^F
Mountains and the west coast systems, of South America £lZ tmtnm
in the Cordillera of the Andes, of Europe in the Pyrenees. "^
Alps, Carpathians and Caucasus, ana of Asia in the mountains of
Asia Minor, converging on the Pamirs and diverging thence in the
Himalaya and the vast mountain systems ol central and eastern
Asia. The remarkable line of volcanoes around the whole coast
of the Pacific and along the margin of the Caribbean and Mediter-
ranean seas is one of the most conspicuous features of the globe.
If land for ins. the part they serve in
the economy t straining the terra, be
characterized and simplest ...
function of ^ guiding loose CTT!^
material to a : f«|- pull of gravity JLJJJ"
suffices to br 3 atcrial, but the "*
path it will I \ ^m : || travel before coming to
rest depend WF : | ■ tose material may, and in
anaridregio "<QJf ns of the higher _
parts of th« i^sTa miiW^mm expansion and t2L.
contraction produced by heating and cooling due to wasss,
radiation. Such broken material rolling down a uniform scarp
would tend to reduce its steepness by ILj loss of material in the
upper pan and by the accumulation of a mound or scree against
the tower part of the slope. But where the side is not a uniform
scarp, but made up of a scries of ridges and valleys, the tendency
will be to distribute the detritus in an irregular manner, directing
not her.
Snow
ipactcd
rise, on
to send
definite
impress
as they
antities
erminal
>ile dis>
uidance
tarcntly
but in
surface
largely
highest
pontile
aporate
a route
id more
idedby
is these
pSftfSSS.
oa new
;e»t line
strcara-
d wards,
1 us new
63+
GEOGRAPHY
(PRINCIPLES
by the " capture "and diversion of the water of one river by another,
leading to a change of watershed. 1 The minor tributaries become
more numerous and more constant, until the system of torrents
has impressed its own individuality on the mountain side. As
the river leaves the mountain, ever growing by the accession of
tributaries, it crises, save in flood time, to be a formidable instru-
ment of' destruction ; the gentler slope of the land surface gives to
it only power sufficient to transport small stones, gravel, aand and
ultimately mud. Its valley banks are cut back by the erosion of
minor tributaries, or by rain-wash if the climate be moist, or left
steep and sharp while the river deepens its bed if the climate be
arid. The outline of the curve of a valley's sides ultimately depends
on the angle of repose of the detritus which covers them, if there
has been no subsequent change, such as the passage of a glacier
along the valley, which tends to destroy the regularity of the cross-
section. The slope of the river bed diminishes until the plain compels
the river to move slowly, swinging in meanders proportioned to its
* " jllcd " •-■•■■ - -
Its banks and silting up
the dropped sediment, until, split up and shoaled, its distributaries
size, and gradually, controlled by the flattening land, ceasing to
transport material, but raising its banks and silting up its bed by
struggle across its delta to the sea. This is the typical river of which
there are infinite varieties, yet every variety would, if time were „ „ „-
given, and the land remained unchanged in level relatively to the sea. The whole of the bn<
AdJus*- ultimately approach to the type. Movements of the land
mtatot either of subsidence or elevation, changes in the bnd by
rhwn to the action of erosion in cutting back an escarpment or
limnology (see Lakb).* The existence of lakes in hollows of the land
depends upon the balance between precipitation and evaporation.
A stream flowing into a hollow will tend to fill it up, and , .. __„
pn to escape as soon as its level rises high *-* t *"**»
the lowest part of the rim. In the case
w in a very dry climate the rate of
be sufficient to prevent the water from ever rising
there is no outflow to the sea. and a basin of internal
suit. This is the case, for instance, in the Caspian
Balkhash lakes, the Tarim basin, the Sahara, inner
cat basin of the United States and the Titicaca
sins of internal drainage are calculated to arootrnt
nd surface. The percentages of the land surface
fferent oceans are approximately — Atlantic, 34*3 %;
,; Pacific. 144%; Indian Ocean, 12-8 %.•
river system have not been so dearly denned as b
the exaggerated importance popularly attached to
a river. A well-developed river system
. equally important and widely-separated
sources, the most distant from the mouth, the highest,
or even that of largest initial volume not being neces-
cutting through a col, changes in climate by affecting the
rainfall and the volume of water, all tencf to throw the
river valley out of harmony with the actual condition of
its stream. There b nothing more striking in geography than the
perfection of the adjustment of a great river system to its valleys
when the land has remained stable for a very lengthened period.
Before full adjustment has been attained the river bed may be
broken in places by waterfalls or interrupted by lakes; after adjust-
ment the bed assumes a permanent outline, the slope diminishing
more and more gradually, without a break in its symmetrical descent.
Excellent examples of the indecisive drainage of a new land surface,
on which the river system has not had time to impress itself, are to be
seen in northern Canada and in Finland, where rivers are separated
by scarcely perceptible divides, and the numerous lakes frequently
belong to more than one river system.
The action of rivers on the land b so important that it has been
made the basis of a system of physical geography by Professor
rhmmmmm W. M. Davis, who clusuncs land surfaces in terms of
7~*f£I f the three factors— structure, process and time." Of
f**f" these time, during which the process is acting on the
**^ structure, b the most important. A land may thus be
characterized by its position in the " geographical cycle, or cycle
of erosion, as young, mature or old, the last term being reached
when the base-level of erosion b attained, and the land, however
varied its relief may have been in youth or maturity, b reduced to
a nearly uniform surface or peneplain. By a re-elevation of a
peneplain the rivers of an old bnd surface may be restored to
youthful activity, and resume their shaping action, deepening the
old valleys and initiating new ones, starting afresh the whole course
of the geographical cycle. It b, however, not the action of the
running water on the land, but the function exercised by the land
on the running water, that U considered here to be the special
province of geography. At every stage of the geographical cycle
the Und forms, as they exist at that stage, are concerned in guiding
the condensation and flow of water in certain definite ways. Thus,
for example, in a mountain range at right angles to a prevailing
sea-wind, it b the bnd forms which determine that one side of the
range shall be richly watered and deeply dissected by a complete
system of vaUeys, while the other side b dry, indefinite in its valley
systems, and sends none of its scanty drainage to the sea. The
action of rain, ice and rivers conspires with the movement of bnd
waste to strip the byer of soil from steep slopes as rapidly as it
forms, and to cause it to accumulate on the flat valley bottoms, on
the graceful flattened cones of alluvial fans at the outlet of the gorges
of tributaries, or in the smoothly-spread surface of alluvial plains.
The whole question of the regime of rivers and bkes b sometimes
treated under the name hydrography, a name used by some writers
in the sense of marine surveying, and by others as synonymous with
o ce a n ogr a phy. For the study of rivers alone the name potamology •
has been suggested by Penck. and the subject being of much practical
importance has received a good deal of attention.'
The study of bkes has also been specialized under the name of
1 See. for a summary of river-action. A. Phillipson, Studien ubcr
Wassersckeiden (Leipzig, 1886); also I.C. Russell, Riper Development
(London, 1 898) (published as The Risers of North A merica. New York,
Davis, " The Geographical Cycle," Ceog. J own. xlv.
,8 ?& M.
Oft?) p. 484-
' A. Penck. " Potamology as a Branch of Physical Geography,"
Ceot. Jonm. x. (1897) P- 619.
4 See. for instance. £. Wisotzki. Hauptfluss und Nebcnjltus
(Stettin, 1880). For practical studies sec official reports on the
Mumamppt, Rkioc, Seine, Elbe and other great rivers.
sarily of greater geographical interest than tne rest.
The whole of the bnd which directs drainage towards one river b
known as its basin, catchment area or drainage area- sometimes,
by an incorrect expression, as its valley or even Its watershed.
The boundary line between one drainage area and others b rightly
termed the watershed, but on account of the ambiguity which has
been tolerated it b better to call it water-parting or, as in America,
divide. The only other important term which requires to be noted
here is taiweg. a word introduced from the German into French
and English, and meaning the deepest line along the valley, which
b necessarily occupied by a stream unless the valley is dry.
The functions of bnd forms extend beyond the control of the
circulation of the atmosphere, the hydrosphere and the water which
is continually being interchanged between them; they are e xe r cise d
with increased effect in the higher departments of biogeography and
anthropogcography.
The sum of the organic life on the globe is termed by some geo-
graphers the biosphere, and it has been estimated that the whole
mass of living substance in existence at one time would
cover the surface of the earth to a depth of one-fifth of
an inch. 1 The dbtribution of living organisms b a
. t.._ ..__..__ , . "of
nature of
involving
lirect, pre-
rangement
> contrast)
irriers of a
or oceanic
as a rule,
; the pre-
s of every
ndofbad
rocks, and
ent specks
nd h my
.,..-. r oraninau,
once established at one point, would spread over the whole tone
of the climate congenial to it unless some barrier were interposed
to its progress. In the case of bnd and fresh-water organban
the sea is the chief barrier; in the case of marine organisms, the
bnd. Differences in bnd forms do not exert great influence on the
distribution of living creatures directly, but indirectly such land
forms as mountain ranges and internal drainage basins are very
potent through their action on soil and climate. A snow-capped
mountain ridge or an arid desert forms a barrier between different
forms of life which b often more effective than an equal breadth of
sea. In thb way the surface of the bnd b divided into numerous
natural regions, the flora and fauna of each of which include some
distinctive species not shared by the others. The distribution *ot
life is discussed in the various articles in thb Encyclopaedic dealing
with biological, botanical and zoological subjects. 1
branche de bgeo-
k>n, 1895),
l.LullieV"Sti»
trsilti (Konig
Petermanns J
1888}.
^ScdLGeog.Met*
cat Distribution rf
xxcal and Geoiogim
ibuck der PJlanwn-
der PMM uen wo U ;
l and Sclater, Tit
principles! GEOGRAPHY 635
The classification of the land surface Into areas inhabited by
distinctive groups of plants has been attempted by many phyto-
_-__. geographeri, but without resulting in any scheme of
Vj~^~ general acceptance. The simplest classification is perhaps
soma. tnat f D^e according to climatic zones, subdivided
according to continents. This takes account of— (1) the Arctic-
Alpim cone, including all the vegetation of the region bordering
on perpetual snow; Qr) the Boreal zone, including the temperate
lands of North America, Europe and Asia, all of which are sub*
stantially alike in botanical character ; (3) the Tropical zone, divided
sharply into (a) the tropical zone of the New World, and (*) the
tropical zone of the Okl World, the forms of which differ in a sig-
nificant degree: (4) the Austral zone, comprising all continental
land south of the equator, and sharply divided into three regions
the floras of which are strikingly distinct — (a) South American,
(b) South African and (r) Australian; (5) the Oceanic, comprising
alt oceanic islands, the flora of which consists exclusively of forms
whose seeds could be drifted undestroyed by ocean currents or
carried by birds. To these might be added the antarctic, which is
still very imperfectly known. Many subdivisions and transitional
zones have been suggested by different authors.
From the point of view of the economy of the globe this classi-
fication by species is perhajj* less important than that by mode
of life and physiological character in accordance with
v^sstiftjfl environment. The following are the chief areas of
• rM * vegetational activity usually recognized: (1) The ice-
deserts of the arctic and antarctic and the highest mountain regions,
where there is no vegetation except the lowest forms, like that
which causes " red snow." (2) The tundra or region of intensely
cold winters, forbidding tree-growth, where mosses and lichens
cover most of the ground when unfrozen, and shrubs occur of
species which in other conditions are trees, here stunted to the
height of a few inches. A similar zone surrounds the permanent
snow on lofty mountains in all latitudes. The tundra passes by
imperceptible gradations into the moor, bog and heath of warmer
climates. (3) The tempcrat
according to- circumstances,
temperate zones where rain
(4) The grassy steppes or pi
and temperatures are cxtrcn
vegetation. These pass im
where rainfall is at a minimun
to subsist with the smallest si
which represents the maxim
the heaviest rainfall, grvati
divisions merge one into the
subdivision, while they are si
interference in clearing and c
ling power of environment t<
usually in close adjustment
a region.
The divisions of the earth into fauna! regions by Dr P. L. Sclater
have been found to hold good for a large number of groups of animals
as different in their mode of life as birds and mammals,
*■"■■» and they may thus be accented as based on nature.
*"*■* They are six in number: (1) Palaearctic, including
Europe, Asia north of the Himalaya, and Africa north of the Sahara:
(2) Ethiopian, consisting of Africa south of the Atlas range, and
Madagascar; (3) Oriental, including India, Indo-China and the
Malay Archipelago north of Wallace's line, which runs between
Bali a no Lorabok; (4) A ustralian, including Australia, New Zealand,
New Guinea and Polynesia; (5) Nearclic or North America, north
of Mexico; and (6) Neotropical or South America. Each of these
divisions is the home of a special fauna, many species of which
arc confined to it alone; in the Australian region, indeed, practically
the whole fauna is peculiar and distinctive, suggesting a prolonged
g:riod of complete biological isolation. In some cases, such as the
thiopian and Neotropical and the Palaearctic and N caret ic regions,
the faunas, although distinct, are related, several forms on opposite
sides of the Atlantic being analogous, ?.£. the lion and puma, ostrich
and rhca. Where two of the fa una 1 realms meet there is usually,
though not always, a mixing of faunas. These facts have led some
naturalists to include the Palaearctic and Ncarctic regions in one.
termed Holarctu, and to suggest transitional regions, such as the
Sonoran, between North and South America, and the Mediterranean,
between Europe and Africa, or to create sub-regions, such as Mada-
gascar and New Zealand. Oceanic islands have, as a rule, distinctive
fauna* and floras which resemble, but are not identical with, those of
Other islands in similar positions.
The study of the evolution of faunas and the comparison of the
faunas of distant regions have furnished a trustworthy
instrument of pre-historic geographical research, which
enables earlier geographical relations of land and sea to
iioam9 ^0 traccc j outt am | t|, c approximate period, or at least the
fj "** chronological order of the larger changes, to be estimated.
222L-. In this way, for example, it has been suggested that a
S^T ,and - " Lerauria," once connected Madagascar with the
m9m&nm Malay Archipelago, and that a northern extension of
the antarctic land once united the three southern continents.
The distribution of fossils frequently makes it possible to map out
636
GEOGRAPHY jfrinotus
influence of climate, And by the development of trade even to
Inhabit countries which cannot yield a food-supply, the mass of
mankind is still completely under the control of those conditions
which in the past determined the distribution and the mode of life
of the whole human race.
In tropical forests primitive tribes depend on the collection of
wild fruits, and in a minor degree on the chase of wild animals, for
their food. Clothing is unnecessary; hence there is
r h^M. ^"k occas * oa f° r exercising the mental faculties beyond
• f •*V n " - " the sense of perception to avoid enemies, or the in-
"•*••* ventivc arts beyond what is required for the simplest
m *^ weapons and the most primitive fortifications. When
the pursuit of game becomes the chief occupation of a people there
is of necessity a higher development of courage, skill, powers of
observation and invention; and these qualities are still further
enhanced in predatory tribes who take by force the food* clothing
and other property prepared or collected dv a feebler people. The
fruit-eating savage cannot stray beyond his woods which bound
his life as the water bounds that of a fish; the hunter is free to
live on the margin of forests or in open country, while the robber
or warrior from some natural stronghold of the mountains sweeps
over the adjacent plains and carries his raids into distant lands.
Wide grassy steppes lead to the organization of the people as nomads
whose wealth consists in flocks and herds, ana their dwellings
arc tents. The nomad not only domesticates and turns to his
own use the gentler and more powerful animals, such as sheep,
cattle, horses, camels, but even turns some predatory creatures,
like the dog, into a means of defending their natural prey. They
hunt the beasts of prey destructive to their flocks, and form armed
bands for protection against marauders or for purposes of aggression
on weaker sedentary neighbours. On the fertile low grounds along
the margins of rivers or in clearings of forests, agricultural com-
munities naturally take their rise, dwelling in villages and cultivating
the wild grains, which by careful nurture and selection have been
turned into rich cereals. The agriculturist as a rule is rooted to
the soil. The land he tills he holds, and acquires a closer connexion
with a particular patch of ground than either the hunter or the herds-
man. In the temperate zone, where the seasons arc sharply con-
trasted, but follow each other with regularity, foresight and self-denial
were fostered, because if men did not exercise these qualities seed-time
or harvest might pass into lost opportunities and the tribes would
suffer. The more extreme climates of arid regions on the margins of
the tropics, by the unpredictable succession of droughts and Hoods,
confound the prevision of uninstructed people, and make prudence
and industry qualities too uncertain in their results to be worth
cultivating. Thus the civilization of agricultural peoples of the
temperate zone grew rapidly, yet in each community a special type
arose adapted to the soil, the crop and the climate. On the sea-
shore fishing naturally became a means of livelihood, and dwellers
by the sea, in virtue of the dangers to which they arc exposed from
storm and unsca worthy craft, are stimulated to a higher degree of
foresight, quicker observation, prompter decision and more energetic
action in emergencies than those who live inland. The building
and handling of vessels also, and the utilization of such uncon-
trollable powers of nature as wind and tide, helped forward mechanical
invention. To every type of coast there may be related a special
type of occupation and even of character; the deep and gloomy
fjord, backed by almost impassable mountains, bred bold mariners
whose only outlet for enterprise was seawards towards other lands —
the viks created the vikings. On the gently sloping margin of the
estuary of a great river a view of tranquil inland life was equally
presented to the shore-dweller, and the ocean did not present the
only prospect of a career. Finally the mountain valley, with its
patches of cultivable soil on the alluvial fans of tributary torrent*,
its narrow pastures on the uplands only left clear of snow in summer,
its intensified extremes of climates and its isolation, almost equal to
that of an island, has in all countries produced a special type of
brave and hardy people, whose utmost effort may bnng them com-
fort, but not wealth, by honest toil, who know little of the outer
world, and to whom the natural outlet for ambition is marauding
on the fertile plains. The highlands and viking, products of the
valleys raised high amid the mountains or half-drowned in the sea,
are everywhere of kindred spirit.
It is in some such manner as these that the natural conditions
of regions, which must be conformed to by prudence and utilized
by labour to yield shelter and food, have led to the growth of peoples
differing in their ways of life, thought and speech. The initial
differences so produced arc confirmed and perpetuated by the
same barriers which divide the faunal or floral regions, the sea,
mountains, deserts and the like, and much of the course of post
history and present politics becomes clear when the combined
results of differing race and differing environment arc taken into
account. 1
The specialization which accompanies the division of labour has
important geographical consequences, for it necessi tates communi-
1 On the influence of land on people see Shalcr, Nature and
Mam in America (New York and London, 1892); and Ellen C.
Scmplc's American History and Us Gtofraphic Conditions (Boston,
'90s).
PRINCIPLES!
GEOGRAPHY
637
land of their birth, when not compelled or induced by powerful
external causes to seek a new home.
Thus arises the spirit of patriotism, a product of purely geo-
graphical conditions, thereby differing from the sentiment of loyalty,
■».— ■.. which is of racial origin. Where race and soil conspire to
evoke both loyalty and patriotism .n a people, the moral
qualities of a great and permanent nation are secured.
It is noticeable that the patriotic spirit is strongest in those places
where people are brought most intimately into relation with the land :
dwellers in the mountain or by the sea t and, above all, the people of
rugged coasts and mountainous archipelagoes, have always been
renowned for love of country, while the inhabitants of fertile plains
and trading communities are frequently less strongly attached to
their own land.
Amongst nomads the trilx
bond is personal, and then
of the people, who may be k
of a country arises only w
composed of several races, est
of which an^y be defined
without. Political geograph
earth amongst organized coi
races to regions, and of nat
conditions of territorial eqt
The definition of boundari
most important parts of pol
Buua^. are al w ay* the m
_j__ themselves most
*"* The sea is the mo
recognized as the most ttabL
tain range, but here there is often difficulty as to the definition of
the actual crest -line, and mountain ranges being broad regions, it
may happen that a smalt independent state, like Switzerland or
Andorra, occupies the mountain valleys between two or more great
countries. Rivers do not form effective international boundaries,
although between dependent self-governing communities they are
convenient lines of demarcation. A desert, or a belt of country
left purposely without inhabitants, like the mark, marches or
debatable lands of the middle ages, was once a common means
of separating nations which nourished hereditary grievances. The
" buffer-state " of modern diplomacy is of the same ineffectual
type*. A less definite though very practical boundary is that formed
by the meeting-line of two languages, or the districts inhabited
by two races. 1 he line of fortresses protecting Austria from Italy
lies in some places weil back from the political boundary, but
just inside the linguistic frontier, so as to separate the German
and Italian races occupying Austrian territory. Arbitrary lines,
either traced from point to point and marked by posts on the ground,
or defined as portions of meridians and parallels, are bow the most
common type of boundaries fixed by treaty. In Europe and Asia
frontiers are usually strongly fortified and strictly watched in times
of peace as well as during war. In South America strictly defined
boundaries are still the exception, and the claims of neighbouring
nations have very frequently given rise to war, though now more
commonly to arbitration. 1
The modes of government amor
influence on political geography; 1
. ana exacting in their fror
' monarchies. It is, howe
f monarchies are confined
Asia, Japan being the
monarchy east of the Carpathians.
the exception of Japan) peculiar to
of democratic control may be said
wards from the United Kingdom,
in Europe are the peculiar form
arc unknown in Asia.
The forms, of government of colonies present a series of transi-
tional types from the autocratic administration of a governor
appointed by the home government to complete democratic self*
government. The latter occurs only in the temperate possessions
of the British empire, in which there is no great preponderance
of a coloured native population. New colonial forms have been
developed during the partition of Africa amongst European powers,
the sphere of influence being especially worthy of notice. This
is a vaguer form of control than a protectorate, and frequently
amounts merely to an agreement amongst civilized powers to respect
the right of one of their number to exercise government within
a certain area, if it should decide to do so at any future time.
The central governments of all civilized countries concerned with
external relations are closely similar in their modes of action, but
the internal administration may be very varied^ In this respect a
country is cither centralized, like the United Kingdom or France.
1 For the history of territorial changes in Europe, sec Freeman.
Historical Geography of Europe, edited by Bury (Oxford). 1 903;
and for the official definition of existing boundaries, see Hertslct,
The Mat of Europe by Treaty (4 vols.. London. 187*.. 1801): The
ing 001
1.. Lorn
Germany (where
s of monarchies,
[overnor), or the
blic*. Theulti-
H-nment may be
ntons occupying
f racial diversity
ical expediency,
and parishes, or
asca to natural
al causes. The
s the condition*
stl geography is.
ography is allied
>nc time mainly
ndicated by the
ty to raw*
r nodes on lines
ode of travelling
Drts and railway
1. the foot of a
iding up from a
ids or railways.*
en sufficient to
ne of land com-
ids and railways
ard to the con*
ascription of the
cry, production,
being
id to
dilxf
s still
graph*.
Hap of Africa by Treaty (j vols., London, 1896),
Oxford address on Frontiers (1907).
Also!
>lanned so as to
tiling winds and
it ion of oceano-
er navigation by
mate knowledge
rvival of sailing
ic importance of
require a know-
for mineral pro*
and cultivation
market. At ten*
of political gco-
abour and trade
to the incessant
ind demand and
Feet the market. 4
fed to designate
ipect of scientific
s, including the
ence, there is an
y of the relation
of geographical
mditions become
nining causes of
>ution of Towns
(1897), ix. 76.
ted in a masterly
tgart, vol. i. 2nd
frapkk (Leipzig,
11 on his environ*
tare, or Physical
864).
Manual of Com'
6 3 8
GEOID— GEOLOGY
more numerous complex, variable and practically important.
From the underlying abstract mathematical considerations all
through the superimposed physical, biological, anthropo-
' J, political and commercial development of the
logical,
subject i
.-biect runs the determining control exercised by crust-
forms acting directly or indirectly on mobile distributions; and this
is the essential principle of geography. (H. R. M.)
GEOID (from Gr. yv, the earth), an imaginary surface em-
ployed by geodesists which has the property that every element
of it is perpendicular to the plumb-line where that line cuts it.
Compared with the " spheroid of reference " the surface of the
geoid is in general depressed over the oceans and raised over
the great land masses. (See Earth, Figure of the.)
GBOK-TEPE, a former fortress of the Turkomans, in Russian
Transcaspia, in the oasis of Akhal-tekke, on the Transcaspian
railway, 28 m. N.W. of Askabad. It consisted of a walled
enclosure ifm. in circuit, the wall being 18 ft. high and 20 to
30 ft. thick. In December 1880 the place was attacked by
6000 Russians under General Skobelev, and after a siege of
twenty-three days was carried by storm, although the defenders
numbered 25,000. A monument and a small museum com-
memorate the event.
GEOLOGY (from Gr. 717, the earth, and X^yot, science), the
science which investigates the physical history of the earth.
Its object is to trace the structural progress of our planet from
the earliest beginnings of its separate existence, through its
various stages of growth, down to the present condition of
things. It seeks to determine the manner in which the evolution
of the earth's great surface features has been effected. It un-
ravels the complicated processes by which each continent has
been built up. It follows, even into detail, the varied sculpture
of mountain and valley, crag and ravine. Nor does it confine
itself merely to changes in the inorganic world. Geology shows
that tnc present races of plants and animals are the descendants
of other and very different races which once peopled the earth.
It teaches that there has been a progressive development of the
inhabitants, as well as one of the globe on which they have
dwelt; that each successive period in the earth's history, since
the introduction of living things, has been marked by character-
istic types of the animal and vegetable kingdoms; and that,
however imperfectly the remains of these organisms have been
preserved or may be deciphered, materials exist for a history
of life upon the planet. The geographical distribution of existing
faunas and floras is often made clear and intelligible by geological
evidence; and in the same way light is thrown upon some of
the remoter phases in the history of man himself. A subject
so comprehensive as this must require a wide and varied basis
of evidence. It is one of the characteristics of geology to gather
evidence from sources which at first sight seem far removed
from its scope, and to seek aid from almost every other leading
branch of science. Thus, in dealing with the earliest conditions
of the planet, the geologist must fully avail himself of the
labours of the astronomer. Whatever is ascertainable by
telescope, spectroscope or chemical analysis, regarding the con-
stitution of other heavenly bodies, has a geological bearing.
The experiments of the physicist, undertaken to determine
conditions of matter and of energy, may sometimes be taken
as the starting-points of geological investigation. The work
of the chemical laboratory forms the foundation of a vast and
increasing mass of geological inquiry. To the botanist, the
zoologist, even to the unscientific, if observant, traveller by land
or sea, the geologist turns for information and assistance.
But while thus culling freely from the dominions of other
sciences, geology claims as its peculiar territory the rocky
framework of the globe. In the materials composing that
framework, their composition and arrangement, the processes
of their formation, the changes which they have undergone,
and the terrestrial revolutions to which they bear witness, lie
the main data of geological history. It is the task of the geologist
to group these elements in such a way that they may be made
to yield up their evidence as to the march of events in the
evolution of the planet. He finds that they have in large
taemsure smnged tbemsdvt* in chronological sequence,— the
oldest lying at the bottom and the newest at the top. Refia
of an ancient sea-floor are overlain by traces of a vanished
land-surface; these are in turn covered by the deposits of a
former lake, above which once more appear proofs of the return
of the sea. Among these rocky records He the lavas and ashes
of long-extinct volcanoes. The ripple left upon the shore, the
cracks formed by the sun's heat upon the muddy bottom of a
dried-up pool, the very imprint of the drops of a passing rain-
shower, have all been accurately preserved, and yield their
evidence as to geographical conditions often widely different
from those which exist where such markings are now found.
But it is mainly by the remains of plants and animals imbedded
in the rocks that the geologist is guided in unravelling the
chronological succession of geological changes. He has found
that a certain order of appearance characterizes these organic
remains, that each great group of rocks is marked by its own
special types of life, and that these types can be recognized,
and the rocks in which they occur can be correlated even in
distant countries, and where no other means of comparison
would be possible. At one moment he has to deal with the bones
of some large mammal scattered through a deposit of superficial
gravel.at another time with the minute foraminif era and ostraceds
of an upraised sea-bottom. Corals and cricoids crowded and
crushed into a massive limestone where they lived and died,
ferns and terrestrial plants matted together into a bed of coal
where they originally grew, the scattered shells of a submarine
sand-bank, the snails and lizards which lived and died within
a hollow-tree, the insects which have been imprisoned within
the exuding resin of old forests, the footprints of birds and
quadrupeds, the trails of worms left upon former shores— these,
and innumerable other pieces of evidence, enable the geologist
to realize in some measure what the faunas and floras of successive
periods have been, and what geographical changes the site of
every land has undergone.
It is evident that to deal successfully with these varied
materials, a considerable acquaintance with different branches
of science is needful. Especially necessary is a tolerably wide
knowledge of the processes now at work in changing the surface
of the earth, and of at least those forms of plant and animal
life whose remains are apt to be preserved in geological deposits,
or which in their structure and habitat enable us to realize what
their forerunners were. It has often been insisted that the
present is the key to the past; and in a wide sense this assertion
is eminently true. Only in proportion as we understand the
present, where everything is open on all sides to the fullest investi-
gation, can we expect to decipher the past, where so much is
obscure, imperfectly preserved or not preserved at ill A
study of the existing economy of nature ought thus to be the
foundation of the geologist's training.
While, however, the present condition of things is thus cm-
ployed, we must obviously be on our guard against the danger
of unconsciously assuming that the phase of nature's operations
which we now witness has been the same in all past time, that
geological changes have always or generally taken place in former
ages in the manner and on the scale which we behold to-day,
and that at the present time all the great geological processes,
which have produced changes, in the past eras of the earths
history, are still existent and active. As a working hypothesis
we may suppose that the nature of geological processes has
remained constant from the beginning; but we cannot postulate
that the action of these processes has never varied in energy.
The few centuries wherein man has been observing nature
obviously form much too brief an interval by which to m e aamc
the intensity of geological action in all past time. For aught
we can tell the present is an era of quietude and slow change,
compared with some of the eras which have preceded it. Nor
perhaps can we be quite sure that, when we have explored
every geological process now in progress, we have exhausted
all the causes of change which, even in comparatively recent
times, have been at work.
In dealing with the geological record, as the accessible soKd
part of the gjobe is called, we cannot too vividly realize that at
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT!
GEOLOGY
the best it forms but an imperfect chronicle. Geological history
cannot be compiled from a full and continuous series of docu-
ments. From the very nature of its origin the record is necessarily
fragmentary, and it has been further mutilated and obscured
by the revolutions of successive ages. And even where the
chronicle of events is continuous, it is of very unequal value in
different places. In one case, for example, it may present us
with an unbroken succession of deposits many thousands of
feet in thickness, from which, however, only a few meagre facts
as to geological history can be gleaned. In another instance
it brings before us, within the compass of a few yards, the
evidence of a most varied and complicated series of changes
in physical geography, as well as an abundant and interesting
suite of organic remains. These and other characteristics of
the geological record become more apparent and intelligible as
we proceed in the study of the science.
Classification. — For systematic treatment the subject may be
conveniently arranged in the following parts.' —
i. The Historical Development of Geological Science. — Here
a brief outline will be given of the gradual growth of geological
conceptions from the days of the Greeks and Romans down to
modern times, tracing the separate progress of the more important
branches of Inquiry and noting some of the stages which in each
case have led up to the present condition of the science.
7. The Cosmical Aspects of Geology.— This section embraces
the evidence supplied by astronomy and physics regarding the
form and motions of the earth, the composition of the planets
and sun, and the probable history of the solar system. The
subjects dealt with under this head are chiefly treated in separate
articles.
3. Geognosy.— -An inquiry into the materials of the earth's
Substance. This division, which deals with the parts of the
earth, its envelopes of air and water, its solid crust and the
probable condition of its interior, especially treats of the more
important minerals of the crust, and the chief rocks of which
that crust is built up. Geognosy thus lays a foundation of know-
ledge regarding the nature of the materials constituting the mass
of the globe, and prepares the way for an investigation of the
processes by which these materials are produced and altered.
4. Dynamical Geology studies the nature and working of the
various geological processes whereby the rocks of the earth's
crust are formed and metamorphosed, and by which changes
are effected upon the distribution of sea and land, and upon
the forms of terrestrial surfaces. Such an inquiry necessitates
a careful examination of Ihe existing geological economy of
nature, and forms a fitting introduction to an inquiry into the
geological changes of former periods.
5. Geotectonic or Structural Geology has for its object the
architecture of the earths crust. It embraces an inquiry into the
manner in which the various materials composing this crust
have been arranged. It shows that some have been formed
in beds or strata of sediment on the floor of the sea, that others
have been built up by the slow aggregation of organic forms,
that others have been poured out in a molten condition or in
showers of loose dust from subterranean sources. It further
reveals that, though originally laid down in almost horizontal
beds, the rotks have subsequently been crumpled, contorted
and dislocated, that they have been incessantly worn down,
and have often been depressed and buried beneath later
accumulations.
6. Polaconiological Geology.— This branch of the subject,
starting from the evidence supplied by the organic forms which
are found preserved in the crust of the earth, includes such
questions as the relations between extinct and living types,
the laws which appear to have governed the distribution of life
in time and in space, the relative importance of different genera
of animals in geological inquiry, the nature and use of the
evidence, from organic remains regarding former conditions
of physical geography. Some of these problems belong also to
zoology and botany, and are more fully discussed in the articles
Palaboktolooy and Palaiobotant.
7. StraUtraphkal Geology.— Tbh section might be called
639
1 succession
deavours to
the record,
ssion of the
ave peopled
prand march
he basis of
ling former
s origin and
icntal ridges
It explains
iepend, and
nd at what
s, even of a
r
sections is
es are here
1 the general
it they could
t and rudest
ind volcanic
us floods and
ve awakened
l features of
, clouds and
cleft oped in
I them, crags
b mast have
ider of those
sea-shells in
attention of
n their minds
r have come
blems found
in the more
nature were
tnseen super-
rell adapted,
such fables,
contains two
Sea and one
ssion of lofty
often swollen
into the sea.
cry; likewise
itorms. The
ect to pies,
ugh to give a
ountries that
laces widely-
II live in the
ily well fitted
wi every side,
would appeal
jrs of Greece
I should have
found in the
ity on these
ds: (1) Cec-
il changes ia
af the present
surface of the
640
GEOLOGY
(HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
as had happened at Lipari Theae crude conception* of the nature
of volcanic action, and the cauae of earthquakes, continued to prevail
for many centuries. They are repeated by Lucretius, who. however,
following Anaximenes, includes as one of the causes of earthquakes
the fall of mountainous masses of rock undermined by time, and the
consequent propagation of gigantic tremors far and wide through
the earth. Strata, having travelled through the volcanic districts
of Italy, was able to recognize that Vesuvius had once been an
active volcano, although no eruption had taken place from it within
human memory. He continued to hold the belief that volcanic
energy arose from the movement of subterranean wind. He believed
that the district around the Strait of Messina, which had formerly
suffered from destructive earthquakes, was seldom visited by them
after the volcanic vents of that region had been opened, so as to
provide an escape for the subterranean fire, wind, water and burning
masses. He cites in his Geography a number of examples of wide-
spread as well as local sinkings of land, and alludes also to the uprise
of the sea-bottom. He likewise regards some islands as having been
thrown up by volcanic agency, and others as torn from the mainland
by such convulsions as earthquakes.
The most detailed account of earthquake
come down to us from antiquity is that of Se
Naluraks. This philosopher had been mi
accounts given him by survivors and witnci
which convulsed the district of Naples in F
distinguished several distinct movements of
up and down motion (succussio) ; 2nd, the <
clinatio); and probably a third, that of ti
While admitting that some earthquakes may
of the walls of subterranean cavities, he ad
held by the most numerous and important
these commotions are caused mainly by th
imprisoned within the earth. As to the origii
he supposed that the subterranean wind in si
and whirling through the chasms and pass:
store of sulphur and other combustible substances, which by mere
friction are set on fire. The elder Pliny reiterates the commonly
accepted opinion as to the efficacy of wind underground. In
discussing the phenomena of earthquakes he remarks that towns
with many culverts and houses with cellars suffer less than others,
and that at Naples those houses are most shaken which stand on
hard ground. It thus appears that with regard to subterranean
geological operations, no advance was made during the time of the
Creeks and Romans as to the theoretical explanation of these pheno-
mena; but a considerable body of facts was collected, especially
as to the effects of earthquakes and the occurrence of volcanic
eruptions.
iking than
tent ion in
which so
ched with
imount of
d over the
he river."
plays con-
1 the
tains
rgest
isibly
sadth
Sea.
1 quantity
• of much
smaller draught than previously, the water shallowing to much that
the marshy ground would, in course of time, become dry land.
enormous duration, and because they are brought about so iav
perceptibly that we fail to detect them in progress In a celebrated
passage in his Metamorphoses, Ovid puts into the mouth of the
philosopher Pythagoras an account of what was probably r eg ard ed
as the Pythagorean view of the subject in the Augustan age. It
affirms the interchange of land and sea. the erosion of valleys by
descending rivers, the washing down of mountains into the sea. the
disappearance of the rivers and the submergence of land by earth,
quake movements, the separation of some islands from, and the union
of others with, the mainland, the uprise of hills by volcanic action,
the rise and extinction of burning mountains. There waa a time
before Etna began to glow, and the time is coming when the mountain
will cease to burn.
From this brief sketch it will be seen that while the ancients had
accumalatad a good deal of information regarding the occurrence of
geological changes, their interpretations of the phenomena were to
a considerable extent mere fanciful speculation. They bad acquired
only a most imperfect conception of the nature and operation of the
But they miv apt to escape our notice because they require successive
period* of time, which, compared with our brief existence, are of
seems to have been generally felt in crowding the accumulation of
the thousands of feet of fossilifcroub formations into that brief space
of time. (3) Some more intelligent men in Italy, recognizing that
these interpretations could not be upheld, fell back upon the idea
that the rocks in which fossil shells are imbedded might have been
heaped up by repeated and vigorous eruptions from volcanic centres.
Certain modem eruptions in the Aegean Sea and in the Bay of Naples
had drawn attention to the rapidity with which bills of considerable
siae could be piled around an active crater. It was argued that if
Monte Nuovo near Naples could have been accumulatca to a height
of nearly 500 ft. in two days, there seemed to be no reason against
*-»•—--- a-u, duttai\h* ferae c* ita Hood, and In the court* of the
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT) GEOLOGY
centuries that have elapsed since that event, the whole of the fossili-
(erous rocks might have been deposited. Unfortunately for this
hypothesis it ignored the fact that these rocks do not consist of
volcanic materials.
So long as the fundamental question remained in dispute aa to
the true character and history of the stratified portion of the earth's
crust containing organic remains, geology as a science could not
begin its existence. The diluvialists (those who relied on the hy-
• - • ™ nk.u.t.c.uj *%ei6th, 17th and a great
J on as the champions of
64I
pothesis of the flood) held the field during the 16th, 17th and a great
part of the 18th century. They were looked on as the champions of
orthodoxy; and, on that account, they doubtless wielded much
more influence than would have been gained by them from the
force of their arguments. Yet during those ages there were not
wanting occasional observers who did good service in combating the
prevalent misconceptions, and in preparing the way for the ultimate
triumph of truth. It was more especially in Italy, where many of
the more striking phenomena of geology are conspicuously displayed,
that the early pioneers of the science arose, and that for several
generations the most marked progress was made towards placing
the investigations of the past history of the earth upon a basis of
careful observation and scientific deduction. One of the first of
these leaders was Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), who,
besides his achievements in painting, sculpture, archi-
tecture and engineering, contributed some notable obser-
vations regarding the great problem of the origin of fossil
shells. He ridiculed the notion that these objects could
. have been formed by the influence of the stars, and main-
tained that they had once belonged to living organisms, and there-
fore that what is now land was formerly covered by the sea.
Girolamo Fracastorio (1483-1553) claimed that the shells could
never have been left by the Flood, which was a mere temporary
inundation, but that they proved the mountains, in which they
occur, to have been successively uplifted out of the sea. On the
other hand, even an accomplished anatomist like Cabriello Falloppio
O5J3-1563) found it easier to believe that the bones of elephants,
teeth of sharks, shells and other fossils were mere earthy inorganic
concretions, than that the waters of Noah's Flood could ever have
reached as far as Italy.
By much the most important member of this early band of Italian
writers was undoubtedly Nicolas Steno (1631-1687), who. though
/Vfaoia, born in Copenhagen, ultimately settled in Florence.
8t»—. Having made a European reputation as an anatomist,
his attention was drawn to seolorical nroblenu bv finding
Steno, must ba
irmly and truly
:e of
rider mon -
■ that form the
led were formed
gion, altogether
ikewise Lazsaro
the diluvialists,
lure lay in the
ference between
ned to volcanic
1 of the earth's
was completely
lay as a smooth
res were kindled
one was broken
med the earliest
succeeded each
kwr, over which
ns thickness of
s history of the
:o the Creation,
earlier; and be
lentary deposits
10 censure from
eded in attract*
' geology. The
ly in great part
cd an eloquent
While in Italy
ation regarding
n forming con-
sulate observa-
ich could not be
ile extravagance
t lacking from
ilanct in accord-
„ „ pplied the plact
of ascertained fact, and there appeared during the last twenty years
of the 18th century a group 01 English cosmogonists, who, by the
sensational character oltheir speculations, aroused general attention
both in Britain and on the continent. It may be doubted, however,
whether the effect of their writings was not to hinder the advance
of true science by diverting men from the observation of nature into
barren controversy over unrealities. It is not needful here to do
more than mention the names of Thomas Burnet, whose Sacred
Theory of the Earth appeared in 1681, and William Whiston, whose
New Theory of the Earth was published in 1696. I (ardly lew fanciful
than these writers, though his practical acquaintance with rocks
and fossils was infinitely greater, was lohn Woodward, whose
Essay towards a Natural History of the Earth dates from 1695. More
important as a contribution to science was the catalogue of the large
as to tneantiquty 01 tne carta.
surface at the top ot a mountain, it may escape With enormous
energy, hurling forth much earth mingled with sulphur or bitumen,
and thus producing a volcano. The mountain might burn for a
sulphur or
>her refrain
* the globe
use of it as
: speculated
ts or gases
if rock and
te enlarged
1646-1716),
642
GEOLOGY
(HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
eo the subject. In his great tract, the Protogaaa (published in 1749.
thirty-three years after his death), he traced the probable passage
«_«.^_ of our earth from ao original condition of incandescent
* vapour into that of a smooth molten globe, which, by
continuous cooling, acquired an external solid crust and rugose
surface. He thought that the more ancient rocks, such as granite
and gneiss, might be portions of the earliest outer crust ; and that as
the external solidification advanced, immense subterranean cavities
were left which were filled with air and water. By the collapse of
the roofs of these caverns, valleys might be originated at the surface,
while the solid intervening walls would remain in place and form
mountains. By the disruption of the crust, enormous bodies of
water were launched over the surface of the earth, which swept vast
quantities of sediment together, and thus gave rise to sedimentary
deposits. After many vicissitudes of this kind, the terrestrial forces
calmed down, and a more stable condition of things was established.
An important feature in the cosmogony ot Leibnitz is the
prominent place which he assigned to organic remains in the stratified
rocks of the crust. Ridiculing the foolish attempts to account for
the presence of these objects by calling them " sports of nature,"
he showed that they are to be regarded as historical monuments;
and he adduced a number of instances wherein successive platforms
of strata, containing organic remains, bear witness to a series of
advances and retreats of the sea. He recognized that some of the
fossils appeared to have nothing like them in the living world of
to-day, but some analogous forms might yet be found, he thought,
in still unexplored parts of the earth; and even if no living repre-
sentatives should ever be discovered, many types of animals might
have undergone transformation during the great changes which had
affected the surface of the earth. In spite of his clear realization
he studied at Edinburgh and at Paris, and took his doctor's degree
at Leiden. But having inherited a small landed property la
Berwickshire, he took to agriculture, and after putti
his land into excellent order, let his farm and beta
himself to Edinburgh, there to gratify the scientific
tastes which he bad developed early in life. He had been more
especially led to study minerals and rocks, and to meditate on the
problems which they suggest as to the constitution and history of
the earth. His journeys in Britain and on the continent of Europe
had furnished him with material for reflection; and he had gradu-
ally evolved a system or theory in which all the scattered facts
could be arranged so as to show their mutual dependence and their
place in the orderly mechanism of the world. He used to discuss
his views with one or two of his friends, but refrained from publishing
them to the world until, on the foundation of the Royal Society of
Edinburgh, he communicated an outline of his doctrine to that
learned body in 1785. Some years later he expanded this first essay
into a larger work in two volumes, which were published in 1795
with the title of Theory of the Earth, with Proofs and Illustrations.
Hutton's teaching has exercised a profound influence on modern
geology. This influence, however, has arisen less from bis owa
writings than from the account of his doctrines given by
his friend John Playfair in the classic work entitled
Illustrations of the Huttonian Theory, published in 180a.
Hutton wrote in so prolix and obscure a style as rather to repel than
attract readers. PLavfair, on the other hand, expressed himself in
such dear and graceful language as to command general attention,
and to gain wide acceptance for bis master's views. Unlike the
older cosmogonists, Hutton refrained from trying to explain the
origin of things, and from speculations as to what might possibly
have been the early history of our globe. He determined from the
ret the past by what can be seen to be the present
; and he refused to admit the operation of causes
i shown to be part of the actual terrestrial system.
rvers who had preceded him, he recognised in the
nposing the dry land evidence of former geographical
different from those which now prevail. He saw
aioritv of rocks consist of hardened sediments and
deposited in the sea. He could distinguish among
r Primary series, and a younger or Secondary series;
pute the existence of a Tertiary series claimed by
Jlas (1741-1811). He believed that these various
lasted 2056 years, and that about 35,000 years elapsed before the
surface had cooled sufficiently to be touched, and therefore to be
capable of supporting living things. Terrestrialanimal life. however,
was not introduced until 55,000 or 60,000 years after the beginning
of the world or about 15,000 years before our time. Looking into
the future, he foresaw that, by continued refrigeration, our globe
will eventually become colder than ice, and this fair face of nature,
with its manifold varieties of plant and animal life, will perish after
having existed for 133,000 years.
Button's conception of the operation of the geological agents did
not become broader or more accurate in the interval between the
appearance of his two treatises. He still continued to believe in
the lowering of the ocean by subsidence into vast subterranean
cavities, with a consequent emergence of land. He still looked on
volcanoes as due to the burning of " pyritous and combustible
stones," though he now called in the co-operation of electricity.
He calculated that the first volcanoes could not arise until some
50,000 years after the beginning of the world, by which time a
sufficient extent of dense vegetation had been buried in the earth
to supply them with fuel. He appears to have had but an imperfect
acquaintance with the literature of his own time. .At least there
can be little doubt that had he availed himself of the labours of his
16), of Giovanni
>ttlob Lehmann
own countryman, Jean Etienne Guettard (17 15-1786), of Giovanni
Arduino (1 7*4-1795) in Italy, and of Johann Gottlob Lehmann
(d. 1767) and George Christian FQchsel (17M-1773) in Germany, he
Arduino (17 14-1795) in Italy, and of Jol
(d. 1767) and George Christian FQchsel (171. _, , „,
would have been able to give to his " epochs " a more definite
•ion of events and a greater corre sp ondence with the facts of nature.
Among the writers of the 18th century, who formed philosophical
Conceptions of the system of processes by which the life of our earth
mm a habitable globe is earned on, a foremost place must be assigned
toJameoHuttao (1726-1797)- Educated far the isxdkalprofesaion,
that the detritus worn away from the land most be spread out over
the floor of the sea, so as to form there strata similar to those that
compose most of the dry land. As he could detect in the structure
of land convincing evidence that former sea floors had been elevated
to form the continents and islands of to-day, he could look forward
to future ages, when the same subterranean agency which had raised
up the present land would again be employed to uplift the bed of
the existing ocean, thus to renew the surface of our earth as a
habitable globe, and to start a fresh cycle of erosion and deposition.
Though Hutton was not unaware that organic remains abound in
many of the stratified rocks, he left them out of consideration in
the elaboration of his theory. lb was otherwise with r tmant
one of his French contemporaries, the illustrious J. B.
Lamarck (1744-1839), who, after having attained great eminence as
a botanist, turned to zoology when he was nearly fifty years of age,
and betace Von* tout \aeroa ^ct»x« &w£artto&\&<Jta&4»oaitakeM
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT! GEOLOGY 64$
rhich affected all
astinct an evolu-
ast the operation
:, Cuvier, on the
ucc ea ri oa of vaet
continuity of the
tchtrdm tur k$
rhat be conceived
he had been able
rtiary formation*
evidence can be
disastrous revolu*
mimal life of the
e can conceive at
by other agencies
in spite of theee
rd progress in the
fes ended in the
evidence that one
case there should
i stratified forma-
been found. A
renuous argument
and to show that
an some 5000 or
ith those who in
y of the Deluge.
1 him a far wider
up to him a sue-
■y of life upon the
for their solution.
xh of Scknct— It
that it was only
labours of many,
hat what we now
tired as a distinct
1 careful and es>
Km observation of
anging the earth's
„„~tat**s (1778).
the author stating
not a word in use,"
same statement is
:he same year De
ton, as if it were
64+
GEOLOGY
IHISTORICAL DEVELOPMEKT
kingdoms have retched their e*istunj organization. The publication
of Darwin's Origin of Species in 1850, in which evolution was made
the key to the history of the animal and vegetable kingdoms, pro-
duced an extraordinary revolution in geological opinion. The older
schools of thought rapidly died out, and evolution became the
recognised creed of geologists all over the world.
Development of Opinion regarding Igneous Rocks.— So long as the
idea prevailed that volcanoes are caused by the combustion of
inflammable substances underground, there could be no rational
conception of volcanic action and its products. Even so late as
the middle of the 1 8th century, as above remarked, such a good
observer as Lazzaro Mora drew so little distinction between volcanic
and other rocks that he could believe the foaailiferous formations
to have been mainly formed of materials ejected from eruptive vents.
After his time the notion continued to prevail that all the rocks which
form the dry land were laid down under water. Even streams of
lava, which were seen to flow from an active crater, were regarded
only as portions of sedimentary or other rocks, which had been
melted by the fervent heat of the burning inflammable materials
Chat had been kindled underground. In spite of the speculations
of Descartes and Leibnitz, it was not yet generally comprehended
that there exists beneath the terrestrial crust a molten magma,
which, from time to time, has been injected into that crust, and has
pierced through it, so as to escape at the surface with all the energy
of an active volcano. What we now recognize to be memorials of
these former injections and propulsions were all confounded with the
rocks of unquestionably aqueous origin. The last great teacher by
whom these antiquated doctrines were formulated into a system
« and promulgated to the world was Abraham Got t lob
frcracr. Werner (1749-1815), the most illustrious German mineral-
ogist and geognost of the second half of the 18th century. While
still under twenty-six years of age, he was appointed teacher of
J great enthusiasm lor his subject.
in nis exposition of it, he soon drew around him men from all parts
of the world, who repaired to study under the great oracle of what
he called geognosy (Gr. y$, the earth, yvQevi, knowledge) or earth*
knowledge. Reviving doctrines that had been current long before
his time, he taught that the globe was once completely surrounded
with an ocean, from which the rocks of the earth's crust were
deposited as chemical precipitates, in a certain definite order' over
the whole planet. Among these " universal formations " of aqueous
origin were
to have bee
upper parti
tradition, lo
of the plan
sufficient ar
their maint
them, and <
volcanic or i
by him to tl
part of the e
But man]
evidence ha
*•*!•' a
of time and
GuettardO
are true ku
once active 1
and greatly
during a lo
plicated vol<
to all who v
volcanic nat
observers, but they were vehemently opposed by the followers of
Werner, who, by the force of his genius, made his theoretical con-
ceptions predominate all over Europe. The controversy as to the
origin of basalt was waged with great vigour during the later decades
of the 1 8th century. Desmarest took no part in it. He had accu-
mulated such conclusive proof of the correctness of his deductions,
and had so fully expounded the clearness of the evidence in their
favour furnished by the region of Auvergne, that, when any one
came to consult him on the subject, he contented himself with giving
the advice to " go and see." While the debate was in progress
on the continent, the subject was approached from a new and
independent point of view by Hutton in Scotland. This illustrious
philosopher, as already stated, realized the importance of the internal
heat of the globe in consolidating the sedimentary rocks, and believed
J hat molten material from the earth's interior has been protruded
rom below into the overlying crust. Some of the material thus
injected could be recognized, he thought, in granite and in the
various dark massive rocks which, known in Scotland under the
name of " whinstone," were afterwards called " Trap," and are now
grouped under various names, such as basalt, dolerite and diorite.
So important s share did Hutton thus assign to the internal heat in
the geological evolution of the planet, that he and those who adopted
the same opinions were styled " Plutonists," or, especially where
they concerned themselves with the volcanic origin of basalt, " Vol-
canists." The geological world was thus divided into two hostile
camps, that of the Neptunists or Werneriaas, and that of the
Plutonists, Vulcanists or Huttonians.
After many years of futile controversy the first serious weakentag
of the position of the dominant Neptuaist school arose from tat
defection of some of the most prominent of Werner's pupils. la
particular Jean Francois D'Aubuisson de Voisins (i76p-itio), who
had written a treatise on the aqueous origin of the basalts of Saxony,
went afterwards to Auvergne, where he was speedily a con ver t to
the views expounded by Desmarest as to the voJcsnic nature of
basalt. Having thus to relinquish one of the fundamental articles
of the Freiberg faith, he was subsequently led to modify h wadhereace
to others until, as he himself confessed, his views came almost wholly
to agree with those of Hutton. Not less complete, and even more
important, was the conversion of the great Leopold von Bach (1774-
1853). He, too, was trained by Werner himself, and proved to be
the most illustrious pupil of the Saxon professor. Full of admiration
for the Neptunism In which he had been reared, he, in his earnest
separate work, maintained the aqueous origin of basalt, and con-
trasted the wide field opened up to the spirit of observation by his
master's teaching with the narrower outlook offered by " the volcanic
theory." But a little further acquaintance with the facts of nature
ledVonBuch also to abandon his earlier prepossessions. It was a
personal visit to the volcanic region of Auvergne that 1 .
nis eyes, and led him to recant what he had believed and written
about basalt. But the abandonment of so essential a portion of the
Wemerian creed prepared the way for further relinquishments.
When a few years later he went to Norway and found to his astonish-
ment that granite, which he had been taught to regard as the oldest
chemical precipitate from the universal ocean, could there be seen
to have broken through and raetamorphosed fossiliferous limestones,
and to have sent veins into them, his faith in Werner's order of the
succession of the rocks in the earth's crust received a further mome nt -
ous shock. While one after another of the Fr e i ber g do ctrines
crumbled away before him, he was now able to interrogate nature
on a wider field than the narrow limits of Saxony, and be was thus
gradually led to embrace the tenets of the opposite school. His
commanding position, as the most accomplished geologist on the
continent, gave great importance to his recantation of the Neptuaist
creed. His defection indeed was the severest blow that tins aeed
had yet sustained. It may be said to have rung the knell of
Wemerianiam, which thereafter rapidly declined in influence, what
Plutonism came steadily to the front.where it has ever since remained.
Although Desmarest had traced in Auvergne a long succession
of volcanic eruptions, of which the oldest went back to a remote
period of time, and although he had shown that this succession,
coupled with the records of contemporaneous denudation, ought
be used in defining epochs of geological history, it was not until
many years after his day that volcanic action came to be recognised
as a normal part of the mechanism of our globe, which had been hi
operation from the remotest past, and which had left numerous
records among the rocks of the terrestrial crust. During the progress
of the controversy between the two great opposing factions in the
later portion of the 18th and the first three decades of the iota
century, those who espoused the Vulcanist cause were intent en
proving that certain rocks, which are intercalated among the
stratified formations and which were claimed by the Neptunists as
obviously formed by water, are nevertheless of truly igneous origin.
These observers fixed their eyes on the evidence that the material of
such rocks, instead of having been deposited from aqueous solution,
had once been actually molten, and had in that condition been thrust
between the strata, had enveloped portions of them, and had in-
durated or otherwise altered them. They spoke of these masses
as " unerupted lavas "; and undoubtedly in innumerable insta tes
they were right. But their zeal to establish an intrusive origin led
them to overlook the proofs that some intercalated sheets of igneous
material had not been injected into the strata, but had been poured
out at the surface as truly volcanic discharges, and therefore belonged
to the ancient periods represented by the strata between which they
are interposed. It may readily be supposed that any proofs of the
contemporaneous intercalation of such sheets would be eagerly
seized upon by the Neptunists in favour of their aqueous theory.
The influence of the ancient belief that " burning mountains "
could only rise from the combustion of subterranean innammabk
materials extended even into the ranks of the Vulcanists, so far at
least as to lead to a general acquiescence in the assumption that
volcanoes appeared to belong to a late phase in the history 0/ the
planet. It was not until after considerable progress had been ssade
in determining the palaeontological distinctions and order of sac*
cession of the stratified formations of the earth's crust that it Decerns
possible to trace among these formations a succession of volcanic
episodes which were contemporaneous with them. In no part of
the world has an ampler record of such episodes been preserved than
in the British Isles. It was natural, therefore, that the subject
should there receive most attention. As far bock as i8to Ami Bout
(1704- 1 881) showed that the Old Red Sandstone of Scotland includes
a great series of volcanic rocks, and that other rocks of vokaak
ongvn are- itao&itet irttfe, iVat Cvtaaiiecoun formations. H. T.
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT)
GEOLOGY
6+5
de la Bcche (i 796-1855) afterwards traced proofsof rontemporancoui
eruptions among the ^Devonian rocks of the south-west 01 England,
Adam Sedgwick (1785-1873) showed, first in the Lake District,
and afterwards in North Wales, the presence of abundant volcanic
sheets among the oldest divisions of the Palaeozoic series; while
and afterwards in North Wales, the
sheets among the oldest divisions ol
Roderick Impey Murchison (1793-1871) made similar discoveries
among the Lower Silurian rocks. From the time of these pioneers
the volcanic history of the country has been worked out by many
observers until it is now known with a fulness as yet unattained
in any other region.
Growth of Opinion regarding Earthquakes. — Wc have seen how
crude were the conceptions of the ancients regarding the causes of
volcanic action, and that they connected volcanoes and earthquakes
as results of the commotion of wind imprisoned within subterranean
cavt-rns and passages. # One of the earliest treatii^es, in which the
phenomena of terrestrial movements were discussed in the spirit
of modern science, was the posthumous collection of papers by
Robert Hookc (1635-1703), entitled Lectures and Discourses of
Earthquakes and Subterranean Eruptions, where the probable agency
of earthquakes in upheaving and depressing land is fully considered,
but without any definite pronouncement as to the autnor's concep-
tion of its origin. Hookc still associated earthquakes with volcanic
action, and connected both with what he called " the general con-
gregation of sulphurous subterraneous vapours." He conceived
that some kind of " fermentation " takes place within the earth,
and that the material* »hich catch fire and give rise to eruptions
or earthquakes are analogous to those that constitute gunpowder.
The first essay wherein earthquake* are treated from the modern
point of view as the results of a shock that sends waves through the
crust of the earth was written by the Rev. John Michtll, and com-
municated to the Royal Society in the year 1760. Still under the
old misconception that volcanoes are due to the combustion of
inllammablc materials which he thought might be set on fire by the
spontaneous combustion of pyritous strata, he supposed that, by the
sudden access of brvje bodies of water to these subterranean fires,
vapour is produced in such quantity and with such force as to give
rise to the shock. From the centre of origin of this shock waves,
he thought, are propagated through the earth, which are largest
at the start and gradually diminish as they travel outwards. By
drawing lines at different places in the direction of the track of these -
waves, he believed that the place of common intersection of these
lines would be nearly the centre of the disturbance. In this way he
the first and more disturbed series, and are full of petrified remains
of plants and animals. Lastly he included the mountains which
have from time to time been formed by local accidents. Still more
nee of abundant volcanic advanced were the conceptions of G. C. Fiichscl, who in the year
1762 published in Latin A History of the Earth and the Sen, based on
showed that the great Lisbon earthquake of 1755 had its focus under
the Atlantic, somewhere between the latitudes of Lisbon and Oporto,
and he estimated that the depth at which it originated could not
be much less than I m., and probably did not exceed 3 m. Mklicll,
however, misconceived the character of the waves which he described,
seeing that he believed them to be due to the actual propagation of
the vapour itself underneath the surface of the earth. A century
had almost passed after the date of his essay before modern scientific
methods of observation and the use of recording instruments began
to be applied to the study of earthquake phenomena. In 1846 Robert
Mallet (1810-1881) published an important paper "On the Dynamics
of Earthquakes " in the Transattivns of the Royal Irish Academy.
From that time onward he continued to devote his energies to the
investigation, studying the effects of the Calabrian earthquake of
1857, experimenting on the transmission of waves of shock through
various materials, caused by exploding charges of gunpowder, and
collecting all the information to be obtained on the subject. His
writings, and especially his work in two volumes on The First
Principles of Observational Seismology, must be regarded as having
laid the foundations of this branch of modern geology (see Earth-
quake; Seismometer).
History of the Evolution of Stratigraphical Geology. — Men had long
been familiar with the evidence that the present dry land once lay
under the sea, before they began to realise that the rocks, of which
the land consists, contain a record of many alternations of land and
sea. and relics of a long succession of plants and animals from early
and simple types up to the manifold and complex forms of to-day.
In countries where coal-mining had been prosecuted for generations,
it bad been recognized that the rocks consist of strata superposed
on each other in a definite order, which was found to extend over
the whole of a district. As far back as 17 19 John Strachey drew
attention to this fact in a communication published in the Philoso-
phical Transactions. John Michell (1760), in the paper on earth-
quakes already cited, showed that he had acquired a clear under-
standing of the order of succession among stratified formations, and
perceived that to disturbances of the terrestrial crust must be ascribed
the fact that the lower or older and more inclined strata form the
mountains, while the younger and more horizontal strata arc spread
over the plains.
In Italy G. Arduino (171 J- 1795) classified the rocks in the north
of the peninsula as Pnmitive, Secondary, Tertiary and Volcanic
A similar threefold order was announced for the Han and Erzgebirge
by J. G. Lchmann in 1756. He recognized in that region an ancient
scries of rocks in inclined or vertical strata, which rise to the tops
of the hills and descend to an unknown depth into the interior.
These masses, be thought, were contemporaneous with the making
of the world. Next came the FlotxgeUrge, consisting of younger
sediments, disposed in flat or gently indued sheets which overlie
a History of the Mountains of Thurtngia; and in 1773, in German,
a Sketch of the most Ancient History of the Earth and Man. In these
works he described the stratigraphical relations and general char-
acters of the various geological formations in his little principality;
and taking them as indicative of a general order of succession, he
traced what he believed to have been a series of revolutions through
which the earth has passed. In interpreting this geological history,
he laid great stress on the evidence of the fouils contained in the
rocks, tic recognized that the various formations differ from each
other in their enclosed organic remains, and that from these dif-
ferences the existence of former sea-bottoms and land surfaces can
be determined.
The labours of these pioneers paved the way for the advent
of Werner. Though the system evolved by this teacher claimed to
discard theory and to be established on a basis of observed facts,
it rested on a succession of hypotheses, for which no better foundation
could be shown than the belief of their author in their validity.
Starting from the extremely limited stratigraphical range displayed
in the geological structure of Saxony, he took it as a type for tne rest
of the globe, persuading himself and impressing upon his followers
that the rocks of that small kingdom were to be taken as examples
of his " universal formations." The oldest portion of the series,
classed by him as " Primitive." consisted of rocks which he main-
tained had been deposited from chemical solution. Yet they
included granite, gneiss, basalt, porphyry and serpentine, which,
even in his own day, were by many observers correctly regarded
as of igneous origin. A later group of rocks, to which he gave the
name of " Transition," comprised, in his belief, partly chemicaL
partly mechanical sediments, and contained the earliest fossil
organic remains. A third group, for which he reserved Lehmann's
name " Fldtz," was made up chiefly of mechanical detritus, while
youngest of all came the " Alluvial " series of loams, clays, sands,
gravels and peat. It was by the gradual subsidence of the ocean
that, as he believed, the general mass of the dry land emerged, the
fi r&t -formed rocks being left standing up. sometimes on end, to form
the mountains, while those of later date, less steeply inclined,
occupied successively lower levels down to the flat alluvial accumula-
tions of the plains. Neither Werner, nor any of his followers,
ventured to account for what became of the water as the sca-levcJ
subsided, though, in despite of their antipathy to anything like
speculation, they could not help suggesting, as an answer to the
cogent arguments of their opponents, that " one of the celestial
bodies which sometimes approach near to the earth may have been
able to withdraw a portion of our atmosphere and of our ocean."
Nor was any attempt made to explain the extraordinary nature of
the supposed chemical precipitates of the universal ocean. The
progress of inquiry even in Werner's lifetime disproved some of
the fundamental portions of his system. Many of the chemical
precipitates were shown to be masses that had been erupted in a
molten state from below. His order of succession was found not
to hold good; and though he tried to readjust his sequence and to
introduce into it modifications to suit new facts, its inherent arti-
ficiality led to its speedy decline after his death. It must be con-
ceded, however, that the stress which he bid upon the fact that the
rocks of the earth's crust were deposited in a definite order had an
important influence in directing attention to this subject, and in
preparing the way for a more natural system, based not on mere
mineralogical characters, but having regard to the organic remains.
and
rom
ati-
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him,
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ires
ftilS
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icnt
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646
GEOLOGY
(HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT
preservation of their enclosed organic remains, that they could not
fail to attract the early notice of observers. J. E. Guettard, G. F.
Rouelle (1 703-1 770), N. Desmarest, A. L. Lavoisier (1743-1794^
and others made observations in this interesting district. But it
was reserved for Cuvier (1769-1832) and A. Brongniart (1770-1847)
to work out the detailed succession of the Tertiary formations, and
to show how each of these is characterized by its own peculiar
assemblage of organic remains. The later progress of investigation
has slightly corrected and greatly amplified the tabular arrangement
established by these authors in 1808. but the broad outlines of the
Tertiary stratigraphy of the Paris basin remain still as Cuvier and
Brongniart left them. The most important subsequent change
in the classification of the Tertiary formations was made by Sir
Charles Lyell, who, conceiving in 1828 the idea of a classification
of these rocks by reference to their relative proportions of living
and extinct species of shells, established, in collaboration with
G. P. Deshayes, the now universally accepted divisions Eocene,
Miocene and Pliocene.
Long before Cuvier and Brongniart published an account of their
researches, another observer had been at work among the Secondary
formations of the west of England, and had independently dis-
covered that the component members of these formations were each
distinguished by a peculiar group of organic remains; and that this
distinction could be used to discriminate them over all the region
through which he had traced them. The remarkable man who
I
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT)
noted for the numb
of K. N. Lang (//
those of Johann Ja
illustrated treatise
fossils as mere frea
proofs of Noah's flc
Lister (1638-17 12)
1677). The Celtic
treatise containing
Museum, Oxford,
Natural History oft
he described his 01
the University of '
The most volumin
appeared at a late
Knorr (1705-1761). „
which for beauty and accuracy have seldom been surpassed.
GEOLOGY
647
After
into existence. When rocks began to be more particularly scrutin-
ized, it was chiefly from the aide of their usefulness Tor building
aod other economic purposes. The occurrence of marine shells in
many of them had early attracted attention to them. But their
varieties of composition and origin did not become the subject of
serious study until after Linnaeus and T. G. Wallerius in the 18th
century had made a beginning. The first important contribution
to this department of the science was that of Werner, who in 1786
published a classification and description of rocks in which he
arranged them in two divisions, simple and compound, and further
distinguished them by various external characters and by their
relative age. The publication of this scheme may be said to mark
the beginning of scientific pe tro graphy. Werner's system, however,
had the scnous defect that the chronological order in which he
Souped the rocks, and the hypothesis by which he accounted for
cm as chemical precipitates from the original ocean, were both
alike contrary to nature. It was hardly possible indeed that much
records of the changes which the country had undergone from sea
to land and from land to sea. More especially noteworthy was a
monograph by him which appeared in 176$ bearing the title " On
the accidents that have befallen Fossil Shells compared with those
which are found to happen to shells now living in the Sea." In this
treatise he showed that the fossils have been encrusted with barnacles
and scrpulae, have been bored into by other organisms, and have
often been rounded or broken before final entombment; and he
inferred that these fossils must have lived and died on the sea-floor
under similar conditions to those which obtain on the sea-floor
to-day. His argument was the most triumphant that had ever
been brought against the doctrine of lusus naturae, and that of the
efficacy of Noah's flood — doctrines which still held their ground in
Gucltard's day. When Soulavie, Cuvicr and Brongniart in France,
and William Smith in England, showed that the rock formations
of the earth's crust could be arranged in chronological order, and
could be recognized far and wide by means of their enclosed organic
remains, the vast significance of these remains in geological research
was speedily realized, and palacontological geology at once entered
on a new and enlarged phase of development. But apart from
their value as chronological monuments, and as witnesses of former
conditions of geography, fossils presented in themselves a wide
field of investigation as types of life that had formerly existed, but
had now passed away. It was in France that this subject first took
definite shape as an important branch of science. The mollusca of
the Tertiary deposits of the Paris basin became, in the hands of
Lamarck, the basis on which invertebrate palaeontology wasfounded.
The same series of strata furnished to Cuvicr the remains of extinct
land animals, of which, by critical study of their fragmentary bones
and skeletons, he worked out restorations that maybe looked on
as the starting-point of vertebrate palaeontology. These brilliant
researches, rousing widespread interest in such studies, showed how
great a flood of light could be thrown on the past history of the earth
and its inhabitants. But the full significance of these extinct types
of life could not be understood bo long as the doctrine of the iinmuta- many parts
" r upnV ' " " -.....--..
bility of species, so strenuously upheld by Cuvicr, maintained its
sway among naturalists. Lamarck, as far back as the year 1800,
had begun to propound his theory of evolution and the transforma-
tion 01 species; but his views, strongly opposed by Cuvicr and the
great body of naturalists of the day, fell into neglect. Not until
after the publication in 1850 of the Origin of Species by Charles
Darwin were the barriers of old prejudice in this matter finally
broken down. The possibility of tracing the ancestry of living forms
back into the remotest ages was then perceived; the time-honoured
fiction that the stratified formations record a series of catastrophes
and re-creations was finally dissipated; and the earth's crust was
seen to con^in a noble, though imperfect, record of the grand
evolution of organic types of whirh our planet has been the theatre.
Develop ' ......
ite pupil
oour c . . ,
petrography. At a subsequent period Pliny, in his Natural History,
collected all that was known in his day regarding the occurrence
and uses of minerals and rocks. But neither of these works is
yfment of Pctrograpkical Geology. — Thcophrastus. the favour-
il of Aristotle, wrote a treatise On Stones, which has come
down to our own day, and may be regarded as the earliest work on
of great scientific importance, though containing much interesting
information. Minerals from their beauty and value attracted
notice before much attention was paid to rocks, and their study
gave nee to the edeoce of mineralogy bag before geology came
as to be easily examined under a microscope. Henry Sorby, of
Sheffield, having seen Nicol's preparations, perceived how admirably
adapted the process was for the study of the minute structure and
composition of rocks. In 1858 he published in the Quarterly Journal
of the Geological Society a paper " On the Microscopical Structure of
Crystals." This essay led to a complete rcvolut ionof pctroeraphical
methods and gave a vast impetus to the study of rocks. Petrology
entered upon a new and wider field of investigation. Not only were
the mineralogical constituents of the rocks detected, but minute
structures were revealed which shed new light on the origin and
history of these mineral masses, and opened up new paths in
theoretical geology. In the hands of H. Vogelsang, F. Zirkel,
H. Rosenbusch, and a host of other workers in allcivilizcd countries,
the literature of this department of the science has grown to a
remarkable extent. # Armed with the powerful aid of modern optical
instruments, geologists are now able with far more prospect of success
to resume the experiments begun a century before by de Saussure
and Hall. G. A. Daubree, C. Friedel, E. Sarasin, F. Fouque and
A. Michel Levy in France, C. Docker y Cistcrich and E. Hussak of
Grati, J. Morozewicz of Warsaw and others, have greatly advanced
our knowledge by their synthetical analyses, and there is every
reason to hope that further advances will be made in this field of
research.
Rise of Physiograpkical Geology. — Until stratigraphical geology
had advanced so far as to show oTwhat a vast succession of rocks the
crust of the earth is built up, by what a long and complicated scries
of revolutions these rocks have come to assume their present positions,
and how enormous has been the lapse of time which all these changes
represent, it was not possible to make a scientific study of the surface
features of our globe. From ancient times it had been known that
„ . of the land had once been under the sea ; but down even
to the beginning of the 19th century the vaguest conceptions con-
tinued to prevail as to the operations concerned in the submergence
and elevation of land, and as to the processes whereby the present
outlines of terrestrial topography were determined. VVc have seen,
for instance, that according to the teaching of Werner the oldest
rocks were first precipitated from solution in the universal ocean to
form the mountains, that the vertical position of their strata was
original, that as the waters subsided successive formations were
deposited and laid bare, and that finally the superfluous portion of the
ocean was whisked away into space by some unexplained co-opcrat ion
of another planetary body. Dcsmarcst, in his investigation of the
volcanic history of Auvcrgnc, was the first observer to perceive by
what a long process of sculpture the present configuration of the land
hasbcen brought about. He showed conclusively that the valleys have
been carved out by the streams that flow in them, and that while
they have sunk deeper and deeper into the framework of the land,
the spaces of ground between them have been left as intervening
ridges and hills. De Saussure learnt a similar lesson from his studies
of the Alps, and Hutton and Playfair made it a cardinal feature in
their theory of the earth. Nevertheless the idea encountered so
much opposition that it made but little way until after the middle
of the lgtto century. GestasjnX* \Mfos w ft, \» \*K>r?«* v* wwA-
awns ot nature, ifaercV| v%Xfcj% * w c^k«sA ma wres**** '««.
6 4 8
GEOLOGY
ICOSMICAL ASPECTS
upheaved. Thai the main features of the land, auch at the great
ssountain-chams, had been produced by gigantic plication of the
terrestrial crust was now generally admitted, and also that minor
fractures and folds had probably initiated many of the valleys.
But those who realized most vividly the momentous results achieved
by ages of subaerial denudation perceived that, as Hutton showed,
even without the aid ol underground agency, the mere flow of water
in streams across a mass of land must in course of time carve out
just such a system of valleys as may anywhere be seen. It was
J. B. Jukes who. in 1862, first revived the Huttonian doctrine,
and showed how completely it explained the drainage-lines in the
south of Ireland. Other writers followed in quick succession until,
in a few years, the doctrine came to be widely recognized as one of
the established principles of modern geology. M uch help was derived
from the admirable illustrations of Land-sculpture and river-erosion
supplied from the Western Territories and States of the American
Union.
Another branch of physiographical geology which could only come
into existence after most of trie other departments of the science
had made Urge progress, deals with the evolution of the framework
of each country and of the several continents and oceans of the globe.
It is now possible, with more or less confidence, to trace backward
the history of every terrestrial area, to sec how sea and land have
there succeeded each other, how rivers and lakes have come and
gone, how the crust of the earth has been ridged up at widely
separated intervals, each movement determining some line of
mountains or plains, how the boundaries of the oceans have shifted
again and again in the past, and thus how. after so prolonged a scries
ol revolutions, the present topography of each country, and of the
globe as a whole, has been produced. In the prosecution of this
subject maps have been constructed to show what is conjectured
to have been the distribution of sea and Land during the various
geological periods in different parts of the world, and thus to indicate
the successive stages through which the architecture of the land has
been gradually evolved. The most noteworthy contribution to this
department of the science is the Antiitz der Erde of Professor Suess
of Vienna. This important and suggestive work has been translated
into French and English.
Paet II.— Cosmical Aspects
Before geology had attained to the position of an inductive
science, it was customary to begin investigations into the
history of the earth by propounding or adopting some more
or less fanciful hypothesis in explanation of the origin of our
planet, or even of the universe. Such preliminary notions were
looked upon as essential 10 a right understanding of the manner
in which the materials of the globe had been put together. One
of the distinguishing features of Hutton's Theory of the Earth
consisted in his protest that it is no part of the province of
geology to discuss the origin of things. He taught that in the
materials from which geological evidence is to be compiled
there can be found " no traces of a beginning, no prospect of an
end." In England, mainly to the influence of the school which
he founded, and to the subsequent rise of the Geological Society
of London, which resolved to collect facts instead of fighting
over hypotheses, is due the disappearance of the crude and
unscientific cosmologies by which the writings of the earlier
geologists were distinguished
But there can now be little doubt that in the reaction against
those visionary and often grotesque speculations, geologists
were carried too far in an opposite direction. In allowing
themselves to believe that geology had nothing to do with
questions of cosmogony, they gradually grew up in the conviction
that such questions could never be other than mere speculation,
interesting or amusing as a theme for the employment of the
fancy, but hardly coming within the domain of sober and
inductive science. Nor would they soon have been awakened
out of this belief by anything in their own science. It is still
true that in the data with which they are accustomed to deal,
as comprising the sum of geological evidence, there can be
found no trace of a beginning, though the evidence furnished
by the terrestrial crust shows a general evolution of organic
forms from some starting-point which cannot be seen. The
oldest rocks which have been discovered on any part of the
globe have probably been derived from other rocks older than
themselves. Geology by itself has not yet revealed, and is little
likely ever to reveal, a trace of the first solid crust of our globe,
If, then, geological history is to be compiled from direct evidence
furnished by the rocks of the earth, it cannot begin at the
beginning of things, but must be content to date its first chapter
from the earliest period of which any record has been preserved
among the rocks.
Nevertheless, though geology in its usual restricted sense has
been, and must ever be, unable to reveal the earliest history of
our planet, it no longer ignores, as mere speculation, what is
attempted in this subject by its sister sciences. Astronomy,
physics and chemistry have in late years all contributed to cast
light on the earlier stages of the earth's existence, previous to
the beginning of what is commonly regarded as geological history.
But whatever extends our knowledge of the former conditions
of our globe may be legitimately claimed as part of the domain of
geology.. If this branch of inquiry, therefore, is to continue
worthy of its name as the science of the earth, it must take
cognizance of these recent contributions from other sciences.
It must no longer be content to begin its annals with the records
of the oldest rocks, but must endeavour to grope its way through
the ages which preceded the formation of any rocks. Thanks
to the results achieved with the telescope, the spectroscope and
the chemical laboratory, the story of these earliest ages of our
earth is every year becoming more definite and intelligible.
Up to the present time no definite light has been thrown by
physics on the origin and earliest condition of our globe. The
famous nebular theory (9.9.) of Kant and Laplace sketched the
supposed evolution of the solar system from a gaseous nebula,
slowly rotating round a more condensed central portion of its
mass, which eventually became the sun. As a consequence of
increased rapidity of rotation resulting from cooling and con-
traction, the nebula acquired a more and more lenticular form,
until at last it threw off from its equatorial protuberance a ring
of matter. Subsequently the same process was repeated, and
other similar rings successively separated from the parent mass.
Each ring went through a corresponding series of changes until
it ultimately became a planet, with or without one or more
attendant satellites. The intimate relationship of our earth
to the sun and the other planets was, in this way, shown. But
there are some serious physical difficulties in the way of the
acceptance of the nebular hypothesis. Another explanation
is given by the mcteoritic hypothesis, according to which, out
of the swarms of meteorites with which the regions of space are
crowded, the sun and planets have been formed by gradual
accretion.
According to these theoretical views we should expect to find
a general uniformity of composition in the constituent matter
of the solar system. For many years the only available evidence
on this point was derived from the meteorites (7.*.) which so
constantly fall from outer space upon the surface of the earth.
These bodies were found to consist of elements all of which bad
been recognized as entering into the constitution of the earth.
But the discoveries of spectroscopic research have made known
a far more widely serviceable method of investigation, which
can be applied even to the luminous stars and nebulae that lie
far beyond the bounds of the solar system. By this method
information has been obtained regarding the constitution of the
sun, and many of our terrestrial metals, such as iron, nickel and
magnesium, have been ascertained to exist in the form of in-
candescent vapour in the solar atmosphere. The present
condition of the sun probably represents one. of the phases
through which stars and planets pass in their progress towards
becoming cool and dark bodies in space. If our globe was at
first, like its parent sun, an incandescent mass of probably
gaseous matter, occupying much more space than it now fills,
we can conceive that it has ever since been cooKng and contract-
ing until it has reached its present form and dimensions, and that
it still retains a high internal temperature. Its obiatcly spheroidal
form is such as. would be assumed by a rotating mass of matter
in the transition from a vaporous and self-luminous or liquid
condition to one of cool and dark solidity. But it has been
claimed that even a solid spherical globe might develop, under
the influence of protracted rotation, such a shape as the earth
at present possesses.
The observed Increase of temperature downwards is our
COSMICAL ASFGCrSI
GEOLOGY
649
planet has hitherto been generally accepted as a relic and proof
of an original high temperature and mobility of substance.
Recently, however, the validity of this proof has been challenged
on the ground that the ascertained amount of radium in the
rocks of the outer crust is more than sufficient to account for
the observed downward increase of temperature. Too little,
however, is known of the history and properties of what is
called radium to afford a satisfactory ground on which to
discard what has been, and still remains, the prevalent belief
on this subject.
An important epoch in the geological history of the earth
was marked by the separation of. the moon from its mass (see
Tide). Whether the. severance arose from the rupture of a
surrounding ring or the gradual condensation of matter in such
a ring, or from the ejection of a single mass of matter from the
rapidly rotating planet, it has been shown that our satellite
was only a few thousand miles from the earth's surface, since
when it has retreated to its present distance of 240,000 m. Hence
the influence of the moon's attraction, and all the geological
effects to which it gives rise, attained their maximum far back
in the development of the globe, and have been slowly diminish-
ing throughout geological history.
The sun by virtue of its vast sue has not yet passed out of
the condition of glowing gas, and still continues to radiate heat
beyond the farthest planet of the solar system. The earth,
however, being so small a body in comparison, would cool down
much more quickly. Underneath its hot atmosphere a crust
would conceivably begin to form over its molten surface, though
the interior might still possess a high temperature and, owing
to the feeble conducting power of rocks, would remain intensely
hot for a protracted series of ages.
Full information regarding the form and size of the earth,
and its relations to the other planetary members of the solar
system, will be found in the articles Planet and Solar System.
For the purposes of geological inquiry the reader will bear in
mind that the equatorial diameter of our globe is estimated to
be about 7925 m., and the polar diameter about 7800 ra. ; the
difference between these two sums representing the amount of
flattening at the poles (about 26}m.). The planet has been
compared in shape to an orange, but it resembles an orange
which has been somewhat squeezed, for its equatorial circum-
ference is not a regular circle but an ellipse, of which the major
axis lies in long. 8° 15' W. — on a meridian which cuts the north-
west corner of America, passing through Portugal and Ireland,
and the north-east corner of Asia in the opposite hemisphere.
The rotation of the earth on its axis exerts an important
influence on the movements of the atmosphere, and thereby
affects the geological operations connected with these movements.
The influence of rotation is most marked in the great aerial
circulation between the poles and the equator. Currents of
air, which set out in a meridional direction from high latitudes
towards the equator, come from regions where the velocity due
to rotation is small to where it is greater, and they consequently
fall behind. Thus, in the northern hemisphere a north wind,
as it moves away from its northern source of origin, is gradually
deflected more and more towards the west and becomes a north-
east current; while in the opposite hemisphere a wind making
from high southern latitudes towards the equator becomes,
from the same cause, a south-east current. Where, on the
other hand, the air moves from the equatorial to the polar regions
its higher velocity of rotation carries it eastward, so that on the
south side of the equator it becomes a north-west current and
on the north side a south-west current. It is to this cause that
the easting and westing of the great atmospheric currents arc
to be attributed, as is familiarly exemplified in the trade winds.
The atmospheric circulation thus deflected influences the
circulation of the ocean. The winds which persistently blow
from the north-east on the north side of the equator, and from
the south-east on the south side, drive the superficial waters
onwards, and give rise to converging oceanic currents which
unite to form the great westerly equatorial current.
A more direct effect of terrestrial rotation has been, claimed
in the case of rivers which flow in a meridional direction. It has
been asserted that those, which in the northern hemisphere
flow from north to south, like the Volga, by continually passing
into regions where the velocity of rotation is increasingly greater,
are thrown more against their western than their eastern banks,
while those whose general course is in an opposite direction, like
the Irtisch and Yenesei, press more upon their eastern sides.
There cannot be any doubt that the tendency of the streams
must be in the directions indicated. But when the comparatively
slow current and constantly meandering course of most rivers
are taken into consideration, it may be doubted whether the
influence of rotation is of much practical account so far as
river-erosion is concerned.
One of the cosmical relations of our planet which has been
more especially prominent in geological speculations relates to-
tbc position of the earth's axis of rotation. Abundant evidence
has now been obtained to prove that at a comparatively late
geological period a rich flora, resembling that of warm climates
at the present day, existed in high latitudes even within less than
o° of the north pole, where, with an extremely low temperature
and darkness lasting for half of the year, no such vegetation could
possibly now exist. It has accordingly been maintained by
many geologists that the axis of rotation must have shifted,
and that when the remarkable Arctic assemblage of fossil plants
lived the region of their growth must have lain in latitudes much
nearer to the equator of the time.
The possibility of any serious displacement of the rotational
axis since a very early period in the earth's history has been
strenuously denied by astronomers, and their arguments have
been generally, but somewhat reluctantly, accepted by geologists,
who find themselves confronted with a problem which has
hitherto seemed insoluble. That the axis is not rigidly stable,
however, has been postulated by some physicists, and has now
been demonstrated by actual observation and measurement.
It is admitted that by the movement of large bodies of water
the air over the surface of the globe, and more particularly by
the accumulation of vast masses of snow and ice in different
regions, the position of the axis might be to some extent shifted;
more serious effects might follow from widespread upheavals
or depressions of the surface of the lithosphcrc. On the assump-
tion of the extreme rigidity of the earth's interior, however, the
general result of mathematical calculation is to negative the
supposition that in any of these ways within the period repre-
sented by what is known as the " geological record," tliat is,
since the time of the oldest known sedimentary formations, the
rotational axis has ever been so seriously displaced as to account
for such stupendous geological events as the spread of a luxuriant
vegetation far up into polar latitudes. If, however, the inside
of the globe possesses a great plasticity than has been allowed,
the shifting of the axis might not be impossible, even to such an
extent as would satisfy the geological requirement;. This
question is one on which the last word has not been said, and
regarding which judgment must remain in suspense.
In recent years fresh information bearing on the minor devaga-
tions of the pole has been obtained from a series of several
thousand careful observations made in Europe and North
America. It has thus been ascertained that the pole wanders
with a curiously irregular but somewhat spiral movement,
within an amplitude of between 40 and 50 ft., and completes
its erratic circuit in about 428 days. It was not supposed that
its movement had any geological interest, but Dr John Milne
has recently pointed out that the times of sharpest curvature
in the path of the pole coincide with the occurrence of large
earthquakes, and has suggested that, although it can hardly be
assumed that this coincidence shows any direct connexion -
between earthquake frequency and changes in the position of
the earth's axis, both effects may not improbably arise from
the same redistribution of surface material by ocean currents
and meteorological causes.
If for any reason the earth's centre of gravity were sensibly
displaced, momentous geological changes would necessarily
ensue. That the centre of grivvty, do** w*. c^OA-t V*2*. >Jc^
650
GEOLOGY
(COStllCAL ASPECTS
centra of figure of the globe, but lies to the south of it, has long
been known. This greater aggregation of dense material in the
southern hemisphere probably dates from the early ages of the
earth's consolidation, and it is difficult to believe that any
readjustment of the distribution of this material in the earth's
interior is now possible. But certain rearrangements of the
hydrosphere on the surface of the globe may, from time to time,
cause a shifting of the centre of gravity, which will affect the
level of the ocean. The accumulation of enormous masses of
ice around the pole will give rise to such a displacement, and
will thus increase the body of oceanic water in the glaciated
hemisphere. Various calculations have been made of the effect
of the transference of the ice-cap from one pole to the other, a
revolution which may possibly have occurred more than once
in the past history of the globe. James Croll estimated that if
the mass of ice in the southern hemisphere be assumed to be
1000 ft. thick down to Iat. 60*, its removal to the opposite
hemisphere would raise the level of the sea 80 ft. at the north pole,
while the Rev. Osmond Fisher made the rise as much as 400 ft.
The melting of the ice would still further raise the sea-level by
the addition of so large a volume of water to the ocean. To
what extent superficial changes of this kind have Operated in
geological history remains an unsolved problem, but their
probable occurrence in the past has to be recognized as one of
the factors that must be considered in tracing the revolutions of
the earth's surface.
The Age of the Earth.— Intimately connected with the relations
of our globe to the sun and the other members of the solar system
is the question of the planet's antiquity — a subject of great
geological importance, regarding which much discussion has
taken place since the middle of the iolh century. Though an
account of this discussion necessarily involves allusion to depart-
ments of geology which are more appropriately referred to in
later parts of this article, it may perhaps be most conveniently
included here.
Geologists were for many years in the habit of believing that
no limit could be assigned to the antiquity of the planet, and that
they were at liberty to make unlimited drafts on the ages of the
past. In 1862 and subsequent years, however, Lord Kelvin
(then SirNVilliam Thomson) pointed out that these demands were
opposed to known physical facts, and that the amount of time
required for geological history was not only limited, but must
have been comprised within a comparatively narrow compass.
His argument rested on three kinds of evidence: (1) the internal
heat and rate of cooling of the earth; (2) the tidal retardation
of the earth's rotation; and (3)the origin and age of the sun's
heat.
x. Applying Fourier's theory of thermal conductivity, Lord
Kelvin contended that in the known rate of increase of tempera-
ture downward and beneath the surface, and the rate of loss
of heat from the earth, we have a limit to the antiquity of the
planet. Ife showed, from the data available at the time, that
the superficial consolidation of the globe could not have occurred
less than 20 million years ago, or the underground heat would
have been greater than it is; nor more than 400 million years
ago, otherwise the underground temperature would have shown
no sensible increase downwards. He admitted that very wide
limits were necessary. In subsequently discussing the subject,
he inclined rather towards the lower than the higher antiquity,
but concluded that the limit, from a consideration of all the
evidence, must be placed within some such period of past time
as 100 millions of years. .
2. The argument from tidal retardation proceeds on the
admitted fact that, owing to the friction of the tide-wave, the
rotation of the earth is retarded, and is, therefore, much slower
now than it must have been at one time. Lord Kelvin affirmed
that had the globe become solid some 10,000 million years ago,
or indeed any high antiquity beyond 100 million years, the
centrifugal force due to the more rapid rotation must have given
the planet a very much greater polar flattening than it actually
possesses. He admitted, however, that, though 100 million
years ago that force must have been about 3 % greater than no*,
yet *• nothing we know regarding the figure of the earth, and
the disposition of land and water, would justify us in saying
that a body consolidated when there was more centrifugal
force by 3% than now, might not now be in all respects like
the earth, so far as we know it at present."
3. The third argument, based upon the age of the sun's heat,
is confessedly less to be relied on than the two previous one*.
It proceeds upon calculations as to the amount of heat which
would be available by the falling together of masses from space,
which gave rise by their impact to our sun. The vagueness of
the data on which this argument rests may be inferred from
the fact that in one passage P. G. Tait 'placed the limit of time
during which the sun has been illuminating the earth as, "on
the very highest computation, not more than about 15 or 20
millions of years "; while, in another sentence of the same
volume, he admitted that, " by calculations in which there is
no possibility of large error, this hypothesis (of the origin of the
sun's heat by the falling together of masses of matter] is
thoroughly competent to explain 100 millions of years' solar
radiation at the present rate, perhaps more." In more recently
reviewing his argument, Lord Kelvin expressed himself in
favour of more strictly limiting geological time than be had at
first been disposed to do. He insists that the time " was more
than 20 and less than 40 millions of years and probably muck
nearer 20 than 40." Geologists appear to have reluctantly
brought themselves to believe that perhaps, after all, too millions
of years might suffice for the evolution of geological history.
But when the time was cut down to 15 or 20 millions they
protested that such a restricted period was insufficient for that
evolution, and though they did not offer any effective criticism
of the arguments of the physicists they felt convinced that there
must be some flaw in the premises on whkh these arguments
were based.
By degrees, however, there have arisen among the physicists
themselves grave doubts as to the validity of. the physical
evidence on which the limitation of the earth's age has been
founded, and at the same time greater appreciation has been
shown of the signification and stength of the geological proofs
of the high antiquity of our planet. In an address from the
chair of the Mathematical Section of the British Association in
1886, Professor (afterwards Sir) George Darwin reviewed the
controversy, and pronounced the following deliberate judgment
in regard to it: " In considering these three arguments I have
adduced some reasons against the validity of the first [tidal
friction|. and have endeavoured to show that there are dements
of uncertainty surrounding the second [secular cooling of the
caith] ; nevertheless, they undoubtedly constitute a contribution
of the first importance to physical geology. Whilst, then, we
may protest against the precision with which Professor Tait
seeks to deduce results from them, we are fully justified in
following Sir William Thomson, who says that • the existing
state of things on the earth, life on the earth — all geological
history showing continuity of life— must be limited within some
such period of past time as too million years'/' Lord Kelvin
has never dealt with the geological and palaeontologies! objections
against the limitation of geological time to a few millions of years.
But Professor Darwin, in the address just cited, uttered the
memorable warning: " At present our knowledge of a definite
limit to geological time has so little precision that we should do
wrong summarily to reject theories which appear to demand
longer periods of time than those which now appear allowable."
In his presidential address to the British Association at Cape
Town in 1005 he returned to the subject, remarking that the
argument derived from the increase of underground temperature
"seems to be entirely destroyed" by the discovery of the
properties of radium. He thinks that " it does not seem ex-
travagant to suppose that 500 to 1000 million years may have
elapsed since the birth of the moon." He has " always believed
that the geologists were more nearly correct than the physicists,
notwithstanding the fact that appearances were so strongly
against them," and he concludes thus: " It appears, then, that
tie ynyskaY ax^unavX \* tax voNMQfiShk ot a greater degree of
CDSMICAL ASPECTSI GEOLOGY
certainty than that o*f the geologists, and the scale of geological
time remains in great measure unknown " (see also Tide, chap,
via.).
In an address to the mathematical section of the American
Association for the Advancement of Science in 1889, the vice-
president of the section, R. S. Woodward, thus expressed himself
with regard to the physical arguments brought forward by Lord
Kelvin and Professor Tait in limitation of geological time:
" Having been at some pains to look into this matter, I feel
bound to sttfte that, although the hypothesis appears to be the
best which can be formulated at present, the odds are against
its correctness. Its weak links are the unverified assumptions of
an initial uniform temperature and a constant dirTusivity. Very
likely these are approximations, but of what order we cannot
decide. Furthermore, if we accept the hypothesis, the odds
appear to be against the present attainment of trustworthy
numerical results, since the data for calculation, obtained
mostly from observations on continental areas, are far too
meagre to give satisfactory average values for the entire mass
of the earth."
Still more emphatic is the protest made from the physical
side by Professor John Perry. He has attacked each of the
three lines of argument of Lord Kelvin, and has impugned the
validity of the conclusions drawn from them. The argument
from tidal retardation he dismisses as fallacious, following in
this contention the previous criticism of the Rev. Maxwell Close
and Sir George Darwin. In dealing with the argument based on
the secular cooling of the earth, he holds it to be perfectly
allowable to assume a much higher conductivity for the interior
of the globe, and that such a reasonable assumption would enable
us greatly to increase our estimate of the earth's antiquity.
As for the third argument, from the age of the sun's heat, he
points out that the sun may have been repeatedly fed by a
supply of meteorites from outside, while the earth may have been
protected from radiation, and been able to retain much of its
heat by being enveloped in a dense atmosphere. Remarking
that " almost anything is possible as to the present internal
state of the earth," he concludes thus: " To sum up, we can
find no published record of any lower maximum age of life on
the earth, as calculated by physicists, than 400 millions of years.
From the three physical arguments Lord Kelvin's higher limits
are 1000, 400 and 500 million years. I have shown that we have
reasons for believing that the age, from all these, may be very
considerably underestimated. It is to be observed that if we
exclude everything but the arguments from mere physics, the
probable age of life on the earth is much less than any of the above
estimates; but if the palaeontologists have good reasons for
demanding much greater times, I see nothing from the physicists'
point of view which denies them four times the greatest of these
estimates;"
A fresh line of argument against Lord Kelvin's limitation of
the antiquity of our globe has recently been started by the
remarkable discoveries in radio-activity. From the ascertained
properties of radium it appears to be possible that our estimates
of solar heat, as derived from the theory of gravitation, may
have to be augmented ten or twenty times; that stores of
radium and similar bodies within the earth may have in-
definitely deferred the establishment of the present temperature
gradient from the surface inward; that consequently the earth
may have remained for long ages at a temperature not greatly
different from that which it now possesses, and hence that the
times during which our globe has supported animal and vegetable
life may be very much longer than that allowed in the estimates
previously made by physicists from other data (see Radio-
activity).
The arguments from the geological side against the physical
contention that would limit the age of our globe to some 10
or 20 millions of years are mainly based on the observed rates of
geological and biological changes at the present time upon land
and sea, and on the nature, physical history and organic contents
of the stratified crust of the -earth. Unfortunately, actual
numerical data mre not obtainable in many departments ol
651
geological activity, and even where they can be procured they
do not yet rest on a sufficiently wide collection of accurate and
co-ordinated observations. But in some branches of dynamical
geology, material exists for, at least, a preliminary computation
of the rate of change. This is more especially the case in respect
of the %idc domain of denudation. The observational records
of the action of the sea, of springs, rivers and glaciers are becom-
ing gradually fuller and more trustworthy. A method of making
use of these records for estimating the rate of denudation of
the land has been devised. Taking the Mississippi as a general
type of river action, it has been shown that the amount of
material conveyed by this stream into the sea in one year is
equivalent to the lowering of the general surface of the drainage
basin of the river by ifa of a foot. This would amount to one
foot in 6000 years and 1000 ft. in 6 million years. So that at
the present rate of waste in the Mississippi basin a whole con-
tinent might be worn away in a few millions of years.
It is evident that as deposition and denudation are simul-
taneous processes, the ascertainment of the rate at which solid
material is removed from the surface of the land supplies some
necessary information for estimating the rate at which new
sedimentary formations are being accumulated on the floor of
the sea, and for a compulation of the length of lime that would
be required at the present rate of change for the deposition of all
the stratified rocks that enter into the composition of the crust
of our globe. If the thickness of these rocks be assumed to be
100,000 ft., and if we could suppose them to have been laid down
over as wide an area as that of the drainage basins from the
waste of which they were derived, then at the present rate of
denudation their accumulation would require some 600 millions
of years. But, as Dr A. R. Wallace has justly pointed out, the
tract of sea-floor over which the material derived from the waste
of the terrestrial surface is laid down is at present much less than
that from which this material is worn away. We have no means,
however, of determining what may have been the ratio between
the two areas in past time. Certainly ancient marine sedimentary
rocks cover at the present day a much more extensive area than
that in which they are now being elaborated. If we take the
ratio postulated by Dr Wallace — 1 to 10— the 100,000 ft. of
sedimentary strata would require 31 millions of years for their
accumulation. It is quite possible, however, that this ratio may be
much too high. There are reasons for believing that the propor-
tion of coast-line to land area has been diminishing during geo-
logical time; in other words, that in early times the land was
more insular and is now more continental. So that the 3s
millions of years may be much less than the period that would be
required, even on the supposition of continuous uninterrupted
denudation and sedimentation, during the whole of the time
represented by the stratified formations.
But no one who has made himself familiar with the actual
composition of these formations and the detailed structure of the
terrestrial crust can fail to recognize how vague, imperfect and
misleading are the data on which such computations are founded.
It requires no prolonged acquaintance with the earth's crust to
impress upon the mind that one all-important element is omitted,
and indeed can hardly be allowed for from want of sufficiently
precise data, but the neglect of which must needs seriously
Impair the value of all numerical calculations made without it.
The assumption that the stratified formations can be treated at
if they consisted of a continuous unbroken sequence of sediments^
indicating a vast and uninterrupted process of waste and deposi-
tion, is one that is belied on every hand by the actual structure
of these formations. It can only give us a minimum of the time
required; for, instead of an unbroken series, the. sedimentary
formations are full of " unconformabilities-"— gap* in the
sequence of the chronological records— as if whole chaptm
and groups of chapters had been torn out of a historical work.
It can often be shown that these breaks of continuity must have
been of vast duration, and actually exceeded in chronological
importance thick groups of strata lying below and above them
(see Part VI.). Moreover, even among the uiiiatexcaQted%tx&A*^
1 *taee no lach^aHBftlqroi te^a afctas^
652
GEOLOGY
(COSftflCAL ASPECTS
follow each other in apparently uninterrupted sequence, and
might be thought to have been deposited continuously at the
same general rate, and without the intervention of any pause, it
can be demonstrated that sometimes an inch or two of sediment
much, on certain horizons, represent the deposit of an enormously
longer period than a hundred or a thousand times rife same
amount of sediment on other horizons. A prolonged study of
these questions leads to a profound conviction that in many
parts of the geological record the time represented by sedi-
mentary deposits may be vastly less than the time which is not
so represented.
It has often been objected that the present rate of geological
change ought not to be taken as a measure of the rate in past
time, because the total sum of terrestrial energy has been steadily
diminishing, and geological processes must consequently have
been more vigorous in former ages than they are now. Geo-
logists do not pretend to assert that there has been no variation
or diminution in the activities of the various processes which
they have to study. What they do insist on is that the
present rate of change is the only one which we can watch and
measure, and which will thus supply a statistical basis -for any
computations on the subject. But it has been dogmatically
affirmed that because terrestrial energy has been diminishing
therefore all kinds of geological work must have been more
vigorously and more rapidly carried on in former times than
now; that there were far more abundant and more stupendous
volcanoes, more frequent and more destructive earthquakes,
more gigantic upheavals and subsidences, more powerful oceanic
waves and tides, more violent atmospheric disturbances with
heavier rainfall and more active denudation.
It is easy to make these assertions, and they look plausible;
but, after all, they rest on nothing stronger than assumption.
They can be tested by an appeal to the crust of the earth, in
which the geological history of our planet has been so fully re-
corded. Had such portentous manifestations of geological
activity ever been the normal condition of things since the
beginning of that history, there ought to be a record of them in
the rocks. But no evidence for them has been found there,
though it has been diligently sought for in all quarters of the
globe. Wc may confidently assert that while geological changes
may quite possibly have taken place on a gigantic scale in the
earliest ages of the earth's existence, of which no geological record
remains, there is no proof that they have ever done so since the
time when the very oldest of the stratified formations were
deposited. There is no need to maintain that they have always
been conducted precisely on the same scale as now, or to deny
that they may have gradually become less vigorous as the general
sum of terrestrial energy has diminished. But we may unhesitat-
ingly affirm that no actual evidence of any such progressive
diminution of activity has been adduced from the geological
record in the crust of the earth: that, on the contrary, no appear-
ances have been detected there which necessarily demand the
assumption of those more powerful operations postulated by
physicists, or which arc not satisfactorily explicable by reference
to the existing scale of nature's processes.
That this conclusion is warranted even with regard to the innate
energy of the globe itself will be seen if we institute a comparison
between the more ancient and the more recent manifestations of
that energy. Take, for example, the proofs of gigantic plication,
fracture and displacement within the terrestrial crust. These,
as they have affected the most ancient rocks of Europe, have
been worked out in great detail in the north-west of Scotland.
But they are not essentially different from or on a greater scale
than those which have been proved to have affected the Alps,
and to have involved strata of so recent a date as the older
Tertiary formations. On the contrary, it may be doubted
whether any denuded core of an ancient mountain-chain reveals
traces of such stupendous disturbances of the crust as those
which have given rise to the younger mountain-chains of the
globe. It may, indeed, quite well have been the rule that instead
of diminishing Jo intensity of effect, the consequences of terrea-
ixa/ c o at net ion hmve inotMsed in magojtiufe, the augmenting
thickness of the crust offering greater resistance to the stresses,
and giving rise to vaster plications, faults, thrust-planes and
mctamorphism, as this growing resistance had to be overcome.
The assertion that volcanic action must have been more
violf nt and more persistent in ancient times than it is now has
assuredly no geological evidence in its support. It is quite true
that there are vastly more remains of former volcanoes scattered
over the surface of the globe than there are active craters now,
and that traces of copious eruptions of volcanic material can be
followed back into some of the oldest parts of the geological
record. But we have no proof that ever at any one time ia
geological history there have been more or larger or more vigorous
volcanoes than those of recent periods. It may be said that the
absence of such proof ought not to invalidate the assertion until
a far wider area of the earth's surface has been geologically
studied. But most assuredly, as far as geological investigation
has yet gone, there is an overwhelming body of evidence to show
that from the earliest epochs in geological history, as registered
in the stratified rocks, volcanic action has manifested itself very
much as it docs now, but on a less rather than on a greater scale.
Nowhere can this subject be more exhaustively studied than in
the British Isles, where a remarkably complete series of volcanic
eruptions has been chronicled ranging from the earliest Palaeozoic
down to older Tertiary time. The result of a prolonged study
of British volcanic geology has demonstrated that, even to
minute points of detail, there has been a singular uniformity ia
the phenomena from beginning to end. The oldest lavas and
ashes differ in no essential respect from the youngest. Nor have
they been erupted more copiously or more frequently. Many
successive volcanic periods have followed each other after pro-
longed intervals of repose, each displaying the same general
sequence of phenomena and similar evidence of gradual diminu-
tion and extinction. The youngest, instead of being the feeblest,
were the most extensive outbursts in the whole of this prolonged
series.
If now we turn for evidence of the alleged greater activity
of all the epigene or superficial forces, and especially for proofs
of more rapid denudation and deposition on the earth's surface,
we search for it in vain among the stratified formations of the
tcrrcst rial crust. Had the oldest of these rocks been accumulated
in a time of great atmospheric perturbation, of torrential rains,
colossal tides and violent storms, we might surely expect to find
among the sediments some proof of such disturbed meteorological
and geographical conditions. We should look, on the one band,
for tumultuous accumulations of coarse unworn detritus, rapidly
swept by rains, floods and waves from land to sea, and on the
other hand, for an absence of any evidence of the tranquil and
continuous deposit of such fine laminated silt as could only
settle in quiet water. But an appeal to the geological record
is made in vain for any such proofs. The oldest sediments, like
the youngest, reveal the operation only of such agents and such
rates of activity as are still to be witnessed in the accumulation
of the same kind of deposits. If, for instance, we search the
most ancient thick sedimentary formation in Britain — the
Torridon Sandstone of north-west Scotland, which is older than
the oldest fossiliferous deposits— we meet with nothing which
might not be found in any Palaeozoic, Mesozoic or Cainozek
group of similar sediments. We see an accumulation, at least
6000 or 10,000 ft. thkk, of consolidated sand, gravel and mud,
such as may be gathering now on the floor of any large moustain-
girdled lake. The conglomerates of this ancient aeries are not
pell-mell heaps of angular detritus, violently swept away from
the land and huddled promiscuously on the sea-floor. They are,
in general, built up of pebbles that have been worn smooth,
rounded and polished by prolonged attrition in running water,
and they follow each other on successive platforms with inter-
vening layers of finer sediment. The sandstones are composed
of well water-worn sand, some of which has been laid down so
tranquilly that its component grains have been separated out in
layers according to their specific gravity, in such manner that
they now present dark laminae in which particles of magnetic
.fam,. wens. txA tttes tawv TGtaasi&fc Wtv Ymea. ttttad am
GEOGNOSY]
GEOLOGY
653
together, just as iron-sand may be seen gathered into thin sheets
on sandy beaches at the present day. Again, the same series
of primeval sediments includes intercalations of fin© silt, which
has been deposited as regularly and intermittently there as it
has been among the most recent formations. These bands of
shale have been diligently searched for fossils, as yet without
success; but they may eventually disclose organic remains older
than any hitherto found in Europe.
We now come to the consideration of the palaeontological
evidence as to the value of geological time. Here the conclusions
derived from a study of the structure of the sedimentary forma-
tions are vastly strengthened and extended. In the first place,
the organisation of the most ancient plants and animals furnishes 1
no indication that they had to contend with any greater violence
of storm, flood, wave or ocean-current than is familiar to their
modern descendants. The oldest trees, shrubs, ferns and
dub-mosses display no special structures that suggest a difference
in the general conditions of their environment. The most
ancient crinoids, sponges, crustaceans, arachnids and molluscs
were as delicately constructed as those of to-day, and their
remains are often found in such perfect preservation as to show
that neither during their lifetime nor after their death were they
subject to any greater violence of the elements than their living
representatives now experience. Of much more cogency,
however, is the evidence supplied by the grand upward succession
of organic forms, from the most ancient stratified rocks up to
the present day. No biologist now doubts for a moment that
this marvellous succession is the result of a gradual process of
evolution from lower to higher types of organization. There
may be differences of opinion as to t he causes which have governed
this process and the order of the steps through which it has
advanced, but no one who is conversant with the facts will now
venture to deny that it has taken place, and that, on any possible
explanation of its progress, it must have demanded an enormous
lapse of time. In the Cambrian or oldest fossiliferous formations
there is already a large and varied fauna, in which the leading
groups of invertebrate life are represented. On no tenable
hypothesis can these be regarded as the first organisms that
came into being on our planet. They must have had a long
ancestry, and as Darwin first maintained, the time required for
their evolution may have been " as long as, or probably far
longer than, the whole interval from the Silurian [Cambrian]
age to the present day." The records of these earliest eras of
organic development have unfortunately not survived the
geological revolutions of the past; at least, they have not yet
been recovered. But it cannot be doubted that they once
existed and registered their testimony to the prodigious lapse of
time prior to the deposition of the most ancient fossiliferous
formations which have escaped destruction.
The impressive character of the evidence furnished by the
sequence of organic forms throughout the great scries of fossili-
ferous strata can hardly be fully realised without a detailed and
careful study of the subject. Professor £. B. Poult on, in an
address to the zoological section of the British Association at
the Liverpool Meeting in 1806, showed how overwhelming are
the demands which this evidence makes for long periods of time,
and how impossible it is of comprehension unless these demands
be conceded. The history of life upon the earth, though it will
probably always be surrounded with great and even insuperable
difficulties, becomes broadly comprehensible in its general
progress when sufficient time is granted for the evolution
which it records; but it remains unintelligible on any other
conditions.
Taken then as a whole, the body of evidence, geological and
palaeontological, in favour of the high antiquity of our globe
is so great, so manifold, and based on such an ever-increasing
breadth of observation and reflection, that it may be confidently
appealed to in answer to the physical arguments which would
seek to limit that antiquity to ten or twenty millions of years.
In the present state of science it is out of our power to state
positively what must be the lowest limit of the age A the earth.
But we cannot assume it to be much leas, and it may possibly
have been much mot, than the xoo millions of years which Lord
Kelvin was at one time willing to concede. 1
Past III.— Geognosy. Tire Investigation of the Nature
and Composition of the Materials of which the
Earth Consists
This division of the science is devoted to a description of the
parts of the earth— of the atmosphere and ocean that surround
the planet, and more especially of the solid materials that underlie
these envelopes and extend downwards to an unknown distance
into the interior. These various constituents of the globe are
here considered as forms of matter capable of being analysed,
and arranged according to their composition and the place they
take in the general composition of the globe.
Viewed in the simplest way the earth may be regarded as
made up of three distinct parts, each of which ever since an
early period of planetary history has been the theatre of im-
portant geological operations. (1) An envelope of air, termed
the atmosphere, which surrounds the whole globe; (2) A lower
and less extensive envelope of water, known as the hydrosphere
(Gr. Wup, water) which, constituting the oceans and seas,
covers nearly three-fourths of the underlying solid surface of the
planet; (3) A globe, called the I itko sphere (Gr. Xtoof, stone),
the external part of which, consisting of solid stone, forms the
crust, while underneath, and forming the vast mass of the
interior, lies the nucleus, regarding the true constitution of
which we are still ignorant.
1. The Atmosphere. — The general characters of the atmosphere
are described in separate articles (see especially Atmosphere;
Meteorology). Only its relations to geology have here to be
considered. As this gaseous envelope encircles the whole
globe it is the most universally present and active of all the
agents of geological change. Its efficacy in this respect arises
partly from its composition, and the chemical reactions which
it effects upon the surface of the land, partly from its great
variations in temperature and moisture, and partly from its
movements.
Many speculations have been made regarding the chemical
composition of the atmosphere during former geological periods.
There can indeed be little doubt that it must originally have differed
greatly from it* present condition. If the whole mass of the planet
originally existed in a gaseous state, there would be practically no
atmosphere. The present outer envelope of air may be considered
to be the surviving relic of this condition, after all the other con-
stituents have been incorporated into the hydrosphere and litho-
sphere. The oxygen, which now forms fully a half of the outer
cruit of the earth, was doubtless originally, whether free or in
found all over the world, in geological formations of many different
ages, represent to much carbonic acid once present in the air. The
chlorides and other salts in the sea may likewise partly represent
materials carried down out of the atmosphere in the primitive
condensation of the aqueous vapour, though they have been con-
tinually increased ever since by contributions from the drainage of
the land. It has often been suggested that, during the Carboniferous
period, the atmosphere must have been warmer and more charged
with aqueous vapour and carbon dioxide than at the present day,
to admit of so luxuriant a flora as that from which the coal-seams
were formed. There seems, however, to be at present no method
of arriving at any certainty on this subject. Lastly, the amount of
carbonic acid absorbed in the weathering of rocks at the surface, and
the consequent production of carbonates, represents an enormous
abstraction of this gas.
As at present constituted, the atmosphere b regarded as a
1 The subject of the age of the earth has also been discussed by
Professor J. Jofy and Professor W. J. Sollas. The former geologist,
approaching the question from a novel point of view, has estimated
the total quantity of sodium in the water of the ocean and the
3uantity of that element received annually by the ocean from the
enudation of the land. Dividing the one sum by the other, he
arrives at the result that the probable age of the earth is between
00 and 100 millions of years {items. Roy. Dublin Soc. scr. ii. vol. vii.,
1890, p. 23; Geo/. Mag., 1000, p. 220). Professor Sollas believes
that this limit exceeds what is required for the evolution of geological
history, that the lower limit assigned by Lord Kelvin falls short of
what the facts demand, and that geological time will probably be
found to have been comprised within some indeterminate period
between these limits. (Address to Section C, Brit. Assoc Report,
1900; A* of the Earth, London. 1905.)
654
GEOLOGY
(GEOGNOSY
mechanical mixture of nearly four volumes of niti
oxygen, together with an average of 3-5 parts of c
every 10,000 parts of air, and minute quantities
gases and solid particles. Of the vapours containe
most important is that of water which, although
varies greatly in amount according to variations
By condensation the water vapour appears in viail
mist, cloud, rain, hail, snow and ice, and in these fo
carries down some of the other vapours, gases an
present in the air. The circulation of water from tl
the land, from the land to the sea. and again froi
land, forms the great geological process whereb
condition of the planet is maintained and the sur
it sculptured (Part IV.).
2. The Hydrosphere.— -The water envelope
three-fourths of the surface of the earth, and fo
oceans and seas which, though for convenien
distinguished by separate names, are all linked
great body. The physical characters of this va
discussed in separate articles (see Ocean and C
Viewed from the geological standpoint, the
sea that specially deserve attention are first the
its waters, and secondly its movements.
Sea-water is distinguished from that of ordinary
by its greater specific gravity and its saline tas
density is about 1026, but it varies even within
being least where large quantities of fresh water
rain or melting snow and ice, and greatest where evi
active. That sea-water is heavier than fresh arises
proportion of salts which it contains in solution,
stitute about three and a half parts in every hu
They consist mainly of chlorides of sodium and
sulphates of magnesium, calcium and potassiun
quantities of magnesium bromide and calcium <
smaller proportions dl other substances have been c
example having been found in the proportion of 1 pa
That many of the salts have existed in the sea i
its first condensation out of the primeval atmosp
be probable. It is manifest, however, that, wha
been the original composition of the oceans', they
lection of geological time been constantly receiving
in solution from the land. Every spring, brook? ai
various salts from the rocks over which it moves,
stances, thus dissolved, eventually find ( their wa
Consequently sea-water ought to contain more <
proportions of every substance which the terresl
remove from the land, in short, of probably every
in the outer shell of the globe, for there seems to b
of this earth which may not, under certain circum
in solution in water. Moreover, unless there be sor
process to remove these mineral ingredients, the oc
to be growing, insensibly perhaps, but still assuredl;
supply of saline matter from the land is incessant.
To the geologist the presence of mineral solution
a fact of much importance, for it explains the origin <
part of the stratified rocks of the earth's crust,
the water has given rise to deposits of rock-salt, g>
materials. The lime contained in solution, whethi
carbonate, has been extracted by many tribes of
which have thus built up out of their remains vast
limestone, of which many mountain-chains largely 1
Another important geological feature of the sc
in the fact that its basins form the great receptacle!
worn away from the land. Besides the limestones,
of the terrestrial crust are, in large measure, compose
rucks which were originally laid down on the sea-
over, by its various movements, the sea occupies a
among the epigene or superficial agents which pr
changes on the surface of the globe.
3. The LWtosphere.—Bcnt&lh the gaseous and 1
lies the solid part of the planet, which is conveo
as consisting of two parts,— (a) the crust, and
or nucleus.
It wis for a long time a prevalent belief that th
globe is a molten mass round which an outer she
TkeermL forced through cooling. Hence the
was applied to this external solid e
was variously computed to be xo, 20, or more mi
The portion of this crust accessible to human
seen to afford abundant evidence of vast plicatio
tions of its substance, which were regarded as
on the supposition of a thin solid collapsible sh<
denser liquid interior. When, however, phys
were adduced to show the great rigidity of the earth as a whole,
the idea of a thin crust enclosing a molten nucleus was reluctantly
abandoned by geologists, who found the problem of the earth's
interior to be incapable of solution by any evidence which their,
science could produce. They continued, however, to use the
term " crust " as a convenient word to denote the cool outer
layer of the earth's mass, the structure and history of which
form the main subjects of geological investigation. More
recently, however, various lines of research have concurred in
suggesting that, whatever may be the condition of the interior,
its substance must differ greatly from that of the outer shell,
and that there may be more reason than appeared for the
retention of the name of crust. Observations on earthquake
motion by Dr John Milne and others, show that the rate and
character of the waves transmitted through the interior of the
earth differ in a marked degree from those propagated along the
crust. This difference indicates that rocky material, such as
we know at the surface, may extend inwards for some 30 m.,
below which the earth's interior rapidly becomes fairly homo*
geneous and possesses a high rigidity. From measurements
of the force of gravity in India by Colonel S. G. Burrard, it has
been inferred that the variations in density of the outer parts of
the earth do not descend farther than 30 or 40 m., which might
be assumed to be the limit of the thickness of the crust. Recent
researches in regard to the radio-active substances present
in rocks suggest that the crust is not more than 50 no. thick,
and that the interior differs from it in possessing little or no
radio-active material.
Though we cannot hope ever to have direct acquaintance with
more than the mere outside skin of our planet, we may be led
to infer the irregular distribution of materials within
the crust from the present distribution of land and
water, and the observed differences in the amount of
deflection of the plumb-line near the sea and near mountain-
chains. The fact that the southern hemisphere is almost wholly
covered with water appears explicable only on the assumption
of an excess of density in the mass of that portion of the planet.
The existence of such a vast sheet of water as that of the Pacific
Ocean is to be accounted for, as Archdeacon J. H. Pratt pointed
out, by the presence of " some excess of matter in the solid
parts of the earth between the Pacific Ocean and the earth's
centre, which retains the water in its place, otherwise the ocean
would flow away to the other parts of the earth." A deflection
of the plumb-line towards the sea, which has in a number of
cases been observed, indicates that " the density of the crust
beneath the mountains must be less than that below the plains;
and still less than that below the ocean-bed." Apart therefore
from the depression of the earth's surface in which the oceans
lie, we must regard the internal density, whether of crust or
nucleus, to.be somewhat irregularly arranged, there being an
excess of heavy materials in the water hemisphere, and beneath
the ocean-beds, as compared with the continental masses.
In our ignorance regarding the chemical constitution, of the
nucleus of our planet, an argument has sometimes been based
upon the known fact that the specific gravity of the globe
as a whole is about double that of the crust. This has been
held by some writers to prove that the interior must consist of
much heavier material and is therefore probably metallic. But
the effect of pressure ought to make the density of the nucleus
much higher, even if the interior consisted of matter no heavier
than the crust. That the total density of the planet does not
greatly exceed its observed amount seems only explicable on
the supposition that some antagonistic force counteracts the
effects of prewure. The only force we can suppose capable of so
acting is heat. But comparatively little is yet known regarding
the compression of gases, liquids and solids under such vast
pressures as must exist within the nucleus.
That the interior of the earth possesses a high temperature
is inferred from the evidence of various sources. (1) Volcanoes,
which are openings that constantly, or intermittently, give out
hot vapours and molten lava from reservoirs beneath the crust.
Besides active volcanoes, it is known that former eruptive vents
GEOGNOSY!
GEOLOGY
655
have been abundantly and widely distributed over the globe
from the earliest geological periods down to our own day.
(2) Hot springs are found in many parts of the globe, with
temperatures varying up to the boiling point of water. (3)
From mines, tunnels and deep borings into the earth it has
been ascertained that in all quarters of the globe below the
superficial zone of invariable temperature, there is a progressive
increase of heat towards the interior. The rate of this increase
.varies, being influenced, among other causes, by the varying
conductivity of the rocks. But the average appears to be
about i 9 Fahr. for every 50 or 60 ft. of descent, as far down, as
observations have extended. Though the increase may not
advance in the same proportion at great depths, the inference
has been confidently drawn that the temperature of the nudeus
must be exceedingly high.
The probable condition of the earth's interior has been a fruit-
ful source of speculation ever since geology came into existence;
t>ut no general agreement has been arrived at on the subject.
Three chief hypotheses have been propounded: (1) that the
nucleus is a molten mass enclosed within a solid shell; (2) that,
save in local vesicular spaces which may be filled with molten
or gaseous material, the globe is solid and rigid to the centre;
(3) that the great body of the nucleus consists of incandescent
vapours and gases, especially vaporous iron, which under the
gigantic pressure within the earth are so compressed as to confer
practical rigidity on the globe as a whole, and that outside this
main part of the nucleus the gases pass into a shell of molten
magma, which, in turn, shades off outwards into the compara-
tively thin, cool solidified crust. Recent seismological observa-
tions have led to the inference that the outer crust, some 30 to
45 m. thick, must rapidly merge into a fairly homogeneous
nucleus which,whatever belts constitution, transmits undulatory
movements through its substance with uniform velocity and is
believed to possess a high rigidity.
The origin of the earth's high internal temperature has been
variously accounted for. Most usually it has been assumed to
be the residue of the original " tracts of fluent heat " out of
which the planet shaped itself into a globe. According to another
supposition the effects of the gradual gravitational compression
of the earth's mass have been the main source of the high
temperature. Recent researches' in radio-activity, to which
reference has already been made, have indicated another possible
source of the internal heat in the presence of radium in the
rocks of the crust. This substance has been detected in all
igneous rocks, especially among the granites, in quantity
sufficient, according to the Hon. R. J. Strutt, to account for the
observed temperature-gradient in the crust, and to indicate
that this crust cann6t be more than 4s m. thick, otherwise the
outflow of heat would be greater than the amount actually
ascertained. Inside this external crust containing radio-active
substances, it is supposed, as already stated, that the nucleus
consists of some totally different matter containing little or no
radium.
Constitution of A* Earth's Crust.— As the crust of the earth contains
known as minerals and rocks. From many chemical analyses,
which have been made of these materials, the general chemical
constitution of, at least, the accessible portion of the crust has been
satisfactorily ascertained. This information becomes of much
importance in speculations regarding the early history of the globe.
Of the elements known to the chemist the great majority form out a
small proportion of the composition of the crust, which is mainly
built up of about twenty of them. Of these by far the most important
arc the non-metallic elements oxygen and silicon. The former
forms about 47% and the latter rather more than 28% of the
original crust, so that these two elements make up about three-
fourths of the whole. Next after them come the metals aluminium
|8-i6%), iron (4-64), calcium (3-50). magnesium (262). sodium
J2'63)t and potassium (2-35). The other twelve dements included
in the twenty vary in amount from a proportion of 0*41 % in the
case of titanium, to not more than 001% of chlorine, fluoric
chromium, nickel and lithium. The other fifty or more elements
exist in such minute proportions in the crust that, probably, not
one of them amounts to as much as 0-01 %, though they include
Ch« useful metab, except iron. Taking the crust, and the 1 '
envelopes of the ocean and the air, we thus perceive that these
outer parts of our planet consist of more than three-fourths of non-
metals and less than one-fourth of metals.
The combinations of the elements which are of most importance
in the constitution of the terrestrial crust consist of oxides. From
the mean of a large nueaber of analyses of the rocks of the lower or
primitive portion of the crust, it has been ascertained that silica
(SiOt) forms almost 60% and alumina (AhOa) upwards of 15% of
the whole. The other combinations in order of importance are
(CaO) 40°%. wagoeala (MgO) 436, soda (Na#) — '
(FcO) 3*5». potash <K,0) a-*o, ferric* ""
1-52, titanium oxide (TiOi) 060,
' nations of elements 1
ibinations of the elements enter into further
h other so as to produce the wide assortment
Minsaalogy). Thus, silica and alumina are
i aluminous silicates, which enter so largely
of the crust of the earth. The silicates of
soda constitute other important families of
material composed of one, but more usually
of mere than one mineral, is known as a rock. Under this term
geologists are accustomed to claw not only solid stone, such as
granite and limestone, but also less coherent materials such as day,
peat and even loose sand. The accessible portion of the earth's
crust consists of various lands of rocks, which differ from each other
in structure, composition and origin, and are therefore susceptible
of diverse classifications according to the point of view from which
they are considered. The details of this subject will be found in
the article Pktaology.
Classification of Rocks.— Various systems of classification of rocks
have been proposed, but none of them is wholly satisfactory. The
most useful arrangement for roost purposes of the geologist is one
lscd on the broad differences between them in regard to their mode
of origin. From this point of view they may be ranged in three
divisions:
1. In the first place, a large number of rocks may be de sc ribed
as original or uaderived, for it is not possible to trace them back to
any earlier source. They belong to the primitive constitution of the
planet, and, as they have all come up from below through the crust,
they serve to show the nature of the material which lies immediately
below the outer parts of that crust. They Include the numerous
varieties of lava, which have been poured out in a molten state from
volcanic vents, also a great series of other rocks which, though they
may never have been erupted to the surface, have been forced
upward in a melted condition into the other rocks of the crust and
have solidified there. From their mode of origin this great claw of
rocks has been called " igneous " or " eruptive?' As they generally
show no definite internal structure save such aa may result from
joints, they have been termed " massive " or " unstratified," to
distinguish them from those of the second division which are
strongly marked out by the presence of a stratified structure. The
igneous rocks present a considerable range of composition. For
the most part they consist mainly of aluminous silicates, some of
them being highly add compounds with 75% or more of silica,
But they also include highly basic varieties wherein the proportion
of silica sinks to 40%, and where magnesia greatly predominate*
over alumina. The textures of igneous rocks likewise comprise a
wide series of varieties. On the one hand, some are completely
vitreous, like obsidian, which is a natural glass. From this extreme
every gradation may be traced through gradual increase of the
products of devitrification, until the maw may become completely
crystalline. Again, some crystalline igneous rocks are so fine in
grain as not to show their component crystals save under the micro-
» to present the
■ more in length*
rials of the rock
glass, and that
loped by cooling,
» definite crystal*
rocks have been
minerals, or the
tion. But it baa
ire of such rocks
I with extreme
r vast pressures
sour— conditions
n some countries.
whole surface of
- stratified rocks.
probably extend
This important
lagma within the
earth to the overlying crust and to the outer surface. On the one
hand, it includes the oldest and most deep-seated extravasations
of that magma, which have been brought to light by ruptures and
upheavals of the crust and prolonged denudation. On the other,
it presents to our study the varied outpourings of molten and
f ragmentary materials in Che discharges of i
656
volcanoes. Between thete two extremes of position and are, we
find that the crust hat been, as it were, riddled with injections of
the magma from below. These features will be further noticed in
Part V. of this article.
a. The " sedimentary " or " stratified rocks " form by much the
larger part of the dry land of the globe, and they are prolonged to
an unknown distance from 'the shores under the bed of the sea.
They include those masses of mineral matter which, unlike the
igneous rocks, can be traced back to a definite origin on the surface
of the earth. Three distinct types may be recognized among them :
(a) By far the largest proportion of them consists of different kinds'
of sediment derived from the disintegration of pre-existing rocks.
In this " fragmental " group are placed all the varieties of shingle,
gravel, sand, clay and mud, whether these materials remain in a
loose incoherent condition, or have been compacted into solid stone.
(6) Another group consists of materials that have been deposited by
chemical precipitation from solution in water. The white sinter
laid down by calcareous springs is a familiar example on a small
scale. Beds of rock-salt, gypsum and dolomite nave, in some
regions, been accumulated to a thickness of many thousand feet,
by successive precipitations of the salt contained in the water of
inland seas, (c) An abundant and highly important series of sedi-
mentary formations has been formed from the remains of plants and
animals. Such accumulations may arise other from the transport
and deposit of these remains, as in the case of sheets of drift-wood,
and banks of drifted sea-shells, or from the growth and decay of
the organisms on the spot, as happens in peat bogs and in coral*
reefs.
As the sedimentary rocks have for the most part been laid down
under water, and more especially on the sea-floor, they are often
spoken of as " aqueous," in contradistinction to the igneous rocks.
Some of them, however, are accumulated by the drifting action of
wind upon loose materials, and are known as " acoiian " formations.
Familiar instances of such wind-formed deposits are the sand-dunes
along many parts of the sea coast. Much more extensive in area are
the sands of the great deserts in the arid regions of the globe.
It is from the sedimentary rocks that the main portion of geological
history is derived. They have been deposited one over another
in successive strata from a remote period in the development of
the globe down to the present time. From thb arrangement they
have been termed " stratified," in contrast to the unstratified or
igneous series. They have preserved memorials of the geographical
revolutions which the surface of the earth has undergone; and
above all. in the abundant fossils which they have enclosed, they
furnish a momentous record of the various tribes of plants and
animals which have successively flourished on- land and sea. Their
investigation is thus the most important task which devolves upon
the geologist.
3. In the third place comes a series of rocks which are not now
in their original condition, but have undergone such alteration as
to have acquired new characters that more or less conceal their
first structures. Some of them can be readily recognized as altered
igneous masses; others are as manifestly of sedimentary origin;
while of many it is difficult to decide what may have been their
pristine character. To this series the term " metamorphic " has
been applied. Its members are specially distinguished by a prevailing
fissile, or schistose, structure which they did not at first possess, and
which differs from anything found in unaltered igneous or sedimentary
rocks. This fissility is combined with a more or less pronounced
crystalline structure. These changes are believed to be the result
of movements within the crust of the earth, whereby the most solid
rocks were crushed and sheared, while, at the same time, under the
influence of a high temperature and the presence of water, they
underwent internal chemical reactions, which led to a rearrangement
and recomposition of their mineral constituents and the production
of a crystalline structure (see Mrtamorphisu).
Among the less altered metamorphic rocks of sedimentary origin,
the successive laminae of deposit of the original sediment can bo
easily observed: but they are also traversed by a 'new set of divi-
sional planes, along which they split across the original bedding.
Together with this superinduced cleavage there have been developed
in them minute hairs, scales and rudimentary crystals. Further
stages of alteration are marked by the increase of micaceous scales,
garnets and other minerals, especially along the planes of cleavage,
until the whole rock becomes crystalline, and displays its chief
component minerals in successive discontinuous folia which merge
into each other, and are often crumpled and puckered. Massive
igneous rocks can be observed to have undergone intense crushing
and cleavage, and to have ultimately assumed a crystalline foliated
character. Rocks which present this aspect are known as schists
($.».). They range from the finest silky slates, or phyllites, up to the
coarsest gneisses, which in hand-specimens can hardly be distin-
guished from granites. There is indeed every reason to believe
that such gneisses were probably originally true granites, and that
their foliation and recrystallizatkm have been the result of meta-
morphism.
The schists are more especially to be found In the heart of
mountain-chains, and in regions where the lowest and oldest parts
of the earth's crust have, in the course of geological revolutions,
been exposed to the light of day. They have been claimed by some
GEOLOGY PYNAMICAL GEOLOGY
writers to be part of the original or primitive surface of oar globe
that first consolidated on the molten nucleus. But the progress of
investigation all over the world has shown that this supposition
cannot be sustained. The oldest known rocks present none of the
characters of molten material that has cooled and hardened in the
air, like the various forms of recent lava. On the contrary, they
possess many of the features characteristic of bodies of eruptive
material that have been injected into the crust at some depth under-
ground, and are now visible at the surface, owing to the removal
by denudation of the rocks under which they consolidated. In their
less foliated portions they can be recognized as true eruptive rocks.
In many places gneisses that possess a thoroughly typical folia t ion
have been found to pierce andent sedimentary formations as iotrusive
bosses and veins.
Pa&t IV.— Dynamical Geology
This section of the science includes the investigation of those
processes of change which are at present in progress upon the
earth, whereby modifications are made on the structure and
composition of the crust, on the relations between the interior
and the surface, as shown by volcanoes, earthquakes and other
terrestrial disturbances, on the distribution of oceans and
continents, on the outlines of the land, on the form and depth
of the sea-bottom, on climate, and on the races of pUnts and
animals by which the earth is tenanted. It brings before us,
in short, the whole range of activities which it is the province of
geology to study, and leads us to precise notions regarding their
relations to each other and the results which they achieve. A
knowledge of this branch of the subject is thus the essential
groundwork of a true and fruitful acquaintance with the principles
of geology, seeing that it necessitates a study of the present order
of nature, and thus provides a key for the interpretation of the
past.
The whole range of operations included within the scope of
inquiry in this branch of the science may be regarded as a vast
cycle of change, into which we may break at any point, and
round which we may travel, only to find ourselves brought
back to our starting-point. It is a matter of comparatively
small moment at what part of the cycle we begin our inquiries.
We shall always find that the changes we sec in action have
resulted from some that preceded, and give place to others
which follow them.
At an carry time in the earth's history, anterior to any of the
periods of which a record remains in the visible rocks, the chief
sources of geological action probably lay within the earth itself.
If, as is generally supposed, the planet still retained a great
store of its initial heat, it was doubtless the theatre of great
chemical changes, giving rise, perhaps, to manifestations of
volcanic energy somewhat like those which have so marvellously
roughened the surface of the moon. As the outer layers of the
globe cooled, and the disturbances due to internal heat and
chemical action became less marked, the conditions would
arise in which the materials for geological history were accumu-
lated. The influence of the sun, which must always have
operated, would then stand out more dearly, giving rise to that
wide circle of superficial changes wherein variations of tempera-
ture and the circulation of air and water over the surface of the
earth come into play.
In the pursuit of his inquiries into the post history and into
the present rigime of the earth, the geologist must needs keep
his mind ever open to the reception of evidence for kinds
and especially for degrees of action which he bad not before
imagined. Human experience has been too short to allow him
to assume that all the causes and modes of geological change
have been definitively ascertained. On the earth itself there may
remain for future discovery evidence of former operations by
heat, magnetism, chemical change or otherwise, which may
explain many of the phenomena with which geology has to deal.
Of the influences, so many and profound, which the sun exerts
upon our planet, we can as yet only perceive a little. Nor can
we tell what other cosmical influences may have lent their aid in
the evolution of geological changes'.
Much useful Information regarding many geological processes
has been obtained from experimental research in laboratories
and elsewhere, and much more may be confidently looked ior
HYPOGENE ACTION) GEOLOGY
from future extensions of this method of inquiry. The early
experiments of Sir James Hall, already noticed, formed the
starting-point for numerous subsequent researches, which have
elucidated many points in the origin and history of rocks. It
is true that we cannot hope to imitate those operations of nature
which demand enormous pressures and excessively high tempera-
tures combined with a long lapse of time. But experience
has shown that in regard to a large number of processes, it is
possible to imitate nature's working with sufficient accuracy
to enable us to understand them, and so to modify and control
the results as to obtain a satisfactory solution of some geological
problems.
In the present state of our knowledge, all the geological
energy upon and within the earth must ultimately be traced
back to the primeval energy of the parent nebula or sun. There
is, however, a certain propriety and convenience in distinguishing
between that part of it which is due to the survival of some of
the original energy of the planet and that part which arises
from the present supply of energy received day by day from the
sun. In the former case we have to deal with the interior of
the earth, and its reaction upon the surface; in the latter, we
deal with the surface of the earth and to some extent with its
reaction on the interior. This distinction allows of a broad
treatment of the subject under two divisions:
I. Hypogene or Plutonic Action: The changes within the
earth caused by internal heat, mechanical movement and
chemical rearrangements.
II. Epigene or Surface Action: The changes produced on the
superficial parts of the earth, chiefly by the circulation of air
and water set in motion by the sun's heal.
DIVISION L-HYPOCENE OR PLUTONIC ACTION
In the discussion of this branch of the subject we must carry
in our minds the conception of a globe still possessing a high
internal temperature, radiating heat into space and consequently
contracting in bulk. Portions of molten rocks from inside are
from time to time poured out at the surface. Sudden shocks
are generated by which destructive earthquakes are propagaled
through the diameter of the globe as well as to and rlong
its surface. Wide geographical areas are pushed up or sink
down. In the midst of these movements remarkable changes
are produced upon the rocks of the crust; they are plicated,
fractured, crushed, rendered crystalline and even fused.
(A) Volcanoes and Volcanic Action.
This subject is discussed in the article Volcano, and only a
general view of its main features will be given here. Under the term
volcanic action (vulcanism, vukanicity) are embraced all the
phenomena connected with the expulsion of heated materials from
the interior of the earth to the surface. A volcano may be defined
as a conical hill or mountain, built up wholly or mainly of materials
which have been ejected from below, and which have accumulated
around the central vent of eruption. As a rule its truncated summit
presents a cup-shaped cavity, termed the crater, at the bottom of
which is the opening of the main funnel or pipe whereby com-
munication is maintained with the heated interior. From time to
time, however, in large volcanoes rents are formed on the sides of
the cone, whence steam and other hot vapours and also streams of
molten lava are poured forth. On such rents smaller or parasitic
cones arc often formed, which imitate the operations of the parent
cone and, after repeated eruptions, may rise to hills hundreds of
feet in height. In course of centuries the result of the constant
outpouring of volcanic materials may be to build up a large mountain
like Etna, which towers above the sea to a height of 10,840 feet, and
has some 300 minor cones along its flanks.
But all volcanic eruptions do not proceed from central orifices.
In Iceland it has been observed that, from fissures opened in the
ground and extending for long distances, molten material has issued
tn such abundance as to be spread over the surrounding country
for many miles, while along the lines of fissure small cones or hillocks
of fragmentary material have accumulated round more active parts
of the rent. There is reason to believe that in the geological past
this fissure-type of eruption has repeatedly been developed, as well
as the more common form of central cones like Vesuvius or Etna.
In the operations of existing volcanoes only the superficial mani-
festations of volcanic action are observable. But when the rocks of
the earth's crust are studied, they are found to enclose the relics
of former volcanic eruptions. The roots of ancient volcanoes have
thus been laid, bare by geological revolutions; and some of the
XI. 11*
657
subterranean phases of volcanic action are thereby revealed which
are wholly concealed in an active volcano. Hence to obtain as
complete a conception as possible of the nature and history of
volcanic action, regard must be had, not merely to modern volcanoes,
but to the records of ancient eruptions which have been preserved
within the crust.
The substances disef
Cases and vapours: wl
interior, take the chiel
in greatest abundance
of steam so conspicuou
and sulphuretted hydi
many other substances
peraturc, take a solid I
rock or lava: which n
obsidians and rhyolites
and heavy varieties sue!
and sometimes no mor
of lavas varies between
nearly pure glass, like
asin some rhyolites. (3) Fragmentary materials, which are sometimes
discharged in enormous quantity and dispersed over a wide extent
of country, the finer particles being transported by upper air-currents
for hundreds of miles. These materials arise either from the explosion
of lava by the sudden expansion of the dissolved vapours ana gates,
as the molten rock rises to the surface, or from the breaking up and
expulsion of portions of the wads of the vent, or of the lava, which
happens to have solidified within these walls. They vary from the
finest impalpable dust and ashes, through increasing stages of
coarseness up to huge " bombs " torn from the upper surface of the
molten rock in the vent, and large blocks of already solidified lava,
or of non- volcanic rock detached from the sides of the pipe up which
the eruptions take place.
Nothing is yet known as to the determining cause of any particular
volcanic eruption. Some vents, like that of Strombofi, in the
Mediterranean, are continually active, and have been so ever since
man has observed them. Others again have been only intermittently
in eruption, with intervals of centuries between their periods of
activity. We arc equally in the dark as to what has determined
the sites on which volcanic action has manifested itself. There is
reason, indeed, to believe that extensive fractures of the terrestrial
crust have often provided passages up which the vapours, imprisoned
in the internal magma, have been able to make tlteir way;, accom-
panied by other products. Where chains of volcanoes rise along
definite lines, like those of Sumatra, Java, and many other tracts
both in the Old and the New World, there appears to be little doubt
that their linear distribution should be attributed to this cause.
But where a volcano has appeared by itself, in a region previ
exempt from volcanic action, the existence of a contributing t
cannot be so confidently presumed. The study of certain ancient
volcanoes, the roots of which have been exposed by long denudation,
has shown an absence of any visible trace of their having availed
themselves of fractures in the crust. The inference has been drawn
that volcanic energy is capable of itself drilling an orifice through the
crust, probably at some weaker part, and ejecting its products at
the surface. The source of this energy is to be sought in the enormous
expansive force of the vapours and gases dissolved in the magma.
They are kept in solution by the enormous pressure within the earth :
but as the lava approaches the surface and this pressure is relieved
these dissolved vapours and gases rush out with explosive violence,
blowing the upper part of the lava column into dust, and allowing
portions of the liquid mass below to rise and escape, either from the
crater or from some fissure which the vigour of explosion has opened
on the side of the cone. So gigantic is the energy of these pent-up
vapours, that, after a long period of volcanic quiescence, they
sometimes burst forth with such violence as to blow off the whole of
the upper part or even one side of a large cone. The history of
Vesuvius, and the great eruptions of Krakatoa in 1883 and of
Bandaizan in 1888 furnish memorable examples of great volcanic
convulsions. It has been observed that such stupendous discharges
of aeriform and fragmentary matter may be attended with the
emismon of little or no lava. On the other hand, some of the largest
outflows of lava have been accompanied by comparatively little
fragmentary material. Thus, the great lava-floods of Iceland in
1783 spread for 40 m. away from their parent fissure, which was
marked only by a line of little cones of slag.
The temperature of lava as it issues from underground has been
measured more or less satisfactorily, and affords an indication of
that existing within the earth. At Vesuvius it has been ascertained
to be more than 2000* Fahr. At first the molten rock glows with a
white light, which rapidly reddens, and disappears under the rugged
brown and black crust that forms on the surface. Underneath this
badly conducting crust, the lava cools so slowly that columns of
steam have been noticed rising from its surface more than 80 yean
after its eruption.
Considerable alteration in the topography of volcanic regions
may be produced by successive eruptions. The fragmentary
materials are sometimes discharged in such abundance as to cover
the ground for many miles around with a deposit of loose ashes,
cinders and slag. Such a deposit accumulating to a depth of many,
6 5 8
GEOLOGY
[HYPOGENE ACTION
feet may completely bury valleys and water-courses, and thus
greatly affect the drainage. The coarsest materials accumulate
nearest to the vent that emits them. The finer dust is not infre-
quently hurled forth with such an impetus as to be carried for
thousands of feet into the tracks of upper air-currents, whereby it
may be borne for hundreds of miles away from the vent so as ulti-
mately to fall to the ground in countries far removed from any active
volcano. Outflows of lava, from their greater solidity and durability,
produce still more serious and lasting changes in the external features
of the ground over which they flow. As they naturally seek the
lowest levels, they find their way into the channels of streams.
If they keep along the channels, they seal them up under a mass of
compact stone which the running water, if not wholly diverted
elsewhere, will take many long centuries to cut through. If, on the
other hand, the lava crosses a stream, it forms a massive dam,
above which the water is ponded back so as to form a lake.
As the result of prolonged activity a volcanic cone is gradually
built up by successive outflows of lava and showers of dust and
stones. These materials are arranged in beds, or sheets, inclined
outwards from the central vent. On surrounding level ground the
alternating beds are flat. In course of time, deep gullies are cut on
the outer slopes of the cone by rain, and by the heavy showers that
arise from the condensation of the copious discharges of steam
during eruptions. Along the sides of these ravines instructive
sections may be studied of the volcanic strata. The larger rivers of
some volcanic regions have likewise eroded vast gorges in the more
horizontal lavas and ashes of the flatter country, and have thus laid
bare stupendous cliffs, along which the successive volcanic sheets
can be seen piled above each other for many hundred feet. On a
small scale, some of these features are well displayed among the
rivers that drain the volcanic tracts of central France; on a great
scale, they are presented in the course of the Snake river, and other
streams that traverse the great volcanic country of western North
America. Similar volcanic scenery has been produced in western
Europe by the action of denudation in dissecting the flat Tertiary
lavas of Scotland, the Facroe Isles and Iceland.
proofs of that action in many district* where there is now no outward
sign of it- No volcanoes have been in
eruption in soi ny different periods of
the past, back history. The British
Islands furnisl :h a scries of ancient
eruptions. Fr ough Palaeozoic times
there rose at in (ion of volcanic centres
from some of as and tuffs were dis-
charged. Aga same region witnessed
a stupendous riving relics of which
arc more than ly hundreds of square
miles. Similaj countries both in the
Old and the N that, in the geological
past, volcanic « ; intervals on the same
sites during a active vents are to be
seen there now. The volcanoes now active form but a small pro-
portion of the total number which has appeared on the surface of
the earth.
With regard to the cause of volcanic action much has been
•peculated, but little can be confidently affirmed. That water in
the form of occluded gas plays the chief part in forcing the lava
column up a volcanic chimney, and in the violent explosions that
accompany the rise of the molten material, is generally admitted.
But opinions differ as to the source of this water. According to
some investigators, it should be regarded as in large measure of
meteoric origin, derived from the descent of rain into the earth, and
k* mbtarptioa by the moltea magma in the interior. Others, con-
tending that the supply so furnished, even if it could reach and be
dissolved in the magma, would yet be insufficient to furnish the
prodigious quantity of aqueous vapour discharged during an eruption,
maintain that the water belongs to the magma itself. Tbcy point
to the admitted fact that many substances, particularly metals ia
a state of fusion, can absorb large quantities of vapours and gases
without chemical combination, and on cooling discharge them with
eruptive phenomena somewhat like those of volcanoes. This
question must be regarded as one of the still unsolved problems of
geology.
(B) Movements of the Earth's Crust.
Among the hypogene forces in geological dynamics an important
place must be assigned to movements of the terrestrial crust. Though
the expression " the solid earth " has become proverbial, it appears
singularly inappropriate in the light of the results obtained in recer.t
years by the use of delicate instruments of observation. With the
facilities supplied by these instruments (see Seismometer), it hat
been ascertained that the ground beneath our feet is subject to
continual slight tremors, and feeble pulsations of longer duration,
some of which may be due to daily or seasonal variations of tem-
perature, atmospheric pressure or other meteorological causes.
The establishment of sell-recording seismometers all over the world
has led to the detection of many otherwise imperceptible shocks,
over and above the appreciable earth-waves propagated Irom earth-
quake centres of disturbance. Moreover, it has been ascertained
that some parts of the surface of the land are slowly rising, while
others are falling with reference to the sea-level. From time to
time the surface suffers calamitous devastation from earthquakes,
when portions of the crust under great strain suddenly give way.
Lastly, at intervals, probably separated from each other by vast
periods of lime, the terrestrial crust undergoes intense plication
and fracture, and is consequently ridged up into mountain-chains.
No event of this kind has been witnessed since man began to record
his experiences. But from the structure of mountains, as laid oprn
by prolonged denudation, it is possible to form a vivid conception
of the nature and effects of these most stupendous of all geological
revolutions.
In considering this department of geological inquiry it wilt be
convenient to treat it under the following heads: (i) Slow depres-
sion and upheaval; (2) Earthquakes; (3) Mountain-making; (4)
Metamorphism of rocks.
t. Slaw Depression and Upheaval.— On the west side of Japan
the land is believed to be sinking below the sea. for fields are replaced
by beaches of sand or shingle, while the depth of the sea onshore
has perceptibly increased. A subsidence of the south of Sweden has
taken place in comparatively recent times, for streets and foundations
of houses at successive levels are found below high-water mark.
The west coast of Greenland over an extent of more than 600 m.
ia sinking, and old settlements are now submerged. Proofs of
submergence of land arc furnished by " submerged forests." and
beds of terrestrial peat now lying at various depths below the level
of the sea, of which many examples have been collected along the
shores of the British Isles, Holland and France. Intcrcstingevidcnce
that the west of Europe now stands at a lower level than it did at a
late geological period is supplied in the charts of the North Sea and
Atlantic, which show that the valleys of the land are protonfrd
under the sea. These valleys have been eroded out of the rocks by
the streams which flow in them, and the depth of their submer g ed
portions below the sea level affords an indication of the extent of the
subsidence.
The uprise of land has been detected in various parts of the world.
One of the most celebrated instances is that of the shores of the Gulf
of Bothnia, where, at Stockholm, the elevation, between the years
crust of the earth ia still imperfectly understood. Upheaval might
conceivably be produced by an ascent of the internal magma, and the
consequent expansion of the overlying crust by heat; while depres-
sion might follow any subsidence of the magma, or its displacement
EPICENE ACTION]
GEOLOGY
659
to another district. If, as is generally believed, the globe b still
contracting, the shrinkage of the surface may cause both these
movements. Subsidence will be in excess, but between subsiding
tracts lateral thrust may suffice to push upward intervening more
solid and stable ground ; but no solution of the problem yet proposed
is wholly satisfactory.
2. Earthquakes. — As this subject is discussed in a separate article
it will be sufficient here to take note of its more important geological
bearings. It was for many centuries taken for granted that earth-
quakes and volcanoes are due to a common cause. We have seen
that in classical antiquity they were looked on as the results of the
movements of wind imprisoned within the earth. Long after this
notion was discarded, and a more scientific appreciation of volcanic
action was reached, it was still thought that earthquakes should be
regarded as manifestations of the same source of energy as that
which displays itself in volcanic eruptions. It is true that earth-
quakes are frequent in districts of active volcanoes, and they may
undoubtedly be often due there to the explosions of the magma,
or to the rupture of rocks caused by its ascent towards the surface;
But such shocks are comparatively local in their range and feeble
in their effects. There is now a general agreement that between tho
great world-shaking earthquakes and volcanic phenomena, no
immediate and intimate relationship can be traced, though they may
t>e connected in ways which are not yet perceived. Some of the
more recent great earthquakes on land have proved that the waves
of shock are produced by the sudden rupture or collapse of rocks
under great strain, cither along lines of previous fracture or of new
rents In the terrestrial crust ; and that such ruptures may occur at
a remote distance from any volcano. Thus the recent disastrous
San Francisco earthquake has been recognised to have resulted from
a slipping of ground along the line of an old fault, which has been
traced for a Tonj; distance in California generally parallel to the
coast. The position of this fault at the surface has long been clearly
followed by its characteristic topography. After the earthquake
these superficial features were found to have been removed by the
same cause that had originated them. For some 300 m. on the track
of this old fault-line a renewed slipping was seen to have taken place
along one or both sides, and the ground at the surface was ruptured
as well as displaced horizontally. Obviously, the jar occasioned by
the sudden and simultaneous subsidence of a portion of the earth s
crust several hundred miles long, must be far more serious than
could be oroduced by an earthquake radiating from a single local
volcanic focus.
From their disastrous effects on buildings and human liven, an
exaggerated importance has been imputed to earthquakes as agents
of geological change. Experience shows that even after a severe
shock which may have destroyed numerous towns and villages,
together with thousands of their inhabitants, the face of the country
has suffered scarcely any perceptible change, and that, In the course
of a year or two, when the ruined houses and prostrate trees have
been cleared away, little or no obvious! race of the catastrophe may
remain. Among the more enduring records of a great earthquake
may be enumerated (a) landslips, which lay bare hillsides, and some-
times pond back the drainage of valleys so as to give rise to lakes;
(b) alterations of the topography, as in Assuring of the ground, or in
the production of inequalities whereby the drainage is affected;
aew valleys and new lakes may thus be formed, while previously
existing lakes may be emptied; (O permanent changes of level,
either in an upward or downward direction.
3. Mountain-makini. — This subject may be referred to here for
the striking evidence which it supplies of the importance of move-
ments of the earth's crust among geological processes. The structure
of a great mountain-chain such as the Alps proves that the crust
of the earth has been intensely plicated, crumpled and fractured.
Vast piles of sedimentary strata have been folded to such an extent
as to occupy now only half of their original horizontal extent. This
compression in the case of the Alps has been computed to amount
to as much as 120,000 -metres or 74 English miles, so that two points
on the opposite sides of that chain have been brought by so much
nearer to each other than they were originally before the movements.
Besides such intense plication, extensive rupturing of the crust has
taken place in the same range of mountains. Not only have the
most ancient rocks been squeezed up into the central axis of the
chain, but huge slices of them have been torn away from the main
body, and thrust forward for many mileB, so as now actually to
form the summits of mountains, which are almost entirely composed
of much younger formations. I f these colossal disturbances occurred
rapidly, they would give rise to cataclysms of inconceivable
magnitude over the surface of the globe No record has been dis-
covered of such accompanying devastation. But whether sudden
and violent, or prolonged and gradual, such stupendous upturniqgs
of the crust did undoubtedly take place, as is clearly revealed in
innumerable natural sections, which have been laid open by the
denudation of the crests and sides of the mountains.
4. Metamuttpkism of Rocks (see Metamorphism).— During the
movements to which the crust of the earth has been subject, not
only have the rocks been folded and fractured, but they have like-
wise, in ssmny regions, acquired new internal structures, and have
thus nadarejooe m prorrm ol "rational ntetaiBorphisrn." This
rczmagctaeat of their wbtuace ius been governed by condition*
which are probably not yet all recognized, but among them we should
doubtless include a high temperature, intense pressure, mechanical
movement resulting in crushing, shearing and foliation, and the
presence of water in their pores. It is among igneous rocks that the
progressive stages of mrtamorphism can be most easily traced.
Their definite original structure and mineral composition afford ft
starting-point from which the investigation may be begun and
pursued. Where an igneous rock has been invaded by metamorphic
changes, it may be observed to have been first broken down into
separate lenticles, the cores of which may still retain, with little or
no alteration, the original characteristic minerals and crystalline
structure of the rock. Between these lenticles, the intervening
portions have been crushed down into a powder or paste, which
seems to have been squeezed round and past them, and shows a
laminated arrangement that resembles the flow-structure in lavas.
As the degree of metamorphisjn increases, the lenticles diminish in
size, and the intervening crushed and foliated matrix increases in
amount, until at last it may form the entire mass of the rock. While
the original minerals are thus broken down, new varieties make
their appearance. Of these, among the earliest to present themselves
are usually the micas, that impart their characteristic silvery sheen
to the surfaces of the folia along which they spread. Younger
felspars, as well as mica, are developed, and there arise also sflli-
manitc. garnet, andalusite and many others. The texture becomes
more coarsely crystalline, and the segregation of the constituent
minerals more definite along the lines of foliation. From the finest
silky phyllites a graduation may be traced through successively
coarser mica-schists, until we reach the almost granitic texture of
the coarsest gneisses.
Regional metamorphism has arisen in the heart of mountain-
chains, and in any other district where the deformation of the crust
has been sufficiently intense. There is another type of alteration
termed " contact-metamorphism," which is developed around
masses of igneous rock, especially where these have been intruded in
large bosses among stratified formations. 1 1 is particularly displayed
around masses of granite, where sandstones are found altered into
quartzite, shales and grits into schistose compounds, and where some-
times fossils are still recognizable among the metamorphic minerals.
DIVISION II.— EPICENE OR SUPERFICIAL ACTION.
It is on the surface of the globe, and by the operation of agents
working there, that at present the chief amount of visible geo-
logical change is effected. In considering this branch of inquiry,
wc are not involved in a preliminary difficulty regarding the very
nature of the agencies as is the case in the investigation of
plutonk action. On the contrary, the surface agents are carrying
on their work under our very eyes. We can watch it in all its
stages, measure its progress, and mark in many ways how
accurately it represents similar changes which, for long ages
previously, must have been effected by the same means. But
in the systematic treatment of this subject we encounter a
difficulty of another kind. We discover that while the operations
to be discussed are numerous and readily observable, they are so
interwoven into one great network that any separation of them
under different subdivisions is sure to be more or less artificial
and to convey an erroneous impression. While, therefore, under
the unavoidable necessity of making use of such a classification
of subjects, we must always bear in mind that it is employed
merely for convenience, and that in nature superficial geological
action must be continually viewed as a whole, since the work of
each agent has constant reference to that of the others, and is
not properly intelligible unless that connexion be kept in view.
The movements of the air; the evaporation from land and
sea; the fall of rain, hail and snow; the flow of rivers and
glaciers; the tides, currents and waves of the ocean; the growth
and decay of organized existence, alike on land and in the depths
of the sea;— in short, the whole circle of movement, which b
continually in progress upon the surface of our planet, are the
subjects now to be examined. It is desirable to adopt some
general term to embrace the whole of this range of inquiry. For
this end the word epigene (Gr. krl, upon) has been suggested as
a convenient terra, and antithetical to hypogene (Gr. inch, under),
or subterranean action.
A simple arrangement of this part of Geological Dynamics is
in three sections:
A. Air.— The influence of the atmosphere in destroying and
forming rocks.
B. Water.— The geological functions of the circulation of
wait* \!hiOAig> tat & is»Vtacw*!a> vss. vsANasA >s>*V^fc.
sxtioacAtotu*.
66o GEOLOGY iepicene action
C. Life.— The part taken by plants and animals fa preserving,
destroying or reproducing geological formations.
The words destructive, reproductive and conservative,
employed in describing the operations of the epigene agents, do
not necessarily imply that anything useful to man is destroyed,
reproduced or preserved. On the contrary, the destructive
action of the atmosphere may turn barren rock into rich sofl,
while its reproductive effects sometimes turn rich land into
barren desert. Again, the conservative influence of vegetation
has sometimes for centuries retained as barren morass what
might otherwise have become rich meadow or luxuriant wood-
land. The terms, therefore, are used in a 'strictly geological
tense, to denote the removal and re-deposition of material, and
its agency in preserving what lies beneath it.
(A) The Air.
A* • |
compom
action is
probabl)
and par
the root*
influence
are simil
they are
Amcni
the atim
result of
rocks, wl
range of
in select
alternate
masonry
where tn
rapid no
frost in i
them into sand, or causing them to crack or peel off in ski.is
irregular pieces. Dr Livingstone found in Africa (la* S. lat., 34*
long.) that surfaces of rock which during the day were 1
137 Fahr., cooled so rapidly by radiation at night tha
sustain the strain of contraction, they split and thre
angular fragments from a few ounces to 100 or 200 D
In temperate regions this action, though much less
still makes itself Idt. In these climates, however, and still more in
high latitudes, somewhat similar results are brought about by frost.
By its motion in wind the air drives loose sand over rocks, and in
course of time abrades and smoothes them. " Desert polish " is
the name given to the characteristic lustrous surface thus imparted.
Holes are said to be drilled in window glass at Cape Cod by the same
agency. Cavities are now and then hollowed out of rocks by the
gyration In them of little fragments of stone or grains of sand kept
in motion by the wind. Hurricanes form important geological
agents upon land in uprooting trees, and thus sometimes impeding
the drainage of a country and giving rise to the formation of peat
The reproductive action of the air arises partly from the effect
of the chemical and mechanical disintegration involved in the
process of " weathering." and partly from the transporting power
of wind and of aerial currents. The layer of soil, which covers so
much of the surface of the land, is the result of the decay of the
underlying rocks, mingled with mineral matter blown over the ground
by wind, or washed thither by rain, and with the mouldering remains
r( plants and animals. The extent to which fine dust may be
transported over the surface of the land can hardly be realised in
countries clothed with a covering of vegetation, though even there,
in dry weather during spring, clouds of dust may often be seen
blown away by wind from bare ploughed fields. Intercepted by the
leaves of plants and washed down to their roots by rain, this dust
goes to increase the soil below. In arid climates, where dust clouds
are dense and frequent, enormous quantities of fine mineral particles
arc thus borne along and accumulated. The remarkable deposit
of " Loess," which it sometimes more than 1500 ft. thick and covers
extensive areas in China and other countries, is regarded as due to
the drifting of dust by wind. Again the dunes of sand so abundant
along the inner side of sandy sea-beaches in many different parts
of the world are attributable to the same action.
(B) Water.
In -treating of the epigene action of water in geological processes
it will be convenient to deal first with its operations in traversing
the land, and then with those which it performs in the sea. The
circulation of water from land to sea and again from sea to land
constitutes the fundamental cause of most of the daily changes by
which the surface of the land is affected.
/. JtatM.~Rain effects two kind* of changes upon the surface o(
the taut It Met* chemically upon sods and stones, and sinking under
EPICENE ACTION) GEOLOGY 661
picked out by the weather, minute and frail fossils which are wholly ter
invisible on a freshly broken surface of the stone. Many rucks on
weather with a thick 1 ' ' nany feet or (in
yards. Basalt, for e i-brown fcr- we
ruginous bycr on its s of its felspar it
into kaolin, and the s carbonate, . . an
by the hydration of it iversion into fo>' ch
serpentine, or some o and by the Ay
conversion of its magr Mimes shows ro-
in a most remarkable uhcring can :ks
reach. It may occasic 20 or 30 ft., in
the quarts crystals am litions, while sat
the felspar is complec lessly varied cir
effects of weathering pes assumed en
by crags and other re ctics of rock ck
hive their own chara hereby they
may be recognised ev< nese features an
relcrence will be madu in Part VIII. in
The mechanical action of rain, which is intimately bound up with er,
its chemical action, consists in washing off the fine superficial wt
particles of rocks which have l>ccn corroded and loosened by the ng
process of weathering, and in thus laying open fresh portions to the pa.
same influences of decay. The detritus so removed is partly carried rys
down into the soil which is thereby enriched, partly held in suspension
in the little runnels into which the rain-drops gather as they begin tn
to flow over the land, partly pushed downward* along the surface nc
of sloping ground. A good deal of it finds its way into the nearest I a
brooks and rivers, which are consequently made muddy by heavy m-
rain. be
It is natural that a casual consideration of the subject should lead ce.
to an impression that, though the general result of the fall of rain >nt
upon a land-surface must lead to some amount of disintegration and be
lowering of that surface, the process must be so slow and slight as >m
hardly to be considered of much importance among geological lb-
operations. But further attention will show such an impression to er-
be singularly erroneous. It loses sight of the fact that a change lly
which may be hardly appreciable within a human lifetime, or even ise
within the comparatively brief span of geological time embraced in Js,
the compass of human history, may nevertheless become gigantic ith
in its results in the course of immensely protracted periods. An me
instructive lesson in the erosive action of rain may be found in the he
pitted and channelled surface of ground lying under the drip of the
eaves of a cottage. The fragments of stone and pebbles of gravel id,
that form part of the soil can there be seen sticking out of the ground, (•)
because being bard they resist the impetus 01 the falling drops, els
protecting for a time the earth beneath them, while that which ble
surrounded and covered them is washed away. From this familiar
illustration the observer may advance through every stage in the iat
disappearance of material which once covered the surface, until he est
comes to examples where once continuous and thick sheets of solid led
rock have been reduced to a few fragments or have been entirely the
removed. Since the whole land surface over which rain falls is era
exposed to this waste, the superficial covering of decayed rock or ik-
sotl, as Hutton insisted, is constantly, though imperceptibly, travel- to
ling outward and downward to the sea. In this process of transport er*
rain is an important carrying agent, while at the same time it serves ck
to connect the work of the other disintegrating forces, and to make rds
it conducive to the general degradation of the land. Though this ed.
decay is general and constant, it is obviously not uniform. In some nd
places where, from the nature of the rock, from the flatness of the key
ground, or from other causes, rain works under great difficulties. nst
the ed,
be the
this ied
by cr-
pro er-
wh sen
oth Aa
I sat
rep ppi
fav as
anc or
ear Mt
det ied
wai an
a of
on« TCi
con ted
the _ ind
to be considered. Over and above the proportion of the rainfall
which is absorbed by living vegetation and by the soil, there is a «d
continual filtering down of the water from the surface Lito the rocks teir
that lie below, where it partly lodges in pores and interstices, and ury
partly finds its way into subterranean joints and fissures, in which ion
it performs an underground circulation, and ultimately issues once tab
.. /__. .1 ■.!._ t r :. — /._ v t_ *u t ntm
more at the surface in the form of springs («.».). In the course of
this circulation the water performs an important geological task.
Not only carrying 1 down with it the substances which the rain has
abstracted from the air. but obtaining more acids and organic
anutcr Iran tee anil it is eoabJedfcr effect diemical dbaages in the
664
GEOLOGY
consideration first. They possess a number of structures which
belong to the original conditions in which they were accumulated.
They present in addition other structures which have been super-
induced upon them, and which they share with the unstratified
or igneous rocks.
i. Original Structures
(a) Stratified Rocks. — This extensive and important series is
above all distinguished by possessing a prevailing stratified
arrangement. Their materials have been laid down in laminae,
layers and strata, or beds, pointing generally to the intermittent
deposition of the sediments of which they consist. As this
stratification was, as a rule, originally nearly or quite horizontal,
it serves as a base from which to measure any subsequent dis-
turbance which the rocks have undergone. The occurrence of
false-bedding, i.e. bands of inclined layers between the normal
planes of stratification, does not form any real exception; but
indicates the action of shifting currents whereby the sediment
was transported and thrown down. Other important records of
the original conditions of deposit are supplied by ripple-marks,
sun-cracks, rain-prints and concretions.
From the nature of the material further light ia cast on the geo-
graphical conditions in which the strata were accumulated. Thus,
conglomerate! indicate the proximity of old shore-lines, sandstones
mark deposits in comparatively shallow water, clays and shales
point to the tranquil accumulation of fine silt at a greater depth
and further from land, while fossiliferous limestones bear witness to
dearer water in which organisms flourished at some distance from
deposits of sand and mud. Again, the alternation of different kinds
of sediment suggests a variability in the conditions of deposition,
such as a shifting of the sediment-bearing currents and of the areas
of muddy and clear water. A thick group of conformable strata,
that is, a series of deposits which snow no discordance in their
stratification, may usually be regarded as having been laid down on
a sea-floor that was gently sinking. Here and there evidence is
Obtainable of the limits or of the progress of the subsidence by what
b called " overlap." Of the absolute length of time represented by
any strata or groups of strata no satisfactory estimates can yet be
formed. Certain general conclusions may indeed be drawn, and
comparisons may be made between different series of rocks. Sand-
stones full of false-bedding were probably accumulated more rapidly
than finely-laminated shales or clays. Il is not uncommon in certain
Carboniferous formations to find coniferous and other trunks em-
bedded in sandstone. Some of these trees seem to have been carried
along and to have sunk, their heavier or root end touching the
bottom and their upper end slanting upward in the direction of the
current, exactly as in the case of the snags of the Mississippi. In
other cases the trees have been submerged while still in their positions
of growth. The continuous deposit of sand at last rose above the
level of the trunks and buried them. It is clear then that the rate
of deposit must have been sometimes sufficiently rapid to allow
•and to accumulate to a depth of 30 ft. or more before the decay
of the wood. Modern instances are known where, under certain
circumstances, submerged trees may last for some centuries, but
even the most durable roust decay in what, after all, is a brief space
of geological time. Since continuous layers of the same kind of
deposit suggest a persistence of geological conditions, while numerous
alternations of different kinds of sedimentary matter point to
vicissitudes or alternations of conditions, it may be supposed that
the time represented by a given thickness of similar strata was less
than that shown by the same thickness of dissimilar strata, because
the changes needed to bring new varieties of sediment into the area
of deposit would usually require the lapse of some time for their
completion. But this conclusion may often be erroneous. It will
be best supported when, from the very nature of the rocks, wide
variations in the character of the water-bottom can be established.
Thus a group of shales followed by a fossiliferous limestone would
almost always mark the lapse of a much longer period than an equal
depth of sandy strata. A thick mass of limestone, made up of
organic remains which lived and died upon the spot, and whose
remains are crowded together generation above generation, must
have demanded many years or centuries for its formation.
But in all speculations of this kind we must bear in mind that the
length of time represented by a given depth of strata is not to be
estimated merely from their thickness or lithological character.
The interval between the deposit of two successive laminae of shale
may have been as long as, or even longer than, that required for
the formation of one of the laminae. In like manner the interval
needed for the transition from one stratum or kind of strata to
another may often have been more than equal to the time required
for the formation of the strata on cither side. But the relative
chronological importance of the bars or lines in the geological
—~-1c*n seldom be tatinfactorily discussed merely on tithologfca\
fc 7a)amtmtauxUybe<hckltdoath9wi^Ba»<Aor^M^^
(STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY
, where the grouping of the stratified
ems is described.
xt of the earth's crust these rocks
3 they are strongly differentiated
While the broad petrographies!
varieties remain persistent, they
onsof type to point to the existence
etrographic provinces, in each of
ire connected by a general family
>r less from that of a neighbouring
renting a long chronological series
bical sequence can be traced, which
ly the same everywhere, though its
stent. The earliest manifestations
district appear to have been most
te type between acid and basic,
tughly add scries and concluding
eriaL
-chitecture of the crust of the earth,
ly divisible into two great series:
which have been injected into the
:, and (a) those which have reached
cted there, either in a molten state
m as dust, ashes and scoriae. The
esents the plutonic, intrusive or
Ly; the second marks the volcanic,
leous phase.
rocks, which have been forced into
there, present a wide ranee of texture
granites to the most perfect natural
isually cooled with extreme slowness
c largely 4
i form assumed by each individual
cncral rule more 1
1 crystalline
lepended upon the shape of the space
and where it has cooled and become
etermincd by the local structure of
nd and by the energy of the eruptive
convenient basis for the classification
s part of the framework of the crust,
g to the shape of the cavity which
likes and necJcs.
est and most shapeless extravasations
udc the great bodies of granite whkh,
, have risen for many miles through
lave altered the rocks around them
Us, or intrusive sheets, are bed-like
: between the planes of sedimentary
r term laccolitc has been applied to
1 bosses. Intrusive sheets are dis-
orancously intercalated lavas by not
platform, but breaking across and
and by the closeness of their texture
h the contiguous rocks, whkh. being
il and caused it to consolidate on its
lan in its interior. Dikes or veins
branches of intrusive material whkh
irregular clefts of the crust. Necks
have been filled up with erupted
(posed at the surface after prolonged
>nly the superficial volcanic masses
1, but also more or less of the upper
cks do not present evidence of their
tat can be certainly affirmed from
nger than the rocks into which they
eir internal structure, however, and
associated with them, some more or
made as to the limits of time within
ted.
anic series is of special importance
tains the records of volcanic action
;lobe. It was pointed out in Part I
.he 18th and in the beginning of the
as paid by Hutton and his followers
•ded by what they called the " un-
h's crust, these observers lost sight
hese rocks might have been erupted
1 be chronicles of volcanic action in
1 not always possible to satisfactorily
types of contemporaneously inter*
icted material. But rocks of the
uo or involved the overlying strata,
by the characteristic structures of
PALAE0NT0L0GICAL1
GEOLOGY
665
means of the evidence which they supply, it has been ascertained
that volcanic anion has been manifested in the globe since the
earliest geological periods. In the British Isles, for example, the
volcanic record is remarkably full for the long series of ages from
Cambrian to Permian lime, and again for the older Tertiary period.
2. Subsequently induced Structures
After their accumulation, whether as stratified or eruptive
masses, all kinds of rocks have been subject to various changes,
and have acquired in consequence a variety of superinduced
structures. It has been pointed out in the part of this article
dealing with dynamical geology that one of the most important
forms of energy in the evolution of geological processes is to be
found in the movements that take place within the crust of the
earth. Some of these movements are so slight as to be only
recognizable by means of delicate instruments; but from this
inferior limit they range up to gigantic convulsions by which
mountain-chains are upheaved. The crust must be regarded as
in a perpetual slate of strain, and its component materials are
therefore subject to all the effects which flow from that condition.
It is the one great object of the geotcctonic division of geology to
study the structures which have been developed in consequence
of earth-movements, and to discover from this investigation the
nature of the processes whereby the rocks of the crust have been
brought into the condition and the positions in which we now
find them. The details of this subject will be found in separate
articles descriptive of each of the technical terms applied to the
several kinds of superinduced structures. All that need be
offered here is a general outline connecting the several portions
of ihe subject together.
One of the most universal of these later structures is to be seen
in the divisional planes, usually vertical or highly inclined, by which
rocks are split into quadrangular or irregularly shaped blocks.
To these planes the name of joints has been given. They are of
prime importance from an industrial point of view, seeing that the
art of quarrying consists mainly in detecting ana making proper
use of them. Their abundance in all kinds of rocks, from those of
recent date up to those of the highest antiquity, affords a remarkable
testimony to the strains which the terrestrial crust has suffered.
They have arisen sometimes from tension, such as that caused by
contraction from the drying and consolidation of an aqueous sedi-
ment or from the cooling of a molten mass; sometimes from torsion
during movements of the crust.
Although the stratified rocks were originally deposited in a more
or less nearly horizontal position on the floor of the sea, where now
visible on the dry land they are seldom found to have retained their
flatness. On the contrary, they arc seen to have been generally
tilted up at various angles, sometimes even placed on end (crop,
dip, strilcc). When a sufficiently large area of ground is examined,
the inclination into which the strata have been thrown may be
observed not to continue far in the same direction, but to turn over
to the opposite or another quarter. It can then be seen that in
reality the rocks have been thrown into undulations. From the
lowest and flattest arches where the departure from horizontality
may be only trifling, every step may be followed up to intense
curvature, where the strata have been compressed and plicated as
if they had been piles of soft carpets (anticline, syncline, monocline,
geo-anticlinc, geo-syncline, isoclinal, plication, curvature, qua-qua-
vcrsal). It has further happened abundantly all over the surface of
the globe that relief from internal strain in the crust has been obtained
by fracture, and the consequent subsidence or elevation of one or
both sides of the fissure. The differential movement between the
two sides may be scarcely perceptible in the feeblest dislocation,
but in the extreme cases it may amount to many thousand feet
(fault, fissure, dislocation, hade, slickensides). The great faults in a
country are among its most important structural features, and as
they not infrequently continue to be lines of weakness in the crust
along which sudden slipping may from time to time take place, they
become the lines of origin of earthquakes. The San Francisco
earthquake of 1906, already cited, affords a memorable illustration
of this connexion.
It is in a great mountain-chain that the extraordinary complica-
tion of plicated and faulted structures in the crust of the earth can
be most impressively beheld. The combination of overturned foldB
with rupture has been already referred to as a characteristic feature
in the Alps (Part IV.). The gigantic folds have in many places been
Eushed over each other so as to lie almost fiat, while the upper limb
as not infrequently been driven for many miles beyond the lower
by a rupture along the axis. In this way successive slices of a thick
series of formations have been carried northwards on the northern
slope of the Alps, and have been piled so abnormally above each
other that some of their oldest members recur several times on
different thrust-planes, the whole being underlain by Tertiary
strata (see Alps). Further proof of the colossal compression to
which the rocks have been subjected is afforded by their intense
crumpling and corrugation, and by the abundantly faulted and
crushed condition to which they have been reduced. Simitar
evidence as to stresses in the terrestrial crust and the important
changes which they produce among the rocks may also be obtained
on a smaller scale in many non-mountainous countries.
Another marked result of the compression of the terrestrial crust
has been induced in some rocks by the production of the fissile
structure which is typically shown in roofing-slate (cleavage).
Closely connected with this internal rearrangement has been the
development of microscopic mkrolites or crystals (rutile, mica, Ac)
in argillaceous slates which were undoubtedly originally fine marine
mud and silt. From this incipient form of mcta moronism successive
stages may be traced through the various kinds of argillite and
phyllite into mica-schist, and thence into more crystalline gneissoid
varieties (foliation, slate, mica-schist, gneiss). The Alps afford
excellent illustrations of these transformations.
The fissures produced in the crust arc sometimes clean, sharply
defined divisional planes, like cracks across a pane of glass. Much
more usually, however, the rocks on either side have been broken up
by the friction of movement, and the fault is marked by a variable
breadth of this broken material. Sometimes the walls have separated
and molten rock has risen from below and solidified between them
as a dike. Occasionally the fissures have opened to the surface,
and have been filled in from above with detritus, as in the sandstone-
dikes of Colorado and California. In mineral districts the fissures
have been filled with various spars and ores, forming what are known
as mineral veins.
Where one series of rocks is covered by another without any
break or discordance in the stratification they are said to be con-
formable. But where the older series has been tilted up or visibly
denuded before being overlain by the younger, the latter is termed
unconformable. This relation is one of the greatest value in
structural geology, for it marks a gap in the geological record, which
may re pr esent a vast lapse of time not there recorded by strata,
Past VL— Palaeontolocxcal Geology
This division of the science deals with fossils, or the traces
of plants and animals preserved in the rocks of the earth's crust,
and endeavours to gather from them information as to the history
of the globe and its inhabitants. The term "fossil" (LaL
fossilis, from Jodere, to dig up), meaning literally anything
" dug up," was formerly applied indiscriminately to any mineral
substance taken out of the earth's crust, whether organized or
not. Since the time of Lamarck, however, the meaning of the
word has been restricted, so as to include only the remains or
traces of plants and animals preserved in any natural formation
whether hard rock or superficial deposit. It includes not merely
the petrified structures of organisms, but whatever was directly
connected with or produced by these organisms. Thus the
resin which was exuded from trees of long-perished forests
is as much a fossil as any portion of the stem, leaves, flowers
or fruit, and in some respects is even more valuable to the
geologist than more determinable remains of its parent trees,
because it has often preserved in admirable perfection the insects
which flitted about in the woodlands. The burrows and trails
of a worm preserved in sandstone and shale claim recognition as
fossils, and indeed are commonly the only indications to be met
with of the existence of annelid life among old geological forma-
tions. The droppings of fishes and reptiles, called coprolites,
are excellent fossils, and tell their tale as to the presence and
food of vertebrate life in ancient waters. The little agglutinated
cases of the caddis-worm remain as fossils in formations from
which, perchance, most other traces of life may have passed
away. Nay, the very handiwork of man, when preserved in
any natural manner, is entitled to rank among fossils'; as
where his flint-implements have been dropped into the pre-
historic gravels of river-valleys or where his canoes have been
buried in the silt of lake-bottoms.
A study of the land-surfaces and sea-floors of the present time
•shows that there are so many chances against the conservation
of the remains of either terrestrial or marine animals and plants
that if, as is probable, the same conditions existed in former geological
periods, we should regard the occurrence of organic remains among
the stratified formations of the earth's crust as generally the result
of various fortunate accidents.
Let us consider, in the first place, the chances for the preservation
of remains of the present fauna and flora of a country. The surface
of the land may be densely clothed with forest and abundantly
'th animal life, sot the treat die and moulder Into soiL
666
GEOLOGY
The animals, too. disappear, generation after generation, and leave
few or no perceptible traces of their existence. If we were not aware
from authentic records that central and northern Europe were
covered with vast forests at the beginning of our era, how could we
know this fact? What has become of the herds of wild oxen, the
bears, wolves and other denisens of primeval Europe? How could
we prove from the examination of the surface soil of any country
that those creatures had once abounded there? The conditions for
the preservation of any relics of the plant and animal life of a ter-
restrial surface must obviously be always exceptional. They are
supplied only where the organic remains can be protected from the
air and superficial decay Hence they may be observed in (i) the
deposits on the floors of lakes; (2) in peat-mosses; (3) in deltas at
river-mouths; and (4) under the stalagmite of caverns in limestone
districts. But in these and other favourable places a mere infinitesi-
mal fraction of the fauna or flora of a land-surface is likely to be
entombed or preserved.
In the second place, although In the tea the conditions for the
preservation of organic remains are in many respects more favourable
than on land, they are apt to be f rustratecf by many adverse circum-
stances. While the level of the land remains stationary, there can
be but little effective entombment of marine organisms in littoral
deposits; for only a limited accumulation of sediment will be formed
until subsidence of the sea-floor takes place. In the trifling beds of
sand or gravel thrown up on a stationary shore, only the harder and
more durable forms of life, such as gastropods ana lamellibranchs,
which can withstand the triturating effects of the beach waves, are
likely to remain unefEaced.
Below tide-marks, along the margin of the land where sediment
is gradually deposited, the conditions are more favourable for the
preservation of marine organisms. In the sheets of sand and mud
there laid down the harder parts of many forms of life may be
entombed and protected from d
of the total marine fauna may be
At the best, merely littoral and
even under the most favourable
a fraction of the whole assembl
parts of the ocean. Aswcreccd
of sediment on the sea-floor musi
central abysses, it reaches a har
therefore, where some kind of 01
in these more pelagic regions, t!
unfavourable for the prescrvati
of the deep-sea fauna. Hard 1
bones, may slowly accumulate,
peroxide 01 manganese, or of soi
and there over the deep-sea bo
abysmal deposit may be so tai
least the larger animals will dis;
can be covered up and preserv
if raised into land, would suppl.
life of the sea.
It would thus appear that the portion of the tea-floor best suited
for receiving and preserving the most varied assemblage of marine
organic remains is the area in front of the land, to which rivers and
currents bring continual supplies of sediment. The most favourable
conditions for the accumulation of a thick mass of marine fossiliferous
strata will arise when the area of deposit is undergoing a gradual
subsidence. If the rate of depression and that of deposit were equal,
or nearly so, the movement might proceed for a vast period without
producing any great apparent change in marine geography, and even
without seriously affecting the distribution of hie over the tea-floor
within the area of subsidence. Hundreds or thousands of feet of
sedimentary strata might in this way be neaped up round the con-
tinents, containing a fragmentary aeries of organic remains belonging
to those forms of comparatively shallow-water life which had
Erts capable of preservation. There can be little doubt that such
s, in fact, been the history of the main mass of stratified formations
in the earth's crust. By far the largest proportion of these piles
of marine strata has unquestionably been laid down in water of no
great depth within the area of deposit of terrestrial sediment.
The enormous thickness to which they attain seems only explicable
by prolonged and repeated movements of subsidence, interrupted,
however, as we know, by other movements of a contrary kind.
Since the conditions for the preservation of organic remains exist
more favourably under the sea than on land, marine organisms must
be far more abundantly conserved than those of the land. This as
true to-day, and has, as far as known, bees true in all past geological
time. Hence for the purposes of the geologist the fossil remains of
marine forms of life far surpass all others in value. Among them
there will necessarily be a gradation of importance, regulated chiefly
by their relative abundance. Now, of all the marine tribes which
Irve within the juxta- terrestrial belt of sedimentation, unquestionably
into a mineralized condition. They are extremely abundant both as
to individuals and genera. They occur on the shore within tide
mark, and range thence down into the abysses. Moreover, they
mppemr to have possessed these qualifications from early geological
(PALAEONTOLOCICAL
times. In the marine Motlusca, therefore, we have a common ground
of comparison between the stratified formations of different period*.
They have been styled the alphabet of palacontological inquiry.
There are two main purposes to which fossils may be put in
geological research. (1) to throw light upon former conditions
of physical geography, such as the presence of land, rivers,
lakes and seas, in places where they do not now exist, changes
of climate, and the former distribution of plants and animal*;
and (2) to furnish a guide in geological chronology whereby
rocks may be classified according to relative date, and the facts
of geological history may be arranged and interpreted as a
connected record of the earth's progress.
1. As examples of the first of these two directions of inquiry
reference may be made to (a) former land-surfaces revealed by the
occurrence of layers of soil with tree-stumps and roots still in the
position of growth (see Purbbckian) ; (6) ancient lakes proved by
beds of manor limestone full of lacustrine shells ; (c) old sea-bottoms
marked by the occurrence of marine organisms; (<f) variations in
the quality of the water, such as freshness or saltness, indicated by
changes in the size and shape of the fossils; (c) proximity to former
land, suggested by the occurrence of abundant drift-wood in the
strata; (f) former conditions of climate, different from the present,
as evidenced by such organisms as tropical types of plants and
animals intercalated among the strata of temperate or nonhera
countries.
2. I n applying fossils to the determination of geological chronology
it is first necessary to ascertain the order of superposition of the
rocks. Obviously, in u continuous series of undisturbed sedimentary
deposits the lowest must necessarily be the oldest, and the plant* or
animals which they contain must have lived and died before any of
the organisms that occur in the overlying strata. This order of
superposition having been settled in a series of formations, it b
found that the fossils at the bottom are not quite the same as those
at the top of the scries. Tracing the beds upward, wc discover that
species after species of the lowest platforms disappears, until pertupi
not one of them is found. With the cessation of these older species
others make their entrance. These, in turn, are found to die out.
and to be replaced by newer forms. After patient examination of
the rocks, it has been ascertained that every well-marked " forma-
tion," or group of strata, is characterized by its own species or
genera, or by a general assemblage, or fades, of organic forms.
Such a generalization can only, of course, be determined by actual
f>ractical experience over an area of some size. When the typical
ossils of a formation are known, they serve to identify that formation
in its progress across a country. Thus, in tracts where the true
order of superposition cannot be determined, owing to the want of
sections or to the disturbed condition of the rocks, fossils serve as a
means of identification and furnish a guide to the succession of the
rocks. They even demonstrate that in some mountainous ground
the beds have been turned completely upside down, where it
can be shown that the fossils in what are now the uppermost
strata ought properly to lie underneath those in the beds below
them.
It is by their characteristic fossils that the stratified rocks of the
earth's crust can be most satisfactorily subdivided into convenient
groups of strata and classed in chronological order. Each " forma-
tion is distinguished by its own peculiar assemblage of organic
remains, by means of which it can be followed and recognized, even
amid the crumplings and dislocations of a disturbed region. The
same general succession of organic types can be observed over a
large part of the world, though, of course, with important modifica-
tions in different countries; This similarity of succession has been
termed homotaxis, a term which expresses the fact that the order
in which the leading types of organized existence have appeared
upon the earth has been similar even in widely separated regions,
reliable method of comparison
formations of different parts of
into relation with each other,
nain, as in the days of Werner,
ted by a reliance on mere litho-
made little or no progress in
ftssive phases of the history of
Just as, at the present time,
rontemporaneous with sheets of
inds of sedimentation have been
lose of one period may not be
those of another. Little or no
. . rical resemblances or differences
comparing the sedimentary formations of different countries.
In making use of fossil evidence for the purpose of subdividing
stratified rocks of the earth's crust, It is found to be applicable
ell as to the definition of
stratum may be marked
ne or more of which may
) and
no other bed above 1
tratum. One or more of
the occurrence of the bed
PALAEONTOLOCICAL] GEOLOGY 667
in question, which U called by the name of the most abundant
species. In this way what is called a M geological horizon," or
•'zone," is marked off, and its exact position in the aeriesof formations
is fixed.
formations, though as yet less fully than to the younger parts of the
geological record" It has been successfully applied by Professor C.
Lap worth to the investigation of the Silurian series (see Silurian;
Ordovician System). He found that the species of graptolites
have each a comparatively narrow vertical range, and they may
consequently be used for stratigraphical purposes. Applying the
method, in the first instance, to the highly plicated Silurian rocks of
the south of Scotland, he found that by means of graptolites he was
able to work out the structure of the ground. Each gres
strata was seen to possess its own graptoiitic tones, an
means could be identified not only in the original compk
area, but in England and Wales and in Ireland. It was
ascertained that the succession of cones in Great Britai
recognized on the Continent, in North America and even in
The brachiopods and trilobites have likewise been made
zonal purposes among the oldest sedimentary format
most ancient of the Pa l aeozoic systems has as its fittin
OUkcIIus zone.
Within undefined and no doubt variable geographical limits
palaeontological zones have been found to be remarkably persistent.
They follow each other in the same general order, but not always
with equal definiteness. The type fossil may appear in some districts
on a higher or a lower platform than it does in others. Only to a
limited degree is there any coincidence between lithological variations
in the strata and the sequence of the zones. In the Jurassic forma-
tions, indeed, where frequent alternations of different sedimentary
materials are to be met with, it is in some cases possible to trace a
definite upward or downward limit for a zone by some abrupt
change in the sedimentation, such as from limestone to shale. But
such a precise demarcation is impossible where no distinct bands of
different sediments are to be seen. The zones can then only be
vaguely determined by finding their characteristic fossils, and noting
where these begin to appear in the strata and where they cease.
It would seem, therefore, that the sequence of palaeontological
zones, or life-horizons, has not depended merely upon changes in
the nature of the conditions under which the organisms Uvea. We
should naturally expect that these changes would nave had a marked
influence; that, for instance, a difference should be perceptible
between the character of the fossils in a limestone and that of those
in a shale or a sandstone. The environment, when a limestone was
in course of deposition, would generally be one of clear water,
favourable for a more vigorous and more varied fauna than where
a shale series was accumulating, when the water would be dis-
coloured, and only such animals would continue to live in it, or on
the bottom, as could maintain themselves in the midst of mud.
But no such lithological reason, betokening geographical changes
that would affect living creatures, can be adduced as a universally
applicable explanation of the occurrence and limitation of palaeon-
tologicar zones. One of these zones may be only a few inches, or
feet or yards in vertical extent, and no obvious lithological or other
cause can be seen whv its specially characteristic fossils should
not be found just as frequently in the similar strata above and
below. There is often little or no evidence of any serious change
in the conditions of sedimentation, still less of any widespread
physical disturbance, such as the catastrophes by which the
older geologists explained the extinction of successive types of
It has been suggested that, where the life-zones are well defined,
sedimentation has been extremely slow, and that though these zones
follow each other with no break in the sedimentation, they were
really separated by prolonged intervals of time during which organic
evolution could come effectively into play. But it is not easy to
explain how, for example in the Lower Lias, there could have been
a succession of prodigious intervals, when practically no sediment
was laid down, and yet that the strata should show no sign of con-
668
GEOLOGY
PTEATJGRAPHICAL
Paul VIL— Steatiorafhical Geology
This branch of the science arranges the rocks of the earth's
crust in the order of their appearance, and interprets the sequence
of events of which they form the records. Its province is to
cull from the other departments of geology the facts which may
be needed to show what has been the progress of our planet,
and of each continent and country, from the earliest times of
which the rocks have preserved any memorial Thus from
mineralogy and petrography it contains information regarding
the origin and subsequent mutations of minerals and rocks.
From dynamical geology it learns by what agencies the materials
of the earth's crust have been formed, altered, broken, upheaved
and melted. From geotectonic geology it understands the
various processes whereby these materials were put together
so as to build up the complicated crust of the earth. From
palaeontological geology it receives in well-determined fossil
remains a due by which to discriminate the different stratified
formations, and to trace the grand onward march of organized
existence upon this planet. Stratigraphies! geology thus
gathers up the sum of all that is made known by the other
departments of the science, and makes it subservient to the
interpretation of the geological history of the earth.
The leading principles of stratigraphy may be summed up
as follows:
i. In every stratigraphical research the fundamental requisite
is to establish the order of superposition of the strata. Until
this is accomplished it is impossible to arrange the dates, and
make out the sequence of geological history.
2. The stratified portion of the earth's crust, or what has been
called the " geological record," can be subdivided into natural
groups, or series of strata, characterized by distinctive organic
remains and recognizable by these remains, in spite of great
changes in lithological character from place to place. A bed,
or a number of beds, linked together by containing one or more
distinctive species or genera of fossils is termed a zone or horizon,
and usually bears the name of one of its more characteristic
fossils, as the Planorbis-tont of the Lower Lias, which is so
called from the prevalence in it of the ammonite Psilocercs
ploHorbis. Two or more such zones related to each other by the
possession of a number of the same characteristic species or
genera have been designated beds or an assise. Two or more
sets of beds or assises similarly related form a group or stage; a
number of groups or stages make a series, formation or section,
and a succession of formations may be united into a system.
3. Some living species of plants and animals can be traced
downwards through the more recent geological formations;
but the number which can be so followed grows smaller as the
examination is pursued into more ancient deposits. With their
disappearance other species or genera present themselves which
are no longer living. These in turn may be traced backward into
earlier formations, till they too cease and their places are taken by
yet older forms. It is thus shown that the stratified rocks contain
the records of a gradual progression of organic forms. A species
which has once died out does not seem ever to have reappeared.
4. When the order of succession of organic remains among the
stratified rocks has been determined, they become an invaluable
guide in the investigation of the relative age of rocks and the
structure of the land. Each zone and formation, being character-
ized by its own species or gtnera, may be recognized by their
means, and the true succession of strata may thus be confidently
established even in a country wherein the rocks have been
shattered by dislocation, folded, inverted or metamorphosed:
5. Though local differences exist in regard to the precise zone
in which a given species of organism may make its first appearance,
the general order of succession of the organic forms found in the
rocks is never inverted. The record is nowhere complete in any
region, but the portions represented, even though extremely
imperfect, always follow each other in their proper chronological
order, unless where disturbance of the crust has intervened to
destroy the original sequence.
A. The /dative chronological value of the divisions of the
geological record is not to be measured by mere depth of strata.
While it may be reasonably assumed that, in general, a great
thickness of stratified rock must mark the passage of a long
period of time, it cannot safely be affirmed that a much less
thickness elsewhere must represent a correspondingly diminished
period. The need for this caution may sometimes be made
evident by an unconformability between two sets of rocks, as
has already been explained. The total depth of both groups
together may be, say 1000 ft. Elsewhere we may find a single
unbroken formation reaching a depth of 10,000 ft.; but it would
be unwarrantable to assume that the latter represents ten times
the length of time indicated by the former two. So far from
this being the case, it might not be difficult to show that the
minor thickness of rock really denotes by far the longer geological
interval If, for instance, it could be proved that the upper
part of both the sections lies on one and the same geological
platform, but that the lower unconformable series in the one
locality belongs to a far lower and older system of rocks than the
base of the thick conformable scries in the other, then it would
be clear that the gap marked by the unconformability really
indicates a longer period than the massive succession of deposits.
7. Fossil evidence furnishes the chief means of comparing the
relative value of formations and groups of rock. A " break in
the succession of organic remains," as already explained, marks
an interval of time often unrepresented by strata at the place
where the break is found. The relative importance of these
breaks, and therefore, probably, the comparative intervals
of time which they mark, may be estimated by the difference
of the fades or general character of the fossils on each side.
If, for example, in one case we find every species to be dissimilar
above and below a certain horizon, while in another locality only
half of the species on each side are peculiar, we naturally infer,
if the total number of species seems large enough to warrant
the inference, that the interval marked by the former break
was much longer than that marked by the second. But we may
go further and compare by means of fossil evidence the relation
between breaks in the succession of organic remains and the
depth of strata between them.
Three formations of fossUiferous strata, A, C, and H, may occur
conformably above each other. By a comparison of the fossil
in some cases they may not represent so long a total period of time
as do the gaps in their succession, — in other words, that non-deposi-
tion was more frequent and prolonged than deposition, or that the
intervals of time which have been recorded by strata have not been
so long as those which have not been so recorded.
In all speculations of this nature, however, It is necessary
to reason from as wide a basis of observation as possible, seeing
that so much of the evidence is negative. Especially needful
is it to bear in mind that the cessation of one or more specks
at a certain line among the rocks of a particular district may
mean nothing more than that, onward from the time marked
by that line, these species, owing to some change in the conditions
of life, were compelled to migrate or became locally extinct or,
from some alteration in the conditions of fossilization, were no
longer imbedded and preserved as fossils. They may have
continued to flourish abundantly in neighbouring districts for
a long period afterward. Many examples of this obvious
truth might be dted. Thus in a great succession of mingled
marine, brackish-water and terrestrial strata, like that of the
Carboniferous limestone series of Scotland, corals, crinoids
PHYSIOGRAPHICAL]
GEOLOGY
669
and brachiopods abound in the limestones and accompanying
shales, but disappear as the sandstones, ironstones, clays, coals
and bituminous shales supervene. An observer meeting for the
first time with an instance of this disappearance, and remember-
ing what he had read about breaks in succession, might be
tempted to speculate about the extinction of these organisms,
and their ^placement by other and later forms of life, such as
the ferns, lycopods, estuarine or fresh-water shells, ganoid
fishes and other fossils so abundant in the overlying strata.
But further research would show him that high above the plant-
bearing sandstones and coals other limestones and shales might
be observed, once more charged with the same marine fossils
as before, and still farther overlying groups of sandstones, coals
and carbonaceous beds followed by yet higher marine limestones.
He would thus learn that the same organisms, after being
locally exterminated, returned again and again to the same
area. After such a lesson he would probably pause before too
confidently asserting that the highest bed in which we can
detect certain fossils marks their final appearance in the history
of life. Some breaks in the succession may thus be extremely
local, one set of organisms having been driven to a different part
of the same region, while another set occupied their place until
the first was enabled to return.
8. The geological record is at the best but an imperfect
chronicle of the geological history of the earth. It abounds
in gaps, some of which have been caused by the destruction of
strata oving to metamorphism, denudation or otherwise, others
by original non-deposition, as above explained. Nevertheless
from this record alone can the progress of the earth be traced.
It contains the registers of the appearance and disappearance
of tribes of plants and animals which have from time to time
flourished on the earth. Only a small proportion of the total
Dumber of species which have lived in past time have been thus
chronicled, yet by collecting the broken fragments of the record
an outline at least of the history of life upon the earth can be
deciphered.
It cannot be too frequently stated, nor too prominently kept
in view, that, although gaps occur in the succession of organic
remains as recorded in the rocks, they do not warrant the conclu-
sion that any such blank intervals ever interrupted the progress
of plant and animal life upon the globe. There is every reason
€0 believe that the march of life has been unbroken, onward and
upward. Geological history, therefore, if its records in the
stratified formations were perfect, ought to show a blending
and gradation of epoch with epoch. But the progress has been
constantly interrupted, now by upheaval, now by volcanic
outbursts, now by depression. These interruptions serve as
natural divisions in the chronicle, and enable the geologist to
arrange hi* history into periods. As the order of succession
among stratified rocks was first made out in Europe, and as many
of the gaps in that succession were found to be widespread over
the European area, the divisions which experience established
for that portion of the globe came to be regarded as typical,
and the names adopted for them were applied to the rocks of
other and far distant regions. This application has brought out
the fact that some of the most marked breaks in the European
series do not exist elsewhere, and, on the other hand, that some
portions of that series are much more complete than the corre-
sponding sections in other regions. Hence, while the general
similarity of succession may remain, different subdivisions and
nomenclature are required as we pass from continent to continent.
The nomenclature adopted for the subdivisions of the geological
record bears witness to the rapid growth of geology. It is a
patch-work in which no system nor language has been adhered
to, but where the influences by which the progress of the science
has been moulded may be distinctly traced. Some of the earliest
names are lithological, and remind us of the fact that mineralogy
and petrography preceded geology in the order of birth— Chalk,
Oolite, Creensand, Millstone Grit. Others are topographical,
and often recall the labours of the early geologists of England—
London Clay, Oxford Clay, Purbeck, Portland, Kimmeridge beds.
Outers are taken from local English provincial nsxnetj and
remind us of the debt we owe to William Smith, by whom so
many of them were first used— Lias, Gault, Crag, Cornbrash.
Others of later date recognize an order of superposition as
already established among formations— Old Red Sandstone,
New Red Sandstone. By common consent it is admitted that
names taken from the region where a formation or group of rocks
b typically developed are best adapted for general use.
Cambrian, Silurian, Devonian, Permian, Jurassic are of this
class, and have been adopted all over the globe.
But whatever be the name chosen to designate a particular
group of strata, it soon comes to be used as a chronological or
homotaxial term, apart altogether from the stratigraphical
character of the strata to which it is applied. Thus we speak
of the Chalk or Cretaceous system, and embrace under that
term formations which may contain no chalk; and we may.
describe as Silurian a series of strata utterly unlike in lithological
characters to the formations in the typical Silurian country.
In using these terms we unconsciously allow the idea of relative
date to arise prominently before us. Hence such a word as
chalk n or •• cretaceous " docs not suggest so much to us the
group of strata so called as the interval of geological history
which these strata represent. We speak of the Cretaceous,
Jurassic, and Cambrian periods, and of the Cretaceous fauna,
the Jurassic flora, the Cambrian trilobites, as if these adjectives
denoted simply epochs of geological time.
The stratified formations of the earth's crust, or geological
record, are classified into five main divisions, which In their
order of antiquity arc as follows: (1) Archcan or Pre-Cambrian,
called also sometimes Azoic (lifeless) or Eozoic (dawn of life);
(2) Palaeozoic (ancient life) or Primary; (3) Mesozoic (middle
life) or Secondary; (4) Cainozoic (recent life) or Tertiary;
(5) Quaternary or Post -Tertiary. These divisions are further
ranged into systems, formations, groups or stages, assises and
zones. Accounts of the various subdivisions named are given
in separate articles under their own headings. In order, however,
that the sequence of the formations and their parallelism, in
Europe and North America may be presented together'a strati-
graphical table is given on next page.
Part VIII.— Physxogkaphical Geology
This department of geological' inquiry investigates the origin
and history of the present topographical features of the land.
As these features must obviously be related to those of earlier
lime which are recorded in the rocks of the earth's crust, they
cannot be satisfactorily studied until at least the main outlines
of the history of these rocks have been traced. Hence physio-
graphical research comes appropriately after the other branches
of the science have been considered.
From the stratigraphy of the terrestrial crust we learn that
by far the largest part of the area of dry land is built up of marine
formations; and therefore that the present land is not an
aboriginal portion of the earth's surface, but has been overspread
by the sea in which its rocks were mainly accumulated. We
further discover that this submergence of the land did not
happen once only, but again and again in past ages and in all
parts of the world. Yet although the terrestrial areas varied
much from age to age in their extent and in their distribution,
being at one time more continental, at another more insular,
there is reason to believe that these successive diminutions and
expansions have on the whole been effected within, or not fat
outside, the limits of the existing continents. There is no
evidence that any portion of the present land ever lay under the
deeper parts of the ocean. The abysmal deposits of the ocean*
floor have no true representatives among the sedimentary
formations anywhere visible on the land. Nor, on the other
band, can It be shown that any part, of the existing ocean
abysses ever rose above sea-level into dry land. Hence geologists
have drawn the inference that the ocean basins have probably
been always where they now are; and that although the con*
tinental areas have often been narrowed by submergence and by
denudat i o n , there has protasJoly w d dn<noATss*^^ff^^ <jwMJg ^
670
GEOLOGY mnsKXHuraictt
Tkt Geological Record or Order of Succession of the Stratified
Formations of the Earth's Crust.
PHY5I0GRAPHICAL)
GEOLOGY
671
disappearance of land. The fact that the sedimentary forma-
tions of each successive geological period consist to so large an
extent of mechanically formed terrigenous detritus, affords
good evidence of the coexistence of tracts of land as well as of
extensive denudation.
From these general considerations we proceed to inquire how
the existing topographical features of the land arose. Obviously
the co-operation of the two great -geological agencies of hypogene
and epicene energy, which have been at work from the beginning
of our globe's decipherable history, must have been the cause
to which these features are to be assigned; and the task of the
geologist is to ascertain, if possible, the part that has been taken
by each. There is a natural tendency to see in a stupendous
piece of scenery, such as a deep ravine, a range of hills, a line of
precipice or a chain of mountains, evidence only of subterranean
convulsion; and before the subject was taken up as a matter
of strict scientific induction, an appeal to former cataclysms
was considered a sufficient solution of the problems presented
by such features of landscape. The rise of the modern
Huttonian school, however, led to a more careful examination
of these problems. The important share taken by erosion in the
determination of the present features of landscape was then
recognised, while a fuller appreciation of the relative parts
played by the hypogene and epigene causes has gradually been
reached.
x. The study of the progress of denudation at the present
time has led to the conclusion that even if the rate of waste
were not more rapid than it is to-day, it would yet suffice in a
comparatively brief geological period to reduce the dry land to
below the sea-level. But not only would the area of the land be
diminished by denudation, it could hardly fail to be more or
less involved in those widespread movements of subsidence,
during which the thick sedimentary formations of the crust
appear to have been accumulated. It is thus manifest that there
must have been from time to time during the history of our
globe upward movements of the, crust, whereby the balance
between land and sea was redressed. Proofs of such movements
have been abundantly preserved among the stratified formations.
We there learn that the uplifts have usually followed each other
at long intervals between which subsidence prevailed, and thus
that there has been a prolonged oscillation of the crust over the
great continental areas of the earth's surface.
An examination of that surface leads to the recognition of two
great types of upheaval. In the one, the sea-floor, with all its
thick accumulations of sediment, has been carried upwards,
sometimes for several thousand feet, so equably that the strata
retain their Original flatness with hardly any sensible disturbance
for hundreds of square miles. In the other type the solid crust
has been plicated, corrugated and dislocated, especially along
particular lines, and has attained its most stupendous disruption
in lofty chains of mountains. Between these two phases of uplift
many intermediate stages have been developed, according to
the direction and intensity of the subterranean force and the
varying nature and disposition of the rocks of the crust.
(a) Where the uplift has extended over wide spaces, without
appreciable deformation of the crust, the flat strata have given
rise to low plains, or if the amount of uprise has been great
enough, to high plains, plateaux or tablelands. The plains of
Russia, for example, lie for the most part on such tracts of
equably uplifted strata. The great plains of the western interior
of the United States form a great plateau or tableland, 5000 or
6000 ft. above the sea, and many thousands of square miles in
extent, on which the Rocky Mountains have been ridged up.
(6) It is in a great mountain-chain that the complicated
structures developed during disturbances of the earth's crust
can best be studied (see Parts IV. and V. of this article), and
where the influence of these structures on the topography of the
surface is most effectively displayed. Such a chain may be the
result of one colossal disturbance; but those of high geological
antiquity usually furnish proofs of successive uplifts with more
or less intervening denudation. Formed along lines of continental
dhphcemcat in the crmu they haft again and again given
relief fronnbe strain of compression by fresh crumpling, fracture
and uprise. . The chief guide in tracing these successive stages
of growth is supplied by unconformability. If, for example, a
mountain-range consists of upraised Silurian rocks, upon the
upturned and denuded edges of which the Carboniferous Lime-
stone lies transgressively, it is clear that its original upheaval
must have taken place in the period of geological time represented
by the interval between the Silurian and the Carboniferous
Limestone formations. If, as the range is followed along its
course, the Carboniferous Limestone is found to be also highly
inclined and covered unconfbnnably by the Upper Coal-measures,
a second uplift of that portion of the ground can be proved to
have taken place between the time of the Limestone and that of
the Upper Coal-measures. By this simple and obvious kind of
evidence the relative ages of different mountain-chains may
be compared. In most great chains, however, the rocks have
been so intensely crumpled, and even inverted, that much
labour may be required before their true relations can be deter-
mined.
The Alps furnish an instructive example of the long series of
revolutions through which a great mountain-system may have
passed before reaching its present development. The first
beginnings of the chain may have been upraised before the
oldest Palaeozoic formations were laid down. There are at
least traces of land and shore-lines in the Carboniferous period.
Subsequent submergences and uplifts appear to have occurred
during the Mesozoic periods. There is evidence that thereafter
the whole region sank deep under the sea, in which the older
Tertiary sediments were accumulated, and which seems to
have spread right across the heart of the Old World. But after
the deposition of the Eocene formations came the gigantic
disruptions whereby all the rocks of the Alpine region were
folded over each other, crushed, corrugated, fractured and
displaced, some of their older portions, including the fundamental
gneisses and schists, being squeezed up, torn off, and pushed
horizontally for many miles over the younger rocks. But this
upheaval, though the most momentous, was not the last which
the chain has undergone, for at a later epoch in Tertiary time
renewed disturbance gave rise to a further series of ruptures
and plications. The chain thus successively upheaved has
been continuously exposed to denudation and has consequently
lost much of its original height. That it has been left in a state
of instability is indicated by the frequent earthquakes of the
Alpine region, which doubtless arise from the sudden snapping
of rocks under intense strain.
A distinct type of mountain due to direct hypogene action is
to be seen in a volcano. It has been already pointed out (Part IV.
sect, x) that at the vents which maintain a communication
between the molten magma of the earth's interior and the
surface, eruptions take place whereby quantities of lava and
fragmentary materials are heaped round each orifice of
discharge. A typical volcanic mountain takes the form of a
perfect cone, but as H grows in size and its main vent is choked,
while the sides of the cone are unable to withstand the force of
the explosions or the pressure of the ascending column of lava,
eruptions take place laterally, and numerous parasitic cones
arise on the flanks of the parent mountain. Where lava flows
out from long fissures, it may pile up vast sheets of rock, and
bury the surrounding country under several thousand feet of
solid stone, covering many hundreds of square miles. In this
way volcanic tablelands have been formed which, attacked by
the denuding forces, are gradually trenched by valleys and
ravines, until the original level surface of the lava-field may be
almost or wholly lost. As striking examples of this physio-
graphical type reference may be made to the plateau of Abyssinia,
the Ghats of India, the plateaux of Antrim, the Inner Hebrides
and Iceland, and the great lava-plains of the western territories
of the United States.
a. But while the subterranean movements have upraised
portions of the surface of the lithosphcre above the level of the
ocean, and have thus been vca\T^mtxA.^\xv^\^^S^%>5o«. «xs&af^
iracu ol tea*, \b* ojAb&Ax^^
4>j2
GEOLOGY
[TOYBIOGRAPHTCAL
are not solely, nor iff general even chiefly, attributable to these
movements. From the time that any portion of the sea-floor
appears above sea-level, it undergoes erosion by the various
cpigene agents. Each climate and geological region has its own
development of these agents, which include air, aridity, rapid and
frequent alternations of wetness and dryness or of heat and
cold, rain, springs, frosts, rivers, glaciers, the sea, plant and
animal life. In a dry climate subject to great extremes of
temperature the character and rate of decay will differ from
those of a moist or an arctic climate. But it must be remembered
that, however much they may vary in activity and in the results
which they effect, the epigene forces work without intermission,
while the hypogene forces bring about the upheaval of land only
after long intervals. Hence, trilling as the results during a
human life may appear, if we realize the multiplying influence
of time we are led to perceive that the apparently feeble super-
ficial agents 'can, in the course of ages, achieve stupendous
transformations in the aspect of the land. If this efficacy may
be deduced from what can be seen to be in progress now, it
nay not less convincingly be shown, from the nature of the
sedimentary rocks of the earth's crust, to have been in progress
from the early beginnings of geological history. Side by side
with the various upheavals and subsidences, there has been a
continuous removal of materials from the land, and an equally
persistent deposit of these materials under water, with the
consequent growth of new rocks. Denudation has been aptly
compared to a process of sculpturing wherein, while each of the
implements employed by nature, like a special kind of graving
tool, produces its own characteristic impress on the land, they
all combine harmoniously towards the achievement of their
one common task. Hence the present contours of the land
depend partly on the original configuration of lb* ground, and
the influence it may have had in guiding the operations of the
erosive agents, partly on the vigour with which these agents
perform their work, and partly on the varying structure and
powers of resistance possessed by the rocks on which the erosion
is carried on.
Where a new tract of land has been raised out of the sea
by such an energetic movement as broke up the crust and
produced the complicated structure and tumultuous external
forms of a great mountain chain, the influence of the hypogene
forces on the topography attains its highest development.
But even the youngest existing chain has suffered so greatly
from denudation that the aspect which it presented at the time
of its uplift can only be dimly perceived. No more striking
illustration of this feature can be found than that supplied by
the Alps, nor one where the geotectonic structures have been
so fully studied in detail. On the outer flanks of these mountains
the longitudinal ridges and valleys of the Jura correspond with
lines *of anticline and syncline. Yet though the dominant
topographical elements of the region have obviously been
produced by the "plication of the stratified formations, each
ridge has suffered so large an amount of erosion that the younger
rocks have been removed from its crest where the older members
of the series are now exposed to view, while on every slope
proofs may be seen of extensive denudation. If from these
long wave-like undulations of the ground, where the relations
between the disposition of the rocks below and the forms of
the surface are so clearly traceable, the observer proceeds
Inwards to the main chain, he finds that the plications and
displacements of the various formations assume an increasingly
complicated character; and that although proofs of great
denudation continue to abound, it becomes increasingly difficult
to form any satisfactory conjecture as to the shape of the ground
when the upheaval ended or any reliable estimate of the amount
of material which has since then been removed. Along the
central heights the mountains lift themselves towards the sky
like the storm-swept crests of vast earth-billows. The whole
•spect of the ground suggests intense commotion, and the
impression thns given is often much intensified by the twisted
Mad crumpled strata, visible from a long; distance, on the crags
Mod crests. On this hrafcen-up surface the ▼mrinu* agents el
denudation have been ceaselessly engaged since it emerfed
from the sea. They have excavated valleys, sometimes along
depressions provided for them by the subterranean disturbances,
sometimes down the slopes of the disrupted blocks of ground.
So powerful has been this erosion that valleys cut out along
lines of anticline, which were natural ridges, have sometimes
become more important than those in lines of syncline, which
were structurally depressions. The same subaerial forces have
eroded lake-basins, dug out conies or cirques, notched the
ridges, splintered the crests and furrowed the slopes, leav-
ing no part of the original surface of the uplifted chain
unmodified.
It has often been noted with surprise that features of
underground structure which, it might have been confidently
anticipated, should have exercised a marked influence on tat
topography of the surface have not been able to resist the
levelling action of the denuding agents, and do not now affect
the surface at all. This result is conspicuously seen in coal-fiddi
where the strata are abundantly traversed by faults. These
dislocations, having sometimes a displacement of several hundred
feet, might have been expected to break up the surface into
a network of cliffs and plains; yet in general they do not modify
the level character of the ground above. One of the mou
remarkable faults in Europe is the great thrust which bound*
the southern edge of the Belgian coal-field and brings the
Devonian rocks above the Coal-measures. It can be traced
across Belgium into the Boulonnais, and may not improbably
run beneath the Secondary and Tertiary rocks of the south of
England. It is crossed by the valleys of the Meuse and other
northerly-flowing streams. Yet so indistinctly is it marked
in the Meuse valley that no one would suspect its existence from
any peculiarity in the general form of the ground, and even aa
experienced geologist, until he had learned the structure of the
district, would scarcely detect any iault at all.
Where faults have influenced the superficial topography,
it is usually by giving rise to a hollow along which the subaerial
agents and especially running water can act effectively. Sack
a hollow may be eventually widened and deepened into a valley.
On bare crags and crests, lines of fault arc apt to be marked by
notches or clefts, and they thus help to produce the pinnacles
and serrated outlines of these exposed uplands.
It was cogently enforced by Hutton and Playiair, and inde-
pendently by Lamarck, that no co-operation of underground
agency is needed to produce such topography as may be seen
in a great part of the world, but that if a tract of sea-floor wen
upraised into a wide plain, the fall of rain and the drculatiea
of water over its surface would in the end carve out such a system
of hills and valleys as may be seen on the dry land now. No
such plain would be a dead-level. It would have inequalities
on its surface which would serve as channels to guide the drainage
from the first showers of rain. And these channels would be
slowly widened and deepened until they would become ravines
and valleys, while the ground between them would be left project'
ing as ridges and hills. Nor would the erosion of such a system
of water-courses require a long series of geological periods for
its accomplishment. From measurements and estimates of the
amount of erosion now taking place in the basin of the Mi«i«upp
river it has been computed that valleys 800 ft. deep might be
carved out in less than a million years. In the vast tablelands
of Colorado and other western regions of the United States aa
impressive picture is presented of the results of mere subaerial
erosion on undisturbed and nearly level strata. Systems of
stream-courses and valleys, river gorges unexampled elsewhere
in the world for depth and length, vast winding lines of escarp-
ment, like ranges of sea-cliffs, terraced slopes rising from plateau
to plateau, huge buttresses and solitary stacks standing like
islands out of the plains, great mountain-masses towering into
picturesque peaks and pinnacles cleft by innumerable gulhet,
yet everywhere marked by the parallel bars of the horizontal
strata out of which they have been carved — these are the orderly
symme\rka\ chaxa&\im&.lc& cA %, country where the scenery h
i duftcjn\ta\y vo Cs* tdtafe wl v&wfc^VHE^***^*
PHYSIOGRAPHICAL)
GEOLOGY
6 73
the varying resistance of perfectly regular stratified rocks on the
other.
The details of the sculpture of the land have mainly depended
on the nature of the materials on which nature's erosive tools
have been employed. The joints by whkh all rocks are traversed
have been especially serviceable as dominant lines down which
the rain. has filtered, up which the springs have risen and into
which the frost wedges have been driven. On the high bare
scarps of a lofty mountain the inner structure of the mass is laid
open, and there the system of jdints even more than faults is
seen to have determined the lines of crest, the vertical walls of
cliff and precipice, the forms of buttress and recess, the position
of cleft and chasm, the outline of spire and pinnade. On the
lower slopes, even under the tapestry of verdure which nature
delights to hang where she can over her naked rocks, we may
detect the same pervading influence of the joints upon the forms
assumed by ravines and crags. Each kind of stone, too, gives
rise to its own characteristic form of scenery. Massive crystalline
rocks, such as granite, break up along their joints and often
decay into sand or earth along their exposed surfaces, giving
rise to rugged crags with long talus slopes at their base. The
stratified rocks besides splitting at their joints are especially
distinguished by parallel ledges, cornices and recesses, produced
by the irregular decay of their component strata, so that they
often assume curiously architectural types of scenery. But
besides this family feature they display many minor varieties of
aspect according to their lilhological composition. A range of
sandstone hills, for example, presents a marked contrast to one
of limestone, and a line of chalk downs to the escarpments
formed by alternating bands of harder and softer clays and
shales.
It may suffice here merely to allude to a few of the more
Important parts of the topography of the land in their relation
to physiographical geology. A true mountain-chain, viewed
from the geological side, is a mass of high ground which owes its
prominence to a ridging-up of the earth's crust, and the intense
plication and rupture of the rocks of which it is composed. But
ranges of hills almost mountainous in their bulk may be formed
by the gradual erosion -of valleys out of a mass of original high
ground, such as a high plateau or tableland. Eminences which
have been isolated by denudation from the main mass of the
formations of which they originally formed part arc known as
" outliers " or " hills of circumdenudation."
Tablelands, as already pointed out, may be produced either
by the upheaval of tracts of horizontal strata from the sea-floor
into land; or by the uprise of plains of denudation, where rocks
of various composition, structure and age have been levelled
down to near or below the level of the sea by the co-operation
of the various erosive agents. Most of the great tablelands
of the globe are platforms of little-disturbed strata which have
been upraised bodily to a considerable elevation. No sooner,
however, are they placed in that position than they arc attacked
by running water, and begin to be hollowed out into systems of
valleys. As the valleys sink, the platforms between them grow
into narrower and more definite ridges, until eventually the
level tableland is converted into a complicated network of hills
and valleys, wherein, nevertheless, the key to the whole arrange-
ment is furnished by a knowledge of the disposition and effects
of the flow of water. The examples of this process brought to
light in Colorado, Wyoming, Nevada and the other western
regions by Newberry, King, Hay den, Powell and other explorers,
are among the most striking monuments of geological operations
in the world.
Examples of ancient and much decayed tablelands formed by
the denudation of much disturbed rocks are furnished by. the
Highlands of Scotland and of Norway. Each of these tracts of
high ground consists of some of the oldest and most dislocated
formations of Europe, which at a remote period were worn down
into a plain, and in that condition may have lain long submerged
under the sea and may possibly have been overspread there
with younger formations. Having at a much later time been
raised several thousand feet above sea-level the ancient platforms
of Britain and Scandinavia have been since exposed to denuda-
tion, whereby each of them has been so deeply channeled into
glens and fjords that it presents to-day a surface of rugged
hills, either isolated or connected along the flanks, while only
fragments of the general surface of the tableland can here and
there be recognized amidst the general destruction.
Valleys have in general been hollowed out by the greater
erosive action of running water along the channels of drainage.
Their direction has been probably determined in the great
majority of cases by irregularities of the surface along which
the drainage flowed on the first emergence of the land. Some-
times these irregularities have been produced by folds of the
terrestrial crust, sometimes by faults, sometimes by the irregu-
larities on the surface of an uplifted platform of deposition or of
denudation. Two dominant trends may be observed among
them. Some are longitudinal and run along the line of flexures
in the upraised tract of land, others are transverse where the
drainage has flowed down the slopes of the ridges into the longi-
tudinal valleys or into the sea. The forms of valleys have been
governed partly by the structure and composition of the rocks,
and partly by the relative potency of the different denuding
agents. Where the influence of rain and frost has been slight,
and the streams, supplied from distant sources, have had
sufficient declivity, deep, narrow, precipitous ravines or gorges
have been excavated. The canyons of the arid region of the
Colorado are a magnificent example of this result. Where, on
the other hand, ordinary atmospheric action has been more
rapid, the sides of the river channels have been attacked, and
open sloping glens and valleys have been hollowed out. A
gorge or defile is usually due to the action of a waterfall, which,
beginning with some abrupt declivity or precipice in the course
of the river when it first commenced to flow, or caused by some
hard rock crossing the channel, has eaten its way backward.
Lakes have been already referred to, and their modes of origin
have been mentioned. As they are continually being filled up
with the detritus washed into them from the surrounding
regions they cannot be of any great geological antiquity, unless
where by some unknown process their basins are from time to
time widened and deepened.
In the general subaerial denudation of a country, innumerable
minor features are worked out as the structure of the rocks
controls the operations of the eroding agents. Thus, among
comparatively undisturbed strata, a hard bed resting upon
others of a softer kind is apt to form along its outcrop a line of
cliff or escarpment. Though a long range of such cliffs resembles
a coast that has been worn by the sea, it may be entirely due to
mere atmospheric waste. Again, the more resisting portions of
a rock may be seen projecting as crags or knolls. An igneous
mass will stand out as a bold hill from amidst the more decom-
posable strata through which it has risen. These features
often so marked on the lower grounds, attain their most con-
spicuous development among the higher and barer parts of the
mountains, where subaerial disintegration is most rapid. The
torrents tear out deep gullies from the sides of the declivities.
Corrics or cirques are scooped out on the one hand and naked
precipices arc left on the other. The harder bands of rock
project as massive ribs down the slopes, shoot up into prominent
aiguilles, or help to give to the summits the notched saw-like
outlines they so often present.
The materials worn from the surface of the higher are spread
out over the lower grounds. The streams as they descend begin
to drop their freight of sediment when, by the lessening of their
declivity, their carrying power is diminished. The great plains
of the earth's surface are due to this deposit of gravel, sand and
loam. They are thus monuments at once of the destructive and
reproductive processes which have been in progress unceasingly
since the first land rose above the sea and the first shower of rain
fell. Every pebble and particle of their soil, once part of the
distant mountains, has travelled slowly and fitfully to lower
levels. Again and again have these materials been shifted,
ever moving downward and sea-ward. For centuries, perhaps,
they have taken their share in the (extilUy, <it Out <»\*&a> *»A.
67+
GEOMETRICAL CONTINUITY
have ministered to the nurture of flower and tree, of the bird of
the air, the beast of the field and of man himself. But their
destiny is still the great ocean. In that bourne alone can they
find undisturbed repose, and there, slowly accumulating in
massive beds, they will remain until, in the course of ages,
renewed upheaval shall raise them into future land, there once
more to pass through the same cycle of change. (A. Gb.)
Literature.— Historical: The standard work is Karl A. von
Zittel'a GesckichU der Geologie und Poidontologie (1899), of which
there is an abbreviated, but still valuable, English translation;
D'Archiac. Histoire des progres de la giologie, deals especially with
the period 1834-1850; Keferstein, Gesckickte und Lileratur der
Geognosie, gives a summary up to 1840; while Sir A. Geikie'*
Founders of Geology (1897; and ed., 1906) deals more particularly
with the period 1750-1820. General treatises: Sir Charles Lycll a
Principles of Geology is a classic. Of modern English works, Sir A.
Geikie^s Text Book of Geology (4th ed., 1903) occupies the first place:
the work of T. C. Chamberlin and R. D. Salisbury, Geology; Earth
History (3 vols., 1905-1906), is especially valuable for American
geology. A. de Lapparent's Traiti de giologie (5th ed., 1906), is the
standard French work. H. Credner's Elenu
• through several editions in Germany. 1
graphical geology are elaborately treated t
der Erde, translated into English, with the ti
The practical study of the science is treated
FCkrerfar Forschungsreisende (1886); G. A
Geology (5th ed., 1906) ; A. Geikie, Outlines <
1900). The practical applications of Ge
J. V. Elsden. Applied Geology (1898-1899).
to scenery are dealt with by Sir A. Geikie, Sa
1901); J. E. Marr, The Scientific Study <
Avebury, The Scenery of Switzerland (1896)
(1902); and J. Geikie, Earth Sculpture (18, .
graphy is given in Sir A. Geikie's Text Book of Geology. See also
the separate articles on geological subjects for special references to
authorities.
GEOMETRICAL CONTINUITY. In a report of the Institute
prefixed to Jean Victor Poncelet's Traiti des proprittis pro-
jeetives des figures (Paris, 1822), it is said that he employed " ce
qu'il appelle le principc de continuity. " The law or principle
thus named by him had, he tells us, been tacitly assumed as
axiomatic by " les plus savans geomitres." It had in fact been
enunciated as " lex continuationis," and " la loi de la continuite,"
by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibnitz (Oxf. N.E.D.), and previously
under another name by Johann Kepler in cap. iv. 4 of his Ad
Vitellionem paralipomena quibus ostronomiae pars optica trad it ur
(Francofurti, 1604). Of sections of the cone, he says, there are
five species from the " recta linea " or line-pair to the circle.
From the line-pair we pass through an infinity of hyperbolas to
the parabola, and thence through an infinity of ellipses to the
circle. Related to the sections are certain remarkable points
which have no name. Kepler calls them foci. The circle has
one focus at the centre, an ellipse or hyperbola two foci equi-
distant from the centre. The parabola has one focus within it,
and another, the " caecus focus," which may be imagined to be
at infinity on the axis within or without the curve. The line from it
to any point of the section is parallel to the axis. To carry out
the analogy we must speak paradoxically, and say that the line-
pair likewise has foci, which in this case coalesce as in the circle
and fall upon the lines themselves; for our geometrical terms
should be subject to analogy. Kepler dearly loves analogies, his
most trusty teachers, acquainted with all the secrets of nature,
" omnium naturae arcanorum conscios." And they are to be
especially regarded in geometry as, by the use of " however
absurd expressions," classing extreme limiting forms with an
infinity of intermediate cases, and placing the whole essence of a
thing clearly before the eyes.
Here, then, we find formulated by Kepler the doctrine of the
concurrence of parallels at a single point at infinity and the
principle of continuity (under the name analogy) in relation to the
infinitely great Such conceptions so strikingly propounded in
a famous work could not escape the notice of contemporary
mathematicians. Henry Briggs, in a letter to Kepler from
Merton College, Oxford, dated " 10 Cal. Martiis 1625," suggests
improvements in the Ad Vitellionem paralipomena, and gives
the following construction: Draw a line CBADC, and let an
ellipse, s parabola, mod a hyperbola have B and A for locus and
vertex. Let CC be the other foci of the ellipse and the hyperbola.
Make AD equal to AB, and with centres CC and radius in each
case equal to CD describe circles. Then any point of the ellipse
is equidistant from the focus B and one circle, and any point of
the hyperbola from the focus B and the other circle. Any point
P of the parabola, in which the second focus is missing or in-
finitely distant, is equidistant from the focus B and. the line
through D which we call the directrix, this taking the place of
either circle when its centre C is at infinity, and every line CP
being then parallel to the axis; Thus Briggs, and we know not
how many " savans geometres " who have left no record, had
already taken up the new doctrine in geometry in iti authors
lifetime. Six years after Kepler's death in 1630 Giraxd Desargues,
" the Monge of his age/' brought out the first of his remarkable
works founded on the same principles, a short tract entitled
JdUhode universale de mettre en perspective les objets daunts
rHUement ou en devii (Paris, 1636); but " Le privilege etoit de
1630 " (Poudra, CEuvres de Des., L 55). Kepler as a modem
geometer is best known by bis New Stereometry of Wine Casks
(Lindi, 161 5), in which he replaces the circuitous Archimedean
method of exhaustion by a direct " royal road " of infinitesimals,
treating a vanishing arc as a straight line and regarding a curve
as made up of a succession of short chords. Some sooo years
previously one Antipho, probably the well-known opponent of
Socrates, has regarded a circle in like manner as the limiting
form of a many-sided inscribed rectilinear figure. Amipho*f
notion was rejected by the men of his day as unsound, and when
reproduced by Kepler it was again stoutly opposed as incapable
of any sort of geometrical demonstration — not altogether with-
out reason, for it rested on an assumed law of continuity rather
than on palpable proof.
To complete the theory of continuity, the one thing needful
was the idea of imaginary points implied in the algebraical
geometry of Rene Descartes, in which equations between vari-
ables representing co-ordinates were found often to have imaginary
roots. Newton, in his two sections on " Inventio orbhtin "
(Principia L 4, 5), shows in his brief way that he is familiar with
the principles of modern geometry. In two propositions be uses
an auxiliary line which is supposed to cut the conic in X and Y,
but, as he remarks at the end of the second (prop. 24), it may not
cut it at all. For the sake of brevity he passes on at once with the
observation that the required constructions are evident from the
case in which the line cuts the trajectory. In the scholium
appended to prop. 27, after saying that an asymptote is a tangent
at infinity, he gives an unexplained general construction for the
axes of a conic, which seems to imply that it has asymptotes.
In all such cases, having equations to his loci in the background,
he may have thought of elements of the figure as passing into the
imaginary state in such manner as not to vitiate conclusions
arrived at on the hypothesis of their reality.
Roger Joseph Boscovich, a careful student of Newton's works,
has a full and thorough discussion of geometrical continuity in
the third and last volume of his Elementa universae mathesets
(ed. prim. Venet, 1757). which contains Scctionum conicarum
elementa nova quadam methodo concinnata el disserlationem it
transformalione locorum geometricorum, ubi de centinuitatis
lege, el de qttibusdam infiniti mysteriis. His first principle is
that all varieties of a defined locus have the same properties, so
that what is demonstrable of one should be demonstrable in Uke
manner of all, although some artifice may be required to bring
out the underlying analogy between them. The opposite
extremities of an infinite straight line, he says, are to be regarded
as joined, as if the line were a circle having its centre at the
infinity on either side of it. This leads up to the idea of a vdtdi
plus quam ittfinita extensio, a line-circle containing, as we say,
the line infinity. Change from the real to the imaginary state a
contingent upon the passage of some element of a figure through
aero or infinity and never takes place per solium. Lines being
some positive and some negative, there mnst be negative reel*
angles and negative squares, such as those of the exterior
diameters of a hyperbola. Boscovich's first principle was that
of Kepler, by whose quantumvis absurdis locutionibus the boldest
HISTORY)
GEOMETRY
675
applications of it are covered, as when we say with Poncelet
that all concentric circles in a plane touch one another in two
imaginary fixed points at infinity. In G. K. Ch. von Staudt's
Geometric der Lage and BeitrUge tur G. der L. (NUrnberg, 1847,
1 8 56-1 860) the geometry of position, including the extension of
the field of pure geometry to the infinite and the imaginary, is
presented as an independent science, " welche des Messens nicht
bedarf." (See Geometry: Projective.)
Ocular illusions due to distance, such as Roger Bacon notices
in the Opus majus (i. 126, ii. 108, 497; Oxford, 1897), lead up to
or illustrate the mathematical uses of the infinite and its re*
ciprocal the infinitesimal. Specious objections can, of course, be
made to the anomalies of the law of continuity, but they are
inherent in the higher geometry, which has taught us so much
of the " secrets of nature." Kepler's excursus on the " analogy "
between the conic sections hereinbefore referred to is given at
length in an article on " The Geometry of Kepler and Newton "
in vol. xviii. of the Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical
Society ( 1 000) . It had been generally overlooked, until attention
was called to it by the present writer in a note read in 1880 {Proc.
C.PS. iv. 14-17), and shortly afterwards in The Ancient and
Modern Geometry of Conies, with Historical Notes and Prolego-
mena (Cambridge 1881). (C T.*)
GEOMETRY, the general term for the branch of mathematics
which has for its province the study of the properties of
space. From experience, or possibly intuitively, we characterize
existent space by certain fundamental qualities, termed axioms,
which are insusceptible of proof; and these axioms, in conjunc-
tion with the mathematical entities of the point, straight line,
curve, surface and solid, appropriately defined, are the premises
from which the geometer draws conclusions. The geometrical
axioms are merely conventions; on the one hand, the system
may be based upon inductions from experience, in which case
the deduced geometry may be regarded as a branch of physical
science; or, on the other hand, the system may be formed by
purely logical methods, in which case the geometry is a phase
of pure mathematics. Obviously the geometry with which we
are most familiar is that of existent space — the three-dimensional
space of experience; this geometry may be termed Euclidean,
after its most famous expositor. But other geometries exist,
for it is possible to frame systems of axioms which definitely
characterize some other kind of space, and from these axioms
to deduce a series of non-contradictory propositions; such
geometries are called non-Euclidean.
It is convenient to discuss the subject-matter of geometry
under the following headings:
I. Euclidean Geometry: a discussion of the axioms of existent
space and of the geometrical entities, followed by a synoptical
account of Euclid's Elements. t
II. Projective Geometry: primarily Euclidean, but differing
from I. in employing the notion of geometrical continuity (q.v.) —
points and lines at infinity.
III. Descriptive Geometry: the methods for representing upon
planes figures placed in space of three dimensions.
IV. Analytical Geometry: the representation of geometrical
figures and their relations by algebraic equations.
V. Line Geometry: an analytical treatment of the line regarded
as the space element.
VI. Non-Euclidean Geometry: a discussion of geometries
other than that of the space of experience.
VII. Axioms of Geometry: a critical analysis of the foundations
of geometry.
Special subjects are treated under their own headings: e.g.
Projection, Perspective: Curve, Surface; Circle, Conic
Section: Triangle, Polygon, Polyhedron; there are alio
articles on special curves and figures, e.g. Ellipse. Parabola,
Hyperbola : Tetrah bdron.Cube.Octahbdron.DodecAhedron,
IC0SANEDR0K;CaRD10ID.CaTBNARY,CiSS0ID,C0NCH0ID,CYCL0ID,
EriCYCLOID. LIMAC.ON, OVAL, QUADRATRIX, SPIRAL, &C N
History.— The origin of geometry (Gr. 7^, earth, ukrpov, a
measure) is, according to Herodotus, to be found in the etymology
of the word. Its birthplace was Egypt, and it arose from the
Deed of surveying the lands inundated by the Nik floods. In
its infancy it therefore consisted of a few rules, very rough and
approximate, for computing the areas of triangles and quadri-
laterals; and, with the Egyptians, it proceeded no further, the
geometrical entities— the point, line, surface and solid— being
only discussed in so far as they were involved in practical affairs.
The point was realized as a mark or position, a straight line as a
stretched string or the tracing of a pole, a surface as an area;
but these units were not abstracted; and for the Egyptians
geometry was only an art— an auxiliary to surveying. 1 The
first step towards its elevation to the rank of a science was made
by Thales (q.v.) of Miletus, who transplanted the elementary
Egyptian mensuration to Greece. Thales clearly abstracted
the notions of points and lines, founding the geometry of the
latter unit, and discovering per saltum many propositions con-
cerning areas, the circle, &c. The empirical rules of the Egyptians
were corrected and developed by the Ionic School which he
founded, especially by Anaximander and Anaxagoras, and in
the 6th century B.C. passed into the care of the Pythagoreans.
From this time geometry exercised a powerful influence on
Greek thought. Pythagoras (q.v.), seeking the key of the
universe in arithmetic and geometry, investigated logically the
principles underlying the known propositions; and this resulted
in the formulation of definitions, axioms and postulates which,
in addition to founding a science of geometry, permitted a
crystallization, fractional, it is true, of the amorphous collection
of material at hand. Pythagorean geometry was essentially a
geometry of areas and solids; its goal was the regular solids—
the tetrahedron, cube, octahedron, dodecahedron and icosa-
hedron— which symbolized the five elements of Greek cosmology.
The geometry of the circle, previously studied in Egypt and
much more seriously by Thales, was somewhat neglected, although
this curve was regarded as the most perfect of all plane figures
and the sphere the most perfect of all solids. The circle, however,
was taken up by the Sophists, who made most of their discoveries
in attempts to solve the classical problems of squaring the circle,
doubling the cube and trisecting an angle. These problems,
besides stimulating pure geometry, i.e. the geometry of con-
structions made by the ruler and compasses, exercised consider-
able influence in other directions. The first problem led to the
discovery of the method of exhaustion for determining areas.
Antiphon inscribed a square in a circle, and on each side an
isosceles triangle having its vertex on the circle; on the sides
of the octagon so obtained, isosceles triangles were again con-
structed, the process leading to inscribed polygons of 8, 16 and
$2 sides; and the areas of these polygons, which are easily
determined, are successive approximations to the area of the
circle. Bryson of Heraclea took an important step when he
circumscribed, in addition to inscribing, polygons to a circle,
but he committed an error in treating the circle as the mean el
the two polygons. The method of Antiphon, in assuming that
by continued division a polygon can be constructed coincident
with the circle, demanded that magnitudes are not infinitely
divisible. Much controversy ranged about this point; Aristotle
supported the doctrine of infinite divisibility; Zeno attempted
to show its absurdity. The mechanical tracing of loci, a principle
initiated by Archytas of Tarentum to solve the last two problems,
was a frequent subject for study, and several mechanical curves
were thus discovered at subsequent dates (dssoid, conchoid,
quadra trix). Mention may be made of Hippocrates, who,
besides developing the known methods, made a study of similar
figures, and, as a consequence, of proportion. This step is
important as bringing into line discontinuous number and
continuous magnitude.
A fresh stimulus was given by the succeeding Platonists, who,
accepting in part the Pythagorean cosmology, made the study
of geometry preliminary to that of philosophy. The many
discoveries made by this school were facilitated in no small
measure by the clarification of the axioms and definitions, the
logical sequence of propositions which was adopted, and, more
especially, by the formulation of the analytic method, L*. of
assuming the truth of a proposition and then reasoning to a
1 Fee Egtttit* teometrj v* ¥ttm A**"** «* Ua ft w M i v*
676
GEOMETRY
[HISTORY
known truth. The main strength of the Platonist geometers
lies in stereometry or the geometry of solids. The Pythagoreans
had dealt with the sphere and regular solids, but the pyramid,
prism, cone and cylinder were but little known until the Platonists
took them in hand. Eudoxus established their mensuration,
proving the pyramid and cone to have one-third the content
of a prism and cylinder on the same base and of the same height,
and was probably the discoverer of a proof that the volumes of
spheres are as the cubes of their radii. The discussion of sections
of the cone and cylinder led to the discovery of the three curves
named the parabola, ellipse and hyperbola (see Conk Section);
it is difficult to over-estimate the importance of this discovery;
its investigation marks the crowning achievement of Greek
geometry, and led in later years to the fundamental theorems
and methods of modern geometry.
The presentation of the subject-matter of geometry as a con-
nected and logical series of propositions, prefaced by "Opoi or
foundations, had been attempted by many; but it is to Euclid
that we owe a complete exposition. Little indeed in the Elements
» probably original except the arrangement; but in this Euclid
surpassed such predecessors as Hippocrates, Leon, pupil of
Neocleides, and Theudius of Magnesia, devising an apt logical
model, although when scrutinized in the light of modern mathe-
matical conceptions the proofs are riddled with fallacies. Accord-
ing to the commentator Proclus, the Elements were written with
a twofold object, first, to introduce the novice to geometry, and
secondly, to lead him to the regular solids; conic sections found
no place therein. What Euclid did for the line and circle,
Apolloniusdid for the conic sections, but there we have a discoverer
as well as editor. These two works, which contain the greatest
contributions to ancient geometry, are treated in detail in
Section I. Euclidean Geometry and the articles Euclid; Conic
Section; Apollonius. Between Euclid and Apollonius there
flourished the illustrious Archimedes, whose geometrical dis-
coveries are mainly concerned with the mensuration of the
circle and conic sections, and of the sphere, cone and cylinder,
and whose greatest contribution to geometrical method is the
elevation of the method of exhaustion to the dignity of an instru-
ment of research. Apollonius was followed by Nicomcdes, the
inventor of the conchoid; Diodes, the inventor of the cissoid;
Zenodorus, the founder of the study of isoperimetrical figures;
Hipparchus, the founder of trigonometry; and Heron the elder,
who wrote after the manner of the Egyptians, and primarily
directed attention to problems of practical surveying.
Of the many isolated discoveries made by the later Alexandrian
mathematicians, those of Menelaus are of importance. He
showed how to treat spherical triangles, establishing their
properties and determining their congruence; his theorem on
the products of the segments in which the sides of a triangle
are cut by a line was the foundation on which Carnot erected
his theory of transversals. These propositions, and also those
of Hipparchus, were utilised and developed by Ptolemy (q.v.),
the expositor of trigonometry and discoverer of many isolated
propositions. Ment ion may be made of the commentator Pappus,
whose Mathematical Collections is valuable for its wealth of
historical matter; of Theon, an editor of Euclid's Elements and
commentator of Ptolemy's Almagest; of Proclus, a commentator
of Euclid; and of Eutocius, a commentator of Apollonius and
Archimedes.
The Romans, essentially practical and having no inclination
to study science qua science, only bad a geometry which sufficed
for surveying; and even here there were abundant inaccuracies,
the empirical rules employed being akin to those of the Egyptians,
and Heron. The Hindus, likewise, gave more attention to
computation, and their geometry was either of Greek origin or
in the form presented in trigonometry, more particularly con-
nected with arithmetic. It had no logical foundations; each
proposition stood alone; and the results were empirical. The
Arabs more closely followed the Greeks, a plan adopted as a
sequel to the translation of the works of Euclid, Apollonius,
Archimedes and many others into Arabic. Their chief con-
tribuUoa to geometry a tihibited in their solution ol algebraic 1
equations by intersecting conks, a step already taken by tot
Greeks in isolated cases, but only elevated into a method by Omar
al Uayyami, who flourished in the nth century. During the
middle ages little was added to Greek and Arabic geometry.
Leonardo of Pisa wrote a Practice geometric* (1220), wherein
Euclidean methods are employed; but it was not until the 14th
century that geometry, generally Euclid's Elements, Decant
an essential item in university curricula. There was, however,
no sign of original development, other branches of mathematics,
mainly algebra and trigonometry, exercising a greater fasri ratios
until the 16th century, when the subject again came into favour.
The extraordinary mathematical talent which came into being
in the f 6th and 1 7th centuries reacted on geometry and gave rise
to all those characters which distinguish modern from ancient
geometry* The first innovation of moment was the formulatioa
of the principle of geometrical continuity by Kepler. The notion
of infinity which it involved permitted generalizations and
systeroatizations hitherto uothought of (see Geometrical
Continuity); and the method of indefinite division applied to
rectification, and quadrature and cubature problems avoided
the cumbrous method of exhaustion and provided more accurate
results. Further progress was made by Bonaventura Cavaheri,
who, in his Gtometria indivisibilibus coutiuuorum (1620), de-
vised a method intermediate between that of exhaustion and
the infinitesimal calculus of Leibnitz and Newton. The logical
basis of his system was corrected by Roberval and Pascal; and
their discoveries, taken in conjunction with those of Leibnitz,
Newton, and many others in the fluxional calculus, culminated
in the branch of our subject known as differential geometry
(see Infinitesimal Calculus, Curve; Surface).
A second important advance followed the recognition that
comes could be regarded as projections of a circle, a conception
which led at the hands of Desargues and Pascal to modem
projective geometry and perspective. A third, and perhaps the
most important, advance attended the application of algebra to
geometry by Descartes, who thereby founded analytical geometry.
The new fields thus opened up were diligently explored, but the
calculus exercised the greatest attraction and relatively Kttk
progress was made in geometry until the beginning of the iota
century, when a new era opened.
Gaspard Monge was the first important contributor, stimulating
analytical and differential geometry and founding descriptm
geometry in a series of papers and especially in his lectures at the
Ecole polytechnique. Projective geometry, founded by Desar-
gues, Pascal, Monge and L. N. M. Carnot, was crystallised by
J. V. Poncclet, the creator of the modern methods. In hn
Trailt des fropriHts des figures (1822) the line and circular points
at infinity, imagfnaries, polar reciprocation, homology, croav
ratio and projection arc systematically employed. In Germany,
A. F. Mfcbius, J. PlOcker and J. Steiner were making far-reaching
contributions. M6bius, in his Barycentriscka CaUul (1827),
introduced homogeneous co-ordinates, and also the powerful
notion of geometrical transformation, including the special
cases of collineation and duality; Plucker, in his AnalyHsck-
geametriscke Entwickeiuttgen (1828-1831), and his System da
analytischen Geometric (1835), introduced the abridged notatioa.
line and plane co-ordinates, and the conception of generalized
space elements; while Steiner, besides enriching geometry in
numerous directions, was the first to systematically generate
figures by projective pencils. We may also notice M. Chatles,
whose Aperxn kistoriqua (1837) is a classic Synthetic geometry,
characterized by its fruitfulness and beauty, attracted most
attention, and it so happened that its originally weak logical
foundations became replaced by a more substantia] set of axioms.
These were found In the anharmonic ratio, a device leading to
the liberation of synthetic geometry from metrical relations,
and in involution, which yielded rigorous definitions of irnagin*
aries. These innovations were made by K. J. C. von Staudt.
Analytical geometry was stimulated by the algebra of invariants,
a subject much developed by A. Cayley. G. Salmon, S. H. Aron-
hold, L. O. Hesse, and more particularly by R. F. A. Clebsch.
Tb» taxo4»Otaiel \Jk. Ut& a* & space element, initiated by
EUCLIDEAN]
GEOMETRY
677
H. Graumann (t&44) *nd Cayley (1859), yidded at the hands of
PlQckcr a new geometry, termed line geometry, a subject
developed more notably by F. Klein, Clebsch, C. T. Reye and
F. O. R. Sturm (see Section V., Line Geometry).
Non-eudidean geometries, having primarily their origin in the
discussion of Euclidean parallels, and treated by Wallis, Saccheri
and Lambert, have been especially developed during the 19th
century. Four lines of investigation may be distinguished: —
the narve-syntbetic, associated with Lobatscbewski, Bolyaj,
Gauss; the metric differential, studied by Riemann, Helmholtz,
Beltrami; the projective, developed by Cayley, Klein, Clifford;
and the critical-synthetic, promoted chiefly by the Italian
mathematicians Peano, Veronese, Burali-Forte, Levi Cfvitti,
and the Germans Pasch and Hilbert. (C. E.*)
I. Euclidean Geometry
This branch of the science of geometry is so named since its
methods and arrangement are those laid down in Euclid's
Elements.
\ 1. Axioms.— The object of geometry is to investigate the
properties of space. The first step must consist in establishing
those fundamental properties from which all others follow by
processes of deductive reasoning. They are laid down in the
Axioms, and these ought to form such a system that nothing
need be added to them in order fully to characterise space, and
that nothing may be omitted without making the system in-
complete. They roust, in fact, completely " define " space.
{ a. Definitions. — The axioms of Euclidean Geometry are
obtained from inspection of existent space and of solids in
existent space,— hence from experience. The same source
gives us the notions of the geometrical entities to which the
axioms relate, viz. solids, surfaces, lines or curves, and points.
A solid is directly given by experience; we have only to abstract
all material from it in order to gain the notion of a geometrical
solid. This has shape, size, position, and may be moved. Its
boundary or boundaries are called surfaces. They separate one
part of space from another, and are said to have no thickness.
Their boundaries are curves or lines, and these have length
only. Their boundaries, again, are points, which have no
magnitude but only position. We thus come in three steps
from solids to points which have no magnitude; in each step
we lose one extension. Hence we say a solid has three dimensions,
a surface two, a line one, and a point none. Space Itself, of which
a solid forms only a part, is also said to be of three dimensions.
The same thing is intended to be expressed by saying that a
solid has length, breadth and thickness, a surface length and
breadth, a line length only, and a point no extension whatsoever.
Euclid gives the essence of these statements as definitions: —
Def. 1,1. A point is that which has no parts, or which has no mag-
nitude.
Def. 7, 1. A line is length without breadth.
Dcf. 5, 1. A superficies is that which has only length and breadth,
Def. I, XL A solid is that which has length, breadth and thickness.
It is to be noted that the synthetic method is adopted by
Euclid; the analytical derivation of the successive ideas of
"surface," "line," and "point" from the experimental realiza-
tion of a " solid " does not find a place in his system, although
possessing more advantages.
If we allow motion in geometry, we may generate these
entities by moving a point, a line, or a surface, thus: —
The path of a moving point i* a line.
The path of a moving line is, in general, a surface.
The path of a moving surface is, in general, a solid.
And we may then assume that the lines, surfaces and solids,
as denned before, can all be generated in this manner. From
this generation of the entities it follows again that the boundaries
— the first and last position of the moving element— of a line are
points, and so on; and thus we come back to the considerations
with which we started.
Euclid points this out in his definitions, — Def. 3, 1., Def. 6, 1.,
and Def. 7, XI. He does not, however, show the connexion
which these definitions have with those mentioned before.
When points and lines have been defined, a statement like
Def. 3, 1., " The extremities of a line are points,** is a proposition
which either has to be proved, and then it is a theorem, or which
has to be taken for granted, in which case it is an axiom. And
so with Def. 6, 1., and Def. a, XI.
\ 3. Euclid's definitions mentioned above are attempts \a
describe, in a few words, notions which we have obtained by
inspection of and abstraction from solids. A few more notions
have to be added to these, principally those of the simplest
line — the straight line, and of the simplest surface— the flat
surface or plane. These notions we possess, but to define them
accurately is difficult. Euclid's Definition 4, I., " A straight
line is that which lies evenly between its extreme points," must
be meaningless to any one who has not the notion of straight ness
in his mind. Neither does it state a property of the straight
line which can be used in any further investigation. Such a.
property is given in Axiom 10, 1. It is really this axiom, together
with Postulates 7 and 3, which characterizes the straight line.
Whilst for the straight line the verbal definition and axiom
are kept apart, Euclid mixes them up in the case of the plane.
Here the Definition 7, 1., includes an axiom. It defines a plane
as a surface which has the property that every straight line
which joins any two points in it lies altogether in the surface.
But if we take a straight line and a point in such a surface, and
draw all straight lines which join the latter to all points in the
first line, the surface will be fully determined. This construction
is therefore sufficient as a definition. That every other st raight
line which joins any two points in this surface lies altogether
in it is a further property, and to assume it gives another axiom.
Thus a dumber of Euclid's axioms arc hidden among his first
definitions. A still greater confusion exists in the present
editions of Euclid between the postulates and axioms so called,
but this is due to later editors and not to Euclid himself. The
latter had the last three axioms put together with the postulates
(ai-rfitiara), so that these were meant to include all assumptions
relating to space. The remaining assumptions, which relate to
magnitudes in general, viz. the first eight " axioms " in modem
editions, were called " common notions " (mxpal hrvoiax).
Of the latter a few may be said to be definitions. Thus the eighth
might be taken as a definition of " equal," and the seventh
of " halves." If we wish to collect the axioms used in Euclid's
Elements, we have therefore to take the three postulates, the
last three axioms as generally given, a few axioms hidden in the
definitions, and an axiom used by Euclid in the proof of Prop.
4, I, and on a few other occasions, viz. that figures may be
moved in space without change of shape or size.
$ 4. Postulates.— The assumptions actually made by Euclid
may be stated as follows: —
(1) Straight lines exist which have the property that any one of
them may Be produced both ways without limit, that through any
two points in space such a line may be drawn, and that any two of
them coincide throughout their indefinite extensions as soon as two
points in the one coincide with two points in the other. (This
gives the contents of Def. 4, part of Def. 35. the first two Postulates,
and Axiom 10.)
(2) Plane surfaces or planes exist having the property laid down
in Dcf. 7, that every straight line joining any two points in such a
surface lies altogether in it.
(3) Right angles, as defined in Dcf. 10, arc possible, and all right
^ iaT;t* -" ' "-
to coincide with any other. (Axiom 11.)
U) The 1 3th Axiom of Euclid. This we shall not state now, but
only introduce it when we cannot proceed any further without it.
Of) Figures maybe freely moved in space without change of shape
or size. This is assumed by Euclid, but not stated as an axiom.
(6) In any plane a circle may be described, having any point in
that plane as centre, and its distance from any other point In that
plane as radius. (Postulate 3-)
The definitions which have not been mentioned are aO
" nominal definitions," that is to say, they fix a name for a
thing described. Many of them overdeterminc a figure.
ft s. Euclid's Elements (see Euclid) are contained in thirteen
books. Of these the first four and the sixth are devoted to
" plane geometry," as the investigation of figures in a plane is
generally called. The 5th book contains the theory of proportion
678
GEOMETRY
which Is used in Book VI. The 7th, 8th and 9th books are purely
arithmetical, whilst the 10th contains a most ingenious treatment
of geometrical irrational quantities. These four books will be
excluded from our survey. The remaining three books relate to
figures in space, or, as it is generally called, to " solid geometry."
The 7th, 8th, 9th, roth, 13th and part of the nth and 12th
books are now generally omitted from the school editions of the
Elements. In the first four and in the 6th book it is to be under-
stood that all figures are drawn in a plane.
Book I. op Euclid's " Elements."
5 6. According to the third postulate it is possible to draw in
any plane a circle which has its centre at any given point, and its
radius equal to the distance of this point from any other point
given in the plane. This makes it possible (Prop. 1) to construct
on a given line AB an equilateral triangle, by drawing first a circle
with A as centre and AB as radius, and then a circle with B as
centre and BA as radius. The point where these circles intersect —
that they intersect Euclid quietly assumes — is the vertex of the
required triangle. Euclid does not suppose, however, that a circle
may be drawn which has its radius equal to the distance between
any two points unless one of the points be the centre. This implies
also that we are no
equal to any others
Euclid therefore m
S* ren straight line
e length of anotl
This is done in two
may be drawn fron
straight line not di
itselfis solved in Pr
some straight line <
point as centre a c
will cut off from the
one. Nowadays, i
take a pair of com
This assumes that v
But Euclid has not
justified by hisdesir
if he were not oblij
assumption, though
f 7. We now come On Prop. 4) to the first theorem. It is the
fundamental theorem of Euclid's whole system, there being only a
very few propositions (like Props. 13, 14, 15. 1). except those in the
$th book and the first half of the nth, which do not depend upon
it. It is stated very accurately, though somewhat clumsily, as
follows: —
// two triangles have two sides of the one equal to two sides of the
other, each to each, and have also the angles contained by those sides
equal to one another, they shall also have their bases or third sides
equal; and the two triangles shall be equal; and their other angles
shall be equal, each to each, namely, those to which the equal sides are
opposite.
That is to say, the triangles are " identically " equal, and one
may be considered as a copy of the other. The proof is very simple.
The first triangle is taken up and placed on the second, so that the
parts of the triangles which are known to be equal fall upon each
other. It is then easily seen that also the remaining parts of one
coincide with those of the other, and that they are therefore equal.
This process of applying one figure to another Euclid scarcely uses
again, though many proofs would be simplified by doing so. The
process introduces motion into geometry, and includes, as already
stated, the axiom that figures may be moved without change of
shaDe or size.
[EUCLIDEAN
I 8. It is next proved that two triangles which hone the three sides
rl respectively to those of the other are identically oomd,
augies of the one are equal respectively to those of tin
being equal whtch are opposite equal sides. This is Prop. 8,
uaining only a first step towards its proof,
leorems allow now of the solution of a number of prob-
a given angle (Prop. 9).
a given finUe straight line (Prop. 10).
a straight line perpendicularly to a given straight Hut
through a given point in it (Prop, is), and also through • given pout
not in it (Prop. 12).
The solutions all depend upon properties of isosceles triangles.
5 9. The next three theorems relate to angles only, and might have
been proved before Prop. 4, or even at the very beginning. Tbc
first (Prop. 13) says. The angles which one straight Itne makes wok
another straight line on one stde of it either are two right autfes m
are together equal to two right angles. This theorem would have
been unnecessary if Euclid had admitted the notion of an angle
such that its two limits are in the same straight line, and had besides
defined the sum of two angles. .
Its converse (Prop. 14) is of great use, inasmuch as it enables ss
in many cases to prove that two straight lines drawn from the sasse
point are one the continuation of the other. So also is
Prop. 1 5. If two straight lines cut one another, the vertical or opposhs
angles shall be equal.
I 10. Euclid returns now to properties of triangles. Of great
importance for the next steps (though afterwards superseded by a
more complete theorem) is
Prop. 16. // one side of a triangle be produced, the exterior angle
shall be greater than either of the interior opposite angles.
Prop. 17. Any two angles of a triangle are together less than ass
right angles, is an immediate consequence of it: By the aid of tkest
two, the following fundamental properties of triangle* are easily
proved: —
Prop. 18. The greater side of every triangle has the greater swflf
opposite to it;
Its converse. Prop. 19. The greater angle of every triastgfe is sub'
tended by the greater side, or has the greater side opposite to sf ;
Prop. 20. Any two sides of a triangle are together greater than tht
third side;
And also Prop. si. If from (he ends of the side of a triangle there
be drawn two straight lines to a point within the triangle, these sheM
be less than the other two sides of the triangle, but shall contain a greater
angle.
% 11. Having solved two p*
triangles which have two sid<
sides of the other. It is knot
are equal then the third sid
if the third sides are equal,
sides are equal. From tnis it
not equal, the third sides are
third sides are not equal, the
now completes this knowled
angles are not equal, then the
which contains the greater ang
sides are unequal, Oat triangle
the greater stde." These are
f 13. The next theorem (I
one side and two angles of th
two angles of the other, vis. in
to the equal side, or one angle adjacent and one angle opposite u\ wen
EUCLIDEAN]
GEOMETRY
679
the two straight lines shall be parallel to
Hence we know that, " if two straight lines which are cut by a
transversal meet, their alternate angles are not equal "; and hence
that, " if alternate angles are equal, then the lines are parallel.**
The question now arises, Are the propositions converse to these
true or not ? That is to say, " If alternate angles are unequal, do
the lines meet ?" And " if the lines are parallel, are alternate
equal?**
either of these two questions Implies the answer
een found impossible to prove that the
»f either is true.
arises is overcome by Euclid assuming
o be answered in the affirmative.. This
ilch we quote in his own words.
ist meet two straight lines, so as to make
t same side of it taken together less Hum
1* lines, being continually produced, shall
1 which are the angles which are less than
ft* i u ^ r .^^fTA^n S ^.^, t V^ r ^ u ^J° *" "*** *"**"' ***. wm * " •* 1*°* *«■*• *» *** "fit* straight line, and on the same
d in two separate
lis method.
1 shows first, in
<ual in area to a
en angle. If the
vw a rectangle n
er parallelogram,
, whilst its angles
5 theorem in
which are about
other.
t a parallelogram
mngte, and which
it angle).
of triangles, we
en angle, say a
ygon. For each
wed, a parallelo-
a given straight
e parallelograms
to form a single
length. This is
fferent polygons,
rea to the gives
1. By comparing
er the areas are
this consequence,
he second book,
1 area to a given
ght line.
most important
h has been cele-
ubtful authority,
ed by his name.
1 is opposite the
>ws: —
... , H-angled triangle
the square on the hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of tut
other sides.
And conversely—
Prop. 48. If the square described on one of the sides of a triangle b$
angles
The
to the
negatio
that th
gives hi
Axioi
the two
two rigl
alien rt
two rigl
The answer to tbe second of the above questions follows from this,
and gives the theorem Prop. 29 : — If a straight line fall on two parallel
straight lines, it makes the alternate angles equal to one another, and
the exterior angle equal to the interior and opposite angle on the same
side, and also the two interior angles on the same side together equal
to two right angles.
i 14. with this a new part of elementary geometry begins. The
earlier propositions are independent of this axiom, and would be
true even if a wrong assumption had been made in it. They all
relate to figures in a plane. But a plane is only one among an infinite
number oTconccivable surfaces. We may dram
of them and study their properties. We may,
sphere instead of the plane, and obtain " spheri
''plane " geometry. If on one of these surfac
could be drawn, answering to all the definitions
and if the axioms with the exception of the la
propositions up to the 28th will be true for th
the case in spherical geometry if we substitute
" great circle " for " straight fine," " small circk
if, besides, we limit all figures to a part of the
than a hemisphere, so that two points on it cam
of a diameter, and therefore determine always on
circle.
For spherical triangles, therefore, all the important propositions
4, 6, 26; 5 and 6; and 18, 19 and 20 will hold good.
This remark will be sufficient to show the impossibility of proving
Euclid's last axiom, which would mean proving that this axiom is
a consequence of the others, and hence that the theory of parallels
would hold on a spherical surface, where the other axioms do hold,
whilst parallels do not even exist.
It follows that the axiom in question states an inherent difference
between the plane and other surfaces, and that the plane b only
fully characterized when this axiom is added to the other assump-
tions.
§ IS The introduction of the new axiom and of parallel lines leads
to a new class of propositions.
After proving (Prop. 30) that " two lines which are each parallel
to a third are parallel to each other" we obtain the new properties
of triangles contained in Prop. 32. Of these the second part is the
most important, via. the theorem. The three interior angles of every
triangle are together equal to two right angles.
As easy deductions not given by Euclid but added by Simeon
follow the propositions about the angles in polygons; they arc given
in English editions as corollaries to Prop. 32.
These theorems do not hold for spherical figures. The sum of the
interior angles of a spherical triangle is always greater than two
right angles, and increases with the area.
§ 16. The theory of parallels as such may be said to be finished
with Props. 33 ana 34, which state properties of the parallelogram,
ue. of a quadrilateral formed by two pairs of parallels. They are —
Prop. 33. The straight lines which join the extremities of two equal
and parallel straight lines towards the same parts are themselves equal
and parallel', and
Prop. 34. The opposite sides and angles of a parallelogram are
equal to one another, andsthe diameter (diagonal) bisects the parallelo-
gram, that is, divides it into two equal parts,
I 17. The rest of the first book relates to areas of figures.
The theory is made to depend upon the theorems —
Prop. 35. Parallelograms on the same base and between the same
parallels are equal to one another; and
Prop. 36. Parallelograms on equal bases and between the same
Parallels are equal to one another.
As each parallelogram is bisected by a diagonal, the last theorems
hold also if the word parallelogram be replaced by " triangle," as is
done in Props. 37 and 38.
It b to be remarked that Euclid proves these propositions only
in the case when the parallelograms or triangles have their bases in
the same straight line.
The theorems converse to the bat form the contents of tbe nest
three proposition*, viz.: Prvpe, 40 and 41.— Equal triangles, em
equal to the squares described on the other sides, then the angle contained
by these two sides is a right angle.
On thb theorem (Prop. 47; almost all geometrical measurement
depends, which cannot be directly obtained.
Book II.
f 20. The propositions in the second book are very different in
character from those in the first ; they all relate to areas of rectangles
and squares. Their true significance b best seen by stating them in
an algebraic form. Thb b often done by expressing the lengths of
lines by aid of numbers, which tell how many times a chosen unit
b contained in the Kncs. If there is a unit to be found which is con-
tained an exact number of times in each side of a rectangle, it b
easily seen, and generally shown in the teaching of arithmetic, that
the rectangle contains a number of unit squares equal to the product
of the numbers which measure the sides, a unit square being the
square on the unit line. If, however, no such unit can be found,
thb process requires that connexion between lines and numbers
which b only established by aid of ratios of lines, and which is there-
fore at this stage altogether inadmissible. But there exists another
way of connecting these propositions with algebra, based on modern
notions which seem destined greatly to change and to simplify
mathematics. We shall introduce here as much of it as b required
for our present purpose.
At the beginning of the second book we find a definition according
to which " a rectangle b said to be ' contained ' by the two sides
which contain one of its right angles "; in the text thb phraseology
is extended by speaking of rectangles contained by any two straight
lines, meaning the rectangle which has two adjacent sides equal to
the two straight lines.
We shall denote a finite straight line by a single small letter,
a,b,c t . . . x, and the area of the rectangle contained by two lines
a and b by ab, and this we shall call the product of the two lines •
and b. It will be understood that thb definition has nothing to do
with the definition of a product of numbers.
We define as follows: —
The sum of two straight lines a and b means a straight line c which
may be divided in two parts equal respectively to a and b. This sum
b denoted by a + ft.
The difference of two lines a and b On symbols, a-b) means a line
c which when added to ogives a; that is,
a-bmc\t 6+co.
Tbe fvoincl oA twoVtma a ttAt ^yn, vfa&*d**<Kt wax*^ w»»
68o
GEOMETRY
[EOCUOEAR
of the rectangle contained by the lines a and b. For «*, which
means the square on the line a, we write a*.
f 21. The first ten of the fourteen proportions of the second book
may then be written in the form of formulae as follows: —
Prop, f. +orf+ . . .
>• 3.
„ 3-
.. 4-
.. 9
.. 10.
It win be seen that 5 and 6, and also o and 10, are identical. In
Euclid's statement they do not look the same, the figures being
arranged differently.
If the letters a,b,c, . . . denoted numbers, it follows from algebra
that each of these formulae is true. But this does not prove them in
our case, where the letters denote lines, and their products areas
without any reference to numbers. To prove them we have to
discover the laws which rule the operations introduced, via. addition
and multiplication of segments. This we shall do now ; and we shall
find that tnese laws are the same with those which hold in algebraical
addition and multiplication.
I 22. In a sum of numbers we may change the order in which
the numbers are added, and we may also add the numbers together
in groups and then add these groups. But this also holds for the
sum of segments and for the sum of rectangles, as a little considera-
tion shows. That the sum of rectangles has always a meaning
follows from the Props. 43-45 in the first book. These laws about
addition axe reducible to the two —
a+b=b+a
a+(&+c)-o+&+«
or, when expressed for rectangles,
ab+ed-ed+ab
ab+(cd+ef)-ab+ed+ef
The brackets mean that
together before they are
cases for more terras ma;
For the product of tw<
unaltered tf the factors
geometrical product. F
which has a as base and
of the rectangle which I
rectangle we may take <
base, and then the other
ab = ba
Prop. 7, which Is an easy consequence of Prop, 4, anay be tas»
formed. If we denote by e the line a+a, so that
cma+b, a—c-b,
™* *+(c-6)»-2e(< -*)+«•
-2««-2*C+*».
Subtracting c* from both sides, and writing a for c, we get
(a-6)'-o»-2o*+*».
In Euclid's Elements this form of the theorem does not appear,
all propositions being so stated that the notion of subtraction docs
not enter into them.
f 24. The remaining two theorems (Props. 12 and 13) connect
the square on one side of a triangle with the sum of the squares oa
the other sides, in case that the angle between the latter m acute or
obtuse. They are important theorems in trigonometry, where it ie
possible to include them in a single theorem.
{25. There are in the second book two problems. Props. If end 14.
f written in the above symbolic language, the 1©
ft.
a
cet have been added
. The more general
above.
> law that it remains
s also holds for our
rea of the rectangle
will denote the area
; altitude. But in a
which contain it as
This gives
• • • (5).
In order further to multiply a sum by a number, we have in algebra
the rule: — Multiply each term of the sum, and add the products
thus obtained. That this holds for our geometrical products is
shown by Euclid in his first proposition of the second book, where
he proves that the area of a rectangle whose base is the sum of a
number of segments is equal to the sum of rectangles which have
these segments separately as bases. In symbols this gives. In the
simplest case,
a(b+c)-ab+ae) f/ Z
and <6+c)o «=6c+rc 5 • • w '
To these laws, which have been investigated by Sir William Hamilton
and by Hermann Grassmann, the former has given special names.
He calls the laws expressed in
(1) and (3) the commutative law for addition ;
(5) „ ,, multiplication;
(2) and (4) the associative laws for addition;
(6) the distributive law.
5 23. Having proved that these six laws hold, we can at once
prove every one of the above propositions in their algebraical form.
The first is proved geometrically, it being one of the fundamental
find a line x such that a(a-x)~x*. Prop. 11 contains, therefore,
the solution of a quadratic equation, which we may write ar^+ex-e*.
The solution is required later on in the construction of a regular
decagon.
More important b the problem in the last proposition (Prop. 14).
It requires the construction of a square equal in .area to a givea
rectangle, hence a solution of the equation
In Book I., 42-45, ft has been shown howa rectangle may be con-
structed equal in area to a given figure bounded by straight lines.
By aid of the new proposition we may therefore now determine a
line such that the square on that line a equal in area to any givea
rectilinear figure, or we can square any such figure.
As of two squares that is the greater which has the gre a t e r aide,
it follows that now the comparison of two areas has been reduced
to the comparison of two lines.
The problem of reducing other areas to squares Is frequently net
with among Greek mathematicians. We need only mention die
problem of squaring the circle (see Circle).
In the present day the comparison of areas is per fo rmed in a
simpler way by reducing all areas to rectangles having a commoa
base. Their altitudes give then a measure of their areas.
The construction of a rectangle having the base it, and being equal
in area to a given rectangle, depends upon Prop. 43, 1. This therefore
gives a solution of the equation
ab-ux,
where * denotes the unknown altitude.
Book HI.
relates exclusively to nn>
mfcrence have been defined
1 slightly different words:—
ircle b a plane curve sock
ince from a fixed point ia
itre M of the circle,
are given at the beginning
fecial mention. The first,
• equal, is in part a theorem,
circle to the other. Or k
. 24, equal circles not being
what is meant by a fine
is now generally called a
of this name allows us to
much shorter form.
Ight line joining two points
laws. The next two propositions'are only'special
Of the others we shall prove one, viz. the fourth.—
(a+o)*-(o+&) (a+*)-(o+&)a+(a+ft)ft
But ia+b)a-*aa+ba
—aa+ab
and (o+b)b-ab+bb
Therefore (o+by-ao+ab+(ab+bb) )
-aa+(aft+aft)+66f
»oo+2aft+W )
1 of the first.
by (6
byW
by (4).
This gives the theorem in question.
In the same manner every one of the first ten propositions is
proved.
It will be seen that the operations performed are exactly the same
as if the letters denoted numbers.
Props. 5 and 6 may also be written thus —
f>+J!>f>-J!) -««-*».
r
rith a slight generalization
t from a line is meant the
he point to the line.
t follows that every circle
t when the circle is given,
(that is, any two points hi
igh the point where this is
Euclid then proves, first,
» the centre, hence that the
/, that of the points on the
perpendicular one only can be the centre, viz. the one which bisects
the parts of the perpendicular bounded by the circle. In the second
part Euclid silently assumes that the perpendicular there used does
cut the circumference in two, and only in two points. The proof
therefore is incomplete. The proof of the first pan, however, is
exact. By drawing two non-parallel chords, and the perpend icu tars
which bisect them, the centre will be found as the point where these
perpendiculars intersect.
§28. In Prop. 2 it is proved that a chord of a circle lies altogether
EUCLIDEAN]
What we have called the first part of Euclid's solution of Prop. I
may be stated as a theorem : —
Every straight line which bisects a chord, and is at right angles to it,
passu through the centre of the circle.
The converse to this gives Prop. 3, which may be stated thus:—'
// a straight line through the centre of a circle bisect a chord, then
it is perpendicular to the chord, and if it be perpendicular to the chord
it bisects it.
An easy consequence of this is the following theorem, which is
essentially the same as Prop. 4:—
Two chords of a circle, of which neither passes through the centre,
cannot bisect each other.
These last three theorems are fundamental for the theory of the
circle. It is to be remarked that Euclid never proves that a straight
line cannot have more than two points in common with a circum-
ference.
I 29. The next two propositions (5 and 6) might be replaced by
a single and a simpler theorem, viz: —
Two circles which have a common centre, and whose circumferences
have one point in common, coincide. m
Or, more in agreement with Euclid's form: —
Two different circles, whose circumferences have a point in common,
cannot have the same centre.
That Euclid treats of two cases is characteristic of Creek mathc-
GEOMETRY
681
The next two propositions (7 and 8) again belong together. They
may be combined thus:—
If from a point in a plane of a circle, which is not the centre, straight
lines be drawn to the different points of the circumference, then of all
these lines one is the shortest, and one the longest, and these lie both in,
that straight line which joins the given point to Ike centre. Of all the
remaining lines each is equal to one and only one other, and these
equal lines lie on opposite sides of the shortest or longest, and make
equal angles with them.
Euclid distinguishes the two cases where the given point lies within
or without the circle, omitting the case where it lies in the circum-
ference. ...... .
From the last proposition it follows that if from a point more
than two equal straight lines can be drawn to the circumference,
this point must be the centre. This is Prop. 9,
As a consequence of this we get
// the circumferences of the two circles have three points in common
they coincide.
tor in this case the two circles have a common centre, because
from the centre of the one three equal lines can be drawn to points
on the circumference of the other. But two circles which have a
common centre, and whose circumferences have a point in common,
coincide. (Compare above statement of Props. 5 and 6.)
This theorem may also be stated thus: —
Through three points only one circumference may be drawn; or,
Three points determine a circle.
Euclid does not give the theorem in this form. He proves, how*
ever, that the two circles cannot cut another in more than two points
(Prop. 10), and that two circles cannot touch one another in more points
than one (Proo. 13).
\ 30. Propositions ti and 12 assert that if two circus touch, then
the point of contact lies on the line joining their centres. This gives
two propositions, because the circles may touch cither internally
or externally. .... ««
§ 31. Propositions 14 and is relate to the length of chords. The
first says that equal chords are equidistant from the centre, and that
chords which are equidistant from the centre are equal;
Whilst Prop. 15 compares unequal chords, viz. Of all chords the
diameter is the greatest, and of other chords that is the greater which
is nearer to the centre; and conversely, the greater chord is nearer to
the centre*
I 32. In Prop. 16 the tangent to a circle is for the first time in-
is meant to show that the straight line
etcr and at right angles to it is a tangent,
not state this. It runs thus: —
ne drawn at right angles to the diameter
Hy of it, falls without the circle; and no
from the extremity, between that straight
9 as not to cut the circle.
line at right angles to a diameter drawn
touches the circle.
^position and its whole treatment show
ngents presented to Euclid.
Prop. 17 solves the problem through a given point, either in the
circumference or without it, to draw a tangent to a given circle.
Closely connected with Prop. 16 arc Props. 18 and io» which
state (Prop. 18), that the line joining the centre of a circle to the point
of contact of a tangent is perpendicular to the tangent; and con-
versely' (Prop. 19), that the straight line through the point of contact
of, and perpendicular to, a tangent to a circle pisses through the centre
of the circle.
I 33. The rest of the book relates to angles connected with a
circle, viz. angles which have the vertex either at the centre or
on the circumference, and which are called respectively angles
at the centre and angles at the circumference. Between these
two kinds of angles exists the important relation expressed as
follows: —
Prop. 20. The angle at the centre of a circle is double of the angle
at the circumference on the same base, that is, on the same arc
This is of great importance for its consequences, of which the
two following are the principal;—
Prop. 21. The angles in the same segment of a circle are equal to
one another'.
Prop. 22. The opposite angles of any quadrilateral figure inscribed
in a circle are together equal to two right angles.
Further consequences are : —
Prop. 23. On the same straight line, and on the same side of it, there
cannot be two similar segments of circles, not coinciding with one
another;
Prop. 24. Similar segments of circles on equal straight lines are
equal to one another.
The problem Prop. 25. A segment of a circle being given to describe
the circle of which it is a segment, may be solved much more easily
by aid of the construction described in relation to Prop. I, 111.,
in I 27.
I 34. There follow four theorems connecting the angles at the
centre, the arcs into which they divide the circumference, and the
chords subtending these arcs. They are expressed for angles, arcs
and chords in equal circles, but they hold also for angles, arcs and
chords in the same circle.
The theorems are: —
Prop. 26. In equal circles equal angles stand on equal arcs, whether
they be at the centres or circumferences;
Prop. 27. (converse to Prop. 26). In equal circles the angles which
stand on equal arcs are equal to one another, whether they be at the
centres or the circumferences;
Prop. 28. In equal circles equal straight lines (equal chords) cut
off equal arcs, the greater equal to the greater, and the less equal to
the less;
Prop. 29 (converse to Prop. 28). In equal circles equal arcs are
subtended by equal straight lines.
f 33. Other important consequences of Props. 20-22 are.' —
Prop. 31. In a circle the angle in a semicircle is a right angle;
but the angle in a segment greater than a semicircle is less than a right
angle; ana the angle in a segment less than a semicircle is greater than
a right angle;
Prop. 32. // a straight line touch a circle, and from the point of
contact a straight line be drawn cutting the circle, the angles which
this line makes with the line touching the circle shall be equal to the
angles which are in the alternate segments of the circle.
I 36. Propositions 30, 33, 34. contain problems which are solved
by aid of the propositions preceding them : —
Prop. 30. to bisecl a given arc, that is, to divide it into two equal
parts;
Prop. 33. On a given straight line to describe a segment of a circle
containing an angle equal to a given rectilineal angle;
Prop.* 34. From a given circle to cut off a segment containing an
ancle equal to a given rectilineal angle.
5 37* If we draw chords through a point A within a circle, they
will each be divided by A into two segments. Between these seg-
ments the law holds that the rectangle contained by them has the
same area on whatever chord through A the segments are taken.
The value of this rectangle changes, of course, with the position
of A.
A similar theorem holds if the point A be taken without the circle.
On every straight line through A, which cuts the circle in two points
B and C, we nave two segments AB and AC, and the rectangles
contained by them arc again equal to one another, and equal to the
square on a tangent drawn from A to the circle.
The first of these theorems gives Prop. 35, and the second Prop.
36, with its corollary, whilst Prop. 37, thclast of Book III., gives
the converse to Prop. 36. The first two theorems may be combined
in one: —
// through a point A in the plane of a circle a straight line be drawn
culling the circle in B and C, then the rectangle A B.AC has a constant
value so long as the point A be fixed; and if from A a tangent AD can
be drawn to the circle, touching at D, then the above rectangle equals the
square on AD.
Prop. 37 may be stated thus:—
If from a point A without a circle a line be drawn cutting the circle
in B and C, and another line to a point D on the circle, and ABAC—
AD*, then the line AD touches the circle at D.
It is not difficult to prove also the converse to the general pro-
position as above stated. This proposition and its converse may be
expressed as follows: —
If four points A BCD be taken on the circumference of a circle, and
if the lines AB, CD, produced if necessary, meet at E, then
EA.EB-EC.ED;
and conversely, if this relation holds tlum the four points lie on a circle,
that is, the circle drawn through- three of them passes through the
fourth.
That a circle may always be drawn through three points, provided
that they do not lie in a straight line, is proved only later on in
BookJV
682
GEOMETRY
(EUCLIDEAN
Book IV.
f 38. The fourth book contains only problems, all relating to
the construction of triangles and polygons inscribed in and circum-
scribed about circles, and of circles inscribed in or circumscribed
about triangles and polygons. They are nearly all given for their
own sake, and not for future use in the construction of figures, as
are most of those in the former books. In seven definitions at the
beginning of the book it is explained what is understood by figures
inscribed in or described about other figures, with special reference
to the case where one figure is a circle. Instead, however, of saying
that one figure is described about another, it is now generally said
that the one figure is circumscribed about the other. We may then
state the definitions 3 or 4 thus : —
Definition. — A polygon is said to be inscribed in a circle, and the
circle is said to be circumscribed about the polygon, if the vertices
of the polygon lie in the circumference of the circle.
And definitions 5 and 6 thus: —
Definition.— A polygon is said to be circumscribed about a circle,
land a circle is said to be inscribed in a polygon, if the sides of the
polygon are tangents to the circle.
I 30. The first problem is merely constructive. It requires to
draw in a given circle a chord equal to a given straight line, which
is not greater than the diameter of the circle. The problem is not
a determinate one, inasmuch as the chord may be drawn from any
point in the circumference. This may be said of almost all problems
in this book, especially of the next two. They are: —
Prop. 2. In a given circle to inscribe a triangle equiangular to a
given triangle'.
Prop. 3. AbwV a given circU to circumscribe a triangle equiangular
to a given triangle.
f 40. Of somewhat greater Interest are the next problems, where
the triangles are given and the circles to be found.
Prop. 4. To inscribe a circle in a given triangle.
The result is that the problem has always a solution, vir. the
centre of the circle is the point where the bisectors of two of the
interior angles of the triangle meet. The solution shows, though
Euclid does not state this, that the problem has but one solution;
and also,
The three bisectors of the interior angles of any triangle meet in a
point, and this is the centre of the circle inscribed in the triangle.
The solutions of most of the other problems contain also theorems.
Of these we shall state those which are of special interest; Euclid
does not state any one of them.
$4 1 . Prop. 5. To circumscribe a circle about a given triangle.
The one solution which always exists contains the following: —
The three straight lines which bisect the sides of a triangle at right
angles meet in a point, and this point is the centre of the circle circum-
scribed about the triangle.
Euclid adds in a corollary the following property 1 —
The centre of the circle circumscribed about a triangle lies within,
on a side of, or without the triangle, according as the triangle is
acute-angled, right-angled or obtuse-angled. %
1 42. Whilst it is always possible to draw a circle which is inscribed
in or circumscribed about a given triangle, this is not the case with
quadrilaterals or polygons of more sides. Of those for which this
3ns which have all their
ting. In each of them a
i circumscribed about it.
ic describes the polygons
We shall use the name
equilateral, the regular
A 4, 5, 6 and 15 sides,
roblems— (1) to inscribe
circumscribe it about a
id (4) to circumscribe a
e not repeated, because
for the square,
i given circle a regular
lem of dividing the eir-
what comes to the same
cle n radii such that the
angles between consecutive radii are equal, that is, to divide the
space about the centre into n equal angles. Thus, if it is required
to inscribe a square in a circle, we have to draw four lines from the
centre, making the four angles equal. This is done by drawing
two diameters at right angles to one another. The ends of these
diameters are the vertices of the required square. If. on the other
hand, tangents be drawn at these ends, we obtain a square circum-
scribed about the circle.
i 43. To construct a regular pentagon, we find it convenient first
to construct a regular decagon. This requires to divide the space
about the centre into ten equal angles. Each will be rVh of a right
angle, or |th of two right angles. If we suppose the decagon con-
structed, and if we join the centre to the end of one side, we get an
boscele* triangle, where the angle at the centre equals 1th of two
right angle*; hence each of the angle* at the base will be ftha oi
two right angles, as all three angles together equal two right angles.
Thus we have to construct an isosceles triangle, having the angle at
the vertex equal to half an angle at the base. This is solved is
Prop. 10, by aid of the problem in Prop. 11 of* the second book.- If
we make the sides of this triangle equal to the radius of the given
circle, then the base will be the side of the regular decagon inscribed
in the circle. This side being known the decagon can be constructed,
and if the vertices are joined alternately, leaving out half their
number, we obtain the regular pentagon. (Prop. 11.)
Euclid does not proceed thus. He wants the pentagon before
the decagon. This, however, does not change the real nature of
his solution, nor does his solution become simpler by not mentkmtsf
the decagon.
Once the regular pentagon is inscribed, it is easy to circumscribe
another by drawing tangents at the vertices of the inscribed pentagon.
This is shown in Prop. 12.
Props. 13 and 14 teach how a circle may be inscribed in or cir-
cumscribed about any given regular pentagon.
f 44. The regular hexagon is more easily constructed, as shown
in Prop. 15. The result is that the side of the regular hexagon
inscribed in a circle is equal to the radius of the circle.
For this polygon the other three problems mentioned are not
solved.
inscribe a regular
, regular pentagon
vertex in common.
lext vertex of the
next vertex of the
nee between these
The Utter may,
fifteen equal pans.
t regular polygons
# the sides of any
Trisecting the angles
s point ts the centre
of the circles circumscribed about and inscribed in the regular polygon.
We can bisect any given arc (Prop. 30, 1 1 1 .). Hence we can divide
a circumference into 2n equal parts as soon as it has been divided
into n equal parts, or as soon as a regular polygon of n sides has bees
constructed. Hence—
// a regular polygon of n sides has been constructed, them a regular
polygon of 2n sides, of An, of 8n sides, Sfc. may also be constructed.
Euclid shows how to construct regular polygons of 3. 4, 5 and 15
sides. It follows that we can construct regular polygons of
3, 6, 12, 24... sides
4, 8, 16, 32... „
5, 10, 20, 40
15, 30. 6<>. i*>
The construction of any new regular polygon not included in one
of these series will give rise to a new scries. Till the beginning of the
19th century nothing was added to the knowledge of regular polygons
as given by Euclid. Then Causs, in his celebrated Arithmetic.
proved that every regular polygon of 2 m +i sides may be constructed
if this number 2*+i be prime, and that no others except those
with 2"(2"-r-i) sides can be constructed by elementary methods.
This shows that regular polygons of 7, 9, 13 sides cannot thus be
constructed, but that a regular polygon of 17 sides is possible: for
17 »2« + i. The next polygon is one of 257 sides. The construction
becomes already rather complicated for 17 sides.
BookV.
{ 47. The fifth book of the Elements is not exclusively geometrical.
It contains the theory of ratios and proportion of quantities is
general. The treatment, as here given, is admirable, and in every
respect superior to the algebraical method by which Euclid's theory
is now generally replaced. We shall treat the subject. in order to
show why the usual algebraical treatment of proportion is not really
sound. We begin by quoting those definitions at the beginning of
Book V. which are most important. These definitions have gives
rise to much discussion.
The only definitions which are essential for the fifth book are
Dcfs. I, 2, 4, 5, 6 and 7. Of the remainder 3, 8 and 9 are more
than useless, and probably not Euclid's, but additions of later editors,
of whom Theon of Alexandria was the most prominent. Defs. 10
and 1 1 belong rather to the sixth book, whilst all the others are
merely nominal. The really important ones are 4, 5, 6 and 7.
f 48. To define a magnitude is not attempted by F-uclid. The
first two definitions state what- is meant by a "part," that is, s
submultiple or measure, and by a " multiple " 01 a jgiven magni-
tude. The meaning of Def. 4 is that two given quantities can have
a ratio to one another only in case that they arc comparable as to
their magnitude, that is. if they are of the same kind.
Def. 3. which is probably due to Theon, professes to define a ratio,
but is as meaningless as it is uncalled for, for all that is wanted b
given in Defs. £ and 7.
In Def. 5 it is explained what is meant by saying that two mag-
wftwdaa nave the tame ratio to oat another as two other magnitudas.
EUCLIDEAN)
and in Def. 7 what we have to understand by a greater or a leas ratio.
The 6th definition U only nominal, explaining the meaning of the
word proportional.
Euclid represent* magnitudes by lines, and often denotes them
either by single letters or, like lines, by two letters. We shall use
only single letters for the purpose. If a and b denote two magnitudes
of the same kind, their ratio will be denoted by a : b; if c and d are
two other magnitudes of the same kind, but possibly of a different
kind from a and b, then if c and d have the same ratio to one another
as a and 6, this will be expressed by writing—
a :b : :c :i.
Further,
of a which
IM
to the secon
whatever of
whatever of
than that of
the fourth;
the multiple
multiple of
the third is
It will tx
can be used, by proving the first part of the first proposition in the
sixth book. Triangles of the same altitude are to one another as
their bases, or if a and 6 are the bases, and a and fi the areas, of two
triangles which have the same altitude, then a : b : : a : fi.
To prove this, we have, according to Definition 5* to show—
if ma > nb, then me > nfi,
, if ma — nb, then ma — nfi,
if ma <nb, then m*<nfi.
That this is true is in our case easily seen. We may suppose that
the triangles have a common vertex, and their bases in the same
line. We set off the base a along the line containing the bases
m times; we then join the different parts of division to the vertex,
and get m triangles all equal to a. The triangle on ma as base equals,
therefore, mo. If we proceed in the same manner with the base b,
setting it off n times, we find that the area of the triangle on the
base nb equals nfi, the vertex of all triangles being the same. But
if two triangles have the same altitude, then their areas are equal
if the bases are equal; hence ma -nfi if ma-nft, and if their bases
are unequal, then that ' *
base; in other words,
nfi, according as mo is greater than, equal to,
was to be proved.
§ 50. It will be seen that even in this example It does not become
evident what a ratio really is. It is stifl an open question whether
ratios are magnitudes which we can compare. We do not know
whether the ratio of two lines is a magnitude of the same kind as the
ratio of two areas. Though we might say that Def. «$ defines equal
ratios, still we do not know whether they are equal in the sense of
the axiom, that two things which are equal to a third arc equal to
one another. That this is the case requires a proof, and until this
proof is given we shall use the : : instead of the sign — , which, how-
ever, we shall afterwards introduce.
As soon as it has been established that all ratios are like magni-
tudes, it becomes easy to show that, in some cases at least, they
arc numbers. This step was never made by Greek mathematicians.
They distinguished always most carefully between continuous
magnitudes and the discrete scries of numbers. In modern times
it has become the custom to ignore this difference. ~
If, in determining the ratio of two lines, a common measure can
be found, which is contained m times in the first, and n times in
the second, then the ratio of the two lines equals the ratio of the
two numbers m : n. This is shown by Euclid in Prop. 5, X. But the
ratio of two numbers is, as a rule, a fraction, and the Greeks did
not, as we do, consider fractions as numbers. Far less had they
any notion of introducing irrational numbers, which are neither
whole nor fractional, as we are obliged to do if we wish to say that
all ratios are numbers. The incommensurable numbers which are
thus introduced as ratios of incommensurable quantities are nowa-
days as familiar to us as fractions; but a proof is generally omitted
that we may apply to them the rules which have been established
for rational numbers only. Euclid's treatment of ratios avoids this
difficulty. His definitions hold for commensurable as well as for
incommensurable quantities. Even the notion of incommensurable
quantities is avoided in Book V. But he proves that the more
elementary rules of algebra hold for ratios. We shall state all
his propositions in that algebraical form to which we are now accus-
tomed. This may, of course, be done without changing the character
of Euclid's method.
§ 51. Using the notation explained above we express the first
propositions as follows : —
Prop. 1. If ««»w', b-mV, c-mc*,
then o+6+c-m(a'+&'+0.
Prop. a. If a-m6, and c«mrf,
e-nb, and/*a4,
GEOMETRY
683
lai; nencc ma—np u ma— no, ana 11 ineir oases
hat has the greater area which is on the greater
irds, ma is greater than, .equal to. or less than
1 is greater than, equal to, or less than nb, which
then a +« is the tame multiple of6asc+/isofo\vix.:—
o+e-(m+n)b, and c +/-(m+ n)d.
Prop. 3. If a-mb, c-md, then is na the same multiple of #
that nc is of d, via. na-nmb, nc—nmd.
Prop. 4- If
a :b : :c :a\
ma '.nb : :mc : ad.
Prop. 5. If a-mb, and c -md t
then a~c-m(b-d).
Prop. 6. If a—mb,c-md,
then are a-noand c-nd either equal to, or equimultiples of. b
and d, viz. a- nb-(m-n)b and c-nd ~(m-n)d, where m-n may
be unity.
All these propositions relate to equimultiples. Now follow pro-
positions about ratios which are compared as to their magnitude.
$52. Prop. 7. If a —b, then a :c : : b : c and c : a : : c : b.
The proof is simply this. As a - b we know that ma-mb; there-
fore if ma > nc, then mb>nc,
if ma—nc, then mb — nc,
if ma <nc, then mb< nc,
therefore the first proportion holds by Definition 5.
Prop. 8. If a>b, then a : c>b : c,
and c :a<c :b.
The proof depends on Definition 7.
Prop. 9 (converse to Prop. 7). If
or if
a : c : :b :c,
c :a : :c : b, then a—b.
Prop. 10 (converse to Prop. 8). If
a : c>b : c, then a>9
and if c :a<c : b, then o<6.
Prop. 11. If a :b : :c :d,
and a :b : :e :f,
then c:d::e.f.
In words, if two ratios are equal to a third, they are equal to am
another. After these propositions have been proved, we have a
right to consider a ratio as a magnitude, for only now can we con-
sider a ratio as something for which the axiom about magnitudes
holds: things which arc equal to a third are equal to one another.
We shall indicate this by writing in future the sign * instead
of : : . The remaining propositions, which explain themselves, may
then be stated as follows:
{ 53. Prop. 13. If a : b-c xd-e :f,
then «+c+« : b+d+f-a : b.
Prop. 13. If a :b-c :dandc :d>e :/,
thed a : b >e : /.
Prop. 14. If a : b-c : d, and o>c, then b>d.
Prop. 13. Magnitudes have the same ratio to one another that
their equimultiples have —
ma : mb—a : b.
Prop. 16. If o, b, c % d are magnitudes of the same kind, and if
a :b-c :d,
theq a:c-b:d.
Prop. 17. If a+b : b-c+d : d,
then a: b-c id.
Prop. 18 (converse to 17). If
a : b—c id
then o+b : b-c+d :d.
Prop. 19. If o> b, c,d are quantities of the same kind, and if
a .b-c id,
then a-c : b-d-a : b.
( §4. Prop. 20. // there be three magnitudes, and another three,
which have the same ratio, taken two and two, then if the first be greater
than the thtrd, the fourth shall be greater than the sixth; and if equal,
equal; and tf less, less.
If we understand by
a:b:c:d:e: . . . -o' : V .c* : <T :**:.. .
that the ratio of any two consecutive magnitudes on the first side
equals that of the corresponding magnitudes 00 the second side,
we may write this theorem in symbols, thus. —
If a, b, c be quantities of one, and o\e,f magnitudes of the I
or any other kind, such that
and if
but if
and if
Prop. at. If
or if
a :b :c-d •# :/,
a>c, then d>f,
a-c, then d-f.
a<c, then d<f.
a :b-e :/and b :c-d :#,
.•.»,.-VV!t
68+
GEOMETRY
and if
a>c, then d>f,
but if
a**c % then d—f.
and if
o<c,thead<f.
By aid of these two propositions the following two are proved.
5 55. Prop. 22. if there be any number of magnitudes, and as
many others, which have the same ratio, taken two and two in order,
the first shall have* to the last of the first magnitudes the same rati*
which the first of the others has to the last.
We may state it more generally, thus: m
If a : b : c : d : e: . . . -a' : b' : c* : d' : e* : . . .,
then not only have two consecutive, but any two magnitudes on
the first side, the same ratio as the corresponding magnitudes on
the other. For instance—
a : c=a' : c* ; b : «■&* : «', &c.
Prop. 23 we state only in symbols, via. : —
If.
then
a : b : c : d :«:... »-
: V'7'V'?-
Prop. 25. If jour magnitudes of the same kind be proportional,
t greatest and least of them together shall be greater than the other
a :cc r :a\
b :*-«': b\
and so on. ..-,..
Prop. 24 comes to this : Ua :b-c :d and e : 6-/ : a, then
a+e : &-«+/ : a\
Some of the proportions which are considered in the above pro-
positions have special names. These we have omitted, as being of
no use, since algebra has enabled us to bring the different operations
contained in the propositions under a common point of view.
§ 56. The last proposition in the fifth book is of a different
character.
r
the
two together. In symbols —
If a, b, e, d be magnitudes of the same kind, and if a : b**c : a,
and if o is the greatest, hence d the least, then a+d> b+e.
I 57. We return once again to the question. What is a ratio ?
We have seen that we may treat ratios as magnitudes, and that all
ratios are magnitudes of the same kind, for we may compare any
two as to their magnitude. It will presently be shown that ratios
of lines may be considered as quotients of lines, so that a ratio appears
as answer to the question, How often is one line contained in another ?
But the answer to this question is given by a number, at least in
some cases, and in all cases if we admit incommensurable numbers.
Considered from this point of view, we may say the fifth book of the
Elements shows that some of the simpler algebraical operations
hold for incommensurable numbers. In the ordinary algebraical
treatment of numbers this proof is altogether omitted, or given by
a process of limits which docs not seem to be natural to the subject.
Book VI.
together.
Two triangles are similar,—
1. (Prop. 4). I/the tnangtes art equiangular i
f similar figures,
proposition gives
me altitude are to
one of the sides
des produced, pro-
cut proportionally,
\hall be parallel to
added by Simson
if we introduce a
a point C between
nally in the ratio
need, we shall say
i.
Imies the opposite
wo sides including
jcrtex of a triangle
icr sides, then that
exterior angle of a
ratio of ike other
if a triangle divide
bisects an exterior
rior angles at one
illy and externally
theory of similar
ey may be stated
(BOCUDEAM
Proportional to those a)
>ortionat to two sides »
sides are equal;
portional to two sides in
sides are equal, and 1/
art both acute, bath right
aeh case those which an
ems is at once made to
perpendicular be drawn
s an each side of it ere
er.
[hat the perpendicular
led triangle to the base
its of the base, and also
i\ between the base aad
le.
ontaining problems, ia
cs-y
1 given nstmber of equal
en ratio.
w> given straight lines,
to three given straight
ttween two given straight
ions with one unknown
t lines a, b, c, and the
hat
be written without the
oanected with paralklo*
we one angle of the en
es about the equal angles
ns which have one angle
heir tides about the equal
me another.
e angle of the one equal
I the equal angles rrctpre-
me angle of the one equal
I the equal angles rectpre-
\ly opposite to one angk
h jotn the remaining toe
are parallel.
portionals, the rectangle
x tangle contained by du
', extremes be equal to the
hi lines are proportionals.
and
areas of the rectangles
lively,
nion between four lines
irming a product of two
lio arc each the inverse
es as the number which
GEOMETRY
EUCLIDEAN}
we tee that from the equality of two quotients
a e
fellows, if we multiply both tide* by bd,
ad~cb.
But from this it follows, according to the last theorem, that
o:b-c:d
Hence we conclude that the quotient 5 and the ratio a : 6 are
different forms of the same magnitude, only with this important
difference that the quotient J would have a meaning only if a and
b have a common measure, until we introduce incommensurable
numbers, while the ratio a : b has always a meaning, and thus gives
rise to the introduction of incommensurable numbers.
Thus it is really the theory of ratios in the fifth book which enables
us to extend the geometrical calculus given before in connexion
with Book II. It will also be seen that if we write the ratios in
Book V. as quotients, or rather as fractions, then most of the theorems
state properties of quotients or of fractions.
§ 64. Prop. 17. // three straight lines are proportional Ik* rectangle
contained by the extremes is equal to the square on the mean; and
conversely, is only a special case of 16. After the problem, Prop.
iS. On a men straight line to describe a rectilineal fiptrt similar
and similarly situated to a given rectilineal figure, there follows another
fundamental theorem:
Prop. 19. Similar triangles are to one another in the duplicate
ratio of their homologous sides. In other words, the areas of similar
triangles are to one another as the squares on homologous sides.
This is generalized in:
Prop. 20. Similar polygons may be divided into the same number
of similar triangles, having the same ratio to one another that the
polygons have; and toe polygons are to one another in the duplicate
ratio of their homologous sides.
$ 65. Prop. 21. Rectilineal figures which are similar to the same
rectilineal figure are also similar to each other, is an immediate con-
sequence of the definition of similar figures. As similar figures
may be said to be equal in " shape " but not in " size," we may state
it also thus: ... ...
" Figures which arc equal in shape to a thud are equal m shape
to each other." ... , .
Prop. 2a. // four straight lines be proportionals, the similar
rectilineal figures similarly described on them shall also be propor-
tionals; and if the similar rectilineal figures similarly described on four
straight lines be proportionals, those straight lines shall be proportionals.
This is essentially the same as the following:—
a : b -c id,
„« :*»-<»:*.
5 66. Now follows a proposition which has been much discussed
with regard to Euclid's exact meaning in saying that a ratio is
compounded of two other ratios, viz. :
Prop. 23. Parallelograms which are equiangular to one another,
have to one another the ratio which is compounded of the ratios of their
sides.
The proof of the proposition makes its meaning clear. In symbols
the ratio a : c is compounded of the two ratios a : b and b : c, and if
a: 6=0': b*. a: r-6 : c', then a : c is compounded of a' : b* and
b' : c'.
If we consider the ratios as numbers, we may say that the one
ratio is the product of those of which it is compounded, or in symbols,
o a b a' b' it * a' .b b\
The theorem .in Prop. 23 is the foundation of all mensuration of
areas. From it we see at once that two rectangles have the ratio
of their areas compounded of the ratios of their sides.
If A is the area of a rectangle contained by a and 5, and B that
of a rectangle contained by c and d, so that A -a*. B-af, then
A : B-a© : cd, and this is, the theorem says, compounded of the
ratios a : c and bid. In forms of quotients,
a b ah
This shows how to multiply quotients in our geometrical calculus.
Further, Two triangles have the ratios of thetr areas compouddea
of the ratios of their bases and their altitude. For a triangle is equal
in area to half a parallelogram which has the same base and tha
same altitude.
f 67. To bring these theorems to the form in which they are usually
given, we assume a straight line u as our unit of length (generally
an inch, a foot, a mile. &c.), and determine the number a which
expresses how often u is contained in a line a, so that a denotes the
ratio a : at whether commensurable or not, and that a-a*. Wi
685
lien
ilvaraeofa. If in the s
ine b we have
*-a:0;
(and of two like quantities in general)
il values.
terving that a* an. b»0u, therefore
bout difficulty be shown to equal «:/t
Itude of one. a' b* those of another
their numerical values respectively,
*-#
xraUetograms are to each other as the
' their bases and altitudes.
1
ilelogram is the unit square, i.e. a
o «/-0'-i, A'-**, and we have
or A -«*.*».
r of unit squares contained in
duct of the numerical values of base
number of unit squares contained in
luct of the numerical values of base
g that the area of a parallelogram is
k and the altitude, meaning by this
terical values^and not the product aa
26 relate to parallelograms about
Bd in Book I., 43- They are—
tut the diameter of any parallelogram
dogram and to one another; and its
muar parallelograms have a common
they are about the same diam e t er .
>robJem.
lineal figure which shall be similar to
%d equal to another given rectilineal
theorem relating to the theory of
y state it thus:
be divided into two by a straight ling
the base another Parallelogram be con*
parts, them this third parallelogram u
this general theorem is a special case
is are changed into rectangles, and
rhich the parallelogram is divided is
theorem changes into one which ia
i\ with the following: —
the same perimeter the square has tha
b: —
the same area the square has the least
u'tkms contain problems which may
dratic equations. The first two are,
lewhat obscure language. We tran-
gfven base a parallelogram, and to
>p. 28) or externally (Prop. 29) from
parallelograms, of which the one has
to a given figure), whilst the other
> a given parallelogram),
ymbols, calling the given base a. the
we have to determine x and y in the
»-*)y-a\
y 1
rst, and P and q the base and altitude
ermine the shape of the second of the
r y, we get
-*)*-^
ix-x*-b* t
.tities, taking **-*-•
gives rise, in the seme manner, to the
raight line in extreme and mean ratU,
686
GEOMETRY
This is, therefore, only a special case of the last, and is, besides,
an old acquaintance, being essentially the same problem as that
proposed in II. II.
Prop. 30 may therefore be solved in two ways, either by aid of
Prop. 39 or by aid of II. zi. Euclid gives both solutions.
§ 71. Prop. 31 (Theorem). In any right-angled triangle, any
rectilineal figure described on Ike side subtending the right angle ts
equal to the similar and- similarly-described figures on the sides con*
taining the right angle, — is a pretty generalization of the theorem of
Pythagoras (I. 47).
Leaving out the next proposition, which is of little interest, we
come to the last in this book.
Prop. 33. In equal circles angles, whether at the centres or the
circumferences, have the same ratio which the arcs on which they stand
have to one another; so also have the sectors.
Of this, the part relating to angles at the centra is of special
importance; it enables us to measure angles by arcs.
With this closes that part of the Elements which is devoted to
the study of figures in a plane.
Book XI.
I 73. In thb book figures are considered which are not confined
to a plane, via. first relations between* lines and planes ip space,
and afterwards properties of solids.
Of new definitions we mention those which relate to the perpen-
dicularity and the inclination of lines and planes.
Def. 3. A straight line is perpendicular, or at right angles, to a
plane when it makes right angles with every straight line meeting it
to that plane.
The definition of perpendicular planes (Def. 4) offers no difficulty.
Euclid defines the inclination of lines to planes and of planes to
planes (Defs. 5 and 6) by aid of plane angles, included by straight
lines, with which we have been made familiar in the first books.
The other important definitions are those of parallel planes,
Def. 8), and of solid angles formed by three or
r in a point (Def. 9).
the definition of a line parallel to a plane as a
meet the plane.
nvestigate the contents of Book XI., it will be
shortly what we know of planes and lines from
axioms of the first book. There a plane has
rface which has the property that every straight
> points in it lies altogether in it. This is equi-
t a straight line which has two points in a plane
e plane. Hence, a straight line which does not
not have more than one point in common with
virtually the same as Euclid's Prop. I, viz. : —
of a straight line cannot be in a plane and another
was pointed out in { 3, in discussing the defini-
tions of Book I., that a plane is determined already by one straight
line and a point without it, viz. if all lines be drawn through the
point, and cutting the line, they will form a plane.
This may be stated thus: —
A olane is determined —
* is oes not lie on it:
an straight line; tor if two
ofth we have case r;
xr the point of intersection
and case a;
Pi mother are in one plane,
audi are in one plane.
Ai
Pi , the straight line drawn
from tther is in the same plane
with plane further follows
Pt teir common section is a
straight line.
\ 74. Whilst these propositions are virtually contained in the
definition of a plane, the next gives us a new and fundamental
Esperty of space, showing at the same time that it is possible to
ve a straight line perpendicular to a plane, according to Def. 3.
It states-
Prop. 4. // a straight line- is perpendicular to two straight lines
in a plane which it meets, then it is perpendicular to all lines in the plane
which it meets, and hence it is perpendicular to the plane.
Def. 3 may be stated thus: If a straight line is perpendicular
to a plane, then it is perpendicular lo every line in the plane which
it meets. The converse to this would be
All straight lines which meet a given straight line in the same Point,
and are perpendicular to it, lie in a plane which is perpendicular to
that line.
This Euclid states thus:
Prop. 5. // three straight lines meet aU atone point, and a straight
hue stands at right angles to each of them at that point, the throe straight
Una shall he in one and the same plane.
$ 75- There follow theorems relating to the theory of parallel
line* in space, vim.: —
onxxqxAN
Ocular tea
rattd to the
■ parallel t*
plane wRa
se parallels
to luumsej
ual. That
•e equal to
r. and this
fjret.
ro straight
1 any past
ncluoed by
tkwi of the
icaOed the
lentamdthf
respecsmlj
ana:—
romagwa
f by aid o!
from some
joint in the
ltd
em.
drawn to At
straight lime
9 be per pen-
fed by the
the plant .
ines. It k
are parallel
tug straight
lines in the
ty plane m
e^ohowiM
woparellei
add Turn
other.
solution of
parallel to
us problem
ular tooac
uh ef them
ioU be per-
md if they
paVa/angk,
more (ace.
:h are quite
k. . Euclid
angles, amy
tgtes. which
us theorem
it 1
»ot depend
have their
latter ait
angle'' or
raining the
~„m 1. 4, tbt
ana its distance irom tne opposite race as amsuae.
Prop. 25. // a solid parallelepiped be cut by a pfan* parallel
two of its opposite Planes, it divides the whole into two solids, the ba
of one of witch shall be to the base of the other as the one solid is to t
EUCLIDEAN)
theorem, // two trihedral angles ham too angles if two faces in the one
equal to Ike angles of two faces in the other, and have likewise the angles
included by these faces equal, then the angles in Ike r e m a ini ng facts are
equal, and the angle* between the Inker faces are equal each to each, via.
those which are opposite equal faces. The solid angle* thenuelvea are
not necessarily equal, for they may be only symmetrical like the
right hand and the left
The connexion indicated between triangles and trihedral angles
will also be recognised in
Prop. 32. // every two of three plane angles be greater than the
third, and if the stratght lines which contain them be all equal, a triangle
may be made of the straight lines that join the extremities of thou equal
straight lines.
And Prop. 23 solves the problem, To construct a trihedral angle
having the angles of its faces equal to three given plane angles, any two
of them being greater than the third. It is, of course, analogous to the
problem of constructing a triangle having its sides of given length.
Two other theorems of this kind are added by Sirason in his
edition of Euclid's Elements.
I 80. These are the principal properties of lines and planes in
space, but before we go on to their applications it will be well to
define the word distance. In' geometry distance means always
" shortest distance "; viz. the distance of a point from a straight
line, or from a plane, is the length of the perpendicular from the
point to the line or plane. The distance between two non-intersect-
ing lines is the length of their common perpendicular, there being
but one. The distance between two parallel lines or between two
parallel planes is the length of the common perpendicular between
the lines or the planes.
§ 81. Parallelepipeds.— The rest of the book b devoted to the
study of the parallelepiped. In Prop. 24 the possibility of such
a solid is proved, viz. : —
Prop. 24. // a solid be contained by six planes two and two of
which are parallel, the opposite planes are similar and equal parallelo-
grams.
Euclid calls this solid henceforth a parallelepiped, though he
never defines the word. Either face of it may be taken as base,
and its distance from the opposite face as altitude.
~ " " ' allelePiped be cut by a Plant parallel to
r base
to the
other.
This theorem corresponds to the theorem (VI. 1) that parallelo-
grams between the same parallels are to one another as their bases.
A similar analogy is to be observed among a number of the remaining
propositions.
4 82. After solving a few problems we come to
Prop. 28. // a solid parallelepiped be cut by a plane passing
through the diagonals of two of the opposite Planes, it shall be cut in
two equal parts.
In the proof of this, as of several other propositions, Euclid
neglects the difference between solids which are symmetrical like
the right hand and the left.
Prop. 31. Solid parallelepipeds, which are upon equal bases, and
of the same altitude, are equal to one another.
Props. 29 and 30 contain special cases of this theorem leading up
to the proof of the general theorem.
As consequences of this fundamental theorem we get
Prop. 32. Solid Parallelepipeds, which have the same altitude, are
to one another as their bases; and
Prop. 33. Similar solid parallelepipeds are to one another in the
triplicate ratio of their homologous stdes.
If we consider, as in § 67, the ratios of lines as numbers, we may
also say —
The ratio of the volumes of similar Parallelepipeds is equal to the
ratio of the thtrd Powers of homologous sides.
Parallelepipeds which are not similar but equal are compared by
aid of the theorem
Prop. 34. The bases and altitudes of equal solid parallelepipeds
and reciprocally proportional; and if the bases and altitudes be re-
ciprocally proportional, the solid Parallelepipeds are equal.
§ 83. Of the following propositions* the 37th and 40th are of
special interest.
Prop. 37. If four straight lines be proportionals, the similar solid
Par allele bipeds, similarly described from them, shall also be Pro-
portionals; and if the similar parallelepipeds similarly described
from four straight lines be proportionals, the straight lines shall be
proportionals.
In symbols it says —
If a:b-c:d, then a*:b*"C*:d'.
Prop. 40 teaches how to compare the volumes of triangular
prisms with those of parallelepipeds, by proving that a triangular
Prism t is equal in volume to a Parallelepiped, which has its altitude
and its bnsa equal to the altitude and the base of the triangular
Prism.
f 84. From these propositions follow all results relating to the
mensuration of volumes. We shall state these as we did in the case
of areas. The starting-point is the " rectangular " parallelepiped,
which has every edge perpendicular to the plants it meets, and
GEOMETRY
687
which taken the place af the rectangle h the plane. If this has aU
its edges equal we obtain the " cube."
If we take a certain line • as unit length, then the square on u Is
the unit of area, and the cube on u the unit of volume, that is to
say, if we wish to measure a volume we have to determine how
many unit cubes it contains.
A rectangular parallelepiped has, aa a rule, the three edges un-
equal, which meet at a point. -Every other edge is equal to one
of them. If a, b, e be the three edgea meeting at a point, then we
may take the rectangle contained by two of them, say by b and c.
as base and the third aa altitude. Let V be its volume, V' that of
another rectangular parallelepiped which has the edges a', b, c,
hence the same oase as the first. It follows then easily, from Prop.
25 or 32, that V:V'-«:o'; or in words,
Rectangular parallelepipeds on equal bases are proportional to their •
altitudes.
If we have two rectangular parallelepipeds, of which the first has
the volume V and the edges a, b, c, and the second, the volume V
and the edges a', V, c t , we may compare them by aid of two new
ones which nave respectively the edges a', b, c and a', b\ c, and the
volumes Vi and V«. We then have
V:Vi-a:o';Vi:Vi-ft:ft',Vt:V'-c:c'.
Compounding these, we have
V:V'-(o:a0(6:*0(c:O.
or
V a b c
Hence, as a special case, making V equal to the unit cube U on u
we get
V a b' c m
V~u. "yv***.
where •* A 7 are the numerical values of a, b, c; that is, The number
of unit cubes in a rectangular parallelepiped is equal to the product
of the numerical values of its three edges. This is generally ex-
pressed by saying the volume of a rectangular parallelepiped is
measured by the product of its sides, or by the product of its base
into its altitude, which in this case is the same.
Prop. 31 allows us to extend this to any parallelepipeds, and Props.
28 or 40, to triangular prisms.
The volume of any parallelepiped, or of any triangular prism, is
measured by the Product of base and altitude.
The consideration that any polygonal prism may be divided into
a number of triangular prisms, which have the same altitude and
the sum of their bases equal to the base of the polygonal prism*
shows further that the same holds for any prism whatever.
Book XII.
1 85. In the last part of Book XI. we have learnt how to compare
the volumes of parallelepipeds and of prisms. In order to determine
the volume of any solid bounded by plane faces we must determine
the volume of pyramids, for every such solid may be decomposed
into a number of pyramids.
As every pyramid may again be decomposed into triangular
pyramids, it becomes only necessary to determine their volume
This is done by the
Theorem. — Every triangular pyramid is equal in volume to one
third of a triangular prism having the same base and the same
altitude as the pyramid.
This is an immediate consequence of Euclid's
Prop. 7. Every prism having a triangular base may be divided
into three pyramids that have triangular bases, and are equal to on*
another.
The proof of this theorem is difficult, because the three triangular
pyramids into which the prism is divided are by no means equal in
shape, and cannot be made to coincide. It has first to be proved
that two triangular pyramids have equal volumes, if they have
equal bases and equal altitudes. This Euclid does in the following
manner. He first shows. (Prop. 3) that a triangular pyramid may
be divided into four parts, of which two are equal triangular pyramids
similar to the whole pyramid, whilst the other two are equal tri-
angular prisms, and further, that these two prisms together are
greater than the two pyramids, hence more than half the given
pyramid. He next shows (Prop. 4) that if two triangular pyramids
are given, having equal bases aim equal altitudes, and if each be
divided as above, then the two triangular prisms in the one are
equal to those in the other, and each of the remaining pyramids in
the one has its base and altitude equal to the base and altitude el
the remaining pyramids in the other. Hence to these pyramids the
same process is again applicable. We are thus enabled to cut out
of the two given pyramids equal parts, each greater than half the
original pyramid. Of the remainder we can again cut out equal
parts greater than half these remainders, and so on as far as we like.
This process may be continued till the last remainder is smaller
than any assignable quantity, however small. It follows, so we
should conclude at present, that the two volumes must be equal, for
they cannot differ by any assignable quantity.
To- Greek nadstinmtoa* iMa cjro&uancL dent V*x v«»&»
688
GEOMETRY
(PROJECTIVE
difficulties. They prove elaborately, by s> reductio ad absurdum,
that the volumes cannot be unequal. This proof must be read in
the Elements. We must, however, state that we have in the above
not proved Euclid's Prop. 5, but only a special case of it. Euclid
does not suppose that the bases of the two pyramids to be compared
are equal, and hence he proves that the volumes are as the base:.
The reasoning of the proof becomes clearer in the special case, from
which the general one may be easily deduced.
§ 86. Prop. 6 extends the result to pyramids with polygonal
bases. From these results follow again the rules at present given
for the mensuration of solids, viz. a pyramid is the third part of a
triangular prism having the same base and the same altitude* But
a triangular prism is equal in volume to a parallelepiped which
has the same base and altitude. Hence if B is the base and k the
altitude, we have
Volume of prism - B*,
Volume- of pyramid *■ IB*,
statements which have to be taken in the sense that B means the
number of square units in the base, h the number of unit* of length
in the altitude, or that B and h denote the numerical values of base
and altitude.
i 87. A method similar to that used in proving Prop. 5 leads to
the following results relating to solids bounded by simple curved
surfaces: —
Prop. 10. Every cone is the third part of a cylinder which has the
same base, and is of an equal altitude with it.
Prop. 1 1 . Cones or cylinders of the same altitude are to one another
as their bases.
Prop. 12. Similar cones or cylinders have to one another the triplicate
ratio of that which the diameters of their bases have.
Prop. 13. If a cylinder be cut by a plane parallel to its opposite
planes or bases, it divides the cylinder into two cylinders, one of which
u to the other as the axis of the first to the axis of the other', which
may also be stated thus:—
Cylinders on the same base are proportional to their altitudes.
Prop. 14. Cones or cylinders upon equal bases are to one another
as their altitudes.
Prop. 15. The bases and altitudes of equal cones or cylinders are
reciprocally proportional, and if the bases and altitudes be reciprocally
proportional, the cones or cylinders are equal to one another.
These theorems again lead to formulae in mensuration, if we
compare a cylinder with a prism having its base and altitude equal to
the base and altitude of the cylinder. This may be done by the
method of exhaustion. We get, then, the result that their bases are
equal, and have, if B denotes the numerical value of the base, and
h that of the altitude.
Volume of cylinder- BA,
Volume of cone — \Bk\
I 88. The remaining propositions relate to circles and spheres.
Of the sphere only one property is proved, viz.:—
Prop. 18. Spheres home to one another the triplicate ratto of that
which their diameters have. The mensuration of the sphere, like
that of the circle, the cylinder and the cone, had not been settled
in the time of Euclid. It was done by Archimedes.
Book XIII.
% 89. The 13th and last book of Euclid's Elements is devoted to
.he regular solids (a
five of them, viz. : —
the regular solids (see Polyhedron). It is shown that there are
1. The regular tetrahedron, with 4 triangular faces and 4 vertices;
2. The cube, with 8 vertices and 6 square faces;
3. The octahedron, with 6 vertices and 8 triangular faces;
4. The dodecahedron, with 12 pentagonal faces, 3 at each of the
20 vertices;
5. The icosahedron, with 20 triangular faces, 5 at each of the
13 vertices.
It is shown how to inscribe these solids in a given sphere, and
how to determine the lengths of their edges.
§ 90. The 13th book, and therefore the Elements, conclude with
the scholium, that no other regular solid exists besides the five
ones enumcratcd. M
The proof is very simple. Each face is a regular polygon, hence
the angles of the faces at any vertex must be angles in equal regular
polygons, must be together less than four right angles (XI. 21), and
must be three or more in number. Each angle in a regular triangle
equals two-thirds of one right angle. Hence it is possible to form
a solid angle with three, Tour or five regular triangles or faces.
These give the solid angles of the tetrahedron, the octahedron and
the icosahedron. The angle in a square (the regular quadrilateral)
equals one right angle. Hence three will form a solid angle, that
of the cube, and four will not. The angle in the regular pentagon
equals f of a right angle. Hence three of them equal 2jl (1^. less
than 4) right angles, and form the solid angle of the dodecahedron.
Three regular polygons of six or more sides cannot form a solid
«4gfe Therefore no other regular solids are possible; (p. H.)
TL PtorgcuvB Gsomnrr
■ It is difficult, at the outset, to characterize projective geometry
as compared with Euclidean. But a few examples wfll at least
indicate the practical differences between the two.
In Euclid's Elements almost all propositions refer to the magni-
tude of lines, angles, areas or volumes, and therefore to measure-
ment. The statement that an angle is right, or that two straight
lines are parallel, refers to measurement. On the other hand,
the fact that a straight line does or does not cut a circle is inde-
pendent of measurement, it being dependent only upon the
mutual " position " of the line and the circle. This difference
becomes clearer if we project any figure from one plane to another
(see Projection). By this the length of lines, the magnitude
of angles and areas, is altered, so that the projection, or shadov,
of a square on a plane will not be a square; it wfll, however,
be some quadrilateral. Again, the projection of a circle will not
be a circle, but some other curve more or less resembling a circle.
But one property may be stated at once— no straight line can cot
the projection of a circle in more than two points, because no
straight line can cut a circle in more than two points.- There
are, then, some properties of figures which do not alter by
projection, whilst others do. To the latter belong nearly all
properties relating to measurement, at least in the form in which
they are generally given. The others are said to be projective
properties, and their investigation forms the subject of projective
geometry.
Different as are the kinds of properties investigated in the old
and the new sciences, the methods followed differ in a sol
greater degree. In Euclid each proposition stands by itself;
its'tonncxion with others is never indicated; the leading ideas
contained in its proof are not stated; general principles do not
exist. In the modern methods, on the other hand, the greatest
importance is attached to the leading thoughts which pervade
the whole; and general principles, which bring whole groups of
theorems under one aspect, arc given rather than separate pro-
positions. The whole tendency is towards generalisation.
A straight line is considered as given in its entirety, extending
both ways to infinity, while Euclid never admits anything but
finite quantities. The treatment of the infinite is ia fact another
fundamental difference between the two methods: Euclid avoids
it; in modern geometry it is systematically introduced.
Of the different modern methods of geometry, we shall treat
principally of the methods of projection and correspondence which
have proved to be the most powerful. These have become inde-
pendent of Euclidean Geometry, especially through the Gemetrie
der Late of V. Staudt and the Ausdchnungslthrc of Grassmasa.
For the sake of brevity we stall presuppose a knowledge of
Euclid's Elements , although we shall use only a few of bis pro-
positions.
it. Geometrical Elements. We consider space as filled with points,
lines and planes, and these we call the elements out of which our
figures are to be formed, calling any combination of these elements a
" figure."
By a line we mean a straight line in its entirety, extending both
ways to infinity; and by a plane, a plane surface, extending in al
directions to infinity.
We accept the three-dimensional space of experience— the space
assumed by Euclid — which has for its properties (among others) :—
Through anv two Doints in soace one and onlv one line mav he
drawn;
Through any three points which are not in a Kne, one and only oat
plane may be placed;
The intersection of two planes is a line;
A line which has two points in common with a plane lies in the
plane, hence the intersection of a line and a plane is a si ngle point : and
Three planes which do not meet in a line have one single point id
common.
These results may be stated differently in the following form:—
I. A plane is determined— A point is determined--
1. By three points which do 1. By three planes which do
not lie in a line; not pasa through a line;
2. By two Intersecting lines; 2. By two intersecting lines;
3. By a line and a point 3. By a plane nod a lint
which does not lie in it which does not lie in it
II. A line is determined"
\. Bv two ooUu; a. By two f
PROJECTIVE!
GEOMETRY
689
Fig. 1.
It will be observed that not only are plane* determined by points,
but also points by planes; that therefore the planes may be con-
sidered as elements, like points; and also that in any one of the
above statements we may interchange the words point and plane,
and we obtain again a correct statement, provided that these
statements themselves arc true. As they stand, we ought, in
several cases, to add " if they arc not parallel," or some such words,
parallel lines and planes being evidently left altogether out of
consideration. To correct this wc have to reconsider the theory of
parallels.
f 2. Parallels. Point at Infinity.— Let us take in a plane a line tf
(fig. 1), a point S not in this line, and a line q drawn through S.
Then this line q will meet
\ s the line p in a point A. If
we turn the line q about S
towards q*, its point of
intersection with p will
move along p towards B,
passing, on continued turn-
ing, to a greater and greater
distance, until it is moved
out of our reach. If we
turn 9 still farther, its con-
tinuation will meet f. but
now at the other side of
A. The point of inter-
section has disappeared to
the right and reappeared
to the left. There is one intermediate position where q is parallel
to p — rtiat is where it does not cut p. In every other position it
cuts p in some finite point. If, on the other hand, we move the point
A to an infinite distance in p, then the line q which passes through
A will be a line which does not cut p at any finite point. Thus we
arc led to say: Every line through S which joins it to any point
at an infinite distance in p is parallel to p. But by Euclid's 12th
axiom there is but one line parallel to p through S. The difficulty in
which we are thus involved is due to the fact that we try to reason
about infinity as if we, with our finite capabilities, could comprehend
the infinite. To overcome this difficulty, wc may say that all points
at infinity in a line appear to us as one, and may be replaced by a
single " ideal " point.
We may therefore now give the following definitions and axiom: —
Definition. — Lines which meet at infinity arc called parallel.
Axiom. — All points at an infinite distance in a line may be con-
sidercd as one single point.
Definition.— -This ideal point is called the point at infinity In the
line.
The axiom is equivalent to Euclid's Axiom 12, for it follows from
either that through any point only one line may be drawn parallel
to a given line.
This point at infinity in a line is reached whether we move a
point in the one or in the opposite direction of a line to infinity.
A line thus appears closed by this point, and wc speak as if we
could move a point along the line from one position A to another
B in two ways, either through the point at infinity or through finite
points only. . - . . .
It must never be forgotten that this point at infinity is ideal;
in fact, the whole notion of " infinity is only a mathematical
conception, and owes its introduction (as a method of research) to
the working generalizations which it permits.
9 3. Line and Plane at Infinity. — Having arrived at the notion of
replacing all points at infinity in a line by one ideal point, there is no
difficulty in replacing all points at infinity in a plane by one ideal
line.
To make this clear, let us suppose that a line p, which cuts two
fixed lines a and 6 in the points A and B, moves parallel to itself
to a greater and greater distance. It will at last cut both a and
b at their points at infinity, so that a line which joins the two points
at infinity in two intersecting lines lies altogether at infinity. Every
other line in the plane will meet it therefore at infinity, and thus it
contains all points at infinity in the plane.
All points at infinity in a plane lie in a line, which is called the line
at infinity in the plane.
It follows that parallel planes must be considered as planes
having a common line at infinity, for any other plane cuts them in
parallel lines which have a point at infinity in common.
If we next take two intersecting planes, then the point at infinity
in their line of intersection lies in both planes, so that their lines
at infinity meet. Hence every line at infinity meets every other
line at infinity, and they are therefore all in one plane.
All points at infinity in space may be considered as lyini in, one
ideal plane, which is called the plane at infinity.
i 4. Parallelism. — Wc have now the following definitions: —
Parallel lines are lines which meet at infinity;
Parallel planes are planes which meet at infinity;
A line is parallel to a plane if it meets it at infinity.
Theorems like this— Lines (or planes) which arc parallel to a third
areparallel to each other— follow at once. .
Tnis view of parallels leads therefore to no ooatrajrficUMi «f
Eoclvl'a Elements.
As immediate consequences wc get the propositions:—
Every line meets a plane in one point, or it lies in it;
Every plane meets every other plane in a line;
Any two lines in the same plane meet.
f 5- Aggrttates of Geometrical Elements. — Wc have called points,
lines and planes the elements of geometrical figures. Wc also say
that an clement of one kind contains one of the other if it lias in it
or passes through it.
All the elements of one kind which arc contained in one or two
elements of a different kind form aggregates which have to be
enumerated. They are the following.*—
I. Of one dimension.
1. The row, or range, of points formed by all points in a line,
which is called its base.
2. The fiat pencil formed by all the lines through a point in
a plane. Its base is the point in the plane.
3. The axial pencil formed by all planes through a line
which is called its base or axis.
II. Of two dimensions.
1. The field of points and lines — that is, a plane with all its
points and all its lines.
2. The pencil of lines and planes — that is, a point in space
with all lines and all planes through it.
III. Of three dimensions.
The space of points — that is, all points in space.
The space of planes — that is, all planes in space.
IV. Of four dimensions.
The space of lines, or all lines in space.
f 6. Meaning of " Dimensions." — The word dimension in the above
needs explanation. If in a plane we take a row p and a pencil with
centre Q, then through every point in p one line in the pencil will
pass, and every ray in Q will cut p in one point, so that we are
entitled to say a row contains as many points as a flat pencil lines,
and, we may add. as an axial pencil planes, because an axial pencil
is cut by a plane in a flat pencil.
The number of dements in the row, in the flat pencil, and in the
axial pencil is, of course, infinite and indefinite too, but the same in
all. This number may be denoted by 00. Then a plane contains
00* points and as many lines. To see this, take a flat pencil in a
plane. It contains as lines, and each line contains 00 points, whilst
each point in the plane lies on one of these lines. Similarly, in a
plane each line cuts a fixed line in a point. But this line is cut at
each point by 00 lines and contains «o points ; hence there are ee*
lines in a plane.
A pencil in space contains as many lines as a plane contains
points and as many planes as a plane contains lines, for any plane
cuts the pencil in a field of points and lines. Hence a pencil con-
tains 00* lines and •»' planes. The field and thje pencil are of two
dimensions.
To count the number of points in space we observe that each
point lies on some line in a pencil. But the pencil contains 00 «
lines, and each line °o points; hence space contains <*>* points.
Each plane cuts any fixed plane in a line. But a plane contains
oo* lines, and through each pass 00 planes; therefore space contains
00 • planes.
Hence space contains as many planes as points, but it contains
an infinite number of times more lines than points or planes. To
count them, notice that every line cuts a fixed plane in one point.
But oo 1 lines pass through each point, and there arc oo 1 points in the
plane. Hence there are « 4 lines in space. The space of points
and planes is of three dimensions, but the space of lines is of four
dimensions.
A field of points or lines contains an infinite number of rows and
flat pencils; a pencil contains an infinite number of flat pencils
and of axial pencils; space contains a triple infinite number of
pencils and of fields, 00 « rows and axial pencils and » • flat pencils —
or, in other words, each point is a centre of 00 • flat pencils.
$ 7. The above enumeration allows a classification of figures.
Figures in a row consist of groups of points only, and figures in
the flat or axial pencil consist of groups of lines or planes. In the
plane wc may draw polygons; and in the pencil or in the point,
solid angles, and so on.
We may also distinguish the different measurements We have-
In the row, length of segment ;
In the flat pencil, angles;
In the axial pencil, dihedral angles between two planes;
In the plane, areas;
In the pencil, solid angles;
In the space of points or planes, volumes.
Segments or a. Like
S 8. Any two poin r ^ u f* 1
them a finite part, 1 ed by
a point moving froi '.and
distinguish it from 1 by a
point moving from I Ml**
opposite to AB. Si re. we
shall call a " segment &«"*».
which are said to be *one
•eaatbofteacaUad
690
GEOMETRY
In introducing the word " sense " for direction in a fine, we have
the word direction reserved for direction of the line itself, to that
different lines have different directions, unless they be parallel,
whilst in each line we have a positive and negative sense.
We may also say, with Clifford, that AB denotes the " step " of
going from A to B.
1 9. If we have three points A, B, C in a line (fig. 2), the step AB
will bring us from A to B, and the step
A, n c BC from B to C. Hence both steps are
"t— 1 i ' equivalent to the one step AC. This is
expressed by saying that AC is the
" sum " ol AB and BC; in symbols —
- * A ? AB+BC-AC.
'where account is to be taken of the
A c B sense.
This equation is true whatever be the
position of the three points on the line.
As a special case we have
AB+BA-o, (1)
Fie. 2.
and similarly
AB+BC+CA-o.
which again is true for any three points in a line.
(2)
We further write
AB— BA.
where - denotes negative sense.
We can then, just as in algebra, change subtraction of segments
into addition by changing the sense, so that AB-CB is the same
as AB+(-CB) or AB+BC. A figure will at once show the truth
of this. The sense is, in fact, in every respect equivalent to the
" sign " of a number in algebra.
f 10. Of the many formulae which exist between points in a line
we shall have to use only one more, which connects the segments
between any four points A, B, C, D in a line. Wc have
BC-BD+DC, CA-CD+DA. AB-AD+DB;
or multiplying these by AD, BD, CD respectively, we get
BC . AD-BD . AD+DC . AD-BD . AD-CD . AD
CA . BD-CD . BD+DA . BD-CD . BD-AD . BD
AB . CD -AD . CD+DB . CD -AD . CD-BD . CD.
It will be teen that the sum of the right-hand sides vanishes, hence
that
from algebraic identities is very simple,
be any four quatttitics, then
(PROJECTIVE
For example, if a, a, c, s
BC.AD+CA.BD+AB.CD-o (3)
for any four points on a line.
f 11. If C is any point in the line AB, then we say that C divides
the segment AB in the ratio AC/CB, account being taken of the
sense of the two segments AC and CB. If C lies between A and B
the ratio is positive, as AC and CB have the same sense. But if
C lies without the segment AB, i.e. if C divides AB externally, then
the ratio is negative.
Q A M B P To see how the value of
1 • : • • ' this ratio changes with
Fig. 3. C, we will move C along
the whole line (fig. 3),
Whilst A and B remain fixed. If C lies at the point A, then AC -o,
hence the ratio AC:CB vanishes. As C moves towards B, AC
increases and CB decreases, so .that our ratio increases. At the
middle point M of AB it assumes the value +1, and then increases
till it reaches an infinitely large value, when C arrives at B. On
Kissing beyond B the ratio becomes negative. If C is at P we have
C-AP-AB+BP, hence
AC ABjBP AB .
CB "FB +FB" ~EP " '•
In the last expression the ratio AB:BP is positive, has its greatest
value oo when C coincides with B, and vanishes when BC becomes
infinite. Hence, as C moves from B to the right to the point at
infinity, the ratio AC:CB varies from — 00 to— 1.
If. on the other hand, C is to the left of A, say at Q, we have
AC-AQ-AB+BQ-AB-QB, hence ^§-^-1.
Here AB<QB, hence the ratio ABrQB is positive and always
less than one, so that the whole is negative and <i. If C is at
the point at infinity it b-i, and then increases as C moves to the
right, till for C at A we get the ratio - o. Hence—
" As C moves along the line from an infinite distance to the left to
an infinite distance at the right, the ratio always increases; it starts
with the value- 1, reaches o at A, -ft at M, 00 at B, now changes
> , and increases till at an infinite distance it reaches
this may be proved, cumbrously, by multiplying up, or, simply, by
decomposing the right-hand member of the identity into partial
fractions. Now take a line ABCDX, and let AB -a, AC -©, AD«c,
AX»x. Then obviously («-&)- AB-AC— BC, paying regani
to signs; (a-r)-AB-AD-DB, and so on. Substituting these
values in the identity we obtain the following relation connecting
the segments formed by five points on a line :- -
AB t AC AD AX
BC . BD . BX ' CD . CB . CX+DB . DC . DX"BX . CX . DJC
Conversely, if a metrical relation be given, its validity may be
tested by reducing to an algebraic equation, which is an identity
if the relation be true. For example, if ABCDX be five collinev
points, prove
AD . AX , BD . BX , CD . CX .
AB-AC + BCBA+CA-CB" 1 -
Clearing of fractions by multiplying throughout by AB . BC . CA,
we have to prove
-AD.AX.BC-BD.BX.CA-CD.CX.AB-AB.BC.CA.
Take A as origin and let AB- a, AC -*, AD -c, AX -x. Substituting
for the segments in terms of a, b, c, x, we obtain on simpUficatioa
a*b-ab* — «4»-f o'fc, an obvious identity.
An alternative method of testing a relation is illustrated in the
following example: — If A, B, C, D, E, F be six collinear points,
then
AE.AF , BE.BF , CE.CF , DE . DF ^
AB AC.AD ± BCPD.BA + CD.CA.CB + DA DB . DC " '
Clearing of fractions by multiplying throughout by AB - BC .CD. DA,
and reducing to a common origin O (calling OA — a, OB— a, &c),
an equation containing the second and lower powers of OA («o).
&c, is obtained. Calling OA-x, it is found that x— ©, x— c, x-i
are solutions. Hence the quadratic has three roots; consequently
it is an identity.
The relations connecting five points which we have instanced above
... •« first by
.and then
may be readily deduced from the six-point relation; the first by
taking D at infinity, and the second by taking F at infinity, and then
making the obvious permutations of the points.)
Projection and Cross-Ratios
i 12. If we join a point A to a point S, then the point where the
1 cuts a fixed plane r is called the projection of A on the
r from S as centre of projection. If we have two planes »
and a point S, we may project every point A in w to the
plane. If A' is the projection of A, then A is also the pn>
of A', so that the relations are reciprocal. To every figure
e get as its projection a corresponding figure in w*.
shall determine such properties of figures as remain true for
. >jection, and which are called projective properties. For tins
purpose it will be, sufficient to consider at first only constructions in
one plane.
Let us suppose we have given in a plane two lines p and p' and a
centre S (fig. 4) : we may then project the points in p irora S to f.
sign to —00 , _
again the value- 1. /* assumes therefore all possible values from
-00 io+a>,and tack value only once, so that mat only does every
posttton of C determine a definite value of the ratio AC :CB. but also,
conversely, to every positive or negative value of this ratio belongs one
stnrUpotnt in the line AB.
^^^yis^^F^li liae *£E mt «? tin f *• £<* w j n *. * n Let A/. B' ... be the projections of A, B .... the point at infinity in
application of algebra to geometry. The genesis of such relations p which we shall denote by I will be projected into a finite point
Fig. 4.
Flo. 5.
PROJECTIVE!
GEOMETRY
691
parallel to p through S cuts
be p ro j e c ted into the point
course the point where the
us see that every point in p
be projected into a segment
: as a rule; and
al to the ratio
These ratios
ne parallel, for
to the triangle
and their pro-
al no relation.
■ exist.
s in p, A', B\
atio of the two
uch C and D
corresponding
mbols wehave
AC AD A'C* A'D*
CB : DB■C , B ,: I5 T B , '
This is easily proved by aid of similar triangles.
Through the points A and B on p draw parallels to f, which cut
the projecting rays '—
xfcc
Fie. 6.
Ci, D* fit and Ai, d.
D|, as indicated in
' 6. The two triangles
:C, and BCCi will be
_. iflar, as will also be
the triangles ADDi and
BDD..
The proof is left to
the reader.
This result is of funda-
mental importance.
The expression
AC/CB :AD/DB has been
called by Chasks the
"anharmonic ratio of the
four points A. B, C, D."
Professor Clifford pro-
cross-ratio." We shall adopt the
the shorter name of
otter. We have then the
Fundamental Theorem. — The cross-ratio of four points in a
line is equal to the cross-ratio of their projections on any other line
which lies in the same plane with it.
f 14. Before we draw conclusions from this result, we must in-
vestigate the meaning, of a cross-ratio somewhat more fully.
If four points A, B, C, D are given, and we wish to form their
cross-ratio, we have first to divide them into two groups of two,
the points in each group being taken in a definite order. Thus,
let A, B be the first, C, D the second pair, A and C being the first
points in each pair. The cross-ratio is then the ratio AC : CB
divided by AD :DB. This will be denoted by (AB. CD), so that
(AB.CD)-^:^.
This is easily remembered. In order to write it out, make first
the two lines for the fractions, and put above and below these
A A
the letters A and B in their places, thus, -g: —£•; and then fill
op, crosswise, the first by C and the other by D.
f 15. If we take the points in a different order, the value of the
cross-ratio will change. Wc can do this in twenty-four different
ways by forming all permutations of the letters. But of these
twenty-four cross-ratios groups of four are equal, so that there are
really only six different ones, and these six are reciprocals in pairs.
We have the following rules : —
I. If in a cross-ratio the two groups be interchanged, its value
remains unaltered, ue.
(AB, CD) - (CD, AB) - (BA, DC) - (DC, BA).
II. If in a cross-ratio the two points belonging to one of the two
groups be interchanged, the cross-ratio changes into its reciprocal, i.e.
(AB. CD) - i/(AB, DC) - i/(BA, CD) - i/(CD. BA) - i/(DC, AB).
From I. and II. we see that eight cross-ratios are associated with
(AB, CD).
III. If in a cross-ratio the two middle letters be interchanged,
the cross-ratio a changes into its complement 1 —a, i.e. (AB, CD) -
I-(AC.BD).
(ft 16. If *«(AB. CD), m-(AC, DB). r-(AD, BO, then X, n, p
and their reciprocals i/X, i/jt, l/r are the values of the total number
of twenty-four cross-ratios. Moreover, X. u, 9 are connected by the
relations
X+i/m -n+i/r-r+l/X- -Xjw- 1 ,
thai proposition may be proved by substituting for X, * r and
reducing to a common origin. There are therefore four equations
between three unknowns; hence if one cross-ratio be given, the
remaining twenty-three are determinate. Moreover, two of the
quantities X, ji, » are positive, and the remaining one negative.
. The following scheme shows the twenty-four cross-ratios expressed
in terms of X,*, r.J
I 17. If one of the points of which a cross-ratio b formed is the
point at infinity in the line, the cross-ratio changes into a simple
ratio. It is convenient to let the point at infinity occupy the last
place in the symbolic expression for the cross-ratio. Thus if I is a
point at infinity, we have (AB, CI) - - AC/CB, because Al : IB - -1.
Every common ratio of three points in a line may thus be ex-
pressed as a cross-ratio, by adding the point at infinity to the group
ci points.
Harmonic Ranges
ft 18. 1/ the points have special positions, the cross-ratios nay
have such a value that, of the six different ones, two and two become
equal. If the first two shall be equal, we get X-i/x, or X*«i,
If we take X- + i, we have (AB, CD)-i. or AC/CB -AD/DB;
that is, the points C and D coincide, provided that A and B are
different.
If we take X--t, so that (AB. CD)--i, we have AC/CB -
-AD/DB. Hence C ana* D divide AB internally and externally in the
same ratio.
The four points are in this case said to be harmonic points, and
C and D are said to he harmonic conjugates with regard to A and B.
But we have also (CD, AB) - - 1, so that A and B are t^H P on ic
conjugates with regard to C and D.
The principal property of harmonic points is that their cross-ratio
remains unaltered ii we interchange the two points belonging to one
pair, via.
(AB, CD) - (AB, DC) - (BA, CD).
For four harmonic points the six cross-ratios become equal two
and two:
Hence if we get four points whose cross-ratio is a or J, then they
arc harmonic, but not arranged so that conjugates are paired, u
this is the case the cross-ratio - — 1.
$ jo. If we equate any two of the above six values of the cross*
ratios, we get either X-i, o, 00, or X--i, 2, ft, or else X becomes
a root of the equation X*— X+i ~o, that is, an imaginary cube root of
— 1. In this case the six values become three and three equal, so
that only two different values remain. This case, though important
in the theory of cubic curves, is for our purposes of no interest,
whilst harmonic points are all-important.
ft 20. From the definition of harmonic points, and by aid of ft 1 1,
the following properties are easily deduced.
If C and D are harmonic conjugates with regard to A and B,
then one of them lies in, the other without AB; it is impossible
to move from A to B without passing either through C or through
D; the one blocks the finite way, the other the way through in-
finity. This is expressed by saying A and B are "separated " by
C and D.
For every position of C there will be one and only one point
D which is its. harmonic conjugate with regard to any point pair
A, B.
If A and B are different points, and if C coincides with A or B,
D does. But if A and B coincide, one of the points C or D, lying
lywhere
between them, coincides with them, and the other may be any
in the line. It follows that, " if of four harmonic conjugates two
coincide, then a third coincides with them, and the fourth may be any
print in the line."
If C b the middle point between A and B, then D is the point at
infinity; for AC:CB-+I, hence AD:DB must be equal to -1
The harmonic conjugate of the point al infinity in a line with regard
to two points A.Btsthe middle Point of AB.
This important property gives a first example how metric pro*
perties are connected with projective ones.
(ft 21. Harmonic properties of the complete quadrilateral and quad-
692
GEOMETRY
A figure formed by four lines in t plane b called a complete quadri-
lateral, or, shorter, a Jot "***
named the " -— * : ~- 1 '
The four aides meet in six points,
, ' vertices," which may be joined by three lines (other
than the sides), named the " diagonals or " harmonic lines." The
diagonals enclose the " harmonic triangle of the quadrilateral." In
fig. 7. A'B'C\ B'AC. CAB, CBA are the sides, A,A\ B3'. C.C
Fig. 7.
Fig. 8.
the vertices, AA', BB\ CC the harmonic lines, and afiy the harmonic
triangle of the quadrilateral. A figure formed by four coplanar
points is named a complete quadrangle, or, shorter, a four-point.
The four points may be joined by six lines, named the " sides,"
which intersect in three other points, termed the " diagonal or
harmonic points." The harmonic points are the vertices of the
" harmonic triangle of the complete quadrangle." In fig. 8, AA',
BB' are the points, AA', BB\ A'B', B'A, AB, BA' are the sides,
L, M, N are the diagonal points, and LMN is the harmonic triangle
of the problem :
To construct Ike harmonic conjugate Dtoa point C with regard to two
given points A and B.
Through A draw any two lines, and through C one cutting the
former two in G and H. Join these points to B, cutting the former
two lines in E and F. The point D where EF cuts AB will be the
harmonic conjugate required.
This remarkable construction requires nothing but the drawing
of lines, and is therefore independent of measurement. In a similar
manner the harmonic conjugate of the line VA for two lines VC,
VD is constructed with the aid of the property of the complete
quadrangle.
f 82. Harmonic Pencils. — The theory of cross-ratios may be ex-
tended from points in a row to lines in a flat pencil and to planes in
an axial pencil. We have .seen ($ 13) that if the lines which join four
points A, B, C, D to any point S be cut by any other line in A', B', C,
ty, then (AB, CD) - (A*B\ CD 7 ). In other words, four lines in a
flat pencil are cut by every other line in four points whose cross-ratio
is constant.
Definition. — By the cross-ratio of four rays in a flat pencil is
meant the cross-ratio of the four points in which the rays are cut
by any line. If a, b, c, d be the lines, then this cross-ratio is denoted
by (ab, cd).
Definition. — By the cross-ratio of four planes in an axial pencil
is understood the cross-ratio of the four points in which any line
cuts the planes, or, what is the same thing, the cross-ratio of the
four rays in which any plane cuts the four planes.
In order that this definition may have a meaning, it has to be
proved that all lines cut the pencil in points which nave the same
cross-ratio. This is seen at once for two intersecting lines, as their
plane cuts the axial pencil in a flat pencil, which is itself cut by
the two lines. The cross-ratio of the four points on one line is
therefore equal to that on the other, and equal to that of the four
rays in the flat pencil.
If two non-intersecting lines p and q cut the four planes in A, B,
C, D and A', B', C, D , draw a line r to meet both p and a, and
let this line cut the planes in A', B'. C. D'. Then (AB, CD)-
(A'B', CD'), for eachis equal to (A'B*. C'DH.
m 1 23. We may now also extend the notion of harmonic elements,
(PROJECTIVE
at pencil and four planes in an axial
if their cross-ratio equals -I, that is,
harmonic points.
lian line " of a triangle a line which
oint of the opposite aide, and by a
am a line joining middle points of
1 cases of the last theorem :
sofa parallelogram form am har mo nic
\etwo sides, the median Urn, and the
harmonic pencil.
rectangle, or the triangle isosceles,
we get:
Any two lines and the bisections of their angles form an harmonic
pencil. Or:
In an harmonic pencil, if two conjugate rays are perpendicular,
then the other two are equally inclined to them; and, conversely, if
one rav bisects the angle between conjugate rays, it is perpendicular to
its conjugate.
This connects perpendicularity and bisection of angles with
projective properties.
5 24. We add a few theorems and problems which are easily proved
or solved by aid of harmonics.
An harmonic pencil is cut by a line parallel to one of its rays in
three equidistant points.
Through a gjven point to draw a line such that the segment
determined on it by a given ancle is bisected at that point.
Having given two parallel fines, to bisect on either any given
segment without ^usinga pair of compasses.
riaving given in a line a segment and its middle point, to draw
through any given point in the plane a line parallel to the given line.
a To draw a line which joins a given point to the intersection of two
given lines which meet off the drawing paper (by aid of $ 21).
Correspondence. Nomographic and Perspective Ranges
( 25. Two rows, p and p', which are one the projection of the
other (as in fig. 5), stand in a definite relation to each other, char-
acterized by the following properties.
1. To each point in either corresponds one point in the other-, that
is, those points arc said to correspond which are projections of one
another.
2. The cross-ratio of any four points in one equals that of the corre-
sponding points in the other.
3. The lines joining corresponding points all pass through the same
Point.
re brought
ling points
lirdof the
tve still a
ng the first
mographu.
'therefore
projective
sppears as
n the rows
ettvee.
rows may
ill be said
Mitsponds
one equals
sal pencil.
1, or either
pencil be projective to a row. The definition is the sane in each
case: is a one-one correspondence between the elements, and
four elements have the same cross-ratio as the corresponding ones.
§ 27. There is also in each case a special position which is called
perspective, viz.
1. Two projective rows arc perspective if they lie in the same
plane, and if the one row is a projection of the other.
2. Two projective flat pencils arc perspective — (1) if they lie in
the same plane,. and have a row as a common section; (2) if they
lie in the same pencil (in space), and arc both sections of the same
axial pencil; (3) if they are in space and have a row as common
section, or arc both sections of the same axial pencil, one of the
conditions involving the other.
%. Two projective axial pencils, if their axes meet, and if they
a common section.
ojective flat pencil, if the row is a section of the
ing in its corresponding line.*
ojective axial pencil, if the row is a section of the
ing in its corresponding line,
roiective axial pencil, if the former is a section
y lying >n its corresponding plane,
the correspondence established by the position
has been called projective follows at once from
not so evident that the perspective position may
We shall show in \ 30 this for the first three
PROJECTIVE)
cases. First, however, we shall give a few theorems which relate to
the general correspondence, not to the perspective position.
§ 28. Two rows or pencils, fiat or axial, which are projectile to a
third are projective to each other; this follows at once from the
definitions.
{ 29. // two rows, or two pencils, either Hat or axial, or a row and a
pencil, be projective, we may assume to any three elements in the one
the three corresponding elements in the other, and then the correspondence,
is uniquely determined.
For if in two projective rows we assume that the points A, B, C
in the first correspond to the given points A'. B\ C in the second.
then to any fourth point D in the first will correspond a point D'
in the second, so that
(AB, CD)- (A'B', CDV
But there is only one point. D', which makes the cross-ratio
(A'B\ CD') equal to the given number (AB, CD).
The same reasoning holds in the other cases.
§ 30. If two rows are perspective, then the lines joining corre-
sponding points all meet in a point, the centre of projection; and
the point in which the two bases of the rows intersect as a point
in the first row coincides with its corresponding point in the
second.
This follows from the definition. The converse also holds,
viz.
// two projective rows have such a position that one point in the one
coincides with its corresponding point in the other, then tltcy are per-
spective, that is, the lines joining corresponding points all pass through
a common point, and form a fiat pencil.
For let A. B. C, D . . . be points in the one. and A', B', C\
D' . . . the corresponding points in the other row, and let A be made
to coincide with its corresponding point A'. Let S be the point where
the lines BB' and CC meet, and let us join S to the point D in the
first row. This line will cut the second row in a point D*. so that
A, B, C, D are projected from S into the points A, B\ C, D*. The
cross-ratio (AB, CD) is therefore equal to (AB', CD"), and by hypo-
thesis it is equal to (A'B', CD). Hence (A'B', CD') « (A'B', CIT),
that is, D* is the same point as D'.
§ 3!. If two projected flat pencils in the same plane arc in per-
spective, then the intersections of corresponding lines form a row,
and the line joining the two centres as a line in the first pencil
corresponds to the same line as a line in the second. And con-
versely,
// two projective pencils in the same plane, but with different centres,
have one line in Ike one coincident with its corresponding line in the
other, then the two pencils are perspective, that is, the intersection of
corresponding lines lie in a line.
The proof is the same as in fi 3a
§ 32. If two projective flat pencils in the same point (pencil in
space), but not in the same plane, arc perspective, then the planes
joining corresponding rays all pass through a line (they form an
axial pencil), and the line common to the two pencils (in which
their planes intersect) corresponds to itself. And conversely: —
If two flat pencils which have a common centre, but do not lie
in a common plane, arc placed so that one ray in the one coincides
with its corresponding ray in the other, then they arc perspective,
that is, the planes joining corresponding lines all pass through a
line.
I 33- If two projective axial pencils are perspective, then the inter-
section of corrcs(X)nding planes lie in a plane, and the plane common
to the two pencils (in which the two axes lie) corresponds to itself.
And conversely : —
If two projective axial pencils are placed in such a position that a
plane in the one coincides with its corresponding plane, then the two
pencils are perspective, that is, corresponding planes meet in lines
which lie in a plane.
The proof again is the same as in $ 30.
$ 34. These theorems relating to perspective position become
illusory if the projective rows of pencils have a common base. We
then have: — . '
In two projective rows on the same line — and also in two pro-
jective and concentric flat pencils in the same plane, or in two
projective axial pencils with a common axis — every element in the
one coincides with its corresponding element in the other as soon
as three elements in the one ..coincide with their corresponding
elements in the other.
Proof (in case of two rows). — Between four elements A, B, C, D
and their corresponding elements A', B', C, D' exists the relation
(ABCD) ■ (A'Bt'D'). If now A', B'. C coincide respectively with
A, B. C, we get-(AB, CD) = (AB, CD'), hence D and D' coincide.
The last theorem may also be stated thus: —
In two projective rows or pencils, which have a common base
but are not identical, not more than two elements in the one can
coincide with their corresponding elements in the other.
Thus two projective rows on the same line cannot have more
than two pairs of coincident points unless every point coincides
with its corresponding point.
It is easy to construct two projective rows on the same line,
which have two pah's of corresponding points coincident. Let die
points A, B, C as points belonging to the one row correspond to A,
GEOMETRY
693
Fic. 9.
B, and C as points in the second. Then A and B coincide with their
corresponding points, but C does not. It b, however, not necessary
that two such rows
have twice a point
coincident with its cor-
responding point; it is
possible that this hap-
pens only once or not
at all. Of this we shall
see examples later.
$ 35. If two projective
rows or pencils are in
perspective position, we
know at once which
element in one corre-
sponds to any given
element in the other.
If p and q (fig. 9) arc
two projective rows, so
that K corresponds to
itself, and if we know,
that to A and B in p
correspond A' and B' in q, then the point S, where AA' meets BB',
is the centre of projection, and hence, in order to find the point C
corresponding to C, we have only to join C to S; the point C,
where this line cuts q, is the point required.
If two flat pencils, Si and St, in a plane are perspective (fig. 10).
we need only to know two pairs, a, a' and b, b', of corresponding
rays in order to find the
axis s of projection. This
being known, a ray c* in
S3, corresponding to a given
ray c in Si, is found by
joining Si to the point
where c cuts the axis 5.
A similar construction
holds in the other cases
of perspective figures.
On this depends the
solution of the following-
general problem.
% 36. Three pairs of cor-
responding elements in two
projective rows or, pencils
being given, to determine
for any element in one
the corresponding element
in the other.
Fig. 10.
We solve this in the two cases of two projective rows and of two
projective flat pencils in a plane.
Problem L— Let A, B. C be Problem II.— Let a, b, c be
three points in a row i,A, B\ C three rays in a pencil S, a', V, c*
the corresponding points in a the corresponding rays in a pro-
projective row 5', both being in a jeetive pencil S', # both being in
plane; it is required to find for the same plane; it is required to
any point Dim the correspond- find for any ray d in S the corrc-
ing' point D' in J. sponding ray a' in S'.
The solution is made to depend on the construction of an auxiliary
row or pencil which is perspective to both the given ones. This is
found as follows: —
Solution of Problem I. — On the line joining two corresponding
points, say AA' (fig. 11), take any two points, S and S', as centres
of^ auxiliary pencils.
Join the intersection Bi ** a>
of SB and S'B' to the '
intersection C| of SC
and S'C by the line *i.
Then a row on s% will
be perspective to s with
S as centre of projec-
tion, and to s* with S'
as centre. To find now
the point D' on s* cor-
responding to a point
D on s we have only to
determine the point Di,
where the line SD cuts
5|, and to draw S'Di;
the point where this line
cuts s' will be the re-
quired point D'.
Proof.— The rows s
and s' are both perspec-
tive to the row s\ t hence
they are projective to
one another. To A, B.
C, D on- s correspond
Ai, Bi, Ci, Di on *i, and
to these correspond A', B', C, D 1
corrcspotwiint po\iv\.s ?& t«Qgnse&.
Fig. 11.
00 r*; so that D and D* ar* x
694
GEOMETRY
Fig. i*.
Solution of Problem II.— Through the intersection A of two
corresponding rays a and of (fig. 12), take two lines, s and **, as
bases of auxiliary rows. Let S t
be the point where the line 6t,
which joins B and B\ cuts the
line Ci, which joins C and C.
Then a pencil S, will be per-
spective to S with s as axis of
projection. To find the ray d' in
S' corresponding to a given ray d
in S, cut d by * at D; project
this point from Si to D' on s*
and join D' to S'. This will be
» the required ray.
Proof. — That the pencil Si is
k perspective to S and also to S'
follows from construction. To
the lines a u b%, c u 4 in Si corre-
spond the lines a, b, c, d in S and
the lines a', b', c , d' in S', so that d
and d' arocorrcsponding rays.
In the first solution the two
centres, S, S', are any two points
on a line joining any two corre-
sponding points, so tnat the solu-
tion of the problem allows of a great many different constructions.
But whatever construction be used, the point D\ corresponding to D,
must be always the same, according to the theorem In { £0. This
gives rise to a number of theorems, into which, however, we shall
not enter. The same remarks hold for the second problem.
fi 37. Homological Triangles. — As a further application of the
theorems about perspective rows and pencils we shall prove the
following important theorem.
Theorem.— If ABC and A'B'C (fig. 13) be two triangles, such that
the lines A A', BB'. CC meet in a point S. then the intersections of
BC and B'C, of CA and C'A'. and of AB and A'B' will lie in a line.
Such triangles arc said to be homological. or in perspective. The-
triangles arc " co-axial " in virtue of the property that the meets of
corresponding sides are collincar and copolar, since the lines joining
corresponding vertices are concurrent.
Proof.— het a, b, c denote the lines AA', BB', CC, which meet at
S. Then these may be taken as bases of projective rows, so that
A, A'. S on o correspond to B, B', S on b, and to C, C, S on c. As
the point S is common to all. any two of these rows will be perspective.
If St be the centre of projection of rows b and c.
Si „ ,, „ c and a,
Sj „ „ „ a and b,
and if the lineSiS* cuts a in Ai. and b in Bi, and c in (
will he corrcspi
in a and b, both
to Ci in e. Bui
perspective, thei
A1B1, that is
corresponding
pass through t
projection Sj of
other words, St,
line. This is D<
brated theorem
thus:—
Theorem of Desargues.—U
each of two triangles has one
vertex on each 01 three con-
current lines, then the inter-
sections of corresponding sides
lie in a line, those sides
being called corresponding which are opposite to vertices on the
same line.
The converse theorem holds also, viz.
Theorem. — If the sides of one triangle meet those' of another in
three points which lie in a line, then the vertices lie on three lines
which meet in a point.
The proof is almost the same as before.
S 38. Metrical Reio lions between Projective Rows. — Every row
contains one point which is distinguished from all others, viz.
the point at infinity. In two projective rows, to the point I at
infinity in one corresponds a point V in the other, and to the point
}' at infinity in the second corresponds a point J in the first. The
points I' and J arc in general finite. If now A and B are any two
points in the one, A', B' the corresponding points in the other row,
then
(AB,Jl)-(A'B',JT>,
W AJ/JB : AI/IB - A'J'/J'B' : AT/I'B'.
But. by S 17.
Al/IB-A'J'/J'B'«-i;
•therefore the last equation changes into
AJ.AT-BJ.BT,
that, it to tay—
Fig. 13.
fPftOJBCTrVE
iistanccs of any two oone sp uacSng
m the points which correspond to
ler is constant, viz. AJ . AT»l
he Power of the correspondence.
vs that if J. I' be given then the
icd point A is readily found ; hence
es of which I and J' correspond to
es. If we take any two origins O,
expression AJ . A'l'-* to its algt-
luation of the form oxx'+ftx+yt!'
1 of this nature holds, then poiats
' form homographic ranges.]
)ints at infinity in two projective
are at infinity, this resuft loses its
three points in one, A'» B\ C the
ow, we have
(A'B', en.
r AC/AC -BC/B'C,
are proportional. Conversely, i
portional. then to the point at
it at infinity in the other. Ifwecal
he result thus—
ts are similar if to the point at
oint at infinity in the other, and
r then they are projective, and the
ig points.
osil ions follow ?—
ly (in similar rows) by a series of
live, with centre of projection at
d parallel, then the lines joining
1 common point.
fective. then there exists in cither,
igles to one another, such that the
encil are again at right angles.
:ils in perspective position (fig. 14)
Fig. 14.
orresponds a right angle m the
f Duality
iat not only points, but also pUncs
out of which figures are buih un-
ction of one figure which possesses
lany cases to the construction of
ording to definite rules, elements
The new figure thus obtained wiQ
/ be stated as soon as those of the
nown as the principle of duality
is to construct to any figure not
ts construction a reciprocal figure,
any theorem a reciprocal theorem,
ed.
>cal propositions on opposite rides
ns, and this plan will occasionally
/orm a few of our former state-
Two planes determine a line:
Three planes which do not pass
through a line determine a point.
A line and a plane not through
it determine * point.
Two lines through a . point
determine a plane.
: will be possible, when any figure
tgure by taking planes instead of
PROJECTIVE)
GEOMETRY
695
For instance, K in the first figure we take a plane and three p
in it, we have to take in the second figure a point and three pi
through it, The three points in the first, together with the 1
lines joining them two and two, form a triangle: the three pi
in the second and their three lines of intersection form a trin<
angle. A triangle and a trihedral angle are therefore rccip
figures.
Similarly, to any figure in a plane consisting of points and
will correspond a figure consisting of planes and Tines passing thr
a point S, and hence belonging to the pencil which has S as ce
The figure reciprocal to four points in space which do nc
in a plane will consist of four planes which do not meet in a p
In this case each figure forms a tetrahedron.
( 42. As other examples we have the following : —
To a row is reciprocal an axial pencil,
„ a fiat pencil „ a flat pencil,
„ a field of points and lines „ a pencil of planes and lin
. ,. the space of points - „ the space of planes.
For the row consists of a line and all the points in it. reciproc
it therefore will be a line with all planes through it, that is, an
pencil ; and so for the other cases. (
This correspondence of reciprocity breaks down, however, i
take figures which contain measurement in their construction,
instance, there is no figure reciprocal to two planes at right a*
because there is no segment in a row which has a magnituc
definite as a right angle.
We add a few examples of reciprocal propositions which are c
proved.
Theorem.— It A, B, C, D are Theorem.— If o, 0, y t I
any four points in space, and if- four planes in space, and i
the lines AB and CD meet, then lines «0 and yi meet, the
all four points lie in a plane, four planes lie in a point (pc
hence also AC and BD, as well hence also ry and 05, as w<
as AD and BC, meet. «A and fit. meet.
Theorem. — // of any number of lines every one meets every 4
vihiht all do not •
lie tn a point,, then all lie in a lie in a plane, then all lie
plane. point (pencil).
fi 43. Reciprocal figures as explained be both in space of
dimensions. If the one h confined to a plane (is formed of elen
which lie in a plane), then the reciprocal figure is confined toap
(is formed of elements which pass through a point).
But there is also a more special principle of duality, accordii
which figures are reciprocal which lie both in a plane or both
pencil. In the plane we take points and lines as reciprocal clem
lor they have this fundamental property in common, that
elements of one kind determine one of the other. In the pi
on the other hand, lines and planes have to be taken as recipi
and here it holds again that two lines or planes determine one |
or line.
Thus, to one plane figure we can construct one reciprocal f
in the plane, and to each one reciprocal figure in a pencil.,
mention a few of these. At first we explain a few names: —
• A figure consisting of n points A figure consisting of n
in a plane will be called an in a plane will be called an n
R-point.
A figure consisting of n planes - A figure consisting of n
in a pencil will be called an. In a pencil will be callci
si-flat, n-edge.
It will be understood that an n-side is different from a pol
of n sides. The latter has sides of finite length and n vertices
former has sides all of infinite extension, and every point v
two of the sides meet will be a vertex. A similar difference t
between a solid angle and an n-edge or an n-flat. We notice
tkularly —
A four-point has six sides, of A four-side has six vcrtici
which two and two are opposite, ' which two and two are opp<
and three diagonal points, which and three diagonals, which
are intersections pi opposite opposite vertices,
sides.
A four-flat has six edges, of A four-edge has six face
which two and two are opposite, "which two and- two are oppi
and three diagonal planes, which and three diagonal edges, v
pass through opposite edges. are intersections of opposite 1
A four-side is usually called a complete quadrilateral, and a
point a complete quadrangle. The above notation, however, 8
better adapted for the statement of reciprocal propositions.
Irt
f a point moves in a plane it If a line moves in a pla
describes a plane curve. t envelopes a plane curve (fig.
If a plane moves in a pencil it If a line moves -in a pen
envelopes a cone. describes a cone.
A curve thus appears as generated either by points, and the
call it a " locus,' or by lines, and then we call it an " envck
In the same manner a cone, which means here a surface, api
either as the locus of lines passing through a fixed point, the " ver
of the cone, or as the envelope of planes passing through the 1
Fie. 15.
To a surface as locus of points corresponds, in the same manner,
a surface as envelope of planes: and to
a curve in space as locus of points cor-
responds a developable surface as en-
velope of planes.
It will be seen from the above that
we may, by aid of the principle of
duality, construct for every figure a
reciprocal figure, and that to any
property of the one a reciprocal pro-
perty of the other will exist, as long
as we consider 'only properties which
depend upon nothing out the positions - and intersections of the
different elements and not upon measurement.
For such propositions it will therefore be unnecessary to prove
more than one of two reciprocal theorems.
Generation or Curves and Cones of Second Order
or Second Class
$45. Conies.— If we have two projective pencils in a plane,
corresponding rays will meet, and their point of intersection will
constitute some locus which we have to investigate. Reciprocally,
if two projective rows in a plane arc given, then the lines wnich jom
corresponding points will envelope some curve. We prove first :—
Theorem. — If two projective Theorem. — If two projective
flat pencils lie in a plane, but rows lie in a plane, but are
arc neither in perspective nor neither in perspective nor on a
concentric, then the locus of common base, then the envelope
intersections of corresponding of lines joining corresponding
rays is a curve of the second points is a curve of the second
order, (hat is, no line contains class, that is, through no point
more than two points of the pass more than two of the
locus. enveloping lines.
Proof. — We draw any line /. Proof. — We take any point T
This cuts each of the pencils in a and join it to all points in each
row, so that we have on / two row. This gives two concentric
rows, and these arc projective pencils, which are projective
because the pencils are pro- because the rows arc projective,
jeetivc. If corresponding rays If a line joining corresponding
of the two pencils meet on the points in the two rows passes
line f, their intersection will be a through T, it will be a line in the
point in the one row which one pencil which coincides with
coincides with its corresponding its corresponding line in the
other. But two projective con-
centric flat pencils in the same
f)lanc cannot have more than two
ines of one coincident with their
corresponding line in the other
are reciprocal, so that the one may
ply interchanging the words point
1 and pencil, ana so on. We shall
1 more than one of two reciprocal
orcm only, the reader being rccom-
>cal proof by himself, and to supply
given,
n the pencil reciprocal to the last,
Theorem. — If two projective Theorem. — If two projective
flat pencils are concentric, but axial pencils lie in the same
are neither perspective nor co- pencil (their axes meet in a
planar, then the envelope of the point), but are neither perspec-
plancs joining corresponding rays tive nor co-axial, then the locus
is a cone of the second class; of lines joining corresponding
that is, no line through the planes is a cone of the second
common centre contains more order: that is, no plane in the
than two of the enveloping planes, pencil contains more than two
of these lines.
% 47. Of theorems about cones of second order and cones of second
class we shall state only very few. We point out, however, the
following connexion between the curves and cones under con-
sideration :
The lines which join any point Every plane section of a cone
'in space to the points on a curve of the second order is a curve of
of the second order form a cone the second order,
of the second order.
The planes which join any • Every plane section of a cone
point in space to the lines en- of the second class is a curve of
vdoping a curve of the second the second class,
class envelope themselves a cone
of the second class.
By its aid, or by the principle of duality, it will be easy to obtain
theorems about them from the theorems about the curves.
We prove the first. A curve of the second order is generated by
two projective pencils. These pencils, when joined to the point in
space, give rise to two projective axial pencils, which generate the
cone in question as the locus of the Uwe* vitas* ewt«»Q«©&\v^T$»K*^
GEOMETRY
£96
Theorem. — The curve of second Theorem.— The envelope of
order which is generated by two second class -which is generated
projective flat pencils passes by two projective rows contains
through the centres of the two the bases of these rows as en-
pencils, veloping lines or tangents.
Proof. — If S and S' are the two Proof. — If s and s are the two
pencils, then to the ray SS' or p' rows, then to the point ss' or P'
in the pencil S' corresponds in as a point in *' corresponds in s
the pencil S a ray p, which is a point P, which is not coincident
different from p', for the pencils with F, for the rows are not
are not perspective. But p and perspective. But P and P' arc
P' meet at S, so that S is a point joined by s, so that s is one of the
on the curve, and similarly S'. enveloping lines, and similarly s'.
It follows that every line in one of the two pencils cuts the curve
in two points, viz. once at the centre S of the pencil, and once
where it cuts its corresponding ray in the other pencil. These two
points, however, coincide, if the line is cut by its corresponding
line at S itself. The line p in S, which corresponds to the line
SS' in S\ is therefore the only line through S which has but one
point in common with the curve, or which cuts the curve in two
coincident points. Such a line is called a tangent to the curve,
touching the latter at the point S, which is called the " point of
contact. '
In the same manner we get in the reciprocal investigation the
result that through every point in one of the rows, say in s, two
tangents may be drawn to the curve, the one being s, the other the
line joining the point to its corresponding point in s'. There is,
•however, one point P in s for which these two lines coincide. Such
■a point in one of the tangents is called the " point of contact " of the
tangent. We thus get—
Theorem. — To the line joining Theorem. — To the point of
the centres of the projective intersection of the bases of two
pencils as a line in one pencil projective rows as a point in one
corresponds in the other the row corresponds in the other the
tangent at its centre. point of contact of its base.
f 49. Two projective pencils are determined if three pairs of
corresponding lines arc given. Hence if ci. 6 lf c\ are three lines in a
pencil Si, and a*. fr», c» the corresponding lines in a projective pencil
•Si, the correspondence and therefore the curve "of the second order
generated by the points of intersection of corresponding rays is
determined. Of this curve we know the two centres Si and Ss,
and the three points aid, bibt, cio, hence five points in all. This
and the reciprocal considerations enable us to solve the following
two problems:
Problem.— To construct a curve Problem.— To const met a curve
of the second order, of which five of the second class, of which five
points Si, S», A, B, C are given. tangents «i, a,, a, b, c are given.
In order to solve the left-hand problem, we take two of the given
points, say Si and Sj, as centres of pencils. These we make pro-
jective by taking the rays a lt bi, d, which join Si to A, B, C respec-
tively, as corresponding to the rays a t , bt, tj, which joinSj to A. B, C
respectively, _so that three rays meet their corresponding rays at
the given points A, B, C. This determines the correspondence of
the pencils which will generate a curve of the second order passing
through A, B, C and through the centres Si and S», hence through
the five given points. To find more points on the curve we have to
construct for any ray in Si the corresponding ray in St. This has
been done in f 36. But we repeat the construction in order to deduce
further properties from it. we also solve the right-hand problem.
Here we select two, vi*. u u *h of the five given lines, u u «t, a, b, c,
as bases of two rows, and the points At, Bi, Q where a, b, c cut «i
as corresponding to the points Aj, Bj, C» where a, b, c cut ««. •
We get then the following solutions of the two problems:
Solution.— Through the point _ Solution.— In the line a take
•A draw any two lines, «t and Ms any two points Si and S» as
(fig. 16), the first «i to cut the centres of pencils (fig. 17), the
•pencil Si in a row AB,C,, the first Si (A.BiG) to project the
other u, to cut the pencil S* in a row u u the other S> (A 3 BsC t ) to
row ABtCV These two rows will project the row m* These two
be perspective, as the point A pencils will be perspective, the
corresponds to itself, and the line S1A1 being the same as the
centre of projection will be the corresponding line S»Aa, and the
point S, where the lines BjBj axis of projection will be the line
and C|C* meet. To find now for u, which joins the intersection B
any ray di in Si its corresponding of S|B ( and SjB, to the intcrscc-
ray <f x in S», we determine the tfon C of Sid and SjC,. To find
point Di where tf\ cuts u lt project now for any point Di in u x the
this point from S to Dt on «i and corresponding point D» in ut t we
join Si to Da. This will be the draw S1D1 and project the point
required ray d% which cuts d\ at D where this line cuts u from St
aome point D on the curve. to *j. This will give the required
point Dtt and the line d joining D t
to Di will be a new tangent to the
curve.
§50. These construction* prove, when rightly interpreted, very
important properties of the curves in question.
(PROJECTIVE
If in fig. 16 we draw In the pencil Si the ray *i which passes
Fxo. 16.
hrouph the auxiliary centre S, it will be found that the con*.
pondtng ray k t cuts it on u t . Hence —
Theorem. — In the above con- Theorem. — In the above con-
truction the bases of the auxil- struction (fig. 17) the tangents to
ary rows u t and i#i cut the curve the curve from the centres of the
vherc they cut the rays SjS and auxiliary pencils Si and Ss are the
»iS respectively. lines which pass through u»u and
U\u respectively. -
As A is any given point on the curve, and *i any line through
t, we have solved the problems:
Problem. — To find the second Problem. — To find the second
x>int in which any line through a tangent which can be drawn
:nown point on the curve cuts from any point in a given tangent
he curve. to the curve.
If wc determine in Si (fig. 16) the ray corresponding to the ray
>jSi in S», we get the tangent at Si. Similarly, we can determine
he point of contact of the tangents Ui or ut in fig. 17.
§ 51. If five points arc given, of which not three are in a line,
hen we can, as has just been shown, always draw a curve of the
Fig, 17.
econd order through them; we select' two of the points as centres of
>rojectivc pencils, and then one such curve is determined. It will
>e presently shown that we get always the same curve if two other
joints are taken as centres of pencils, that therefore five points
Ulermine one curve of the second order, and reciprocally, that five
curve of the second class. Six points taken
: not lie on a curve of the'second order, la
ic case a certain condition has to be satisfied,
asily ob-
uction in
nsidcr the
the five
then the
curve if,
>nly if, the points on D l( S,
n a line.
may be stated dirTcrentty
take AKS,DS,L (figs. 16
) as a hexagon inscribed
conic, then AK and DS»
opposite sides, so will be
d S»L, as welt as SiD and
The first two meet in Ds, .
vers in S and CK respectively. We may therefore state the
required cotv&uou, xovttaex wjfo. >&* twa^toc^ ««*, «t tallows:—
Fig. 18.
PROJECTIVE!
GEOMETRY
°97
Pascal's Theorem. — If a hexagon Brianchon's Theorem.— \l a
be inscribed in a curve of the hexagon be circumscribed about
second order, then the inter sec- a curve of the second class, then
tions of opposite sides are three the lines joining opposite vertices
points in a line. are three lines meeting in a point.
Those celebrated theorems, which are known by the names of
their discoverers, are perhaps the most fruitful in the whole theory
of conies. Before we go over to their applications we have to show
that we obtain the same curve if we take, instead of Si, Si, any two
other points on the curve as centres of projective pencils.
$52. We know that the curve depends only upon the correspond-
ence between the pencils Si and Si, and not upon the special con-
struction used for finding new points on the curve. The point A
(fig. 16 or 18), through which the two auxiliary rows «■, u* were
drawn, may therefore be changed to any other point on the curve.
Let us now suppose the curve drawn, and keep the points Si, St,
K, L and D, and hence also the point S fixed, whilst we move A
along the curve. Then the fine AL will describe a pencil about
L as centre, and the point D, a row on S,D perspective to the
pencil L. At the same time AK describes a pencil about K and D t
a row perspective to it on S»D. But by Pascal's theorem D t and
Dt will always lie in a line with S, so that the rows described by D t
and D* are perspective. It follows that the pencils K and L will
themselves be projective, corresponding rays meeting on the curve.
This proves that we get the same curve whatever pair of the five
given points we take as centres of projective pencils. Hence —
Only one curve of the second Only one curve of the second
order can be drawn which passes class can be drawn which touches
through five given points. five given lines.
We have seen that if on a curve of the second order two points
coincide at A, the line joining them becomes the tangent at A.
If, therefore, a point on the curve and its tangent arc given, this
will be equivalent to having given two points on the curve. Simi-
larly, if on the curve of second class a tangent and its point of
contact are given, this will be equivalent to two given tangents.
We may therefore extend the last theorem :
Only one curve of the second Only one curve of the second
order can be drawn, of which class can be drawn, of which four
four points and the tangent at one tangents and the point of contact
of them, or three points and the at one of them, or three tangents
tangents at two- of them, are and the points of contact at two
given. of them, arc given.
§ 53- At the same time it has been proved :
If all points on a curve of the AH tangents to a curve of second
second order be joined to any class are cut by any two of
two of them, then the two pencils them in projective rows, those
thus formed arc projective, those being corresponding points which
rays being corresponding which lie on the same tangent. Hence—
meet on the curve. Hence —
The cross-ratio of four rays The cross-ratio of the four
joining a point S on a curve of points in which any tangent u is
second order to four fixed points cut by four fixed tangents a, b, c, d
A, B, C, D in the curve is in- is independent of the position of
dependent of the position of S, u, and is called the cross-ratio of
and is called the cross-ratio of the the four tangents a, b, c, d.
four pdints A, B. C, D.
If this cross-ratio equals — I If this cross-ratio equals— 1
the four points are said to be the four tangents arc said to be
four harmonic points. four harmonic tangents.
Wc have seen that a curve of second order, as generated by
projective pencils, has at the centre of each pencil one tangent;
and further, that any point on the curve may be taken as centre of
such pencil. Hence —
A curve of second order has at A curve of second class has on
every point one tangent. every tangent a point of contact.
§54. We return to Pascal's and Brianchon's theorems and their
applications, and shall, as before, state the results both for curves
of the second order and curves of the second class, but prove them
only for the former.
Pascal's theorem may be used when five points arc given to find
more points on the curve, viz. it enables us to find the point where
any line through one of the given points cuts the curve again. It
is convenient, in making use of Pascal's theorem, to number the
points, to indicate the order in which they arc to be taken in forming
a hexagon, which, by the way, may be done in 60 different ways.
It will be seen that t 2 (leaving out 3) 4 5 arc opposite sides,
so are 2 3 and (leaving out 4) 5 6, and also 3 4 and (leaving
out 5) 6 I.
If the points 1 2 3 4 5 arc given, and we want a 6th point on a
line drawn through 1, wc know all the sides of the hexagon with
the exception of 5 6, and this is found by Pascal's theorem.
If this line should happen to pass through 1, then 6 and 1 coincide,
or the line 6 I is the tangent at 1. And always if two consecutive
vertices of the hexagon approach nearer and nearer, then the side
joining them will ultimately become a tangent.
We may therefore consider a pentagon inscribed in a curve of
second order and the tangent at one of its vertices as a
tend thus get the theorem:
Every pentagon inscribed in a
curve of second order has the
property that the intersections of
two pairs of non-consecutive
sides fie in a line with the point
where the fifth side cuts the tan-
gent at the opposite vertex.
This enables us also to solve the
Given five points on a curve of
second order to. construct the
tangent at any one of them.
Every pentagon circumscribed
about a curve of the second class
has the property that the lines
which join two pairs of non-
consecutive vertices meet on that
line which joins the fifth vertex
to the point of contact of the
opposite side.
following problems.
Given five tangents to a curve -
of second class to construct the
point of contact of any one of'
Fig. 19.
If two pairs of adjacent vertices coincide, the hexagon becomes a
quadrilateral, with tangents at two vertices. These we take to be
opposite, and get the following theorems:
If a quadrilateral be inscribed If a quadrilateral be circum-
in a curve of second orde», the scribed about a curve of second
intersections of opposite sides, class, the lines joining opposite
and also the intersections of the vertices, and also the lines joining
tangents at opposite vertices, lie points of contact of opposite
in a line (fig. 19). sides, meet in a point.
r ig. 20.
If we consider the hexagon made up of a triangle and the tangents
at its vertices, wc get —
If a triangle is inscribed in a
curve of the second order, the
points in which the sides are cut
by the tangents at the opposite
vertices meet in a point.
If a triangle be tircumacribed
about a curve of second class,
the lines which join the vertices
to the points of contact of the
opposite sides meet in a point
(figVao).
$ 55- Of these theorems, those about the quadrilateral give rise to
a number of others. Four points A, B, C, D may in three different
ways be formed into a quadrilateral, for we may take them in the
order ABCD, or ACBD, or ACDB, so that either of the points
B, C, D may be taken as the vertex opposite to A. Accordingly we
may apply the theorem in three different ways.
Let A, B, C, D be four points on a curve of second order (fig. 21),
and let us take them as forminga quadrilateral by taking the points
in the order ABCD, so that A, C and also B, D are pairs of opposite
vertices. Then P t Q wffl be die points Hrhere opposite sides meet, '
700
GEOMETRY
four-point which b inscribed In both, and therefore one polar-triangle
common to both.
Theorem. — Two conks which intersect in four points have always
one and only one common polar-triangle; and reciprocally.
Two conks which have Tour common tangents have always one
and only one common polar-triangle.
Diameters and Axes op Conics
properties
important
cr the pole
d that the
two point!
important
el, and an
ike line ai
the line at
at infinity,
at infinity
at infinity
does not cut the ellipse.
The centre of an hyperbola is without the curve, because the line at
infinity cuts the curve. Hence also—
From the centre of an hyperbola two tangents can be drawn to the
curve -which hare their point of contact at infinity. These are called
Asymptotes (§59)-
To construct a diameter of a conic, draw two parallel chords and
join their middle points.
, To find the centre of a conk, draw two diameters; their inter-
section will be the centre.
§ 70. Conjugate Diameters. — A polar-triangle with
the centre will have the opposite side at infinity. The other two
1 one vertex at
sides pass through the centre, and are called conjugate diameters
each being the polar of the point at infinity on the other.
Of two conjugate diameters each bisects the chords parallel to the
other, and if one cuts the curve, the tangents at its ends are parallel to
the other diameter.
Further —
Every parallelogram inscribed in a conic has its sides parallel to
two conjugate diameters; and
Every parallelogram circumscribed about a conic has as diagonals two
conjugate diameters.
This will be seen bv considering the parallelogram in the first
case as an inscribed four-point, in the other as a circumscribed
four-side, and determining in each case the corresponding polar-
triangle. The first may also be enunciated thus —
The lines which join any point on an ellipse or an hyperbola to the
ends of a diameter are parallel to two conjugate diameters.
1 71. tf emery diameter is perpendicular to its conjugate the conk is
circle.
For the lines which join the ends of a diameter to any point on
the curve include a right angle.
A conic which has more than one pair of conjugate diameters at right
angles to each other is a circle.
Let AA' and BB' (fig. 24) be one pair of conjugate diameters at
right angles to each other, CC and DD' a second pair. If we draw
through the end point A of one
diameter a chord AP parallel to
DD , and join P to A', then PA and
PA are, according to i 70, parallel to
two conjugate diameters. But PA is
parallel to DD', hence PA' is parallel
to CC, and therefore PA and PA'
are perpendicular. If we further
draw the tangents to the conic at A
and A, these will be perpendicular
to AA, they being parallel to the
conjugate diameter BB'. We know
thus five points on the conic, via. the
points A and A' with their tangents,
and the point P. Through these a
circle may be drawn having AA' as
L _. diameter; and as through five points
one conic only can be drawn, this circle must coincide with the
-given conic.
♦ ■/*■ A*"-— Conjugate diameters perpendicular to each other
are called axes, and the points where they cut the curve vertices
of the conic*
In a circle every diameter is an axis, every point on it is a vertex*
•and any two lines at right angles to each other may be taken as a
whkh hat j* centre* fefcetr int
Fie. aa.
ptfrcfextnofmnydrdvwk
(PROJECTIVE
1 f we describe on a diameter AB of an ellipse or hyperbola a carle
concentric to the conic, it will cut the latter in A and B (fig. 25).
Each of the semicircles In which k k divided by AB will be partly
within, partly without the curve, and most cut the latter therefore
again in a point. The circle and the conic have thus four points
A, B, C, D, and therefore
one polar-triangle, in com-
mon ((68). Of this the
centre is one vertex, for
the line at infinity is the
polar to this point, both
with regard to the circle
and the other conic. The
other two sides are con-
jugate diameters of both,
hence perpendicular to
each other. This gives—
An ellipse as well as an
hyperbola has one pair of
axes.
This reasoning shows at
the same time how to con-
struct the axis of an ellipse — „ mtm
or of an hyperbola. FIG. 25.
A parabola has one axis.
It we define an axis as a diameter perpendicular to the chords
which it bisects. It is easily constructed. The line which bisects
any two parallel chords is a diameter. Chords perpcndkular to h
win be bisected by a parallel diameter, and this? is the axis.
f 7\. The first part of the right-hand theorem in §64 may be
stated thus: any two conjugate lines through a point P without a
conic are harmonic conjugates with regard to the two tangents
that may be drawn from P to the conic.
If we take instead of P the centre C of an hyperbola, then the
conjugate lines become conjugate diameters, and the tangents
asymptotes. Hence —
Any two conjugate diameters of an hyperbola are harmonic conjugctn
with regard to the asymptotes.
As the axes are conjugate diameters at right angles to one another,
it follows ($ 23)—
The axes of an hyperbola bisect the angles between the asymptotes.
Let O be the centre of the hyperbola (fig. 26). I any secant which
cuts the hyperbola 'in C.D and the asymptotes in E.F. then the
line OM which bisects the chord CD is a diameter conjugate to the
msymp
If tl
Fig. 26.
diameter OK which is parallel to the secant /, so that OK and OM
are harmonic with regard to the asymptotes. The point M there-
fore bisects EF. But by construction. M bisect* CO. It follows
that DF-EC. and ED-CF; or
On any secant of an hyperbola the segments between thm curve and the
mptotes are equal.
If the chord is changed into a tangent, this gives —
The segment between the asymptotes on any tangent to cm hyperbola
is bisected by the point of contact.
The first part allows a simple solution of the problem to find -any
number of points on an hyperbola, of which the asymptotes and one
point are given. This is equivalent to three points and the tangents
at two of them. This construction requires measurement.
5 74. For the parabola, too. foHow some metrical properties. A
diameter PM (fig. 27) bisects every chord conjugate to it, and the
pole P of such a chord BC lies on the diameter. But a diameter cuts
the parabola onre at infinity. Henc e •
The segment PM which joins the middle point fd of a chord of a pan-
kola to the pole P of the chord is bisected by the parabola at A.
f 75- Two asymptotes and any two tangents to sua hyperbola
way be um s Uki e d an a quadrilateral circumscribed about the
PR0JECTIVE1
hyperbola. But in such a quadrilateral the intersections of the
diagonals and the points of contact of opposite sides lie in a line
(f 54). If therefore DEFG
(fig. 28) is such a quadri-
lateral, then the diagonal*
DF and GE will meet, on
the line which joins the
points of contact of the
asymptotes, that is, on the
line at infinity; hence they
are parallel. From this
the following theorem is
a simple deduction:
All triangles formed by a
tangent and (he asymptotes
of an hyperbola arc equal in
area.
If we draw at a point P
(fig. 28) on an hyperbola
a tangent, the part HK
between the asymptotes
is bisected at P. The
parallelogram PQOQ'
through
GEOMETRY
701
Fie. 27.
formed by the asymptotes and lines parallel to them through
P will be half the triangle OHK, and will therefore be con-
stant. If we now take the asymptotes OX and OY as oblique
Fig. 28.
axes of co-ordinates, the tines OQ and QP will be the co-ordinates of
P, and will batisfy the equation xy- const.*" a'.
For the asymptotes as axes of co-ordinates the equation of the hyperbola
is xy -const.
Involution
{ 76. If we have two projective rows, ABC on u and A'B'C on
«', and place their bases ou the same line, then each point in this
line counts twice, once as a point in the row 11 and once as a point
in the row «'. In. fig- 20 wc denote the points as points in the one
row by letters above the line A, B, C . . ., and as points in the second
row by A', B', C . . . below the
A B Una. Let now A and B' be the
J. I, I ' same point, then to A will corre-
B'
Fig. 29.
aod to B a point B in the first
row. In general these points A'
and B will be different. It may, however, happen that they coincide.
Then the correspondence is a peculiar one, as the following theorem
shows:
If two projective rows lie on the same base, and if it happens that to one
point in the base the same point corresponds, whether we consider the
Point as belonging to the first or to the second row, then the same will
happen for every point in the base— that is to say, to every point in the
line corresponds the same point in the first as in the second row.
In order to determine the correspondence, wc may assume three
pairs of corresponding points in two projective rows. Let then
A', B', C', in fig. 30, correspond to
A, B, C, so that A and B\ and also
B and A', denote the same point.
Let us further denote the point
C when considered an a point in
the first row by D; then it is to
be proved that the point D\ which corresponds to D, is the same
point as C. We know that the cross-ratio of four points is equal
to that of the corresponding row. Hence
(AB, CD)«(A'B\C'D').
but replacing the dashed letters by those undashed ones which
denote the same points, the second cross-ratio equals (BA» DLV),
I*'
B
-f-
C* A'
Fig. 30.
c
-4—
D'
which, according to | 15, equals (AB, LYD); so that the equation
becomes
(AB,CD)-(AB,D'D).
ide.
anve base, which have the above
er it be considered as a point Id
ionds the same point, are said
olution of points on the line.
15 it, that any two projective
involution.
sist of a row of pairs of points,
point A', and to A' again the
conjugate, or, better, one point
> which an involution may be
stive rows, follow at once the
juals that of the four conjugate
ides with its mate a " focus "
1, we may say: An involution
e, and is called respectively a
ution (§ 34).
ny two conjugate points are
the two foci.
», Fi, F» the two foci, then to the
respond the points Fi, Fj, A', A
I to itself. Hence (F,F|, AA') -
nge the two points AA' without
o, which is the characteristic
18}.
mint at infinity is called the
involution has a centre, unless
which case we may say that
itre is the middle point between
the foci.
5. The product of the distances of two conjugate points A, A'
from the centre O is constant : OA . OA' —r.
For let A, A' and B, B' be two pairs of conjugate points, O the
centre, I the point at infinity, then
(AB,OI)«(A'B',IO),
or
OA.OA'-OB.OB'.
In order to determine the distances of the foci from the centre,
we write F for A and A' and get
OF»-c; OF-*Vc:
Hence If c is positive OF is real, and has two values, equal and
opposite. The involution is hyperbolic.
If e—o, OF -o, and the two foci both coincide with the centre.
If c is negative, -4c becomes imaginary, and there are no foci.
Hence we may write —
In an hyperbolic involution, OA . OA' - A»,
In a parabolic involution, OA . OA' -o.
In an elliptic involution, OA . OA' —A".
From these expressions it follows that conjugate points A, A' in an
hyperbolic Involution lie on the same 6tdc of the centre, and in an
elliptic involution on opposite sides of the centre, and that in a
parabolic involution one coincides with the centre.
In the first case, for instance, OA.OA' is positive; hence OA
and OA' have the same sign.
It also follows that two segments, AA' and BB', between pairs -of
conjugate points have the following positions: in an hyperbolic
involution they lie either one altogether within or altogether without
each other; in a parabolic Involution they have one pouit in common ;
and in an elliptic Involution they overlap, each being partly within
and partly without the other.
Proof.— We have OA . OA'-OB . OB'-JM in case of an hyperbolic
involution. Let A and B be the points in each pair which are
nearer to the centre O. If now A, A' and B, B' lie on the same side of
O, and if B is nearer to O than A, so that OB<OA, then OB'>OA';
hence B' lies farther away from O than A', or the segment A A' lies
within BB'. And so on for the other cases.
6. An involution is determined —
(a) By two pairs of conjugate points. Hence also
(p) By one pair of conjugate points and the centre;
fry) By the two foci;
(5) By one focus and one pair of conjugate points;
(«) By one focus and the centre.
7. The condition that A, B, C and A', B', C* may form an In-
volution may be written in one of the forms —
(AB.CCWA'B'.C'C)..
or (AB.CA')-(A'B\C'A),
or (AB.C'a')-(A'B\CA),
for each expresses that in the two oroiectrve rows in which Ax B.C •
702
GEOMETRY
[PROJECTIVE
and A', B\ C ant conjugate pants two conjugate element* may be
interchanged.
8. Any three pairs. A, A'. B, B\ £, C, of conjugate points are
connected by the relations:
AB'.BC'.CA' AB'.BC.C'A' AB.B'C'.CA' AB.B'C.C'A' .
A , B.B I C.C , A " A I B.B ; C , .CA - A , B I .BC.C , A " A , B , .BC I .CA — '•
These relations readily follow by working out the relations in (7)
(above).
f 78. Involution of a quadrant—The tides of any four-point are
cut by any Una in six pants in involution, opposite Sides being cut in
conjugate points.
Lex A1B1C1D1 (fig. 31} be the four-point. If its sides be cut by
the line p in the points A, A', B, B' C, C\ if further, C t D, cuts the
tine A1B1 in C», and if we project the row A1B1OC to p once from
D, and once from Q, we get (A'B', C'C) -(BA, C'C).
base in the required point C for OC.OC'-OA.OA'. But EC and
EC' are at right angles. Hence the involution which is obtained
by joining E or E' to the points
in the given involution is cir-
cular. This may also be ex-
pressed thus:
Every elliptical involution has
the property that there are two
definite points is the plane from
which any two conjugate points
are seen under a right angle.
At the same time the follow-
ing problem has been solved :
To determine the centre and
also the point corresponding
to any given point in an elliptical involution of which two pairs of
volution.
The theorem may also be stated thus:
The three points in which any line cuts the sides of a triangle and the
projections, from any point in the plane, of the vertices of the triangle
on to the same line are six points in involution.
Or again —
Interchanging in the last cross-ratio the letters in each pair we get conjugate points are given.
(A'B\ C'C) = (AB, CC). Hence by I 77 (7) the points are in in- 1 gi. Involution Range on a Conic.— By the aid of f 5* the points
' ' "' on a conic may be made to correspond to those on a boe. so that the
row of points on the conic is projective to a row of points on a line.
We may also have two projective rows on the same conk, and these
will be in involution as soon as One point on the conic has the same
point corresponding; to it all the same to whatever row it belongs.
„_- - ( .,,.,, An involution of points on a conic will have the property (as follows
The projections from any point on to any fine of the six vertices from its definition, and from fi 53) that the fines which join conjugate
1/ points of the involution to any point on the conic are conjugate una
of an involution in a pencil, and that a fixed tangent is cut by the
tangents at conjugate points on the conic in points which are again
conjugate points of an involution on the fixed -tangent. For such
involution on a conic the following theorem holds:
The lines which join corresponding points in an involution on a conic
all pass through a fixed point; and reciprocally, the points of inter-
section of conjugate lines in an involution among tangents to a conic
lie on a line.
We prove the first part only. The involution is determined by
two pairs of conjugate points, say by A, A' and B, B' (fig. 33). Let
AA^ and B B r
meet in P. If we
join the points in
involution to any
point on the conic,
and the conjugate
points to another
point on the conic*
we obtain two
erojective pencils.
Ve take A and
A' as centres of
these pencils, so
that the pencils
A(A'BB') and
A'(AB'B) are pro-
jective, and in
perspective posi-
tion, because AA'
corresponds to
A A. Hence cor-
of a four-side are six points in involution, the projections of opposite
vertices being conjugate points.
This property gives a simple means to construct, by aid of the
straight edge only, in an involution of which two pairs of conjugate
points are given, to any point its conjugate.
{ 79. Pencils in Involution. — The theory of involution may at once
be extended from the row to the flat and the axial pencil-
1 axial pencil if any line
-viz. we say
that there is an involution in a flat or in an axial pencil if any line
cuts the pencil in an involution of points. An involution in a pencil
consists of pairs of conjugate rays or planes; it has two, one or no
focal rays (double lines) or planes, but nothing corresponding to a
centre.
An involution in a flat pencil contains always one, and in general
only one, pair of conjugate rays which are perpendicular to one
another. For in two projective flat pencils exist always two corre-
sponding right angles (fi 40).
Each involution in an axial pencil contains in the same manner
one pair of conjugate planes at right angles to one another.
A. A Mil* aLaM A^f>«* k.*4 **.*»A M«!> **.£ ***mu~.l*m*m**tk^ ll^u A
As a rule, there exists but one pair of conjugate lines or planes
t right angles to each other. But it is possible that there are
more, and then there is an infinite number of such pairs. An in-
oints arc found by joining AB' to
s that the axis of perspective is the
/ and BB' meet. If we now wish
C on the conic the corresponding
te point where this line cuts p to A.
fain in C. But we know from the
te line CC passes through P. The
the " pole of the involution," and
is called the " axis of the
volution in a flat pencil, in which every ray is perpendicular to its
conjugate ray, is said to be circular. That such involution is
possible is easily seen thus: if in two concentric flat pencils each
ray on one is made to correspond to that ray on the other which
is perpendicular to it, then the two pencils are projective, for if
we turn the one pencil through a right angle each ray in one coincides
with its corresponding ray in the other. But these two projective
pencils are in involution.
A circular involution has no focal rays, because no ray in a pencil
coincides with the ray perpendicular to it.
| 80. Every elliptical involution in a row may be considered as a
section of a Circular involution.
In an elliptical involution any two segments AA' and BB' lie
partly within and partly without each other (fig. ta). Hence two
circles described on AA and BB' as diameters wiuintersect in two
points E and E'. The line EE' cuts the base of the involution at a
point O, which has the property that OA.OA'-OB.OB', for
each is equal to OE.OE'. The point O is therefore the centre of
the involution. If we wish to construct to any point C the conjugate
point C, we may draw the circle through CEE\ This will cut the
meet in
A'B and
polar of
to consti
point C,
Thelat*
theory o
point of
the line
involution.
IKVOLUTIOM DSTBKMnrBD BT A CONIC OM A LlNE. — FOCI
i 8a. The polar*, with regard to a conic, of points in a row f form
a pencil P projective to the row (| 66). This pencil cuts the base of
the row p in a projective row.
If A is a point in the given row, A' the point where the potar of
will be corresponding points. If wc take
•w, then the polar of A > will pats through
s to A' — in other words, the rows are 10
ite points in this involution are conjugate
\ conic. Conjugate points coincide only if
asses through A— that is, if A lies on the
very line in its plane an involution, in which
which are also conjugate with regard to the
Ic the involution is hyperbolic, the points o)
onic (he involution is parabolic. Ike two foci
xmlacL
the conic the involution is elliptic, having as
fad.
projectivei GEOMETRY 703
take * point P in the plane of a conic, " ~~ I
gh P one conjugate line which joins P >
r» of conjugate lines through P form an
'. The focal rays of this involution are
to the conic This gives the theorem
t pencil in its plant an involution, cone*
t lints with regard to the conic.
t conic Ike involution is hyperbolic, the
; the focal rays.
ic the involution is parabolic, the tangent
tidenl focal royi
focal rays.^
which joins the point P to the pole of the line q. If the line a is made
to describe a pencil about a point Q, then the line £ will describe a
pencil about P. These two pencils will be projective, for the line
p passes through the pole of q, and whilst 3 describes the pencil Q,
its pole describes a projective row, and this row is perspective to
the pencil P.
We now take the point P on an axis of the conic, draw any line
t through it. and from the pole of p draw a perpendicular q to p.
ct q cut the axis in Q. Then, in the pencils of conjugate lines,
which have their centres at P and Q, the lines p and q are conjugate
lines at right angles to one another. Besides, to the axis as a ray
in either pencil will correspond in the other the perpendicular to the
axis ($ 72). The conic generated by the intersection of corresponding
lines in the two pencils is therefore the circle on PQ as diameter,
so that every line in P is perpendicular to Us corresponding lino
To every point esponds thus a point
Q, such that conju are perpendicular.
We shall show ) form an involution.
To do this let us d with it the line p,
keeping the latter describes a row, p a
perspective pencil >f P a projective row.
At the same time tl arallels perpendicular
to p, and perspecti pole off. The point
& therefore, when row projective to the
row of points P. acribe thus two pro-
jective rows on the as a point in the first
row correspond to the first corresponds
to P. The two rows therefore form an involution. The centre of
this involution, it is easily seen, is the centre of the conic
A focus of this involution has the property that any two conjugate
lines through it are perpendicular; hence, U u a focus to the conic.
Such involution exists on each axis. But only one of these can
have foci, because all foci lie on the same axis. The involution on
one of the axes is elliptic, and appears (5 80) therefore as the section
of two circular involutions in two pencils whose centres lie in the
other axis. These centres are foci, hence the one axis contains two
foci, the other axis.none; or every central conic has two foci which Ha
on one axis equidistant from the centre.
The axis which contains the foci is called the principal axis; in
case of an hyperbola it is the axis which cuts the curve, because the
foci lie within the conic
In case, of the parabola there is but one axis. The Involution
on this axis has its centre at infinity. One focus is therefore at
infinity, the one focus only is finite. A parabola has only cm
focus. . _ ,„ „ , ^ n~
f 85. If through any point P (fig. 34) on a conk the tangent
and the normal PN (t.e. the perpendicular to the tangent through
the point of contact) be drawn, these wffl be conjugate faee wfth
regard to the conic, and at right angles to each other. They win
therefore cut the principal axis in two points, which are conjugate
la the involution considered in # 84; hence they are harmonic
t
it focal rays.
: the involution is elliptic, having no
the involution determined by a conk
le involution, which is determined by
i pencil in whkh the conk determines
t focus M of the conk.
ch a point that every line through it is [
line. The polar to a focus is called a
n that every focus lies on an axis, for
; centre of the conic is a diameter to
perpendicular; and every line joining
endiculars to this line through the foci
njugate lines pass through the pole of
at infinity, and the line Is a diameter,
hence by the last property an axis. f
It follows that all foci lie on one axis, for no fine joining a point \
in one axis to a point in the other can be an axis. 1
As the conk determines in the pencil whkh has its centre at a focus i
a circular involution, no tangents can be drawn from the focus to
the conic Hence each focus ties within a conic ; and a directrix does
not cut the conic. i
Further properties are found by the following considerations: f
| ft*. Through a point P one fine p can be drawn, which is with
regard to a given conic conjugate to a given line q, viz. that line |
' ' ' ' If the L" *
I
7°4
GEOMETRY
(PROJECTIVE
to the directrix than to the focus. ' la A parabola the vertex lies
halfway between directrix and focus.
Jt follows in an ellipse the ratio between the distance of a point
from the focus to that from the directrix is less than unity, in the
parabola it equals unity* and in the hyperbola it is greater than
unity.
It is here the same which focus we take, because the two foci
lie symmetrical to the axis of the conic. If now P is any point on
the conic having the distances r x and r, from the foci and the distances
**i and d% from the corresponding directrices, then rjdi**rtldx**e,
where e is constant. Hence also y^S"*-
In the ellipse, which lies between the directrices, di+<fi is constant,
therefore also r t +r t . In the hyperbola on the other hand cWi is
constant, equal to the distance between the directrices, therefore
in this case fi-rj is constant.
If we call the distances of a point on a conic from the focus its
focal distances we have the theorem :
In an ellipse the sum of the focal distances is constant; and in an
hyperbola the difference of the focal distances is constant.
This constant sum or difference equals in both cases the length of
the principal axis.
Pencil or Conics
6 87. Through four points A, B, C, D in a plane, of which no three
lie in a line, an infinite number of conics may be drawn, viz. through
these four points and any fifth one single conk. This system of
conics is called a pencil of conks. Similarly, all conks touching four
fixed lines form a system such that any fifth tangent determines one
and only one conic We have here the theorems:
The pairs of points in which The pairs of tangents which
any line is cut by a system of can be drawn from a point to
conics through four fixed points a system of conks touching four
are in involution. fixed lines are in involution.
' We prove the first theorem only. Let ABCD (fig. 36) be the
four-point, then any line t will cut two opposite sides AC, BD in
Fig. 36.
the points E, E\ the pah* AD, BC in points F, F', and any conic
of the system in M. N. and we have A'CD, MN) -B(CD, MN>
If we cut these pencils by t we get
(EF.MN)-(F'E'.MN)
or (EF,MN) = (E'F',NM).
But this is, according to | 77 (7), the condition that M, N are
corresponding points in the involution determined by the point pairs
E, E', F, F' in which the line t cuts pairs of opposite sides of the
four-point ABCD. This involution is independent of the partkular
conic chosen.
f 88. There follow several important theorems:
Through four points two, one, or no conics may be drawn which touch
any given, line, according as the involution determined by the given
four-point on the line has real, coincident or imaginary foct.
Two, one, or no conics may be drawn which touch four given lines
and pass through a given point, according as the involution determined
by the given four-side at the point has real, coincident or imaginary
focal rays.
For the conic through four points which touches a given line has
its point of contact at a focus of the involution determined by the
four-point on the line.
As a special case we get, by taking the line at infinity:
Through four points of which none is at infinity either two or ft*
'Parabolas may be drawn.
TV problem of drawing a conk through four points and touching
a given line is solved by determining the points of contact on the
line, that is, by determining the foci of the involution in which the
line cuts the sides of the four-point. The corresponding remark
holds for the problem of drawing the conics whkh touch four lines
madpttm through a given point*.
Ruled Quadeic Surfaces
f 89. We have considered hitherto projective raws whkh he is
the same plane, in which case lines joining corresponding point*
envelop a conk. We shall now consider projective rows »ho*
bases do not meet. In this case, corresponding points will be joined
by lines which do not lie in a plane, but on some surface, which
like every surface generated by lines is called a ruled surface, Thi>
surface clearly contains the bases of the two rows.
If the points in either row be joined to the base of die other, me
obtain two axial pencils which are also projective, those phm
being corresponding which pass through corresponding points in the
given rows. If A', A be two corresponding points, «. or the planes in
the axial pencils passing through them, then AA' will be the fine
of intersection of the corresponding planes a, •' and also the hoe
joining corresponding points in the rows.
If we cut the whole figure by a plane this will cut the axial penrik
in two projective fiat pencils, and the curve of the secontf order
generated by these will be the curve in whkh the plane cuts the
surface. Hence
The locus of lines Joining corresponding points in two projecmt
rows which do not lie tit the same plane is a surface which contains the
bases of the rows, and which can also be generated by the lines of inter'
section of corresponding planes in two projective axial pencils. This
surface « cut by every plane in a curve of the second order, hence either
in a conic or in a line-pair. No line which does not lie altogether on
the surface can have more than two points in common with the surface,
which is therefore said to be of the second order or is called a ruled
|B8J3 surface.
"That no line which does not lie on the surface can cut the surface
two points » seen at once if a plane be drawn through
lis will cut the surface in a conic. It follows also that
ontains more than two points of the surface lies aho-
surface.
igh any point in space one line can always be drawn
ven lines which do not themselves meet,
three lines in space be given of whkh no two meet,
every point in either one line may be drawn catting
the other two.
If a line moves so that it always cuts three given Httes of which no
two meet, then it generates a ruled quadric surface.
Let a, b, c be the given lines, ana p, q,r . . . lines cutting them in the
points A, A', A* . . .; B, B', B" . . .; C, C, C # . . . respectively; then
the planes through a containing p, q, r, and the planes through * con-
taining the same lines, may be taken as corresponding planes in two
axial pencils which are projective, because both pencils cut the line
e in the same row, C, C , C . . .; the surface can therefore be gener-
ated by projective axial pencils.
Of the lines p, q, r ... no two can meet, for otherwise the lines
a, b, c whkh cut them would also lie in their plane. There » a single
infinite number of them, for one passes through each point of 0.
These lines are said to form a set of lines on the surface.
If now three of the lines p,q,rbe taken, then every line d cutting
them will have three points in common with the surface, and wil
therefore lie altogether on it. This gives rise to a second set of lines
on the surface. From what has been said the theorem follows:
A ruled quadric surface contains two sets of straight lines. Every
line of one set cuts every line of the other, but no two rimes of ike seme
set meet.
Any two lines of the same set may be taken as bases of two prcjecthm
rows, or of two projective pencils which generate the surface. They en
cut by the lines of the other set in two projective rows.
The plane at infinity like every other plane cuts the surface either
in a conic proper or in a line-pair. In the first case the surface is
called an ayperboleid of one sheet, in the second an Hyperbolic
Paraboloid.
The latter may be generated by a fine cutting three* lines of whkh
one lies at infinity, that is, cutting two lines and remaining parallel
to a given plane.
Quadeic Surfaces
1 01. The conks, the cones of the second order, and the ruled
quadric surfaces complete the figures which can be generated by
projective rows or flat and axial pencils, that is, by those aggre-
gates of elements which arc of one dimension (§§ 5, 6). Wc shall
now consider the simpler figures which arc generated by aggregates of
two dimensions. The space at our disposal will not, however, allow
us to do more than indicate a few of the results.
f 92. We establish a correspondence between tire Hoes and plane*
in pencils in space, or reciprocally between the points and lines ia
two or more planes, but consider principally pencils.
In two pencils we may either make planes correspond to planet
and lines to lines, or else planes to lines and lines to planes. If
hereby the condition be satisfied that to a flat, or axial, pencil
corresponds in the first case a projective flat, or axial, pencil, and in
the second a projective axial, or flat, pencil, the pencils are said to be
protective in the first case and reciprocal in the second.
For instance, two pencils which join two points Si and Si to the
different points and Hues in a given plane x are projective (and
'in perspective position)* if those lines and planes be taken as
GEOMETRY
PROJECTIVE]
corresponding which meet the plane t in the tame point or in the
same line. In this case every plane through both centre* Si and S»
of the two pencils will correspond to itself. H these pencils are
brought into any other position they will be projective (but not
perspective).
The correspondence between two projective pencils is uniquely
705
determined, if to /our rays {or planes) in the one the corresponding
rays (or planes) in the other are given, provided that no three rays of
either set lie in a plane.
Let a, b,c,dbe four rays in the one, a', V, c*, d' the corresponding
rays in the other pencil. We shall show that we can find for every
ray e in the first a single corresponding ray e' in the second. To
the axial pencil a (b, c t d . . . ) formed by the planes which join a to
b, c, d . . . , respectively corresponds the axial pencil a' (b' t c*. d' . . . ),
and this correspondence is determined. Hence, the plane a 1 e' which
corresponds to the plane ae is determined. Similarly the plane
Ve' may be found and both together determine the ray e*.
Similarly the correspondence between two reciprocal pencils is
determined if for four rays in the one the corresponding planes in
the other are given.
f 93. We may now combine —
1. Two reciprocal pencils.
Each ray cuts its corresponding plane in a point, the locus
of these points b a quadrk surface.
2. Two projective pencils.
Each plane cuts its corresponding plane in a line, but a
ray as a rule does not cut its corresponding ray. The
locus of points where a ray cuts its corresponding ray
is a twisted cubic. The lines where a plane cuts its
corresponding plane are secants.
3. Three projective pencils.
The locus of intersection of corresponding planes is a
cubic surface.
Of these we consider only the first two cases.
% 94. If two pencils are reciprocal, then to a plane in either corre-
sponds a line in the other, to a flat pencil an axial pencil, and so on.
Every line cuts its corresponding plane in a point. If Si and Si be
the centres of the two pencils, and P be a point where a line a t in the
first cuts its corresponding plane oj, then the line b% in the pencil Si
which passes through P will meet its corresponding plane fix in P. For
61 is a line in the plane *%. The corresponding plane A must therefore
pass through the line a u hence through P.
The points in which the lines in Si cut the planes corresponding
to them in Sa are therefore the same as the points in which the lines
in S| cut the planes corresponding to them in Si.
The locus of these points is a surface which is cut by a plane in a
conic or in a fine-pair and by a line in not more than two points unless
it lies altogether on the surface. The surface itself is therefore called a
quadrie surface, or a surface of the second order.
To prove this we consider any line p in space.
The flat pencil in Si which lies in the plane drawn through p
and the corresponding axial pencil in Si determine on p two pro-
jective rows, and those points in these which coincide with their
corresponding points lie on the surface. But there exist only two,
or one, or no such points, unless every point coincides with its
corresponding point. In the latter case the line lies altogether on
the surface.
This proves also that a plane cuts the surface in a curve of the
second order, as no line can have more than two points in common
with it. To show that this is a curve of the same kind as those
considered before, we have to show that it can be generated by
projective flat pencils. We prove first that this is true for any
plane through the centre of one of the pencils, and afterwards that
every point on the surface may be taken as the centre of such pencil.
Let then «i be a plane through Si. To the flat pencil in Si which
it contains corresponds in Si a projective axial pencil with axis
a% and this cuts a x in a second flat pencil. These two flat pencils
in «i are projective, and, in general, neither concentric nor per-
spective, They generate therefore a conic. But if the line a» passes
through Si the pencils will have Si as common centre, and may
therefore have two, or one, or no lines united with their corresponding
lines. The section of the surface by the plane «i will be accordingly
a line-pair or a single line, or else the plane a t will have only the
point Si in common with the surface.
Every line U through Si cuts the surface in two points, via. first
in Si and then at the point where it cuts its corresponding plane.
If now the corresponding plane passes through Si, as in the case
just considered, then the two points where /1 cuts the surface coincide
at Si, and the line is called a tangent to the surface with Si as point
of contact. Hence if i t be a tangent, it lies in that plane t, which
corresponds to the line S»Si as a line in the pencil St. The section
of this plane has just been considered. It follows that —
All tangents to quadrie surface at the centre of one of the reciprocal
pencils lie in a plane which is called the tangent' plane to the surface
at that joint as point of contact.
To the line joining the centres of the two pencils as a line in one
corresponds in the other the tangent plane at its centre.
The tangent plane to a quadrie surface either cuts the surface in
two lines, or it has only a single line, or else only a single point in
common with the surface.
*n the first case the point of contact is Maid to be hyperbolic, -in the
second parabolic, in the third elliptic.
f 95. It remains to be proved that every point S on the surface
may be taken as centre of one of the pencils which generate the
surface. Let S be any point on the surface & generated by the.
reciprocal pencils S< and S|. We have to establish a reciprocal
correspondence between the pencils S and Si, so that the surface
generated by them is identical with ♦. To do this we draw two
planes oi and A through Si, cutting the surface * in two conies
which we also denote by a ( and A. These conies meet at Si, and
at some other point T where the. line of intersection of oi and A
cuts the surface.
In the pencil S we draw some plane o which passes through T,
but not through Si or Si. It will cut the two comes first at T, and
therefore each at some other point which we call A and B respec-
tively. These we join to S by lines a and b, and now establish the
required correspondence between the pencils Si and S as follows: —
To S|T shall correspond the plane a, to the plane «i the line a, and
to A the line b, hence to the flat pencil in 1 the axial pencil a.
These pencils are made projective by aid of the conic in « t .
In the same manner the flat pencil in A is made projective to the
axial pencil b by aid of the conic in A, corresponding elements being
those which meet on the conic This determines the correspondence,
for we know for more than four rays in Si the corresponding planes
in S. The two pencils S and Si thus made reciprocal generate a
quadrie surface v, which passes through the point S and through
the two conies «i and fit.
The two surfaces * and *' have therefore the points S and Si and
the conies «i and A in common. To show that they are identical,
we draw a plane through S and Si, cutting each of the conies «i and
A in two points, which will always be possible. This plane cuts
♦ and ♦' in two conies which have the point S and the points where
it cuts «i and A in common, that is five points in all. The conies
therefore coincide.
This proves that all those points P on tf lie on * which have the
" * SS,Pcui -
common the points S, Si, one point on each of the conies at, At and
one point on one of the conks through S and Sa which lie on both
surfaces, hence five points. They arc therefore coincident, and our
theorem is proved.
§ 96. The following propositions follow.* —
A quadrie surface has at every point a tangent plane.
Every Plane section of a quadrie surface is a conic or a line-pair
Every line which has three points in common with a quadrie surface
lies on the surface.
Every conic which has five points in common with a quadrie surface
lies on the surface.
Through two conies which lie in different planes, but have two points
in common, and through one external point always one quadrie surface
may be drawn.
§ 97. Every plane which cuts a quadrie surface in a line-Pair is a
tangent plane. For every line in this plane through the centre of
the line-pah- (the point of intersection of the two lines) cuts the
surface in two coincident points and is therefore a tangent to the
surface, the centre of the line-pair being the point of contact.
If a quadrie surface contains a line, then every plane through this
line cuts the surface in a line-Pair (or in two coincident Hues). For
this plane cannot cut the surface in a conic. Hence
// a quadrie surface contains one line p then it contains an infinite
number of lines, and through every Point Q on the surface, one line
q can be drawn which cuts p. For the plane through the point Q
and the line P cuts the surface In a line-pair which must pass through
Q and of which p is one line.
"face can meet. For as both meet p
nd therefore cut the surface in a
nes q will be on the surface; for it
hit.
ich contain lines are the same as the
in §§ 89-93, but with one important
ation we have left our of considera-
avine only one line (two coincident
c surface.
; we suppose first that there is one
which two different lines a, b can be
the surface.
i surface which lies neither on a nor
d a will cut the surface in a second
and which cuts a. Similarly there
3 b. These two lines a' and V may
rincide with PA.
P, it happens for every other point
uld be drawn through Q, then by the
wild be altogether on the surface,
1 through P against the assumption.
From this follows: —
// there is one Point on a quadrie surface through which one, but only
one, line can be drawn on the surfers, then through every point one kne
706
GEOMETRY
tPftojEcnvt
can U drawn, and aU these Hues nteet in a Point. The surface is a cone
cf the second order.
If through one point on a quadric surface, two, and only two, Hues
can be drawn on the surface, then through every point two lines may
m be drawn, and the surface is a ruled quaaric surface.
If through one point on a quadric surface no line on the surface can
be drawn, then the surface contains no lines.
Using the definitions at the end of f 95, we may also say >—
On a quadric surface the points are all hyperbolic, or all parabolic,
or all elliptic.
As an example of a quadric surface with elliptical points, we
merition the sphere which may be generated by two reciprocal
pencils, where to each line in one corresponds the plane perpendicular
to it in the other.
f 99. Poles and Polar Planes. — The theory of poles and polars
with regard to a conic is easily extended to quadric surfaces.
Let r be a point in space not on the surface, which we suppose
not to be a cone. On every line through P which cuts the surface
in two points we determine the harmonic conjugate Q of P with
regard to the points of intersection. Through one of these lines we
draw two planes a and fi. The locus of the points Q in a is a line a,
the polar of P with regard to the conic in which a cuts the surface.
Similarly the locus of points Q in is a line b. This cuts a, because
the line of intersection of a and contains but one point Q. The
locus of all points Q therefore is a plane. This plane is called the
polar plane of the point P, with regard to the quadric surface. If P
lies on the surface we take the tangent plane of Pw its polar.
The following propositions hold : —
I. Every point has a polar plane, which is constructed by drawing
the polars of the point with regard to the conies in which two planes
through the point cut the surface.
2. If Q is a Point in the Polar of P, then P is a Point in the Polar
ofQ, because this is true with J *- '*■ *- ' *•'-*■ ~ -' —
through PQ cuts the surface.
ause this is true with regard to the conic in which a plane
3. Every plane is the polar Plane of one point, which is called the
Pole of the plane.
The pole to a plane b found by constructing the polar planes of
three points in the plane. Their intersection will be the pole.
a. The Points in which the Polar Plane of P cuts the surface are
points of contact of tangents drawn from P to the surface, as is easily
seen. Hence: —
5. The tangents drawn from a Point P to a quadric surface form a
cone of the second order, for the polar plane of P cuts it in a conic.
6. // the pole describes a line a, its polar plane will turn about
another line a', as follows from 2. These lines a and a' are said to be
conjugate with regard to the surface.
5 100. The pole of the line at infinity is called the centre of the
surface. If it lies at the infinity, the plane at infinity is a tangent
plane, and the surface is called a paraboloid.
The Polar plane to any point at infinity passes through the centre,
and is called a diametrical plane.
A line through the centre is called a diameter. It is bisected at the
centre. The line conjugate to it lies at infinity.
If a point moves along a diameter its Polar Plane turns about the
conjugate line at infinity; that is, it moves Parallel to itself, its centre
moving on the first line.
The middle Points of parallel chords lie in a Plane, viz. in the polar
plane of the point at infinity through which the chords arc drawn.
The centres of parallel sections lie in a diameter which is a line
conjugate to the Hue at infinity in which the planes meet.
Twistsd Cubjcs
f 101. If two pencils with centres S t and Sj are made projective,
then to a ray in one corresponds a ray in the other, to a plane a
plane, to a fiat or axial pencil a projective flat or axial pencil, and
so on.
There is a double infinite number of lines in a pencil. We shall
see that a single infinite number of lines in one pencil meets its
corresponding ray, and that the points of intersection form a curve
in space.
Of the double infinite number of planes in the pencils each will
meet its corresponding plane. This gives a system of a double
infinite number of lines in space. We know (f 5) that there is a
quadruple infinite number of lines in space. From among these we
may select those which satisfy one of more given conditions. The
systems of lines thus obtained were first systematically investigated
and classified by PlUcker, in his Geometric des Raumes, He uses the
following names: —
A treble infinite number of lines, that is, all line* which satisfy one
condition, are said to form a complex of lines; e.g. all lines cutting
a given line, or all lines touching a surface.
A double infinite number of lines, that is, all lines which satisfy
two conditions, or which are common to two complexes, are said to
form a congruence of lines; e.g. all lines in a plane, or all lines
cutting two curves, or all lines cutting a given curve twice.
A single infinite number of Knes, that is, all lines which satisfy
three conditions, or which belong to three complexes, form a ruled
surface; e.g. one set of lines on a ruled quadric surface, or develop-
able surfaces which are formed by the tangents to a curve.
it ioUews that all lines in which corresponding planes in two
projective pencils meet form a congruence. We shall see this con-
gruence consists of all lines which cut a twisted cubic twice, or of
by the axial pencils t% and It. Hence: —
All lines in one Pencil which meet their corresponding lines H the
other form a cone of the second order which has its centre at the cemtrt
of the first Pencil, and passes through the centre of the second.
From this follows that the points in which corresponding rays
meet lie on two cones of the second order which have the ray toimog
their centres in common, and form therefore, together with toe line
St Si or l t , the intersection of these cones. Any plane cuts each of the
cones in 1 conic. These two conies have necessarily that point ia
common in which it cuts the line /1, and therefore besides either
one or three other points. It follows that the curve ia of the third
order as a plane may cut it in three, but not in more than three,
points. Hence: —
The locus of points in which corresponding lines on two projective
pencils meet is a curve of the third order or a tT twisted cubic k. which
Passes through the centres of the pencils, and which appears as the
intersection of two cones of the second order, which ham one line in
common.
A line belonging to the congruence determined by the pencils is a
secant of the cubic; it has two, or one, or no points in common with
this cubic, and is called accordingly a secant proper, a tangent, or •
secant improper of the cubic. A secant improper may be considered,
to use the language of coordinate geometry, as a secant with
imaginary points ofintersection.
f 103. If oi and a t be any two corresponding lines in the two
pencils, then corresponding planes in the axial pencils having * and
at as axes generate a ruled quadric surface. If P be any point on
the cubic h, and if pi, p, be the corresponding rays in Si and S» which
meet at P. then to the plane a x Pi in Si corresponds a%p$ in S*. These
therefore meet in a line through P.
This may be stated thus: —
Those secants of the cubic which cut a ray ai, drawn through- u*
centre Si of one pencil, form a ruled quadric surface which passes through
both centres, and which contains the twisted cubic k. Of such surfaces
an infinite number exists Every ray through Si or Si which it not a
secant determines one of them.
If, however, the rays a, and a* are secants meeting at A, then the
ruled quadric surface becomes a cone of the second order, having
A as centre. Or all lines of the congruence which pass through a point
on the twisted cubic Vform a cone of the second order. In other words,
the projection of a twisted cubic from any point in the curve on to
any plane is a conic
If a t is not a secant, but made to pass through any point Q in
space, the ruled quadric surface determined by a, will pass through
Q. There will therefore be one line of the congruence passing through
Q, and only one. For if two such lines pass through Q, then the lines
3iQ and S*Q will be corresponding lines; hence Q will be a point on
the cubic h, and an infinite number of secants will pass through it.
Hence. —
Through every point in space not on the twisted cubic one and only
one secant to the cubic can be drawn.
f 104. The fact that all the secants through a point on the cubic
form a quadric cone shows that the centres of the projective pencils
generating the cubic arc not distinguished from any other points on
the cubic If we take any two points S, S' on the cubic, and draw
the secants through each of them, we obtain two quadric cones,
which have the line SS' in common, and which intersect besides
along the cubic If we make these two pencils having S and S' as
centres projective by taking four rays on the one cone as corre-
sponding to the four rays on the other which meet the first on the
cubic, the correspondence is determined. These two pencils will
generate a cubic, and the two cones of secants having S and S' as
centres will be identical with the above cones, for each has five
rays in common with one of the first, viz. the line SS' and the four
lines determined for the correspondence; therefore these two cones
intersect in the original cubic This gives the theorem : —
On a twisted cubic any two Points may be taken as centres of pro*
jcclu* Pencils which generate the cubic, corresponding planes being
those whech meet on the same secant.
Of the two projective pencils at S and S' we may keep the first
fixed, and move the centre of the other along the curve. The pencils
will hereby remain projective, and a plane a in S will be cut by ks
corresponding plane *' always in the same secant a. Whilst S f
moves along the curve the plane a' will turn about a, describing aa
axial pencil
DESCRIPTIVE)
Authorities.-
theory of conies,
doing so we nav<
Lag*, and to this
for a more exha
especially valuafa
Monge, Ciomilri
(1803), containin
TraUi its ptoprx
centrischer Cala
Cestalten (1832),
relations bctwcci
Lage (1847) and
which a system c
any reference to
a geometrical d
systematically if
historian* (1037),
the progress of
advantages of th<
with the analytic
the German as o
de la giomitrie (1
giomitrie superte
Seometrica delle a
i una teoria ge*
Curtze). As n
Elements of Pro,
C Lcudesdorf (21
1905).
This branch c
representing sol
drawings in on<
which was inve
century. It is 1
perpendicular to
graphic (see Pi<
projection is cal
vertical the eleva
by its plan and
in plan and el
projection.
f 1. We suppo
the other vertical
tion respectively
denote them by I
called the axis, ai
If the surface 1
plan, then the v<
through the axis i
paper we turn it
plane. This proci
another is called
necessity to have
this is not the cas
The whole arra
fig. 37. A point .
^
GEOMETRY
707
AAi and AA t to
horizontal and ve
If we rememtx
perpendicular to
to any two intern
b perpendicular 1
AiA» and to AtA*
Hence, if the plai
the plane n, thi
poartiDaof thepb
m pexpendicuUr 1
Conversely any two points A,. At in a line perpendicular to the
axis will be the projections of some point in space when the plane
»i is turned about the axis till it is perpendicular to the plane it,
because in this position the two perpendiculars to the planes *\
and v* through the points At and As will be in a plane and therefore
meet at some point A.
Representation of Points.— We have thus the following method
of representing in a single plane the position of points in space:—
we take in the plane a line xy as the axis, and then any pair of points
At, At in the plane on a hue perpendicular to the axts represent a
point A in space. If the line A t Aj the axis at A», and if at At
a perpendicular be erected 1
it at a height AtA«-A#At al
of the point A relative to 1
perpendicular to ** through
A#A|, then this will give the
{ 2. The two planes n, 1
into four parts. These arc
that the plane t% is turned
fig. 37, so that the point P
R to S, then the quadraii
point A lies is called the first, and we say
that in the first quadrant a point lies above
the horizontal and in front of the vertical
plane. Now we go round the axis in the
sense in which the plane ** is turned and
the point A will be in
"his gives the position
the same way, if in a
aken such that A»A-
the planes*
position divide space
adraats. We 1
.ft
_€%&[_
.5
t ;
IV
T
ic. 39.
trcsented when
tw, the elevation
th lie above; in
le fourth if plan
lies in the axis
Xnnt lies in. the
ation coincides
th its plan and
teen to be true,
led tor
iiy representing
present a plane
etcly cover the
from any other,
fine. These are
> the axis at the
9 lines that meet
eet on the axis
ilUl to the axis.
cut on&of the
to it. Thus a
only one finite
oincide with the
on of the plant
on is therefore
the other two.
y r t . As it is
and OP will tlius'be the traces
of a plane through the axis xy,
which makes an angle POQ with
the horizontal plane.
We can also find the trace
which any other plane makes
with v* In rabmtting the plane
*a its trace OB with the plane *» will come to the position CD.
Hence a plane fi having the traces CA and CB wS have with the
third plus* the trace 9u « M> U 00 -qfc-
708
GEOMETRY
It also follows immediately that
If a plane *is perpendicular to t\
wt tt has its horizontal projection i
as all the rays projecting these poi
Any plane which is jxrpendtcul
vertical trace perpendicular to the as
Any plane which u berpendicula
tontai trace perpendicular to the ax
points in the plane lie in this trace.
ft 4. Representation of a Line. — i
points in it or by two planes thn
representations of it either by proi
First. — A line a is represented 1
two planes s-j and **. These may
the planes *i, ** into their original
lines perpendicular to si and wires]
a which rtas a u a» as its projection
Secondly. — A line a is represents
in which it cuts the two planes si, 1
as the traces of a line in space, for
arc in their original position as the
representation becomes undetermi
the axis. In this case we again u
jeetions of the line.
The fact that there are differcn
and planes, and hence two methc
the principle of duality (section i
is worth while to keep this in min
that traces of planes or lines alwa
they represent. Projections do no
the point or tine projected lies in c
Having now shown how to re]
.. — onditions wl
In the other,
am metrical
uch simpler
however, we
ortance to I
1 space by c
t, 7; lines ii
by suffixes
n*; traces h
1 be the hori
ve the proj©
traces a' and
t'11 a line, tin
one, the tract
Plane.
These propositions follow at c
projections and of the traces.
If a point lies in two lines its pro;
of both. Hence
. // two lines, given by their preje
their plans and the intersection of
perpendicular to the axis, because
the point common to the two lines
Similarly—// two lines given by
or intersect, then the lines loining
respectively must meet on the axis,
of the plane through them.
f 6. To find the projections of a
tuen by their projections At, Aj at
Bs; these will be the projectioi
traces of a line are two points ii
known or at all events easily found
and the feet of the perpendiculars
Hence */ a' a' (6g. 41) are the
pendiculars from them cut the axis
Fig. 41.
of both. Hence the points where
planes meet will be the horizontal,
Haoes meet the vertical trace of tli
1 7. To decide whether a point j
a f&x/te *.ewen by its traces, we dr
pant in the phne a and determine its traces.
{DESCRIPTIVE
and therefore the point A, lies
is conveniently done by joining
■': this gives pi', and the point
• the axis cuts the Utter we joia
ral trace of this line lies in the
d then only, does the line p, and
a.
races, because parallel planes are
and by «*, in parallel lines.
lions, because points at infinity
ten lines through the traces of the
arte must meet on the axis, became
parallel to the given plane.
) intersecting lines or through two
ces of the lines; the lines joining
espectively will be the horizontal
rhey will meet, at a finite point
is do intersect.
To draw a plane through a hne and a point without the tine, we
join the given point to any point in the line and determine the plane
through this and the given line.
To draw a plane through three points which are not in a Hne, we
draw two of the lines which each join two of the given points and
draw the plane through them. If the traces of all three lines AB,
BC, CA be found, these must lie in two lines which meet on the
axis.
f 10. We have in the last example got more points, or can easily
get more points, than are necessary Tor the determination of the
figure required — in this case the traces of the plane. This will
happen in* a great many constructions and is of considerable im-
portance. It may happen that some of the points or lines obtained
are not convenient in the actual construction. The horizontal
traces of the lines AB and AC may, for instance, fall very near
together, in which case the line joining them is not well defined.
Or, one or both of them may fall beyond the drawing paper, so that
they are practically non-existent for the construction, in this case
the traces of the line BC may be used. Or, if the vertical traces of
AB and AC are both in convenient position, so that the vertical
trace of the required plane is found and one of the horizontal traces
is got, then we may join the latter to the point where the vertical
trace cuts the axis.
The draughtsman must remember that the lines which he draws
are not mathematical lines without thickness, and therefore every
drawing b affected by some errors. It is therefore very desirable
to be able constantly to check the latter. Such checks always
present themselves when the same result can be obtained by diff aeu t
constructions, or when, as in the above case, some lines must meet
on the axis, or if three points must lie in a line. A careful draughts-
man will always avail himself of these checks.
f 11. To draw a plane through a given point parallel to a pen
plane o, we draw through the point two lines which are parallel to
the plane », and determine the plane through them; or. as we
know that the traces of the required plane are parallel to those of
nly draw one line I through the point
ne of its traces, say the vertical trace
to the vertical trace of « will be the
ed plane 0, and a line parallel to the
V on the axis will be the horizontal
iven point. *' a* the given plane, a
a' and a horizontal hoe 1% through
parallel to «'. '
I 12. We now come to
the metrical properties of
figures.
A line is perpendicular
Fie. 42.
prove it for the horizontal
to a plane a, every plane
so the vertical plane which
s perpendicular both to the
also perpendicular to their
trace of a. It follows that
ore also pi, the plan of p, u
u
, . . - - — mt — A perpendicular to a given
hne p, we first draw through some point O in the axis lines r\ 7*
perpendicular respectively to the projections p, and p. of the gives
line. These will be the traces of a plane 7 which is perpend* ul ar
to «\<s »v«v \vnfc. >N* tv«*\ Aw« vVvrosiiJsk tlat *j*«a ootot A a -* —
it these uc in ure paxtA&toXhfc v^^^V^^^^^^^v N *»w Q ^tA-
DESCRIPTIVE!
GEOMETRY
709
Other metrical properties depend on the determination of the real
size or shape of a figure.
in general the projection of a figure differs both in size and shape
from the figure itself. But figures in a plane parallel to a plane
of projection will be identical with their projections, and will thus
be given in their true dimensions. In other cases there ts the
problem, constantly recurring, either to find the true shape and
size of a plane figure when plan and elevation are given, or, con-
versely, to find the latter from the known true shape of the figure
itself. To do this, the plane is turned about one of its traces till it
is bid down into that plane of projection to which the trace belongs.
This is technically called rabatting the plane respectively into the
plane of the plan or the elevation. As there is no difference in the
treatment of the two cases, we shall consider only the case of rabatt-
ing a plane « into the plane of the plan. The plan of the figure is
a parallel (orthographic) projection of the figure itself. The results
of parallel projection (see Projection, (f 17 and 18) may there-
fore now be used. The trace « will hereby take the place of what
formerly was called the axis of projection. Hence we see that corre-
sponding points in the plan ana in the rabatted plane are joined by
lines which are perpendicular to the trace «' and that corresponding
lines meet on this trace. We also see that the correspondence n
completely determined if we know for one point or one line in the
plan the corresponding point or line in the rabatted pbne.
Before, however, we treat of this we consider some special cases.
f 13. To determine the distance betxoea
projections Ai, Bi and A t , Bj. or, in otk
length of a line the plan and elevation of
Solution. — The two points A, B in sr,
plans Aw Bi (fig. 43) and A|A«*AoA«,
A, B,
quadr
havini
This
by d
pendit
A,A-
' ABwi
Thi
been
by 1
B,B-
to AiBt- Of course AB must have
the same length in both cases.
This figure may be turned into
_ a model. Cut the paper along
Fig. 43. A,A. AB and BB,, and fold the
piece A1ABB1 over along A ( B| till
it stands upright at right angles to the horizontal plane* The points
A. B will then or in their true position in space relative to t,. Simi-
larly if BtBAAa be cut out and turned along AjB. through a right
angle we shall get AB in its true position relative to the plane
w t . Lastly wc fold the whole plane of the paper along the axis x
till the plane »i is at right angles to t,. In this position the two
wts of points AB will coincide if the drawing has been accurate.
Models of this kind can be made in many cases and their con-
struction cannot be too highly recommended in order to realize
^orthographic projection.
( 14. To find tlie angle between two given lines a, b of which the
projections a x . bi and a-. 6; are given.
Solution. — Let a it b t (fig. 44) meet in Pi, fl». 61 in T, then if the line
PiT 15 not perpendicular to the axis the two lines will not meet. In
this case wc draw a line parallel
to 6 to meet the line o. This is
easiest done by drawing first the
line PiPt perpendicular to the
axis to meet a t in Pt, and then
drawing through Pt a line fa
parallel to h; then b u c, will be
the projections of a line c which
is parallel to b and meets a in P.
The plane a which these two
lines determine we rabatt to the
plan. We determine the traces
a' and c' of the lines a and i\
then aV is the trace •' of their
Pbne. On rabatting the point
' comes to a point S on the line
PiQ perpendicular to tfV, so
Fie. 44.
point two lines perpendicular to the two planes and determine the
angle between the latter as above.
In special cases it i* simpler to determine at once the angle between
the two planes by taking a pbne section perpendicular to the inter-
section of the two planes and rabatt this. This is especially the
case if one of the planes is the horizontal or vertical plane of pro-
jection.
Thus in fig. 43 the angle PiQR is the angle which the pbne a
makes with the horizontal pbne.
\ 15. Wc return to the general case of rabatting a pbne « of
which the traces a' «* are given.
Here it will be convenient to determine first the position which
the trace •" — which is a line in a — assumes when rabatted. Points
in this line coincide with their elevations. Hence it b given in
its true dimension, and we can measure off along it the true distance
between two points in it. If therefore* (fig. 45) P is any point in •*
originally coincident with
its elevation Pi, and if O
is the point where a* cuts
the axis xy, so that O is
also in «', then the point P
will after rabatting the
pbne assume such a posi- ^-"
tion that OP -OP,. At
the same time the plan is
an orthographic projection
of the pbne «. Hence the
line joining P to the pbn
Pi will after rabatting be
perpendicubr to •'. But
Pt is known; it is the foot
of the perpendicubr from
Pi to the axis xy. We
draw therefore, to find P,
from Pi a perpendicubr PiQ to a' and find on it a point P such that
OP-OPt. Then the line OP will be the position of «' when
rabatted. This line corresponds therefore to the pbn of «' — that
is. to the axis xy, corresponding points on these lines being those
which lie on a perpendicubr to a'.
We have thus one pair of corresponding lines and can now find
for any point Bi in the pbn the corresponding point B in the rabatted
plane. We draw a line through Bi, say B|P|, cutting a' in C. To it
corresponds the line CP, and the point where this is cut by the project*
ing ray through Ri, perpendicubr to a', is the required point B.
Similarly any figure in the rabatted plane can be found when the
pbn is known; but this is usually found in a different manner
without any reference to the general theory of parallel projection.
As this method and the reasoning employed lor it have their pecuHar
advantages, wc give it also.
Supposing the pbnes v ( and ** to be in their positions in space
perpendicular to each other, we take a section oi the whole figure
by a pbne perpendicubr to the trace a' about which we are going
to rabatt the plane a. Let this section pass through the point Q in
«'. Its traces will then be the lines QP t and P,P t (fig. o). These
will be at right angles, and will therefore, together with the section
QPt of the pbne a, form a right-angled triangle QP|P f with the
Fig. 45.
that QS-QP. But QP is the hypotenuse of a triangle PP,Q with
a right angle Pi. This we construct by making QR«P«Pt; then
PiR » PQ. The lines o'S and «'S will therefore include angles equal
to those made by the given lines. It is to be rememberedthat two
lines include two angles which arc supplementary. Which of these
is to be taken in any special case depends upon the circumstances.
To determine the angle between a line and a plane, we draw through
any point in the line a perpendicular to the pbne (i 1 2) and determine
the angle between it and the given line. The complement of this
angle is the required one.
To determine the «sjfe between tm pimms, we daw through any
7io
those which cut OF and OP in convenient poinl
however, first to produce all the sides to cut OP
draw all the projecting rays through A, B, C . .
GEOMETRY
(DESCRIPTIVE
figure r ep r esenti ng the development
py of it, is cut out, and it the Lateral
!, BC, &c, we get a model of the pyta-
m its faces. This may be placed oa
of elevation bent about the axis x.
nt of its elevations, if next the plane
ing the true section be bent along the
ith «', the edges of the bole ought to
, Ac, on the faces,
amid in f I
line Ai E t must
then meet AE in
o', and this gives
a check. If one
B of the sides cuts
a' or OP beyond
the drawing paper
this method fails,
but then we may
easily find the pro-
jection of some
other line, say of
a diagonal, or
directly the pro-
jection of a point,
by the former
methods. The
FIG. 46. diagonals may
also serve to check
the drawing, for two corresponding diagonals must meet in the
trace •'.
Having got the plan we easily find the elevation. The elevation
of G is above Gi in «', and that of F is at F« in the axis. This
gives the elevation Fid of FG and in it we get AtBt in the verticals
through Ai and B ( . As a check we have OG -OG* Similarly the
elevation of the other sides and vertices are found.
1 17. We proceed to give some applications of the above principles
to the representation of solids and of the solution of problems
connected with them.
Of a pyramid are given its base, the length of the perpendicular from
the vertex to the base, and the point where this perpendicular cuts the
base; it u required first to develop the whole surface of the pyramid
into one plane, and second to determine its section by a plane which
cuts the plane of the base in a gwen line and mahes a given angle
with it.
ejection are not given we can take them as we
1 in such a manner that the solution becomes
Ve take the plane of the base as the horizontal
lane perpendicular to the plane of the section.
D be the base of the pyramid, V, the plan of
rotions of A. B, C, D will be in the axis at
vertex at some point V» above V\ at a known
The lines V,A, V,B, &c.. win be the plans
Bi. &c. the elevations of the edges of the
plan and elevation are known,
ace into the plane of the base by turning
its lower edge into the horizontal plane by
14. If one face has been turned down, say
e point Q to which the vertex of the next
» got more simply by finding on the line
IC the point Q such that BQ-BP. for these
ne edge BV of the pyramid. Next R is
found by making CR -CQ, and so on till we have got the last vertex
— in this case S. The fact that AS must equal AP gives a convenient
check.
a. The plane a whose section we have to determine has its hori-
zontal trace given perpendicular to the axis, and its vertical trace
makes the given angle with the axis. This determines it. To find
the section of the pyramid by this plane there are two methods
applicable: we find the sections of the plane cither with the faces
or with the edges of the pyramid. We use the latter.
As the plane * is perpendicular to the vertical plane, the trace
«* contains the projection of every figure in it; the points Et, Ft,
Gt, Ht where this trace cuts the elevations of the edges will therefore
be the elevations of the points where the edges cut a. From these
we find the plans E t . Ft, G ( , Hi, and by joining them the plan
of the section. If from Ei. Ft lines be drawn perpendicular to AB,
these will determine the points E. F on the developed face in which
the plane « cuts it ; hence also the line EF. Similarly on the other
face* Of count BF must be the same length on BP and on BO.
if the plsne m be rabatted to the plan, we get the real shape of the
met&m ew ebowo ia the feiuv id £FGH. Thia ia oooe easily by
j 17 are r e p resen ted by the
1 vertices. But solids bounded by
>msdves, cannot be thus re pre sented,
t in case of the plane, its traces— that
\ the planes of projection. We may
» on the surface. A ray cuts the
n one point; hence it will happen
Rirface, if two of these points coincide,
ys will form some curve oa the surface,
centre of projection as the boundary
surface. The outlines of all surfaces
s are formed by the points at which
te surface. The projections of these
pted to give an idea of the shape of a
surface.
Thus the tangents drawn from any finite centre to a sphere form
a right circular cone, and this wit) be cut by any plane in a cook.
Fie. 47-
It is often called the projection of a sphere, but it is better called
the contour-line of the sphere, as it is the boundary of the projections
of all points on the sphere.
If the centre is at infinity the tangent cone becomes a right
circular cylinder touching the sphere along a great circle, and if
the projection is, as in our case, orthographic, then the section of
this cone by a plane of projection wilt be a circle equal to the great
circle of the sphere. We get such a circle in the plan and another in
the elevation, their centres being plan and elevation of the centre of
the sphere.
Similarly the rays touching a cone of the second order will lie
in two planes which pass through the vertex of the cone, the contour-
line of the projection of the cone consists therefore of two lines
meeting in the projection of the vertex. These may, however,
be invisible if no real tangent rays can be drawn from the centre of
projection; and this happens when the ray projecting the centre
of the vertex lies within the cone. In this case the traces of the
cone are of importance. Thus in representing a cone of revolution
with a vertical axis we get in the plan a circular trace of the surface
whose centre is the plan of the vertex of the cone, and in the elevation
the contour, consisting of apair of lines intersecting in the elevation
of the vertex of the cone. The circle in the plan and the pair of hues
in the elevation do not determine the surface, for an infinite number
of surfaces might be conceived which pass through the circular trace
and touch two planes through the contour lines In the vertical plane.
The surface becomes only completely defined if we write down to
the tmjg% \tas\ \* toft, teowsw*. % «m*» 1W won* h«UU for all
ANALYTICAL]
surfaces. Even a plane is fully represented by its traces only
the silent understanding that the traces are those of a plane.
f 19. Some of the simpler problems connected with the
sen tat ion of surfaces are the determination of plane sections s
the curves ai intersection of two such surfaces. The forr
constantly used, in nearly all problems concerning surfaces
solution depends of course on the nature of the surface.
To determine the curve of intersection of two surfaces, we t
plane and determine its section with each of the two sui
rabatting this plane if necessary. This gives two curves whi
in the same plane and whose intersections will give us poii
both -surfaces. It must here be remembered that two cur
space do not necessarily intersect, hence that the points in
their projections intersect are not necessarily the proiectk
points common to the two curves. This' will, however, be th
if the two curves lie in a common plane. By taking then a m
of plane sections of the surfaces we can get as many points or
curve of intersection as we like! These planes have, of coui
be selected in such a way that the sections are curves as sim
the case permits of, and such that they can be easily and accu
drawn. Thus when possible the sections should be straight
or circles. This not only saves time in drawing but determii
points on the sections, and therefore also the points where th
curves meet, with equal accuracy.
( 20. We give a lew examples how these sections have
selected. A cone is cut by every plane through the vertex in
and if it is a cone of revolution by planes perpendicular t
axis in circles.
A cylinder is cut by every plane parallel to the axis in line
if it is a cylinder of revolution by planes perpendicular to th
in circles.
A sphere is cut by every plane in a circle.
Hence in case of two cones situated anywhere in space wt
sections through both vertices. These will cut both cones in
Similarly in case of two cylinders we may take sections para
the axis of both. In case of a sphere and a cone of revolutioi
vertical axis, horizontal sections will cut both surfaces in 1
whose plans arc circles and whose elevations are lines, whilst vi
sections through the vertex of the cone cut the latter in line
the sphere in circles. To avoid drawing the projections of
circles, which would in general be ellipses, we rabatt the plar
then draw the circles in their real shape. And so on in other
Special attention should in all cases be paid to those poi
which the tangents to the projection of the curve of intersects
parallel or perpendicular to the axis x, or where these proic
touch the contour of one of the surfaces. (0.
IV. Analytical Geometry
1. In the name geometry there is a lasting record tha
science had its origin in the knowledge that two distances
be compared by measurement, and in the idea that measure
must be effectual in the dissociation of different directions a
as in the comparison of distances in the same direction,
distance from an observer's eye of an object seen wou
specified as soon as it was ascertained that a rod, straight I
eye and of length taken as known, could be given the dirt
of the line of vision, and had to be moved along it a a
number of times through lengths equal to its own in ore
reach the object from the eye. Moreover, if a field had fo
of its boundaries lines straight to the eye, one running from
to north and the other from west to east, the position of a
in the field would be specified if the rod, when directed
had to be shifted from the point one observed number of
westward to meet the former boundary, and also, when dii
south, had to be shifted another observed number of
southward to meet the latter. Comparison by measure!
the beginning of geometry, involved counting, the basis of j
mctic; and the science of number was marked out fror
first as of geometrical importance.
But the arithmetic of the ancients was inadequate as a s<
of number. Though a length might be recognized as k
when measurement certified that it was so many times a stai
length, it was not every length which could be thus spe
in terms of the same standard length, even by an arith
enriched with the notion of fractional number. The id
possible incommensurability of lengths was introduced
Europe by Pythagoras; and the corresponding idea of im
ality of number was absent from a crude arithmetic, while
were great practical difficulties in the way of its introdu
Hence perhaps it arose that, till comparatively modern 1
appeal to arithmetical aid in geometrical reasoning was
GEOMETRY
711
possible ways restrained. Geometry figured rather as the helper
of the more difficult science of arithmetic.
a. It was reserved for algebra to remove the disabilities of
arithmetic, and to restore the earliest ideas of the land-measurer
to the position of controlling ideas in geometrical investigation.
This unified science of pure number made comparatively little
headway in the hands of the ancients, but began to receive
due attention shortly after the revival of learning. It expresses
whole classes of arithmetical facts in single statements, gives
to arithmetical laws the form of equations involving symbols
which may mean any known or sought numbers, and provides
processes which enable us to analyse the information given by an
equation and derive from that equation other equations, which
express laws that are in effect consequences or causes of a law
started from, but differ greatly from it in form. Above all, for
present purposes, it deals not only with integral and fractional
number, but with number regarded as capable of continuous
growth, just as distance is capable of continuous growth. The
difficulty of the arithmetical expression of irrational number,
a difficulty considered by the modern school of analysts to have
been at length surmounted (see Function), is not vital to it.
It can call the ratio of the diagonal of a square to a side, for
instance, or that of the circumference of a circle to a diameter,
a number, and let a or x denote that number, just as properly
as it may allow either letter to denote any rational number
which may be greater or less than the ratio in question by a
difference less than any minute one re choose to assign.
Counting only, and not the counting of objects, is of the essence
of arithmetic, and of algebra. But it is lawful to count objects,
and in particular to count equal lengths by measure. The
widened idea is that even when a or x is an irrational number
we may speak of a or x unit lengths by measure. We may give
concrete interpretation to an algebraical equation by allowing
its terms all to mean numbers of times the same unit length,
or the same unit area, or &c. and in any equation lawfully
derived from the first by algebraical processes we may do the
same. Descartes in his GtomtirU (1637) was the first to system-
atize the application of this principle to the inherent first
notions of geometry; and the methods which he instituted have
become the most potent methods of all in geometrical research.
It is hardly too much to say that, when known facts as to a
geometrical figure have once been expressed in algebraical
terms, all strictly consequential facts as to the figure can be
deduced by almost mechanical processes. Some may well be
unexpected consequences; and in obtaining those of which
there has been suggestion beforehand the often bewildering
labour of constant attention to the figure is obviated. These
are the methods of what is now called analytical, or sometimes
algebraical, geometry.
3. The modern use of the term " analytical " in geometry has
obscured, but not made obsolete, an earlier use, one as old as
Plato. There is nothing algebraical in this analysts, as dis-
tinguished from synthesis, of the Greeks, and of the expositors
of pure geometry. It has reference to an order of ideas in
demonstration, or, more frequently, in discovering means to
effect the geometrical construction of a figure with an assigned
special property. We have to suppose bypothctically that the
construction has been performed, drawing a rough figure which
exhibits.it as nearly as is practicable. We then analyse or
critically examine the figure, treated as correct, and ascertain
other properties which it can only possess in association with
the one in question. Presently one of these properties will often
be found which is of such a character that the construction of
a figure possessing it is simple. The means of effecting synthetic-
ally a construction such as was desired is thus brought to light by
what Plato called analysis. Or again, being asked to prove a
theorem A, we ascertain that it must be true if another theorem
B is, that B must be if C is, and so on, thus eventually finding
that the theorem A is the consequence, through a chain of inter-
mediaries, of a theorem Z of which the establishment is easy.
This geometrical analysis is not the subject of the present article;
but in. th* TtasataititaKb. taim totamtH w& vs^visi^w. vy^sasv
712
GEOMETRY
(ANALYTICAL
of equations, with the object of basing the algebraical proof
of a geometrical fact on other facts of a more obvious character,
the same logic is utilized, and the name " analytical geometry "
is thus in part explained.
4. In algebra real positive number was alone at first dealt
with, and in geometry actual signless distance. But in algebra .
it became of importance to say that every equation of the first
degree has a root, and the notion of negative number was intro-
duced. The negative unit bad to be defined as what can be
added to the positive unit and produce the sum zero. The
corresponding notion was readily at hand in geometry, where
it was clear that a unit distance can be measured to the left
or down from the farther end of a unit distance already measured
to the right or up from a point O, with the result of reaching O
again. Thus, to give full interpretation in geometry to the
algebraically negative, it was only necessary to associate distinct-
ness of sign with oppositeness of direction. Later it was discovered
that algebraical reasoning would be much facilitated, and that
conclusions as to the real would retain all their soundness, if a pair
of imaginary units * V — 1 of what might be called number were
allowed to be contemplated, the pair being defined, though not
separately, by the two properties of having the real sum o and
the real product 1. Only in these two real combinations do they
enter in conclusions as to the real. An advantage gained was
that every quadratic equation, and not some quadratics only,
could be spoken of as having two roots. These admissions of
new units into algebra were final, as it admitted of proof that all
equations of degrees higher than two have the full numbers of
roots possible for their respective degrees in any case, and that
every root has a value included in the form 0+6V-1, with a, b,
real. The corresponding enrichment could be given to geometry,
with corresponding advantages and the same absence of danger,
and this was done. On a line of measurement of distance we
contemplate as existing, not only an infinite continuum of points
at real distances from an origin of measurement O, but a doubly
infinite continuum of points, all but the singly infinite continuum
of real ones imaginary, and imaginary in conjugate pairs, a
conjugate pair being at imaginary distances from O, which have
a real arithmetic and a real geometric mean. To geometry
enriched with this conception all algebra has its application.
5. Actual geometry is one, two or three-dimensional, i.e.
lineal, plane or solid. In one-dimensional geometry positions
and measurements in a single line only are admitted. Now
descriptive constructions for points in a line are impossible
without going out of the line. It has therefore been held that
there is a sense in which no science of geometry strictly confined
to one dimension exists. But an algebra of one variable can be
applied to the study of distances along a line measured from a
chosen point on it, so that the idea of construction as distinct
from measurement is not essential to a one-dimensional geo-
metry aided by algebra. In geometry of two dimensions, the
flat of the land-measurer, the passage from one point to any
other point, can be effected by two successive marches, one east
or west and one north or south, and, as will be seen, an algebra
of two variables suffices for geometrical exploitation. In
geometry of three dimensions, that of space, any point can be
reached from a chosen one by three marches, one east or west,
one north or south, and one up or down; and we shall sec that
an algebra of three variables is all that is necessary. With
three dimensions actual geometry stops; but algebra can supply
any number of variables. Four or more variables have been
used in ways analogous to those in which one, two and three
variables are used for the purposes of one, two and three-
dimensional geometry, and the results have been expressed in
quasi-geometrical language on the supposition that a higher
apace can be conceived of, though not realized, in which four
independent directions exist, such that no succession of marches
along three of them can effect the same displacement of a point
as a march along the fourth; and similarly for higher numbers
than four. Thus analytical, though not actual, geometries exist
far four and more dimensions. They arc in fact algebras furnished
with nomenclature of* geometrical cast, suggested by convenient
forms of expression which actual geometry has, in return for
benefits received, conferred on algebras of one, two and three
variables.
We will confine ourselves to the dimensions of actual geometry,
and will devote no space to the one-dimensional, except incident-
ally as existing within* the two-dimensional The analytical
method will now be explained for the cases of two and three
dimensions in succession. The form of it originated by Descartes,
and thence known as Cartesian, will alone be considered in much
detail.
I. Plane Analytical Geometry.
6. Coord inaUs.— It is assumed that the points, lines and figures
considered lie in one and the same plane, which olane therefore need
not be in any way referred to. In the plane a point O, and two lines
x'Ox, y'Oy, intersecting in O. are taken once for all, and regarded as
fixed. O is called the origin, and x'Ox, y'Oy the axes of x and y
respectively. Other positions in the plane are specified in reUtioo
to this fixed origin and these fixed axes. From any point P *c
Fig. 48.
Fie. 49-
suppose PM drawn parallel to the axis of y to meet the axis of x ia
M, and may also suppose PN drawn parallel to the axis of x to meet
the axis of y in N, so that OMPN is a parallelogram. The position
of P is determined when we know OM (-NP) and MP (-ON).
If OM is x times the unit of a scale of measurement chosen at pleasure,
and MP is y times the unit, so that x and y have numerical values
we call x and y the (Cartesian) coordinates of P. To distmguna
them we often speak of y as the ordinate, and of x as the abscissa.
It is necessary to attend to signs; x has one sign or the other
according as the point P is on one side or the other of the axis of jr.
and y one sign or the other according as P is on one side or the other
of the axis of x. Using the letters N, E, S, W, as in a map, aad
considering the plane as divided into four quadrants by the axes,
the signs arc usually taken to be :
x y For quadrant
+ + N E
+- - S E
+ N W
- s w
A point is referred to as the point (a, b), when its coordinates are
x = a, y = b. A point may be fixed, or it may be variable, ix. be
regarded for the time being as free to move in the plane. The
coordinates (r, y) of a variable point arc algebraic variables, and are
said to be " current coordinates.' 1
The axes of x and v arc usually (as in fig. 48) taken at right angles
to one another, and we then speak of them as rectangular axes.
and of x and y as " rectangular coordinates " of a point r; OMPN
is then a rectangle. Sometimes, however, it is convenient to use
axes which arc oblique to one another, so that (as in fig. 49) the angle
xOy between their positive directions is some known angle «
distinct from a right angle, and OM PN is always an oblique parallelo-
gram with given angles; and we then speak of x and yas oblique
coordinates?' The coordinates are as a rule taken to be rectanguoi
in what follows.
7. Equations and loci. If (x, y) is the point P, and if we art
given that x =0, we are told that, in fig. 48 or fig. 49, the point M lie*
at O, whatever value y may have, i.e. we arc told the one fact that
P lies on the axis of y. Conversely, if P lies anywhere on the ain
of y, we have always OM « o, i.e. x »o. Thus the equation x » o is
one satisfied by the coordinates (x. y) of every point in the axis of j,
and not by those of any other point. We say that x-o is t)*
equation of the axis of y, and that the axis of y is the locus repre-
sented by the equation x=o. Similarly y»o is the equation of the
axis of x. An equation x*»a, where a is a constant, expresses that
P lies on a parallel to the axis of y through a point M on the axb
of x such that OM -a. Every line parallel to the axis of y has an
equation of this form. Similarly, every line parallel to the axis of t
has an equation of the form y-b, where b is some definite constant.
These arc simple cases of the fact that a single equation in the
current coordinates of a variable point (x, y) imposes one liroiutioa
on tat taa&M& <A >fea\ y*u\.\& n*p*. Tfea coordinates of A point
ANALYTICAL)
GEOMETRY
7«1
token at random in the plane wu1 v as a rule, not tatitfy the equation,
but infinitely many points, and in most cases infinitely many real
ones, have coordinates which do satisfy it, and these points arc
exactly those which lie upon some locus of one dimension, a straight
line or more frequently a curve, which is said to be represented oy
the equation. Take, for instance, the equation y-mx, where m
is a riven constant. It is satisfied by the coordinates ol every point
P, which is such that, in fig. 48, the distance MP, with its proper sign,
b m times the distance OM, with its proper sign, i.e. by the co-
ordinates of every point in the straight line through O which we
arrive at by making a line, originally coincident with x'Ox, revolve
about O in the direction opposite to that of the hands of a watch
throu
point
gener
ous f
givim
deter
point
who*
extra
eaten
from
thep
that
the fi
point
their
repre
which
value
tionc
ing a
equat
Kint
th
%
ru. >
as go
it is n
of x!
point
Note that we have to allow x to admit of all imaginary, as well as
of all real, values, in order to obtain all imaginary parts of the
locus.
A locus or curve may be algebraically specified in another way;
viz. we may be given two equations x»/(0), y-F(0), which express
the coordinates of any point of it as two functions of the same
variable parameter to which all values are open. As $ takes all
values in turn, the point (x, y) traverses the curve.
It is a good exercise to trace a number of curves, taken as defined
by the equations which represent them. This, in simple cases, can
be done approximately by plotting the values of y given by the
equation of a curve as going with a considerable number of values
of x, and connecting the various points (x, y) thus obtained. But
methods exist for diminishing the labour of this tentative process.
Another problem, which will be more attended to here, is that of
determining the equations of curves of known interest, taken as
defined by geometrical properties. It is not a matter for surprise
that the curves which nave been most and longest studied geo-
metrically are among those represented by equations of the simplest
character.
8. The Straight Lin*.— This is the simplest type of locus. Also
the simplest type of equation in x and y is Ax+By+C — o, one of
the first degree. Here the coefficients A, B, C are constants. They
are, like the current coordinates, x, y, numerical. But, in giving
interpretation to such an equation, we must of course refer to
numbers Ax, By, C of unit magnitudes of the same kind, of units
of counting for instance, or unit lengths or unit squares. It will
now be seen that every straight
line has an equation of the first
degree, and that every equation
of the first degree represents a
straight line.
It has been seen (f 7) that lines
parallel to the
tions of the fi
from one of the
now a straight li
to both axes,
given angle a v
direction of the
fig. 50 let this
through which Ax must be mi
volved counter-clockwise about
A in order to be made coin-
cident with the line. Let C, of
coordinates (ft, h), be a fixed point
on the line, and P (x, y) any other point upon it. Draw the ordinate*
CD, PM of C and P, and let the parallel to the axis of x through C
meet PM. produced if necessary, in R. The right-angled triangle
1 S
./••
R j
9
u
A
1
> 1
* "*
Fig. 50.
CRP tells us that, with the signs appropriate to their directions
attached to CR and RP, «-r- r-
RP-CR tan «, ix. MP-DO(OM-OD) ton «,
and this gives that
y-Jt-tan«(x-Jk),
an equation of the first degree satisfied by x and y. No point not
on the line satisfies the same equation; for the line from C to any
point off the line would make with CR some angle different from «,
and the point in question would satisfy an equation y — h «tan£(x— ft),
which is inconsistent with the above equation.
The equation of the line may also be written ymx+b, where
m ~tan «, and 6* ft— a tan a. Here b is the value obtained for y
from the equation when o is put for x, i*. it is the numerical measure,
with proper sign, of OB, the intercept made by the line on the axis
of y, measured from the origin. For different straight lines, m and h
may have any constant values we like.
Now the general equation of the first degree Ax+By+C »o may
be written y- ""B*"^' UfUe * a B "°» m vhich case It represents a
line parallel to the axis of y; and -A/B, -C/B are values which
can be given to m and », so that every equation of the first degree
represents a straight line. It is important to notice that the genera)
equation, which in appearance contains three constants A, B, C, in
effect depends on two only, the ratios of two of them to the thud.
In virtue of this last remark, we sec that two distinct conditions
suffice to determine a straight line. For instance, it is easy from the
above to see that
is the equation of a straight line determined by the two conditions
that it makes intercepts OA, OB on the two axes, of which a and
are the numerical measures with proper signs, note that in fig. 50 •
is negative. Again,
,. ..<* -y«)*- C*i -*«)y +x,y,-xiy, -o,
represents the line determined by the data that it passes through
two given points (r,, y,) and (*,, y»). To prove this find m in the
equation y-yi»m(x-Xi) of a line through (x», yi), from the con-
dition that (xi, y») lies on the line.
In this paragraph the coordinates have been assumed rectangular.
Had they been oblique, the doctrine of similar triangles would have
given the same results, except that in the forms of equation y —ft -
m(x— ft), y-six+6, we should not have had m-tan «.
9. The Circle. — It Is easy to write down the equation of a given
circle. Let (a, k) be its given centre C, and p the numerical measure
of its given radius. Take P (x, y) any point on its circumference,
and construct the triangle CRP, in fig. 50 as above. The face that
this is right-angled tells us that
CR«+RP»-CI».
and this at once gives the equation
Cx-W+Cy-*) 1 -*
A point not upon the circumference of the particular circle is at some
distance from (ft, ft) different from p, and satisfies an equation
inconsistent with this one; which accordingly represents tne cir-
cumference, or, as we say. the circle.
The equation is of the form
x*+y»+2Ax+aBy +C -o.
Conversely every equation of this form represents a circle: we have
only to take —A, — B, A'+B 1 — C for ft, ft, p" respectively, to obtain
its centre and radius. But this statement must appear too un-
restricted. Ought we not to require A'+B*— C to be positive?
Certainly, if by circle we are only to mean the visible round cir-
cumference of the geometrical definition. Yet, analytically, we
contemplate altogether imaginary circles, for which p* is negative,
and circles, for which p»o, with all their reality condensed into
their centres. Even when p" is positive, so that a visible round
circumference exists, we do not regard this as constituting the
whole of the circle. Giving to x any value whatever in (x— ft)'+
(y— ft)*"^, we obtain two values of y, real, coincident or imaginary,
each of which goes with the abscissa x as the ordinate of a point,
real or imaginary, on what is represented by the equation of the
circle.
The doctrine of the imaginary on a circle, and in geometry gener*
ally, is of purely algebraical inception; but it has been in its entirety
accepted by modern pure geometers, and signal success has attended
the efforts of those who, like K. G. C. von Staudt, have striven to
base its conclusions on principles not at all algebraical in form,
though of course cognate to those adopted in introducing the
imaginary into algebra.
A circle with its centre at the origin has an equation aM-v'-p 1 .
In oblique coordinates the general equation of a circle is
x*+2xycos «+y»+2Ax+*By+C -o.
10. The conic sections are the next simplest loci; and it will be
seen later that they arc the loci represented by equations of the
second degree. Cixoct ax* ysx\k»SaBt masses tfc. «£*&£. *w£>«e*\ *»&
7H
GEOMETRY
tAKALTOCAL
for their equations a particular
legree. Another particular class
in the form (Ax+By+C) (A'x+
ttraight tines, because the product
, one of the two factors does, i.e.
other of two straight lines. The
:*+2/v+c»o, which is often
sections, we can, by drawing circles which meet each of tben is
real points, construct the radical axis of the first-mentioned two
circles.
akes this form is abc+ifgk —af* -
nes may, in particular cas *
r cases, be
?f) . . . F.(x, y) -o, of which
actors, represents all the loci
■o. F,(x, y) -o, . . . F«(x. y) =o.
n which is free from x represents
of x, and one of degree n which
e which upon division by x* bc-
epresents n straight lines through
the origin.
Curves represented by equations of the third degree are called
cubic curves. The general equation of this degree will be written
(•)(*. y.O'-o.
II. Descriptive Geometry. — A geometrical proposition b either
descriptive or metrical: tn the former case the statement of it is
independent of the idea of magnitude (length, inclination, &c).
and in the latter it has reference to this idea. The method of co-
ordinates seems to be by its inception essentially metrical. Yet
in dealing by this method with descriptive propositions we are
eminently free from metrical considerations, because of our power to
use general equations, and
to avoid all assumption that
measurements implied are
any particular
ments.
9 -ax»+2*xy +&y , +2/y+a**+*.
s a conic ; assuming this* then, if
he equation S— *S^»o represents
f intersection of the two conies.
ustrate the mode of working with
Fie. 51.
this with V, suppose that t'O does no
meets the circles A, B in two distinct points in . yi respectively. Wc
have then the known metrical property of intersecting chords of a
circle ; viz. in circle C, where «V. B(r, are chords meeting at a point 0,
O«.O« r -O*O0',
where, as well as in what immediately follows, Oa, &c, denote, of
course, lengths or distances.
Similarly in circle A,
OfrO/J'-Oyi.Or'.
and in circle B,
Consequently Oyi.O/
Tri and >« coincide ; tha
Wc contrast this wit
Here it only requires
represents a fine, and a
a circle. A, B, C ha
significations; but the
denote the function x»
S-o. Let the equatk
B'y+C'-o; the equal
fact-(A-A')*+(B-l
this equation is satisfic
intersection of the two
S'-o. therefore also 5
that of the line joining t
or say it is the equati
Considering then a thi
equations of the comm
(each of these a linear 1
second of these lines S
equation of the third li
in question: that is, tl
ordtnates of which are
1 1 further appears thi
in any real points, th
imaginary points, sucl
represented by the cqu
their intersections be r w
chord (or radical axis), and that for any three circles the common
chords intersect in a point (of course real) which is the radical centre.
And by this very theorem, given two circlet with imaginary inter-
Fie. 53.
circle, but independent of the
the axes any two lines through
equation of the circle will be
x«+j»+2Ax+2Bv+C=»o;
and if the equation of the line OAA' is taken to be y—mx, then the
points A, A' arc found as the intersections of the straight line with
the circle; or to determine x wc have
* 5 0+m*)+2x(A+Bm)+C=o.
If (*i, yO are the coordinates of A. and (xt, yt) of A', then the roots
of this equation are Xi, x«, whence easily
1 . i A+Bm
_+-. -2-^-.
And similarly, if the equation of the line OBB' is taken to be 7- or 'x,
and the coordinates of B, B' to be (x a , y t ) and (x«, y«) respectively,
then
f,i _A+Bw'
r.+x-,-" 2 — r*—
Wc have then by J 8
*(yi-y«)-y(x,-xO+x,y 4 -*<y,-o.
x(yj -y,) -y(^-x,) +Xiyi-xo* =0,
as the equations of the lines AB' and A'B respectively. Reducing
by means of the relations y t — «Xi»o, y»— mxj— o, yj— m'xi«o,
y«— m'x««o, the two equations become
x(mxi - nt'xt) - y (xi - x«) + (m' - m)x,x« - o,
x(mx» - m'x j) -y (xt -xi) + (m # - w)x>x» « o,
and if we divide the first of these equations by x,x«, and the second
by x»xj, and then add, we obtain
+2m'— 2m -o,
or, what is the same thing,
(x", + x 2 ) Cy-*'*)- (f, + x«) (y-«K)+»»'-a*»-o.
which by what precedes is the equation of a line through the point Q.
Substituting herein for — +— , j*+j" their foregoing values, the
equation becomes
-(A+Bm) (y-«'x)+(A+Bm') (y-«x)+C(m'-*«)-o;
that is,
(m-nO (Ax+By+C)-oj
ANALYTICAL)
GEOMETRY
or finally it is Ax+By+C -o, showing that the point Q ties in a line
the position of which is independent of the particular lines OAA',
OBB' used in the construction. It is proper to notice that there is
no correspondence to each other of the points A, A' and B, B'; the
grouping might as well have been A, A' and B\ B; and it thence
appears that the line Ax+By+C «o just obtained is in fact the line
joining the point Q with the point K which is the intersection of
AB and A'B'.
15. In f 8 it has been seen that two conditions determine the
equation of a straight line, because in Ax+By+C— © one of the
coefficients may be divided out, leaving only two parameters to be
determined. Similarly five conditions instead of six determine an
equation of the second degree (a
instead of ten determine a cubii
that a cubic can be made to pa
the cubic so passing through 9 gi
There is, however, a remarkabk
cubic curves S»o, S'-o, these
these 9 points we have the who
k is an arbitrary constant: km
shall pass through a given tenth
are (x#, y»). and S», S'» denote
The resulting curve SS'«— S*So
determined by the conditions o
and through the given point (
thence appears that the curve r.
the 9 points. In other words, w
curve which passes through 8<
cubic curves passes through the 9th intersection.
The applications of this theorem are veiy numerous; for instance,
we derive from it Pascal's theorem of the inscribed hexagon. Con-
sider a hexagon inscribed in a conic The three alternate sides
constitute a cubic, and the other three alternate sides another cubic.
The cubics intersect in 9 points, being the 6 vertices of the hexagon,
and the 3 Pascalian points, or intersections of the pairs of opposite
sides of the hexagon. Drawing a line through two of the Pascalian
points, the conk and this line constitute a cubic passing through 8
of the 9 points of intersection, and it therefore passes through the
remaining point of intersection — that is, the third Pascalian point;
and since obviously this does not lie on the conic, it must lie on the
line — that is, we have the theorem that the three Pascalian points
(or points of intersection of the pairs of opposite sides) lie on a
line.
16. Metrical Theory resumed. Projections and Perpendiculars. — It
is a metrical fact of fundamental importance, already used in f 8,
that, if a finite line PQ be projected on any other line OO' by per-
pendiculars PF, QQ / to OO', the length of the projection PV !•
equal to that of PQ multiplied by the cosine of the acute angle
between the two Knes. Also the algebraical sum of the projections
of the sides of any closed polygon upon any line is aero, because as a
point goes round the polygon, from any vertex A to A again, the
point which is its projection on the line passes from A' the projection
of A to A' again, i.e. traverses equal distances along the line in
positive and negative senses. If we consider the polygon as con-
sisting of two broken Tines, each extending from the same Initial
to the same terminal point, the sum of the projections of the lines
which compose the one is equal, in sign and magnitude, to the sum
of the projections of the lines composing the other. Observe that
the projection on a line of a length perpendicular to the line is.
2ero.
Let us hence find the equation of a straight line such that the
perpendicular OD on it from the origin is of length p taken as
positive, and is inclined to the axis of x at an angle xOD»«,
measured counter-clockwise from Ox. Take any point P (x, y) on
the line, and construct OM and MP as in fig. 48. The sum of the
projections of OM and MP on OD is OD itself; and this gives the
equation of the line
xcosa+ysin * m P :
Observe that cos a and sin a here are the sin a and —cos «, or the
—sin a and cos a of { 8 according to circumstances.
We can write down an expression for the perpendicular distance
from this line of any point (r . y*) which does not lie upon it. If the
parallel through (r , y') to the line meet OD in E, we have x' cos o+
y* sin a«=»OE, and the perpendicular distance required is OD-OE,
t.e. p—x? cos •— / sin a; it is the perpendicular distance taken
positively or negatively according as (x / , /) lies on the same aide
of the line as the origin or not'.
The general equation Ax+By+C -o may be given the form
x cos «+y sin «-*-o by dividing it by VCA'+B*). Thus (Ax* +
B/+C) + V (A'+B*) is in absolute value the perpendicular distance
of (x\ yO from the line Ax+By+C »o. Remember, however, that
there is an essential ambiguity of sign attached to a square root.
The expression found gives the distance taken positively when
(x\ /) is on the origin side of the line, if the sign of C is given to
V(AM-B').
17. Transformation of Coordinates. — We often need to adopt new
axes of reference in place of old ones; and the above principle of
projections readily expresses the old coordinates of any point in
terms of the new.
715
stance, that we want to take for new origin the
coordinates OA-A, AC-*, and for new axes of
ough O* obtained by rotating parallels to the old
brough an angle 9 counter-clockwise. Construct
and new co-
point P. Ex-
• projections.
Lxis of x and
d axis of y, of
ic sums of the
se axes respec-
of the broken
btain:
cos (*+**•)-
x>s0— Y sin*,
*)+Y cos0-
sin*+Ycos$\
erve that these Fig. 53.
pply to every
» of reference from one set of rectangular axes to
t have been required to take O'X, O'Y' for the
of the new axes, so that the change of directions
tot be effected, by rotation. We must then write
bove.
ces oblique, making angles a, respectively with
id so inclined at the angle &— o, the same method
mulae
xm«+Ycos£, y»*+Xsina+Ysin0.
taions. — The conies, as they are now called, were
curves of intersection of planes and a cone; but
iitcd a definition free from reference to space of
This, in effect, is that a conic is the locus of a
of which from a given point, called the focus, has
s distance from a given line, called the directrix
n). If e : 1 is the ratio, e is called the eccentricity,
ronsidcred signless.
the focus, and x cos «+y sin •— *-o for the
>lute values ofV Kx-a^+Cv-*)') and^-xcosa.-
the ratio e : 1 ; and this gives
OM-Cy-*) 1 -•*(*-* cos «-y sin a)«
ition, in rectangular coordinates, of a conk.
>nd degree, and is the general equation of that
t, we multiply it by an unknown X, we can, by
leous equations in the six unknowns X, k, k, e, p, a,
r these as to make the coefficients in the equation
my equation of the second degree which may be
10 failure of this statement in the special case
uation represents two straight lines, as in f 10,
lity: if the two lines intersect, the intersection
r of the angle between them are a focus and
ire united in one line, any point on the line and a
t through the point are: if they are parallel,
ig one in which e and »*+«■ have become infinite
emains finite. In the case (J 9) of an equation
a circle there is another instance of proceeding
o become o, while ep remains finite : moreover a
The centre of a circle is its focus, and its directrix
ty, having no special direction. This last fact
ssity, which is also forced on plane geometry by
considerations, of treating all points at infinity
on a single straight line.
lacing an equation to the above focusand directrix
, *, e, p, tan a, or some of them, only imaginary
1c equations have to be solved; and we have ia
te the existence of entirely imaginary coaica,
al values of x and y satisfy a*+2y*+3 "O. Even
resented is real, we obtain, as a rule, four seta of
, of which two sets are imaginary; a real conic
al foci and corresponding directrices, two others
ell as rectangular coordinates equations of the
»ent conies.
terst* of Conies. — A real come, which does not
sight lines, is called an ellipse, parabola or hyper-
t<, — , or >i. To trace the three forms it ia
te axes of reference as to simplify their equations,
jarabola, let u be the distance between the given
:, and take axes referred to which these are the
line x - — c. The equation becomes (* - *)*+>* ■
b, take a such that o(e~r*) is the distance of focus
so choose axes that these are (ae, o) and x -a*" 1 ,
*t\on{x-aey+y*-e t {x-ae-*)*.i.e.(i-e*)x t +y t -
•<i, i.e. in the case of an ellipse, this may be
'■i, where M-o'O — «•); and when *>i, i.e.
716
GEOMETRY
(ANALYTICAL
The axe* thus chosen for the ellipse and hyperbola arc called the
principal axes.
In figs. 54, 55, 56 in order, conies of the three species, thus referred,
are depicted.
The oblique straight lines in fig. 56 are the asymptotes xfa «■ +yfb
of the hyperbola, lines to which the curve tends with unlimited
Fig. 56.
closeness as it goes to infinity. The hyperbola would have an equa-
tion of the form xy**c if referred to its asymptotes as axes, the co-
ordinates being then oblique, unless a - b, in which case the hyperbola
is called rectangular. An ellipse has two imaginary asymptotes.
In particular a circle x»+y , =a', a particular ellipse, has for asymp-
totes the imaginary lines x=» *yV-i. These run from the centre
to the so-called circular points at infinity.
20. Tangents and Curvature.— Let (x 7 , y\ and W+k, /+*) be
two neighbouring points P, P e equation of the line
on which both lie is A(y-/) keep P fixed, and let
P move towards coincide™ he curve. The con-
necting line will tend towar tion, to which it can
never attain as long as P ct. The line which
occupies this limiting positk ; P. Now if we sub-
tract the equation of the cur the coordinates in it,
from the like equation in (a fotain a relation in k
and *, which will, as a rule, ■ AA-f BA+ terms of
higher degrees' in A and A, the other coefficients
involve a/and y\ This gn terms which tend to
vanish as A and k do, so that iting value tended to
by* :A. HencetheequationofthetangentisB(y— jr)+A(x— x / )«-o.
The normal at (x*, y*) is the line through it at right angles to the
tangent, and its equation is A(v— /)— B(x— x0«»o.
In the case of the conic (a, b, c, /, g, A) (x, y, i)*»o we find that
A/B - (ox'+Ay'+f )l(h* +*/+y).
We can obtain the coordinates of Q, the intersection of the normals
QP, QP at far\ /) and (x'+A, /+*), and then, using the limiting
value of A : A, deduce those of its limiting position as P' moves up
to P. This is the centre of curvature of the curve at P (x*, yO, and
b so called because it b the centre of the circle of closest contact
with the curve at that point. That it b so follows from the facts
that the closest circle is the limit tended to by the circle which touches
the curve at P and passes through P, and that the arc from P to P
of this circle lies between the circles of centre Q and radii QP, QP* t
which circles tend, not to different limits as P moves up to P. but
to one. The distance from P to the centre of curvature b the radius
mf curvature.
2 1 . Differential Plane Geometry.— -The language and notation of the
differential calculus arc very useful in the study of tangents and
curvature. Denoting by ({, n) the current coordinates, we find,
as above, that the tangent at a point (x, y) of a curve b iry—
(t~x)dyfdx, where dy/dx b found from the equation of the curve. If
this be/(x, y) -o the tangent is ($-x) (d//ax) +(n-y) (df/dy) -o. If p
and («, 0) are the radius and centre of curvature at (x, y), we find that
J («-*)-- fO+p^te-y)-!***. ?p>- +**>». where p % q denote
y/dx, d*y(dx* respectively. (See Infinitesimal Calculus.)
In any given case we can, at all events in theory, eliminate x, y
between the above equations for «— x and 0—y, and the equation
of the curve. The resulting equation in (a, 0) represents the locus
of the centre of curvature. This is the evolute of the curve.
32. Polar Coordinates. — In plane geometry the distance of any
Joint P from & fori origin (or pole) 0, and the inclination xQP oi OP
to a fixed line Ox, determine the point: r, the numerical nuaoiie
of OP, the radius vector, and 9, the circular measure of xOP, the
inclination, are called polar coordinates of P. The formulae x-
r cos 9, y**r sin 9 connect Cartesian and polar coordinate*, and make
transition from either system to the other easy. In polar coordinates
the equations of a circle through 0. and of a conk with O as focus,
take the simple forms r»2o cos (a-a), r|w cos (*-«)) -/. The
use of polar coordinates is very convenient in discussing curves
which have properties of symmetry akin to that of a regular polygon,
such curves lor instance as r -o cos m$, with m integral, and also the
curves called spirals, which have equations giving r as functions of
9 itself, and not merely of sin * and cos 9. In the geometry of
motion under central forces the advantage of working with polar
a fixed triangle
mit. Denote, as
units of a chosra
B, C the angles,
in § 6, take CA,
ny point P (x, y)
and x sin C f ron
signs of and «
xording as P lies
ad similarly for «.
icing in it x and y
le same degree in
. P from the third
side AB, taken as positive or negative as P b on the C side of AB or
not. The geometry of the figure tells us that oa+b0+cy*2±.
By means of this relation in a, 0, 7 we can give an equation con-
sidered countless other forms, involving two or ail of •, 0, y. In
Erticular we may make it homogeneous in a, 0, y. to do thb we
ve only to multiply the terms of every degree less than the highest
present in the equation by a power of (aa+bp+cy)i2A just sufficient
to raise them, in each case, to the highest degree.
We call (a, 0, y) trilinear coordinates, and an equation in them
the trilinear equation of the locus represented. Trilinear equations
are, as a rule, dealt with in their homogeneous forms. An advantage
thus gained b that we need not mean by (a, 0, y) the actual measures
of the perpendicular distances, but any properly signed numbers
which have the same ratio two and two as these distances.
In place of c, 0, y it is lawful to use, as coordinates specifying
the position of a point in the plane of a triangle of reference ABC,
any given multiplies of these. For instance, we may use x»a«/2A.
ybphA, s-c-v/aA, the properly signed ratios of the triangular
areas PBC, PCA, PAB to the triangular area ABC These are called
the arsal coo r di n ates of P. In arcal coordinates the relation whkh
enables us to make any equation homogeneous takes the simple
form x+y+S" 1 i and, as before, we need mean by c, y, s. in a
homogeneous equation, only signed numbers in the right ratios.
Straight lines and conies are represented in trilinear and in areaL
because in Cartesian, coordinates by equations of the first and
second degrees respectively, and these degrees are preserved when
the equations are made homogeneous. What must be 6aid about
points infinitely far off in order to make universal the statement,
to which there b no exception as long as finite distances alone are
considered, that every homogeneous equation of the first degree
represents a straight line? Let the point of arcal coordinates
(x\ v\ sO move infinitely far off, and mean by x, y, s finite quantities
in the ratios which x*, y, x* tend to assume as they become infinite.
The relation x'+y'+x— 1 gives that the limiting state of things
tended to b expressed by x-f y-f *=o. Thb particular equation of
the first degree b satisfied by no point at a finite distance; but we
see the propriety of saying that it has to be taken as satisfied by
all the points conceived oTas actually at infinity. Accordingly the
special property of these points is expressed by saying that they De
on a special straight line, of which the areal equation is x+y+s-o.
In trilinear coordinates this line at infinity has for equation a«+W+
cy«»o.
On the one special line at infinity parallel lines are treated as
meeting. There are on it two special (imaginary) points, the circular
points at infinity of $ 19, through which all circles pass in the same
sense. In fact if S— be one circle, in areal coordinates,
S+ (x+y+s) (Jx-H»y+«r)-o may, by proper choice of /, m, m be
made any other; since the added terms are once Ix+my+nz. and
have the generality of any expression like a'x+b'y+c* in Cartesian
coordinates. Now these two circles intersect in the two points where
either meets x+y+ 3 "<> as well as in two points on the radical axis
fcc+«y+i»3"=o.
24. Let us consider the perpendicular distance of a point far*, £*, V)
from a line U+m0+ny. We can take rectangular axes of Cartesian
coordinates (for clearness as to equalities of angle it is best to
choose an origin inside ABC), and refer to them, by putting expres-
sions p—x cos 9—y sin 9, &c, for a &c; we can then apply | 16 to
get the perpendicular distance; and finally revert to the trilineai
notation. The result is to find that the required distanc e ia
(/a'+m^+fi-rO/j/.m.nl,
where {/, m, n\ t " n +m , +n t ^2mn cos A— 2*1 cos B— 21m cos C
\u areal cootdiaate* the perpendicular distance from (x 7 , y*. /)
ANALYTICAL]
GEOMETRY
717
to Ix+my+ns-o is lA^+wZ+niO/la/, bm, c*j. ' In both cases
the coordinates are of course actual values.
Now let I, i , f be the perpendiculars on the line from the ve r t i ces
A, B, C, i.e. the points (1, o, o), (o, 1, o), (o, o, 1), with signs in
accord with a convention that oppositeness of sign implies dis-
tinction between one side of the line and the other. Three applica-
tions of the result above give
*Jl-2Aj\al, bm, en) -n/m *>{/*;
and we thus have the important fact that tx'+nf+fr' is the
perpendicular distance between a point of area! coordinates (x*yV)
and a line on which the perpendiculars from A, B, C are (, *, f
respectively. We have also that {x+iy+f* »o is the arcal equation
of the line on which the perpendiculars arc g, ij. {*; and, by equating
the two expressions for the perpendiculars from (x\ y\ sf) on the
line, that in all cases (a£, ft*, cf)**4A'.
25. Lint-coordinates. Duality. — A quite different order of ideas
may be followed in applying analysis to geometry. The notion of a
straight line specified may precede that of a point, and points may
be dealt with as the intersections of lines. The specification of
a line may be by means of coordinates, and that of a point by an
equation, satisfied by the coordinates of lines which pass through it.
Systems of tint-coordinates will here be only briefly considered.
Every such system is allied to some system of point-coordinates;
and space will be saved by giving prominence to this fact, and not
recommencing ab initio.
Suppose that any particular system of point-coordinates, in which
Ix-f wy+ns-o may represent any straight line, is before us: notice
that not only are tribnear and area! coordinates such systems, but
Cartesian coordinates also, since -we may write ar/s, y/s for the
Cartesian x, y, and multiply through by s. The line Is exactly
assigned if /, m, n, or their mutual ratios, are known. Call (/, m, n)
the coordinates of the line. Now keep x, y, z constant, and let the
coordinates of the line vary, but always so as to satisfy the equation.
This equation, which we now write xf-rjms+sn — o, is satisfied by
the coordinates of every line through a certain fixed point, and by
those of no other line; it is the equation of that point in the Une-
coordinates /, m, n.
Line-coordinates are also called tangential coordinates. A curve
is the envelope of lines which touch it, as well as the locus of points
which lie on it. A homogeneous equation of degree above the first
in /, m, n is a relation connecting the coordinates of every line which
touches some curve, and represents that curve, regarded as an
envelope. For instance, the condition that the line of coordinates
(/, m, n), ijt. the line of which the allied point-coordinate equation
is Ix+my+ns-o, may touch a conic (a. b, c, /, {, h)(x, y, s) s ~o,
b readily found to be of the form (A, B. C. F, C, H) (/. m, ft) a «o,
Ls. to be of the second degree in the line-coordinates. It is not hard
to show that the general equation of the second degree in I, m, n
thus represents a conic ; but the degenerate conies of line-coordinates
are not line-pairs, as in point-coordinates, but point-pairs.
The degree of the point-coordinate equation of a curve is the
order of the curve, the number of points in which it cuts a straight
kne. That of the line-coordinate equation is its class, the number
of tangents to it from a point. The order and class of a curve are
generally different when either exceeds two.
26. The system of line-coordinates allied to the area! system of
point-coordinates has special interest*
The /, m, n of this system are the perpendiculars (. «. f of f 24;
and x / €4-y>+*'f "O is the equation of the point of areal coordinates
(jr\ y, sOt •'•«■ is a relation which the perpendiculars from the vertices
of the triangle of reference on every line through the point, but no
other line, satisfy. Notice that a non-homogeneous equation of the
first degree in {, n, f does not, as a homogeneous one does, represent
a point, but a circle. In fact ar^ +/*+«'£ -R expresses the con-
stancy of the perpendicular distance of the fixed point *'*+/»»+
s'f -o from the variable line (E, if, f ), «.e. the fact that (€, if. f ) touches
a circle with the fixed point for centre. The relation in any {, «, f
which enables us to make an equation homogeneous is not linear,
as in point-coordinates, but quadratic, viz. it is the relation (a|, 6*.
cri>-4A> of I 24. Accordingly the homogeneous equation of the
above circle is '
Every circle has an equation of this form in the present system of
line-coordinates. Notice that the equation of any circle is satisfied
by those coordinates of lines which satisfy both x / t+/*+s / t Va> o»
the equation of its centre, and [at, bn, cfP-o. This last equation,
of which the left-hand side satisfies the condition for breaking up
into two factors, represents the two imaginary circular points at
infinity, through which all circles and their asymptotes pass.
There is strict duality in descriptive geometry between point-line-
locus and line-point-envelope theorems. But in metrical geometry
duality is encumbered by the fact that there is in a plane one special
line only, associated with distance, while of special points, associated
with direction, there are two: moreover the line is real, and the
points both imaginary.
II. Solid Analytical Geometry.
27. Any point in space may be specified by three coordinates.
We iJU—kki three fixed planes of reference, and generally, aa in all
vs. three which are at right angles two and two. They
two and two, in lines x J Ox, y*Oy, s'Oz. called the axes
respectively, and divide all space into eight parts called
If from any point P in space wc draw PN parallel to
et the plane xOy in N, and then from N draw NM parallel
'
M *
/
V
FIc. 57.
Fig. 58.
» meet x J Ox in M, the coordinates (x, y, 2) of P are the
measures of OM, MN, NP; in the case of rectangular
s these are the perpendicular distances of P from the three
reference. The sign of each coordinate is positive or
is P lies on one side or the other of the corresponding
the octant delineated the signs are taken all positive.
7 the delineation is on a plane of the paper taken parallel
le sOx, the points of a solid figure being projected on that
parallels to some chosen line through O in the positive
ometimes it is clearer to delineate, as in- fig. 58, by pro-
■allcl to that line in the octant which is equally inclined to
is upon a plane of the paper perpendicular to it. It is
y parallel projection to delineate equal scales along Ox,
scales having any ratios we like along lines in a plane
f mutual inclinations we like.
delineation of a surface of simple form it frequently
delineate the sections by the coordinate planes; and, in.
when the surface has symmetry about each coordinate
ielineate the
Fig. 59.
each accompanied byltj ordinate PN, which serves jto
1 the plane of xy. The employment of stereographlc
is also interesting.
•lane geometry, reckoning the line as a curve of the first
have only the point and the curve. In solid geometry,
1 line as a curve of the first order, and the plane asa surface
t order, we have the point, the curve and the surface;
crease of complexity is far greater than would hence at
appear. In plane geometry a curve is considered in
with lines (its tangents) ; but in solid geometry the curve
ed in connexion with Knee and planee (its tangents and
planes), and the surface also in connexion with lines and
\ tangent lines and tangent planes) ; there are surfaces
: of the li n e cones , skew surfaces, developable*, doubly
infinite systems of lines, and whole classes of theories
e nothing analogous to them in plane geometry : it is thus
ill part indeed of the subject which can be even referred
resent article.
kse of a surface we have be t wee n the coordinates (*, y, t)
t say a onefold relation, which can be represented by a
tion f(x, y, s)— o; or we may consider the coordinates,
each of them as a given function of two variable para-
p; the form t—fix, y) is a particular case of each of these
epresentation ; in other words, we have in the first mode
=s-/(x, y), and in the second mode *»#, y-o for the
of two of Che coordinates in terms of the parameters.
718
GEOMETRY
IANALYT1CAL
In the case of a cui
twofold relation: tv
such a relation; i.e. (
of two surfaces (but tl
of two surfaces, and i
ordinates may be give
parameter. The form
are given in terms of
modes of representati
29. The remarks 1
metrical propositions
method of coordinate
proposition, apply a
illustrated in Kke man
centre of four spheres
that S and S' being a
ax+6y+cs+n\ the di
coordinates, and com
plane containing the
andS'-o.
30. Metrical Theor
metrical theory is in
finite right line PQ b
Fig. 60.
let the cosines of the
to the three axes
the three skies and 01
and
whence ^-t»+ir , +f
and its projections |,
the same equations w
necting the cosine-inc
Suppose we have it
inclinations of this t
inclination to QP; al
uponQT; then proje
And in the last eqi
pfi, py we find
which is an express!
lines, the cosine-incli:
a', ff. V respective!)
a' , +0*+y , -i; and
l-*-<a»+*
which (omitdng the t
through the point (o,
•, fi, y. and these
inclinations.
Using the last equa
C
these are expressions for the current coordinates in terms of a
irameter p, which is in fact the distance from the fixed point
.b,c).
It is easy to see that, if the coordinates (x, y, a) are connected by
any two linear .equations, these equations can always be brought
into the foregoing form, and hence that the two linear equation
represent a line.
Secondly, taking for greater simplicity the point Q to be coincident
with the origin, and a', ff % y\ p to be constant, then p is the perpen-
dicular distance of a plane from the origin, and «', ft % y' are the cosine-
inclinations of this distance to the axes (*'*+/'' , +V* a, i). P is
any point in this plane, and taking its coordinates to be (x, y, •) then
({, ij, r) are -(x, y, x), and the foregoing equation ^-«'|+ A'a+V*
<x+fy+y'M-p,
which to the equation of the plane in question.
If, more generally, Q is not coincident with the origin, then,
taking its coordinates to be (a, b, c), and writing pi instead of p, the
equation is
a'Cx-aHfCy-oRyCs-c)-*,;
-p— (oa'+ifl'+cy), which b aa expression
iistance of the point (a, b, c) from the plane
linear equation Ax+By+Cs+D-
Iways be brought into the foregoing form,
equation represents a plane.
J to be a fixed point, coordinates (a, b, c),
-#, to be constant, say this is »b\ then, as
«, f are x—o, y— j, s— e, and the equation
(*-a)H(y-p)»+<*-«)»-.o\
which is the equation of the sphere, coordinates of the centre - {aM,
and radius — a.
A quadric equation wherein the .terms of the second order arc
x I +y*+s i , via. an equation
. x»+y»+a , +Ax+By+Cs+D-o.
can always, it Is clear, be brought into the foregoing form; and h
thus appears that this is the equation of a sphere, coordinates of
thecentre -tA, -JB. -JC, and squared radius -i(A»+B*+C*)-D.
33. Cylinders, Cones, ruled Surfaces.— II the two equations of a
straight line involve a parameter to which any value may be given,
we have a singly infinite system of lines. They cover a surface, and
the equation of the surface is obtained by eliminating the parameter
between the two equations.
If the lines all pass through a given point, then the surface is a
cone; and, in particular, if the lines are alt parallel to a given tine,
then the surface is a cylinder.
Beginning with this last case, suppose the lines are parallel to
the line x-*w, y-nt, the equations of a line of the system are
x-mx+a, y-nt+b, — where a, 6 are supposed to be function* of
the variable parameter, or, what is the same thing, there is be t we en
them a relation /(a, 6)»o: we have c— *— ats, ft«y— as, and the
result of the elimination of the parameter therefore is /(x— sv,
y— n*)-o, which is thus the general equation of the cylinder the
generating lines whereof are parallel to the line x— ma, y-nx. The
equation of the section by the plane s-o is fix, y) —o, and conversely
if the cylinder be determined by means of its curve of intersection
with the plane s-o,,then, taking the equation of this curve to be
fix, y) -o, the equation of the cylinder is/(x— no, y— ax) — o. Thus,
if the curve of intersection be the circle (*— ap+(y— /!)* — 7*. we
have (x— aw— c^+Cy-aa-fl)"-'** aa the equation of aa oblique
cylinder on this base, and thus also (x-a)'-f(y-0) , -7« as tat
equation of the right cylinder.
If the lines all nam through a given point (a, b, c), then the equa-
tions of a tine are x— a-a(x-c), y—b~&{%—c), where a, ft are
functions of the variable parameter, or, what is the same thing,
there exists between them an equation /(a, 0)>o; the < "
of the parameter gives, therefore, /(|~fi Jrj) «
equation,
/(*-?. y
tonctson<
equation to vertex. Taking
the verts (x, y, «)• — o ; and.
rnpartkt cone of the second
order, or tex.
34. la stem of lines, the
locus is a a tine is changing
-its posit* a state of turning
about tot i rule, in a state of
moving c _ ikes place. If in-
stantaneously it is only in a state of turning, it is usual, though not
strictly accurate, to my that it intersects tts consecu ti ve position.
A regulus such that consecutive lines on it do not intersect, in this
sense, is called a skew surface, or scroll; one on which they do is
called a developable surface or torse.
Suppose, for instance, that the equations of a line (depending oa
■o; and thn
igeneous equation
ional and integral
-o, is the general
ANALYTICAL]
the variable parameter art |+Z-#(i+|), |-|.j( x -{) ;
then, eliminating $, we have p— jJ»i-^or say Jl+p""^" 1 '
the" equation of a quadric surface, afterwards called the hyperboloid
of one sheet ; this surface is consequently a scroll. It is to be re-
marked that we have upon the surface a second singly infinite
series of lines; the equations of a line of this second system_(dc-
pending on the variable parameter ♦) are
i+f-H). 5-5-50+0-
It is easily shown that any fine of the one system intersects every
line of the other system.
Considering any curve (ol double curvature) whatever, the tangent
lines of the curve form a singly infinite system of lines, each line
GEOMETRY
719
intersecting the consecutive line of the system, — that is. they form
a developable, or torse; the curve and torse are thus
connected together, forming a single geometrical figure.
!5K
is. they form
• inseparably
, Anosculat-
I plane of the curve (sec 1 38 below; is a tangent plane of the torse
1 along a generating line.
35. Transformation of Coordinates.— Tbtn is no difficulty in
changing the origin, and it is for brevity assumed that the origin
remains unaltered. We have, then, two sets of rectangular axes.
Ox, Oy, Os, and Qx t , Oyi, O*, the mutual cosinc-inclinationa being
shown by the diagram—
* y *_
*i • 7
7\ a' f y*
* 7' ~F"~y~'
that is, a, 0, y are the cosine-inclinations of Oxi to Oar. Oy, Os;
«', P, V those of Oyi, &c
And this diagram gives also the linear expressions of the co-
ordinates (x tl yi, si) or (x, y, s) of either set in terms of those of the
other set; we thus have
xi - * x+0 y +7 »» x - oxi +u'yt +«'fi,
^-a'x+^y+ys. y-0Xt+0yi+0'tu
*i - *'x+0'y +?'». s - 7*1 +/>, +7%
which -are obtained by projection, as above explained. Each of
these equations is. in fact, nothing else than the before-mentioned
equation P^a'g+jy'v+Yf. adapted to the problem in hand.
But we have to consider the relations between the nine coefficients.
By what precedes, or by the consideration that we must have
identically x , +y , - r -a*-x 4 M-yi , -rV, it "appears that these satisfy
the relations—
«» +^ 4V -I. aM-a* +a"» -I,
«* +*» +y» -1. r+02 +02 -».
« n +0 n +y n -1. y+V" +7 n -l,
•V+W-HrV-O, 0y+*V+0V-O.
a*. +0'0 +7*7 -0. 7a+ya / +7*«* -0,
•«' -W +tV -0. •0+a'0'+«'*'-O.
either set of six equations being implied in the other set.
It follows that the square of the determinant
l« • 9 . y I
is»i; and hence that the determinant itself is-*!. The dis-
tinction of the two cases is an important one: if the determinant is
-+i, then the axes Ox t , Oyi. 0* are such that they can by a
rotation about O be brought to coincide with Ox, Oy. Os respect-
ively; if it is — —1, then they cannot. But in the latter case, by
measuring xi, y», 4 in the opposite directions we change the signs of
all the coefficients and so make the determinant to be - + 1 . hence
the former case need alone be considered, and it is accordingly
assumed that the
that we have tb
obtained from this , ,
and of unaccented, singly and doubly accented letters.
36. The nine cosine-inclinations above are, as has been seen,
connected by six equations. It ought then to be possible to express
them all in terms of three parameters. An elegant means of doing
this has been given by Rodrigues, who has shown that the tabular
expression of the formulae of transformation may be written
se need alone be considered, and it is accoraingiy
the determinant is • +1. This being so, it is found
the equality «-0V-0V. and eight like ones,
this by cyclical interchanges of the letters c, 0, y,
Species of Quadric Surfaces.— Surfaces represented by
if the second degree are called quadric surfaces. Quadnc
i either proper or special. The special ones arise when the
in the general equation are limited to satisfy certain
lations; they comprise (1) plane-pairs, including in
one plane twice repeated, ana (a) cones, including in
ryfinders; there is but one form of cone, but cylinders
be elliptic, parabolic dr hyperbolic
discussion of the general equation of the second degree show*
that the proper quadric surfaces are of five kinds, represented
respectively, when referred to the most convenient axes of reference,
by equations of the five types (a and. b. positive):
CD
(2)
(3)
(4)
'"tt+a*' emptic P* rabo,oid -
u— —— 2», hyperbolic paraboloid*
jl+^-i.eUipsoid.
51+Ji— ji ■ it hyperboloid of one sheet.
— l+S— -§■= — 1, hyperboloid of two sheetsv
(5)
It is at once seen that these are distinct surfaces; and the equa*
tions also show very readily the
general form and mode of genera-
tion of the several surfaces.
In the elliptic paraboloid (fig. 61 >
the sections by the planes of ax and
Fig. 61.
sy are the parabolas
-Ta" m &
having the common axes Os; and
the section by any plane s-7
parallel to that of xy is the ellipse
*-5n + S ;
so that the surface is generated by
a variable ellipse moving parallel to itself along the parabolas at
directrices.
In the hyperbolic paraboloid (figs, 6a and 63) the sections by the
planes of sx, sy are the parabolas s - gj.s - - Jj, having the opposite
axes Os, Os', and the section by a plane 1—7 parallel to that of
xy is the hyperbola y-x^-fc wh »ch has its transverse axis parallel
to Ox' or Oy according as 7 is positive or negative. The surface is thus
X
y
t
x,
,+x»-„«-,»
2(X»-p)
a(^+*i)
y>
a(Xn+r)
l-V+S-r*
2(m»+M
St
2f rX- M )
2(M»+A)
i-x«-V+.»
+ (l+* , +M t +»»).
the meaning being that the coefficients in the transformation are
fractions, with numerators expressed as in the table, and the common
generated by a variable hyperbola moving parallel to itself along
the parabolas as directrices. The form is best seen from fig. 63,
which represents the sec-
tions by planes parallel to
the plane of xy, or say the
contour lines; the con-
tinuous lines are the sec-
tions above the plane of
xy, and the dotted fines
the sections below this
f>lane. The form is, in
act. that of a saddle.
In the ellipsoid (fig. 64)
the sections by the planes
of sx, sy, and xy are each
of them an ellipse, and the
section by any parallel
plane is also an ellipse.
The surface may be con- Flo. 64.
sidercd aa generated by
an e&tyee iroty paialle! to ittrif i^
726
GEOMETRY
(ANALYTICAL
In the hyperboloid of one sheet (fig. 65), the sections by the planes
of mx, zy are the hyperbola*
having a common conjugate axis JOS';
x r y, and that by any parallel Diane, i
may be considered as generated by a v;
to itself along the two hyperbolas as di
equal and parallel circular disks, theii
01 equal lengths, so that these are the
cylinder, and if we turn one of the disk
angle in its plane, the strings in the
system of generators of a hyperbolotd
and if we turn it through the same an
Fie 6*
we get in like manner the generators of the other system; there will
be the same general configuration when a +6. The hyperbolic
paraboloid is also covered by two systems of rectilinear generators
as a method like that used in ( 34 establishes without difficulty.
The figures should be studied to see how they can lie.
In the hyperboloid of two sheets (fig. 66) the sections by the planes
of zx and sy are the hyperbolas
having a common transverse axis along s'Oz; the section by any
plane s - *7 parallel to that of xy is the ellipse
*+*-*-
provided i*>c*, and the surface, consisting of two distinct portions
or sheets, may be considered as generated by a variable ellipse
moving parallel to itself along the hyperbolas as directrices.
38. Differential Geometry of Curves. — For convenience consider the
coordinates (x, y, z) of a point on a curve in space to be given as
functions of a variable parameter 9. which may in particular be one
of themselves. Use the notation x\ x" for dxjdO, &xfia* % and simi-
larly as to y and s. Only a few formulae will be given. Call the
current coordinates (£, q, f).
The tantent at (x, y, s) is the line tended to as a limit by the
connector of (x, y, z) and a neighbouring point of the curve when the
latter moves up to the former: its equations are
a-x)/x'-(,-y)/y'-(r-t)/s'.
The osculating plane at (x, y, s) is the plane tended to as a limit by
that through (x, y, z) and two neighbouring points of the curve as
these, remaining distinct, both move up to (x, y, s) . its one equation
" a-*)(/s'-y's , ) + (9-y)(*'x'-sV)+(r-s)(x'y'-xV)«.o.
The normal plane is the plane through (x, y, s) at right angles to the
tangent line, %x. the plane
It cuts the osculating plane in a line called the principal normal.
Every line through (x, y, s) in the normal plane is a normal. The
normal perpendicular to the osculating plane is called the binormal.
A tangent, principal normal, and binormal are a convenient set of
rectangular axes to use as those of reference, when the nature of a
curve near a point on it is to be discussed.
Through (x, y, s) and three neighbouring points, all on the curve,
passes a single sphere ; and as the three points all move up to (x, y r z)
continuing distinct, the sphere tends to a limiting size and position.
The limit tended to is the sphere of closest contact with the curve at
x, y, s); its centre and radius are called the centre and radius of
spherical curvature. It cuts the osculating plane in a circle, called the
ard* a/a&sduJe curvature; and the centre and radius of this circle
Mre the centre and radius of absolute curvature. The centre ol
absolute curvature Is the limiting position of the point where the
principal normal at (x, y, a) Is cut by the normal plane at a neighbour-
ing point, as that point moves up to (x, y, s).
30. Differential Geometry a/ Surfaces.— Let (x, y, a) be a*y chosen
point on a surface /(x, y, z) -o. As a second point of the surface
moves up to (x, y, s), its connector with (x, y, » tends to a limiting
position, a tangent line to the surface at (x, y, a). AH these tangent
lines at (x, y, z), obtained by approaching (x, y, a) from different
directions on a surface, lie in one plane
£ft-*)+J£(i-j>>+gcr-.)-<».
This plane is called the tangent plane at (x. y, s). One line through
(x, y, z) is at right angles to the tangent plane. This k the normal
«-*)/%-<*-»/%~(t->)/&
The tangent plane is cut by the surface in a curve, real or imaginary,
with a node or double point at (x, y, s). Two of the tang e nt tines
touch this curve at the node. They are called the " chief tangents "
(Haupt-tangenten) at (x, y, z) ; they have closer contact with the
surface than any other tangents.
In the case of a quadric surface the curve of intersection of a,
tangent and the surface is of the second order and has a node,
it must therefore consist of two straight lines. Consequently a
quadric surface is co v ered by two sets of straight lines, a pair through
every point on it ; these are imaginary for the eUipaoid, hyperboloid
of two sheets, and elliptic paraboloid.
A surface of any order is covered by two singly infinite systems
of curves, a pair through every point, the tangents to which are all
chief tangents at their respective points of contact. These are
called chief-tangent curves; on a qnadric surface they are the above
straight lines.
40. The tangents at a point of a surface which bisect the angles
between the chief tangents are called the principal tangents at the
point. They are at right angles, and together with the normal
constitute a convenient set of rectangular axes to which to refer the
surface when its properties near the point are under discussion.
At a special point which is such that the chief tangents there run
to the circular points at infinity in the tangent plane, the principal
tangents are indeterminate; such a special point is called an umbtlic
of the surface.
There are two singly infinite systems of curves on a surface, a
pair cutting one another at right angles through every point upon it.
all tangents to which are principal tangents of the surface at their
respective points of contact. These arc called lines of curvature,
because of a property next to be mentioned.
As a point Q moves in an arbitrary direction on a surface from
coincidence with a chosen point P, the normal at it, as a rule, at
once fails to meet the normal at P; but, if it takes the direction of s
line of curvature through P, this is instantaneously not the case.
We have thus on the normal two centres of curvature, and the
distances of these from the point on the surface are the two principal
radii of curvature of the surface at that point ; these are also the radii
of curvature of the sections of the surface by planes through the
normal and the two principal tangents respectively; or say they are
the radii of curvature of the normal sections through the two principal
tangents respectively. Take at the point the axis of z in the direction
of the normal, and those of x and y in the directions of the principal
tangents respectively, then, if the radii of curvature be a, & (the signs
being such that the coordinates of the two centres of curvature are
z-a and z~b respectively), the surface has in the neighbourhood
of the point the form of the paraboloid
and the chief-tangents are determined by the equation o— — +<£
The two centres of curvature may be on the same side of the point
or on opposite sides; in the former case a and b have the same sign,
the paraboloid is elliptic, and the chief-tangents are imaginary;
in the latter case a and b have opposite signs, the paraboloid is
hyperbolic, and the chief-tangents are real.
The normal sections of the surface and the paraboloid by the same
Jriane have the same radius of curvature; and it thence readily
ollows that the radius of curvature of a normal section of the surface
by a plane inclined at an angle* to that of ax is given by the equation
1 _COSW , SlVrS
;"—+-*-•
The section in question is that by a plane through the normal
and a line in the tangent plane inclined at an angle 9 to the principal
tangent along the axis of x. To complete the theory, consider the
section by a plane having the same trace upon the tangent plane,
but inclined to the normal at an angle ♦: then it is shown without
difficulty (Meunier's theorem) that the radius of curvature of this
inclined section of the surface is »p cos 6.
Authorities.— The above article is largely based on that by
Arthur Cayley in the oth edition of this work. Of early and iav
1 portatvl rec&ul publications on analytical geometry, special 1
LINE)
GEOMETRY
V. Line Geometry
Line geometry is the name applied to those geometrical
investigations in which the straight line replaces the point as
element. Just as ordinary geometry deals primarily with points
and systems of points, this theory deals in the first instance
with straight lines and systems of straight lines. In two dimen-
sions there is no necessity for a special line geometry, inasmuch
as the straight line and the point are interchangeable by the
principle of duality; but in three dimensions the straight line
is its own reciprocal, and for the better discussion of systems
of lines we require some new apparatus, e.g., a system of co-
ordinates applicable to straight lines rather than to points.
The essential features of the subject are most easily elucidated
by analytical methods: we shall therefore begin with the notion
of line coordinates, and in order to emphasize the merits of the
system of coordinates ultimately adopted, we first notice a
system without these advantages, but often useful in special
investigations.
In ordinary Cartesian coordinates the two equations of a straight
line may be reduced to the form y — rx+s, z-tx+u, and r, s, /, u
may be regarded as the four coordinates of the line. These co-
ordinates lack symmetry: moreover, in changing from one base of
reference to another the transformation is not linear, so that the
degree of an equation is deprived of real significance. For purposes
of the general theory we employ homogeneous coordinates: if
Xiyi2|tPi and xty&wt are two points on the line, it is easily verified
that the six determinants of the array
I JW1W1 i
I xiyizfid I
are In the same ratios for all point-pairs on the line, and further,
that when the point coordinates undergo a linear transformation
so also do these six determinants. Wc therefore adopt these six
determinants for the coordinates of the line, and express them by the
symbols /, X, m. n, n, r where /=jriXF»— x t w u X-y,*t— y*c u &c.
There is the further advantage that if <>i6iCi</t and Otb*t<h be two
planes through the line, the six determinants
I fll*lC|rf| I
arc in the same ratios as the foregoing, so that except as regards a
factor of proportionality we have X-&|C» — btc x , /-r^i— Cjoi, &c.
The identical relation /x+w^+mr-o reduces the number of inde-
pendent constants in the six coordinates to four, for we are only
concerned with their mutual ratios; and the quadratic character
of this relation marks an essential difference between point geometry
and line geometry. The condition of intersection of two lines is
fX'+/'X+m/+*i *+*/+»'* -o
where the accented letters refer to the second line. If the coordinates
are Cartesian and /, m, n are direction cosines, the quantity on the
left is the mutual moment of the two lines.
Since a line depends on four constants, there are three distinct types
of configurations arising in line geometry — those containing a tnply-
infinite. a doubly- infinite and a singly-infinite number of lines; they
721
tad Ruled Surfaces or Skew*
ystem •( lines satisfying one
connected by a single relation ;
pee of this equation supposing
iplcx of the nth degree which
f the nth degree, those which
nth class and there are n lines
the last statement combines
cone is of the nth degree and
id the lines common to four
ive to solve five equations, viz.
with the quadratic equation
lore the number of common
complexes we have the lines
egree, which form a complex
tisfying two conditions: thus
rough any point, and a finite
imbers are called the degree
uence is symbolically written
wnce is the system of lines
nigh m point* and those that
it there pass m of these lines,
hcrefore the congruence is of
vn by G. H. Halphen that the
ences is hm'+m', which may
be of this simple type. The
« general (1, 1) congruence;
n the general type of a (i, 3)
hat two twisted cubics have
ards the analytical treatment,
that arising in the theory of
not in general the complete
9 is a configuration of lines
hercfore depend on only one
face, for wc cannot draw one
line passes through a point of
hat of a quadric surface, is
ne geometry is the number of
x complex. Now the number
of the surface qua point geo-
en line form a particular case
egree b the same from which-
j lines common to three com-
sd surface of degree ?fttft*«i;
omplete intersection of three
rst degree (or linear complex)
1 plane called the polar plane
ring in a fixed plane
oint or pole of the
trough B, then the
he nul-planes of all points on
The relation between /1 and
>lex that meets one will also
I both belongs to the complex.
» with respect to the complex.
, theory of reciprocation with
in elegant example due to A.
de to satisfy twelve conditions,
nber could be drawn to touch
5e. For, suppose one such can
espect to any linear complex
4 the third class, i.e. another
ur lines, which are unaltered
here is an infinite number of
there is an infinite number of
r problem is poristic.
I constructions relating to the
awn to contain five arbitrary
point O, we observe that the
given five are conjugate lines
through O to meet them is
milarly, by choosing another
1 O: these rays lie in the nul-
nvolved that the five lines so
Mocal construction will enable
Proceeding now to the metrical
mical applications, we remark
lie nul-ptanc of any point on it
1 the central axis; if d be the
n it and a ray of the complex,
: called the pitch or parameter.
a force R along a certain line,
742 GEOMETRY «uw
for the system form a linear complex of which the given line is the
central axis and the quotient C/R it the pitch. Any motion of a
rigid body can be reduced to a screw motion about a certain line,
«.«. to an angular velocity « about that line combined with a linear
velocity * along the line. The plane drawn through any point
perpendicular to the direction of its motion is its nul-plane with
Fr-o, then for a line not belonging to the complex wc may regard
the expression on the leu-hand side lj a multiple of the
moment of the line with respect to the complex, the word
moment being used in the statical sense; and we infer
that when the coordinates are replaced by linear functions
of themselves the new coordinates are multiples of the moments
of the line with respect to six fixed complexes. The essential features
of this coordinate system are the same as those of the original one,
viz. there are six coordinates connected by a quadratic equation,
but this relation has in general a different form. By suitable choice
of the six fundamental complexes, as they may be called, this con*
necting relation may be brought into other simple forms of which
we mention two: (i.) When the six are mutually in involution it can
be reduced to r, l +xr , +x, l +X4 l +x.-+x, , -o; (»•) Whc « * he fir «
four are in involution and the other two are the lines common to
the first four it is *i»-H-i--HrV+x 4 *— 2x*x«-o. These generalized
coordinates might be explained without reference to actual magni-
tude, just as homogeneous point coordinates can be; the essential
remark is that the equation of any coordinate to zero represents a
linear complex, a point of view which includes our original system,
for the equation of a coordinate to zero represents all the lines
meeting an edge of the fundamental tetrahedron.
The system of coordinates referred to six complexes mutually
in involution was introduced by Felix Klein, and in many cases ts
more useful than that derived directly from point coordinates; e.g.
in the discussion of quadratic complexes: by means of it Klein has
developed an analogy between line geometry and the geometry of
spheres as treated by G. Darboux and others. In fact, in that
geometry a point is represented by five coordinates, connected by a
relation of the same type as the one just mentioned when the five
fundamental spheres arc mutually at right angles and the equation
of a sphere is of the first degree. Extending this to four dimensions
of space, we obtain an exact analogue of Tine geometry, in which
(i.) a point corresponds to a line; (U.) a linear complex to a hyper-
sphere; (iii.) two linear complexes in involution to two orthogonal
hyperspheres; (iv.) a linear complex and two conjugate lines to
a hypersphere and two inverse points. Many results may be obtained
by this principle, and more still are suggested by trying to extend
the properties of circles to spheres in three and four dimensions.
Thus the elementary theorem, that, given four lines, the circles
circumscribed to the four triangles formed by them are concurrent,
may be extended to six hyper planes in four dimensions; and then
we can derive a result in line geometry by translating the inverse
of this theorem. Again, just as there is an infinite number of spheres
touching a surface at a given point, two of them having contact of a
doser nature, so there is an infinite number of linear complexes
touching a non-linear complex at a given line, and three of these
have contact of a closer nature (cf. Klein, Math. Ann. v.).
Sophus Lie has pointed out a different analogy with sphere
geometry. Suppose, in fact, that the equation of a sphere of radius
ris
to that r > -o-+6*+c*-d;then introducing the quantity* to make
this equation homogeneous, we may regard the sphere as given by
the §ix coordinMtes a, b, c. d, e, r connected by the equation a'+
J'+e'-r'-rdr-o, And it is c**y to see chat two spheres touch ii
LINE]
and others. Of cosingular complexes of higher degree nothing is
known.
Following J. PlQcker. we give an account of the lines of a quadratic
complex that meet a given line.
The cones whose vertices are on the given line all pass through
eight fixed points and envelop a surface of the fourth degree; the
conies whose planes contain the given line all lie on a surface of the
fourth class and touch eight fixed planes. It is easy to see by ele-
mentary geometry that these two surfaces are identical. Further,
the given line contains four singular points At, At, Aj, A 4 , and the
planes into which their cones degenerate are the eight common
tangent planes mentioned above ; similarly, there are four singular
planes, ai, at, as, a«, through the line, and the eight points into
which their conies degenerate are the eight common points above.
The locus of the pole of the line with respect to all the conies in
planes through it is a straight line called the polar line of the given
one; and through this line passes the polar plane of the Riven line
with respect to each of the cones. The name polar is applied in the
ordinary analytical sense; any line has an infinite number of polar
complexes with respect to the given complex, for the equation of the
latter can be written in an infinite number of ways; one of these
polars is a straight line, and is the polar line already introduced.
The surface on which lie all the conies through a line i is called the
Pluckcr surface of that line: from the known properties of (2, a)
correspondences it can be shown that the Pluckcr surface of / cuts U
in a range of the same cross ratio as that of the range in which the
Pluckcr surface of /1 cuts /. Applying this to the case in which l\
is the polar of /. we find that the cross ratios of (A,, A s , Ai. A<) and
(fli, at. fli. a«) are equal. The identity of the locus of the A's with the
envelope of the as follows at once; moreover, a line meets the
singular surface in four points having the same cross ratio as that
of the four tangent planes drawn through the line to touch the sur-
face. The Pluckcr surface has eight nodes, eight singular tangent
planes, and is a double line. The relation between a line and its
polar line is not a reciprocal one with respect to the complex; but
W. Stahl has pointed out that the relation is reciprocal as far as the
singular surface is concerned.
To facilitate the discussion of the general quadratic complex we
* introduce Klein's canonical form. We have, in fact, to
nnZfcMs. ^ ca ' w ' ,n two <l uaf lratk equations in six variables; and by
GEOMETRY
723
form
' suitable linear transformations these can be reduced to the
x 4 *+ *,*+ *V+ x«'+ x»«+ aV«o
subject to certain exceptions, which will be mentioned later.
Taking the first equation to be that of the complex, we r
that both equations arc unaltered by changing the sign of any co-
ordinate: the geometrical meaning of this is. that the quadratic
complex is its own reciprocal with respect to each of the six funda-
mental complexes, for changing the sign of a coordinate is equivalent
to taking die polar of a line with respect to the corresponding
fundamental complex. It is easy to establish the existence 01
six systems of bitangent linear complexes, for the complex
/iXi+«iX l +/»x l -|-/*x«-f/ i x»+/*r»-o is a bitangent when
/i"0, and—- 6 — -+- — --r- — t+- — ;r+ „ ' ' J. "°»
Oj-ai tfj-aj a« — q% 0|-Si a*— a}
and its lines of contact arc conjugate lines with respect to the first
fundamental complex. We therefore infer the existence of six systems
of bitangent lines of the complex, of which the first is given by
' <»i-ai oj-U| oi-Oi ai-0| a«-ai
Each of these lines is a bitangent of the singular surface, which is
therefore completely determined as being the focal surface of the
(2, 2) congruence above. It is thence easy to verify that the two
complexes Zax* -o and 2&c* « o arc cosingular if b, ■ a,\+»l**+p.
The singular surface of the general quadratic complex is the
famous quartic, with sixteen nodes and sixteen singular tangent
planes, first discovered by E. E. Kummer.
We cannot give a full account of its properties here, but we deduce
at once from the above that its bitangents break up into six (2, 2)
congruences, and the six linear complexes containing these are
mutually in involution. The nodes of the singular surface are points
whose complex cones are coincident planes, and the complex conk
in a singular tangent plane consists of two coincident points. This
configuration of sixteen points and planes has many interesting
properties: thus each plane contains six points which lie on a conk,
while through each point there pass six planes which touch a quadric
cone. In many respects the Kummer quartic plays a part in three
dimensions analogous to the general quartk curve in two; it further
gives a natural representation of certain relations between hyper-
elliptic functions (cf. R W. H. T. Hudson. Ktimmer's Quartk, 1905).
As might be expected from the magnitude of a form in six variables,
the number of projectivalty distinct varieties of quadratic complexes
ammtMea- ** ve ^ v E reat '■ an ^ in ' act Adolf Wciler. by whom the
Swit^F* question was first systematically studied on lines indicated
~frV,. by Klein, enumerated no fewer than forty-nine different
euMfeMM. tv P**» But ln * principle of the classification is so im-
■— *"* — porta nt, and withal so simple, that we give a brief sketch
which indicate* iu essential features.
We have practically to study the intersection of two quadric*
F and F' in six variables, and to classify the different cases arising
we make use of the results of Karl Wciexstrass on the equivalence
conditions of two pairs of quadratics. As far as at present required,
they are as follows: Suppose that the factoriaed form of the deter*
sainantal equation Diact (F-f-XF') -o is
<X-a) , i+S+V..(X-/S)'i+VM.+......
where the root • occurs *+*+'■ . . . times in the determinant.
U+ii . . . tiroes in every first minor, *i-f . . . times in every second
minor, and so on; the meaning of each exponent is then perfectly
definite. Every factor of the type (A- a)' is called an eUmenlartketl
(elementary divisor) of the determinant, and the condition of equiva-
lence of two pairs of quadratics is simply that their determinants have
the same elementary divisors. We wntc the pair of forms symbolk-
ally thus \{s\S t . . .), f/,/, . . .), . . .], letters in the inner brackets
referring to the same factor. Returning now to the two quadratics
representing the complex, the sum of the exponents will be six,
and two complexes are put in the same class if they have the same
symbolical expression; i.e. the actual values of the roots of the
dcterminantal equation need not be the same for both, but their
manner of occurrence, as far as here indicated, must be identical in
the two. The enumeration of all possible cases is thus reduced
to a simple question in combinatorial analysis, and the actual study
of any particular case is much facilitated by a useful rule of Klein •
for writing down in a simple form two quadratics belonging to a
given class— one of wbkh, of course, represents the equation con-
necting line coordinates, and the other the equation of the complex.
The general complex is naturally 111 mil; the complex of tangents
to a quadric is Kill), (in)] and that of lines meeting a conk is
[(222)]. Full information will be found in Wciler s memoir, Math.
Ann. vol. vii.
The detailed study of each variety of complex opens up a vast
subject ; we only mention two special cases, the harmonk complex
and the tetrahedral complex.
The harmonk complex, first studied by BattagHni, is generated
in an infinite number of ways by the lines cutting two quadrics
harmonically. Taking the most general case, ana referring the
quadrks to their common self-conjugate tetrahedron, we can find its
equation in a simple form, and verify that this complex really
depends only on seventeen constants, so that it is not the 'most
general quadratk complex. It belongs to the general type in so far
as it is discussed above, but the roots of the determinant are in in-
volution. The singular surface is the " tetrahedroid " discussed by
Caylcy. As a particular case, from a metrical point of view, wc have
L. F. Patnvin's complex generated by the lines of intersection of
perpendicular tangent planes of a quadric, the singular surface now
being, Fresncl's wave surface. The tetrahedral or Reyc complex is
the simplest and best known of proper quadratk complexes. It is
generated by the lines whkh cut the faces of a tetrahedron in a
constant cross ratio, and therefore by those subtending the same
cross ratio at the four vertices. The singular surface is made up of
the faces or the vertices of the fundamental tetrahedron, and each
edge of this tetrahedron is a double line of the complex. The
complex was first discussed by K, T. Reyc as the assemblage of lines
;ents of a surface; in fact, since the condition of inter-
» consecutive straight lines b ld\+dmd*+dndw—o, a
congruence meets two adjacent lines, say /» and &.
e in the plane pencil (A,o,) and /, A in the plane pencil
lie locus of the A's is the same as the envelope of the
ihe tangent plane at A, and a t at A,. This surface is
si surface of the congruence, and to it all the lines /
The distinctive property of the points A is that two
mce lines through them coincide, and in like manner
each contain two coincident lines. The focal surface
d sheets, but one or both ma.y d^jtoecsAitv&tAourtw.
724
GEOMETRY
(NON-EUCLIDEAN
thus, for example, the normals to a surface are bitangents of the
surface of centres, and in the case of Dupin's cyclide this surface
degenerates into two conks.
In the discussion of congruences it soon becomes necessary to
introduce another number r, called the rank, which expresses the
number of plane pencils each of which contains an arbitrary line
and two lines of the congruence. The order of the focal surface is
2tn{n~\)-2r, and its class is m(m-i)-2r. Our knowledge of
congruences is almost exclusively confined to those in which either
m or n docs not exceed two. We give a brief account of those of
the second order without singular lines, those of order unity not
being especially interesting. A congruence generally has singular
points through which an infinite number of lines pass; a singular
point is said to be of order r when the lines through it lie on a cone
of the rth degree. , By means of formulae connecting the number of
singular points and tneir orders with the class m of quadratic con-
gruence Rummer proved that the class cannot exceed seven. The
focal surface is of degree four and class 2m; this kind of quartic
surface has been extensively studied by KQmmer, Cayley, Rohn and
others. The varieties (2, 2), (2, 3). (2, 4). (2. 5) all belong to at
least one Reye complex:" and so also docs the most important class
of (2, 6) congruences which includes all the above as special cases.
The congruence (2, 2) belongs to a linear complex and forty different
Reye complexes; as above remarked, the singular surface is
KUmmer's sixteen-nodal quartic, and the same surface is focal for
six different congruences of this variety. The theory of (2, 2)
congruences is completely analogous to that of the surfaces called
cycudes in three dimensions. Further particulars regarding quad-
ratic congruences will be found in Hummer's memoir of i860, and
the second volume of Sturm's treatise. The properties of quadratic
congruences having singular lines, i.e. degenerate focal surfaces, are
not so interesting as those of the above class; they have been
discussed by Kummcr, Sturm and others.
Since a ruled surface contains only « * elements, this theory is
practically the same as that of curves. If a linear complex contains
more than n generators of a ruled surface of the nth degree,
it contains all the generators, hence for »»2 there are
three linearly independent complexes, containing all the
fencrators, and this is a well-known property of quadric surfaces,
n ruled cubics the generators all meet two lines which may or may
not coincide; these two cases correspond to the two main classes of
cubics discussed by Cayley and Cremona. As regards ruled quartics,
the generators must lie in one and may lie in two linear complexes.
The first class is equivalent to a quartic in four dimensions and is
always rational, but the latter class has to be subdivided into the
elliptic and the rational, just like twisted quartic curves. A quintic
skew may not lie in a linear complex, and then it is unicursal, while of
scxtics we have two classes not in a linear complex, viz. the elliptic
variety, having thirty-six places where a linear complex contains
six consecutive generators, and the rational, having six such
places.
The general theory of skews in two linear complexes is identical
quadric in three dimensions and is known,
ly one linear complex there are difficulties;
dimensions, and we represent it in three by
is a curve meeting a given plane in n points
iximum deficiency for a given degree would
t as far as degree eight the space-curve
dthcr can be translated into line geometry
does not lie in a linear complex at all the
till, and the general theory clearly cannot
m regress is made in the study of twisted
curves.
References.— The earliest works of a general nature are Plucker,
Neue Geometric des Raumes (Leipzig, 1860); and Kilmmer, " Cber
die algebraischcn Strahlcnsysteme," Berlin Academy (1866). System-
atic development on purely synthetic lines will be found in the
three volumes of Sturm, Liniengeometrie (Leipzig, 1892, 1893, I 806);
vol. L deals with the linear and Reye complexes, vols. h. and hi.
with quadratic congruences and complexes respectively. For a
-highly suggestive review by Gino Loria see Bulletin des sciences
mmUumatiques (1893, 1897). A shorter treatise, giving a very
interesting account of Klein's coordinates, is the work of Koenigs.
la Giomttrie r6gl6e el ses applications (Paris, 1898). English treatises
are C. M.lcssop. Treatise on the Line Complex (1903); R. W. H.
Hudson, KUmmer's Quartic (19c"* ** *
. line geometry will be found in
matik, ii. (Berlin, 1 894); Loria, J
leorie geometricke (Milan, 1897
.results is contained in the very
di matkemaliche superiori, it (M
extensively with line geometry i
formations (Leipzig, 1896). 1
appeared in the Matkemaliscke
found in the index to the first
two memoirs which have left
development of the subject ar
complexe des ersten und zwcite
** Cber Complexe, insbeaomk
MaiA.Am$.v.
VI. Non-Euclidean Geometry
The various metrical geometries are concerned with the
properties of the various types of congruence-groups, which an
defined in the study of the axioms of geometry and of their
immediate consequences. But this point of view of the subject
is the outcome of recent research, and historically the subject
has a different origin. Non-Euclidean geometry arose from the
discussion, extending from the Greek period to the present day.
of the various assumptions which are implicit in the traditional
Euclidean system of geometry In the course of these investip-
tions it became evident that metrical geometries, each internally
consistent but inconsistent in many respects with each other
and with the Euclidean system, could be developed. A short
historical sketch will explain this origin of the subject, and
describe the famous and interesting progress of thought on the
subject. But previously a description of the chief characteristic
properties of elliptic and of hyperbolic geometries will be given,
assuming the standpoint arrived at below under VII. Axiom
of Geometry.
First assume the equation to the absolute (cf. toe. cil.) to
be tef-x*-/-:?-©. The absolute is then real, and the
geometry is hyberbolic.
The distance (rf») between the two points (*i, yi, 4, **) and (x* jt
*?, wt) is given by
cosh (duly) - (w>w, - x,x a - yd* - fj*i)/{ (»i» - *»« - yi» - *■)
(ttf -**-*»- **»)!* (!)
The only points to which the metrical geometry applies are those
within the region enclosed by the quadric; the other points arc
" improper ideal points." The angle (#u) between two planes,
liX+miy+«i*-friW = o and /i*-f mry-f-»»t+rtW"0, is given by
cos OwUih+mLmt+nini-rriluk+mt+nJ - r t f )
(/> , +ms»+*i'-r« , )H (2)
These planes only have a real angle of inclination if they possess 1
line of intersection within the actual space, i.e. if they mtersret.
Planes which do not intersect possess a shortest distance along a liae
which is perpendicular to botn of them. If this shortest distance is
6k. wc have
cosh (inly) » (/i/t+mimi+»»»a - ririVK/i'^-mi'-r-ni" - 'i*)
(/i , +mrM-»r , -r,»)! (3)
Thus in the case of the two planes one and only one of the two. 9i
and in, is real. The same considerations hold for coplanar straicht
lines (sec VII. Axioms of Geometry). Let O (fig. 67} be the point
(o, o, o, l), OX the fine y*o.
»«o, OY the line z«o, x = o, and
OZ the line x«o, y«o. These arc
the coordinate axes and arc at
right angles to each other. Let
P be any point, and let p be the
distance OP, the angle POZ. and
6 the angle between the planes
ZOX and ZOP. Then the co-
ordinates of P can be taken to be
sinh (oh) sin cos 4, sinh (p/7) sin 9
sin 4, sinh (p/7) cos*, cosh {ply).
If ABC is a triangle, and the
sides and angles arc named accord- _, ,
ing to the usual convention ,wc have ¥IG. °7-
sinh (flfiO/sin A - sinh (&/7)/sin B - sinh (r /7)/sin C, (4)
and also
cosh (0/7) -cosh (6/7) cosh (c/7) -sinh (0/7) sinh (tfy) cos A, ($)
with two similar equations. The sura of the three angles of a triangle
is always less than two right angles. The acea of the triangle ABC
itX'(r-A-B-C). If the base BC of a triangle is kept fcud
and the vertex A moves in the fixed plane ABC so that the area
ABC is constant, then the locus of A is a line of equal distance from
BC. This locus is not a straight line. The whole theory of simUarit>
is inapplicable; two triangles are cither congruent, or their angles
are not equal two by two. Thus the elements of a triangle are
determined when its three angles are
Even. By keeping A and B and the - "
ie BC fixed, but by making C move
off to infinity along BC, the lines BC
and AC become parallel, and the sides
a and b become infinite. Hence from . . »T\ . .» »c
equation (5) above, it follows that two " _
parallel lines (cf. Section Vll. Axioms of Fie. 68.
Geometry) must be considered as making a zero angle with each
other. Also if B be a right angle, from the equation (5), remem-
bering that, in the limit,
coAv IthMcMk <MiN-*mfci C«M<*nh <»/y> - 1,
NON-EUCLIDEAN)
GEOMETRY
725
we have cot A-tanh (c/2?) (6).
The angle A is called by N. I. Lobatchewsky the " angle of parallel-
ism."
The whole theory of lines and planes at right angle* to each other
is simply the theory of conjugate elements with respect to the
absolute, where ideal lines and planes arc introduced.
Thus if / and V be any two conjugate lines with respect to the
absolute (of which one of the two must be improper, say f ), then
any plane through /' and containing proper points is perpendicular
to L Also if p is any plane containing proper points, and P is its
pole, which is necessarily improper, then the lines through P are
the normals to P. The equation of the sphere, centre (xi, yu 4, trj
and radius p, is
CaV-jtf-*'-*') (t*-*'-/-*) cosh>(p/ T )-
(tt-,w-x,jc-jf,y-»,»)» (7).
The equation of the surface of equal distance (9) from the plane
Ix+my+nt+rw -o is
(P+»»+»*-r») (»•-*»->»-»*) sinh»(a/7)-
A surface of equal distance Is a sphere whose centre Is improper;
and both types of surface are included in tho family
*«(**-*»-/-*•) «(ax+&y+r3+dw)» . . (9).
But this family also includes a third type of surfaces, which can
be looked on either as the limits of spheres whose centres have
approached the absolute, or as the limits of surfaces of equal distance
whose central planes have approached a position tangential to the
absolute. These surfaces arc called limit-surfaces. Thus (9) denotes
a limit-surface, if <P— a>— &*— <*»o. Two limit-surfaces only
differ in position. Thus the two limit-surfaces which touch the plane
YOZ at O, but have their concavities turned in opposite directions,
have as their equations
w»-x»-y»-z»«(w*x)*.
The ecodesic geometry of a sphere is elliptic, that of a surface of
equal distance is hyperbolic, and that of a limit-surface is parabolic
(i.e. Euclidean). The equation of the surface (cylinder) of equal
distance (8) from the line OX is
(w»-x») tanhW>)-y , -s , -o.
This is not a ruled surface. Hence in this geometry it is not possible
for two straight lines to be at a constant distance from each other.
Secondly, let the equation of the absolute be *r+y*+z*+
w*«o. The absolute is now imaginary and the geometry is
elliptic.
The distance (dn) between the two points (*i, yu d. «,) and
(xi. y». *i, wi) is given by
cos (dahr)- • fc (xiX!+Y0'»+Zi2»+»itt^/|(*i , +yi , +-. , +Wi!)
(x^+tf+sa'+ttf)!* (to).
Thus there are two distances between the points, and if one is <?»,
the other is -ry—dn. Every straight line return* into itself, forming
a closed series. Thus there are two segments between any two
points, together forming the whole line which contains them; one
distance is associated with one segment, and the other distance, with
the other segment. The complete length of every straight line is s~y.
The angle between the two planes /|X+mo>+«i»+riw-d and
/»x+Wjy+«»5+rjW«o is
cosau-(/|/a+Wl«»+»l»l+r^rJ)/l('» , +»l| , +»l S +r, , )
(V+m^W+n 1 )}* ("J.
The polar plane with respect to the absolute of the point (x t , y%,
is the real plane XiX+yiy+SisH-WjW*"©, and the pole of the
/ix+wtiy-r-»*i*+riw-o is the point (/1, nt u *t, r t ). Thus
equations 10 and 11) it follows that the angle between the
planes of the points (xi,...) and (x t ,...) is duly, and that
distance between the poles of the planes (/1,...) and (It,..
yOn. Thus there is complete reciprocity between points 1
in respect to all properties. This complete reign of th<
of duality is one of the great beauties of this geometry. 1
of lines and planes at right angles is simply the theory of
elements with respect to the absolute. A tetrahedron *df
with respect to the absolute has all its intersecting ekmc
and planes) at right angles. If I and f are two conjugau
Planes through one are the planes perpendicular to the other. If
' is the pole of the plane p. the lines through P arc the normals to
the plane p. The distance from P to p is \*y. Thus every sphere
is also a surface of equal distance from the polar of its centre, and
conversely. A plane does not divide space; for the line joining any
two points P and Q only cuts the plane once, in L say. then it »
always possible to go from P to Q by the segment of the line PQ
which docs not contain L. But P andQ may be *aid to be separated
by a plane p, if the point in which PQ cuts p lies on the shortest
segment between P and Q. With this sense of " separation," it is
possible ' to find three points P, Q, R such that P and Q are separated
~ Cf. A. N. Whitehead, Unions** Almabn, Bit vi. (Cambridge.
by the plane p. but P and R are not separated by p, nor are Q
and R-
Let A, B, C be any three non-collincar points, then four triangles
are defined by these points. Thus if a, b, e and A. B, C are the
elements of any one triangle, then the four triangles have as their
elements:
(1) «. *. «. A, B. C.
(2} a. *y-b. wy-c t A. w-li, *-C.
(3) *y-o, 6, *y-c, t-A, n, *—C.
\4) »7~tf, «Tf— &» c, w— A, »— B, C.
The formulae connecting the elements are
sin A/sin (qfy) =» sin B/sin (ply) - sin C/sin (c/y), . (12)
and
cos (a/7) -cos (biy) cos (c/-jr)+sin (6/7) sin (cfy) cos A, (13)
with two simi
Two cases s tgfes
has as its sid< ints,
or (II.) accon here
is said to be a d lie
within a sphei : ipal
triangle is the -fries
in respect to I rise.
The sum of th than
two right ang - T ).
Thus as in h; not
hold, and the hrce
angles are giv , the
form
sin (pfy) sin cos *, sin (p/7) sin $ sin 4, sin (p/7) cos e, cos (p/7),
where p, $ and have the same meanings as in (he corresponding
formulae in hyperbolic geometry. Again, suppose a watch is law!
on the plane OXY. face upwards with its centre at O, and the line
12 to 6 (as marked on dial) along the line YOY. Let the watch be
continually pushed along the plane along the line OX, that is, in
the direction 9 to 3. Then the line XOXbcing of finite length, the
watch will return to O, but at its first return it will be found to be
face downwards on the other side of the plane, with the line 12 to 6
reversed in direction along the line YOY. This peculiarity was first
pointed out by Felix Klein. The theory of parallels as it exist* "in
hyperbolic space has no application in elliptic geometry. But
another property of Euclidean parallel lines holds in elliptic geo-
metry, and by the use of it parallel lines are defined. For the equa-
tion of the surface (cylinder) of equal distance (6) from the line
XOXis
(x»+w») tan »(«/t) - 0"+=') -o.
This is also the surface of equal distance, \ry—6, from the line
conjugate to XOX. Now from the form of the above equation this
is a ruled surface, and through every point of it two generators pass.
But these generators arc lines of equal distance from XOX. Thus
throughout every point of space two lines can be drawn which are
lines of equal distance from a given line /. This property was dis-
covered by W. K. Clifford. The two lines are called Clifford's right
and left parallels to / through the point. This property of naraJM-
ism is reciprocal, so that if m is a left parallel to /, then / is a left
parallel to m. Note also that two parallel lines / and m arc not
copbnar. Many of thos* properties of Euclidean parallels, which do
not bold for Lobatchewsky 's parallels in hyperbolic geometry. d*>
hold for Clifford's parallels in elliptic geometry. The geodesic
geometry of spheres is elliptic, the geodesic geometry of surfaces of
equal distance from lines (cylinders) is Euclidean, and surfaces of
revolution can be found 3 of which the geodesic geometry is hyper-
bolic. But it is to be noticed that the connectivity of these surfaces
is different to that of a Euclidean plane. For instance there are only
«o* congruence transformations of the cylindrical surfaces of equal
distance into themselves, instead of the ao J for the ordinary plane.
It would obviously be possible to state " axioms " which these
geodesies satisfy, and thus to define independently, and not as loci,
quasi-spaces of these peculiar types. The existence of such Euclidean
quasi-gcomctrics was first pointed out by Clifford. 4
In both elliptic and hyperbolic geometry the spherical
geometry, i.e. the relations between the angles formed by Lines
and planes passing through the same point, is the same as the
" spherical trigonometry " in Euclidean geometry. The constant
7, which appears in the formulae both of hyperbolic and elliptic
geometry, does not by its variation produce different types of
geometry. There is only one type of elliptic geometry and one
type of hyperbolic geometry; and the magnitude of the constant
7 in each case simply depends upon the magnitude of the arbitrary
unit of length in comparison with the natural unit of length
»Cf. A. N. Whitehead, loc. cit.
» Cf. A. N. Whitehead, " The Geodesic Geometry of Surfaces in
non-Euclidean Space," Prec. Lond. Math. Soe. vol. xxix.
•Cf. Klein, "Zur nkht-Euklkiischen Geometric" Maik. Aunal.
vaLmnvo.
726
GEOMETRY
IHOK-EUCUDEAM
which each particular instance of either geometry presents.
The existence of a natural unit of length is a peculiarity common
both to hyperbolic and elliptic geometries, and differentiates
them from Euclidean geometry. It is the reason for the failure
of the theory of similarity in them. If 7 is very large, that is,
if the natural unit is very large compared to the arbitrary unit,
and if the lengths involved in the figures considered are not large
compared to the arbitrary unit, then both the elliptic and
hyperbolic geometries approximate to the Euclidean. For from
formulae (4) and (5) and also from (12) and (13) we find, after
retaining only the lowest powers of small quantities, as the
formulae for any triangle ABC,
af sin A -6/ sin B -c/ sin C,
and
a»-4»+e'-2kcosA,
with two similar equations. Thus the geometries of small
figures are in both types Euclidean.
History. — " In pulcherrimo Geometriac corpore," wrote Sir
Henry Savile in 1621, " duo sunt naevi, duae labes nee quod
finery o$ sciam plures, in quibus ehiendis et emaculcndis cum
paraikiM veterum turn rccentiorum . . . vigilavit industria."
*fj"» These two blemishes arc the theory of parallels and
aMMgm the theory of proportion. The " industry of the
moderns," in both respects, has given rise to important branches
of mathematics, while at the same time showing that Euclid
is in these respects more free from blemish than had been
previously credible. It was from endeavours to improve the
theory of parallels that non-Euclidean geometry arose; and
though it has now acquired a far wider scope, its historical
origin remains instructive and interesting. Euclid's " axiom
of parallels " appears as Postulate V. to the first book of his
Elements, and is stated thus, " And that, if a straight line falling
on two straight lines make the angles, internal and on the same
side, less than two right angles, the two straight lines, being
produced indefinitely, meet on the side on which are the
angles less than two right angles." The original Greek is
xal id? «fc duo evtfctas eiticia kurlrrovca rds evrdf *ai irl ri.
aura nipij 7<i>WaT 6i<o bpdwv tXAcaoras rcifj, tx£aXXo/ie>as rds
bvo *Ukial eV bxupop ovurlrTtiv, i<f>' a ykpr\ tioiv at r&v 6uo
hpddv c\a<r<rom.
To Euclid's successors this axiom had signally failed to appear
self-evident, and had failed equally to appear indemonstrable.
Without the use of the postulate its converse is proved in Euclid's
28th proposition, and it was hoped that by further efforts the
postulate itself could be also proved. The first step consisted
in the discovery of equivalent axioms. Christoph Clavius in
1574 deduced the axiom from the assumption that a line whose
points are all equidistant from a straight line is itself straight.
John Wallis in 1663 showed that the postulate follows from the
possibility of similar triangles on different scales. Girolamo
Saccheri (1733) showed that it is sufficient to have a single
triangle, the sum of whose angles is two right angles. Other
equivalent forms may be obtained, but none shows any essential
superiority to Euclid's. Indeed plausibility, which is chiefly
aimed at, becomes a positive demerit where it conceals a real
assumption.
A new method, which, though it failed to lead to the desired
goal, proved in the end immensely fruitful, was invented by
Siwftwl Saccheri, in a work entitled Eudidcs ah omtii nacvo
tindicatus (Milan, 1733). If the postulate of parallels
is involved in Euclid's other assumptions, contradictions must
emerge when it is denied while the others are maintained. This
led Saccheri to attempt a reduciio ad absurdum, in which he
mistakenly believed himself to have succeeded. What is interest-
ing, however, is not his fallacious conclusion, but the non-
Euclidean results which he obtains in the process. Saccheri
distinguishes three hypotheses (corresponding to what arc now
known as Euclidean or parabolic, elliptic and hyperbolic geo-
metry), and proves that some one of the three must be univer
sally true. His three hypotheses arc thus obtained: equal
perpendiculars AC, BD are drawn from a straight line AB.
Mad CD are joined. It is shown that the angles ACD, BDC are
equal. The first hypothesis is that these are both right angles;
the second, that they are both obtuse; and the third, that they
are both acute. Many of the results afterwards obtained by
Lobalchewsky and Bolyai are here developed. Saccheri fails
to be the founder of non-Euclidean geometry only because he
docs not perceive the possible truth of his non-Euclidean hypo-
theses.
Some advance is made by Johann Heinrich Lambert in he
Thcoritdcr Paralldlinicn (written 1766; posthumously published
1786). Though he still believed in the necessary
truth of Euclidean geometry, he confessed that, in
all his attempted proofs, something remained undemonst rated
He deals with the same three hypotheses as Saccheri. showing
that the second holds on a sphere, while the third would bold oa
a sphere of purely imaginary radius. The second hypothesis
he succeeds in condemning, since, like all who preceded Bernhard
Ricmann, he is unable to conceive of the straight line as finite
and closed. But the third hypothesis, which is the same a*
Lobatchewsky's, is not even professedly refuted.*
Non-Euclidean geometry proper begins with Karl Friedricb
Gauss. The advance which he made was rather philosophical
than mathematical: it was he (probably) who first
recognized that the postulate of parallels is possibly
false, and should be empirically tested by measuring
the angles of large triangles. The history of non-
Euclidean geometry has been aptly divided by Felix
Klein into three very distinct periods. The first — which contains
only Gauss, Lobalchewsky and Bolyai — is characterized by its
synthetic method and by its close relation to Euclid. The
attempt at indirect proof of the disputed postulate would seen
to have been the source of these three men's discoveries; but
when the postulate had been denied, they found that the resulti,
so far from showing contradictions, were just as self-consistent
as Euclid. They inferred that the postulate, if true at all, can
only be proved by observations and measurements. Only oat
kind of non-Euclidean space is known to them, namely, that
which is now called hyperbolic. The second period is analytical,
and is characterized by a close relation to the theory of surfaces.
It begins with Ricmann 's inaugural dissertation, which regardi
space as a particular case of a manifold; but the characteristic
standpoint of the period is chiefly emphasized by Eugenio
Beltrami. The conception of measure of curvature is extended
by Ricmann from surfaces to spaces, and a new kind of space,
finite but unbounded (corresponding to the second hypothesis
of Saccheri and Lambert), is shown to be possible. As opposed
to the second period, which is purely metrical, the third period
is essentially projective in its method. It begins with Arthur
Caylcy, who showed that metrical properties are projective
properties relative to a certain fundamental quadric, and that
different geometries arise according as this quadric is real,
imaginary or degenerate. Klein, to whom the development of
Cayley*s work is due, showed further that there are two forms
of Ricmann 's space, called by him the elliptic and the spherical.
Finally, it has been shown by Sophus Lie, that if figures are to be
freely movable throughout all space in 00 « ways, no other
three-dimensional spaces than the above four are possible.
Gauss published nothing on the theory of parallels, and it
was not generally known until after his death that he had
interested himself in that theory from a very early up-
date. In 1709 he announces that Euclidean geometry
would follow from the assumption that a triangle can be draws
greater than any given triangle. Though unwilling to assume
this, we find him in 1804 still hoping to prove the postulate of
parallels. In 1830 he announces his conviction that geometry
is not an a priori science; in the following year he explains that
non-Euclidean geometry is free from contradictions, and that,
in this system, the angles of a triangle diminish without limit
when all the sides are increased. He also gives for the
1 On the theory of parallels before Lohatchewsky, see Stlckd and
Engcl, Theorie aer ParaUdliuien von EukliA bis auj Cuius (Leipzig,
1 895). The foregoing remarks are based upon the materials collected
in this work.
NON-EUCLIDEAN]
circumference of a circle of radius r the formula xk(t?l k —*~l k ),
where k is a constant depending upon the nature of the space. In
1832, in reply to the receipt of Bolyai's Appendix, he gives an
elegant proof that the amount by which the sum of the angles of a
triangle falls short of two right angles is proportional to the area
of the triangle. From these and a few other remarks it appears
that Gauss possessed the foundations of hyperbolic geometry,
which he was probably the first to regard as perhaps true. It
is not known with certainty whether he influenced Lobatchewsky
and Bolyai, but the evidence we possess is against such a view. 1
The first to publish a non-Euclidean geometry was Nicholas
Lobatchewsky, professor of mathematics in the new university
L ^. m of Kazan*' In the place of the disputed postulate
Ofwtky. he puts the following: " All straight lines which, in
a plane, radiate from a given point, can, with respect
to any other straight line in the same plane, be divided into
two classes, the intersecting and the non-intersecting. The
boundary line of the one and the other class is called parallel
to the given line." It follows that there arc two parallels to the
given line through any point, each meeting the line at infinity,
like a Euclidean parallel. (Hence a line has two distinct points
at infinity, and not one only as in ordinary geometry.) The
two parallels to a line through a point make equal acute angles
with the perpendicular to the line through the point. If p be
the length of the perpendicular, cither of these angles is denoted
by U(p). The determination of U(p) is the chief problem <cf.
equation (6) above); it appears finally that, with a suitable
choice of the unit of length,
tan 1 D(p)«e-».
Before obtaining this result it is shown that spherical trigono-
metry is unchanged, and that the normals to a circle or a sphere
still pass through its centre. When the radius of the circle or
sphere becomes infinite all these normals become parallel, but the
circle or sphere does not become a straight line or plane. It
becomes what Lobatchewsky calls a limit-line or limit-surface.
The geometry on such a surface is shown to be Euclidean, limit-
lines replacing Euclidean straight lines. (It is, in fact, a surface
of zero measure of curvature.) By the help of these propositions
Lobatchewsky obtains the above value of U(p), and thence the
solution of triangles. He points out that his formulae result
from those of spherical trigonometry by substituting ia, ib, ic t
for the sides 0, b, c.
John Bolyai, a Hungarian, obtained results closely correspond-
ing to those of Lobatchewsky. These he published in an appendix
to a work by his father, entitled Appendix Scicntiam
spatii absolute veram exhibens: a veritate cut JalsUate
Axiomalis XI. Euctidei (a priori haud unquam decidenda) in-
dependentem: adjecla ad casum falsilalis, auadratura circuit
geometrica.* This work was published in 183 1, but its conception
dates from 1823. It reveals a profounder appreciation of the
importance of the new ideas, but otherwise differs little from
Lobatchewsky 's. Both men point out that Euclidean geometry
as a limiting case of their own more general system, that the
geometry of very small spaces is always approximately Euclidean,
that no a priori grounds exist for a decision, and that observation
can only give an approximate answer. Bolyai gives also, as his
title indicates, a geometrical construction, in hyperbolic space,
for the quadrature of the circle, and shows that the area of the
greatest possible triangle, which has all its sides parallel and all
its angles zero, is in*,where i is what we should now call the
space-constant.
ij
und
also
t
the
"N
Par
Ru<
•*G
Par
Aui
GEOMETRY
727
BofymL
The works of Lobatchewsky and Bolyai, though known and
valued by Gauss, remained obscure and ineffective until,in 1866,
they were translated into French by J. Houcl. But R . ^^
at lhistimcRienmnn'sdisscrtation,tf6ertfiei/yl0/A«cn, mM *^
Vflckc der Geometric zu Grande licgen* w?s already about to be
published. In this work Ricmann, without any knowledge of
his predecessors in the same field, inaugurated a far more profound
discussion, based on a far more general standpoint; and by
its publication in 1S67 the attention of mathematicians and
philosophers was at last secured. (The dissertation dates from
1854, but owing to changes which Ricmann wished to make in it,
it remained unpublished until after his death.)
Ricmann 's work contains two fundamental conceptions, that
of a manifold and that of the measure of curvature of a continuous
manifold possessed of what he calls flatness in the smallest parts*
By means of these conceptions space is made to api>ear
at the end of a gradual scries of more and more specialized JJJ^JJJjJL
conceptions. Conceptions of magnitude, he explains, mo.
are only possible where we have a general conception
capable of determination in various ways. The manifold consists
of all these various determinations, each of which is an clement
of the manifold. The passage from one element to another may
be discrete or continuous; the manifold is called discrete or
continuous accordingly. Where it is discrete two portions of
it can be compared, as to magnitude, by counting; where
continuous, by measurement. But measurement demands
superposition, and consequently some magnitude independent
of its place in the manifold. In passing, in a continuous manifold,
from one element to another in a determinate way, we pass
through a scries of intermediate terms, which form a one-
dimensional manifold. If this whole manifold be similarly
caused to pass over into another, each of its elements passes
through a onc-dimcnsional manifold, and thus on the whole
a two-dimensional manifold is generated. In this way we can
proceed to n dimensions. Conversely, a manifold of n dimensions
can be analysed into one of one dimension and one of (if — 1)
dimensions. By repetitions of this process the position of an
clement may be at last determined by n magnitudes. We may
here stop to observe that the above conception of a manifold
is akin to that due to Hermann Grassmann in the first edition
(1847) of his Ausdeknungslehre. h
Both concepts have been elaborated and superseded by the
modern procedure in respect to the axioms of geometry, and by
the conception of abstract geometry involved therein.
Ricmann proceeds to specialize the manifold by con- o^Jj^
side rat ions as to measurement. If measurement is to
be possible, some magnitude, we saw, must be independent of
position; let us consider manifolds in which lengths of lines are
such magnitudes, so- that every line is measurable by every
other. The coordinates of a point being x x , xt, . . . x», let us con-
fine ourselves to lines along which the ratios dxi'.dxt:. . . :dx m
alter continuously. Let us also assume that the element of
length, ds, is unchanged (to the first order) when all its points
undergo the same infinitesimal motion. Then if all the increments
dx be altered in the same ratio, ds is also altered in this ratio.
Hence <fr is a homogeneous function of the first degree of the
increments dx. Moreover, ds must be unchanged when all the
dx change sign. The simplest possible case is, therefore, that in
which ds is the square root of a quadratic function of the dx.
This case includes space, and is alone considered in what follows.
It is called the case of flatness in the smallest parts. Its further:
discussion depends upon the measure of curvature, the second
of Riemann's fundamental conceptions. This conception, derived
from the theory of surfaces, is applied as follows. Any one of
the shortest lines which issue from a given point (say the origin)
is completely determined by the initial ratios of the dx. Two
such lines, defined by dx and bx say, determine a pencil, or one-
dimensional series, of shortest lines, any one of which is defined
* Abhandlunten d. Konigf. Ges. d. Wiss. *u Gbttinren, Bd. xiii.:
Gts. mth. Werke. pp. 254-269; translated by Clifford, CoiUcUd
CI. Gtsflmm. math, w*4 Vk?t.Wcrwi^.\.<^jfevfefe\V^
728
GEOMETRY ohon-euclideah
by \dx+n&x, where the parameter X : n may have any value.
This pencil generates a two-dimensional scries of points, which
may be regarded as a surface, and for which we may apply
Gauss's formula for the measure of curvature at any point.
Thus atcvery point of our manifold there isamcasurcof curvature
corresponding to every such pencil; but all these can be found
when n.n-i/i of them arc known. If figures arc to be freely
movable, it is necessary and sufficient that the measure of
curvature should be the same for all points and all directions
at each point. Where this is the case, it a be the measure of
curvature, the linear element can be put into the form
ifc-VCZ^/O+laSx 9 ).
If a be positive, space is finite, though still unbounded, and
every straight line is closed — a possibility first recognized by
Riemann. It is pointed out that, since the possible values of
a form a continuous series, observations cannot prove that our
space is strictly Euclidean. It is also regarded as possible that,
in the infinitesimal, the measure of curvature of our space should
be variable.
There are four points in which this profound and epoch-making
work is open to criticism or development— (i) l he idea of a mani-
fold requires more precise determination; (2) the introduction
of coordinates is entirely unexplained and the requisite pre-
suppositions are unanalysed; (3) the assumption that ds is the
square root of a quadratic function of dx u dx,, ... is arbitrary,
(4) the idea of superposition, or congruence, is not adequately
analysed. The modern solution of these difficulties is properly
considered in connexion with the general subject of the axioms
of geometry.
The publication of Riemann 's dissertation was closely followed
by two works of Hermann v6n Hclmholtz, 1 again undertaken
fhi hah* ,n 'Snorance °f lne wor ^ °f predecessors. In these a
m * proof is attempted that ds must be a rational integral
quadratic function of the increments of the coordinates. This
proof has since been shown by Lie to stand in need of correction
(sec VII. Axioms of Geometry). Helmholtz's remaining works
on the subject* are of almost exclusively philosophical interest.
We shall return to them later.
The only other writer of importance in the second period is
Eugcnio Beltrami, by whom Ricmann's work was brought into
connexion with that of Lobatchewsky and Bolyai.
*" As he gave, by an elegant method, a convenient
Euclidean interpretation of hyperbolic plane geometry, his
results will be stated at some length. 3 The Saggio shows that
Lobatchewsky's plane geometry holds in Euclidean geometry
on surfaces of constant negative curvature, straight lines being
replaced by geodesies. Such surfaces are capable of a conformal
representation on a plane, by which geodesies are represented
by straight lines. Hence if we take, as coordinates on the surface,
the Cartesian coordinates of corresponding points on the plane,
the geodesies must have linear equations.
Hence it follows that
ds* - Kho * * l(a* -*)dtf+2wdudv+ (a* -KW.
where u^-o' — a*— t*. and — i/R* is the measure of curvature
of our surface (note that Jfc = *y as used above). The angle between
two geodesies u -const., p = const, is 6, where
costf-iw/V|(o«-««)(o»-^)l,sin^-ow/V|(a«-ii1)(<i*-^|.
Thus «=o is orthogonal to all geodesies »» const., and vice versa.
In order that sin 8 may be real, to* must be positive; thus geo-
desies have no real intersection when the corresponding straight
lines intersect outside the circle k*+v* - a*. When they intersect on
tnis circle, *«o. Thus Lobatchewsky's parallels arc represented
by straight lines intersecting on the circle. Again, transforming
to polar coordinates « — r cosjit vrsinp, and calling p the geodesic
1 Wiss. Abk. vol. ii. pp. 610. 618 (1866, 1868).
' Mind; O.S., vols. i. and Hi.; Vortrdge und Reden, vol. ii. pp. 1,
* His papers are " Saggio di interprctazione della geometria non-
Euclidea," CiornoU di matemalufw., vol. vi. (1868); Teoria fonda-
tnentale degji spazii di curvatura costante," Annali di malematica,
vol. ii. (1868-1869). Both were translated into French by J. Houel,
j1ti*o/es sesenitfqua dc l'£cole Normals suptrieurc, vol. vi. U&69V
NON-EUCLIDEAN] GEOMETRY
4/3 R*; hence, returning to general ana, the same ia the quotient
when the termi of the fourth order in (1) arc divided by th« aquare
of the triangle whose vertices are (o, o... o), fa, s?, s»...s»),
{dt\, rfii, dt%. . .du). But — | of this quotient is defined by Riemann
as the measure of curvature. 1 Hence the measure of curvature is
— i/R", ».#. is constant and negative. The properties of parallels,
triangles. &c., are as in the Saggi*. It is also shown that the ana-
logues of limit surfaces have zero curvature; and that spheres of
radius p have constant positive curvature l/R* sinh* (p/RJ, so that
spherical geometry may be regarded as contained in the pseudo-
spherical (as Beltrami calls Lobatchcwsky's system).
The Saggio, as we saw, gives a Euclidean interpretation
confined to two dimensions. But a consideration of the auxiliary
Tr*B9iUom plane suggests a different interpretation, which may be
»•<&• extended to any number of dimensions. If, instead
***T**?* of referring to the pseudosphere, we merely define
mtibo4 * distance and angle, in the Euclidean plane, as those
functions of the coordinates which gave us distance and angle
on the pseudosphere, we find that the geometry of our plane has
become Lobatchcwsky's. All the points of the limiting circle
are now at infinity, and points beyond it are imaginary. If we
give our circle an imaginary radius the geometry on the plane
becomes elliptic. Replacing the circle by a sphere, we obtain
an analogous representation for three dimensions. Instead of
a circle or sphere we may take any conic or quadric. With this
definition, if the fundamental quadric be 2x<— o, and if 2»'
be the polar form of Sir, the distance p between X and ** is
given by the projective formula
cos(p/*)-Z.,7(3„J. , .1l.
That this formula is projective is rendered evident by observing
that «r*»*7* is the anharmonic ratio of the range consisting of
the two points and the intersections of the line joining them with
the fundamental quadric. With this we are brought to the third
or projective period. The method of this period is due to Cay ley;
its application to previous non-Euclidean geometry is due to
Klein. The projective method contains a generalization of dis-
coveries already made by Lagucrre* in 1853 as regards Euclidean
geometry. The arbitrariness of this procedure of deriving
metrical geometry from the properties of conies is removed by
Lie's theory of congruence. We then arrive at the stage of
thought which finds its expression in the modern treatment of
the axioms of geometry.
The projective method leads to a discrimination, first made
by Klein, 1 of two varieties of Riemann's space; Klein calls
TO, tw* these elliptic and spherical. They are also called the
Umdfi polar and antipodal forms of elliptic space. The latter
•Bestir names will here be used. The difference is strictly
***** analogous to that between the diameters and the points
of a sphere. In the polar form two straight lines in a plane
always intersect in one and only one point; in the antipodal
form they intersect always in two points, which are antipodes.
According to the definition of geometry adopted in section VII.
(Axioms of Geometry), the antipodal form is not to be termed
" geometry," since any pair of coplanar straight lines intersect
each other in two points. It may be called a " quasi-geometry."
Similarly in the antipodal form two diameters always determine
a plane, but two points on a sphere do not determine a great
circle when they are antipodes, and two great circles always
intersect in two points. Again, a plane docs not form a boundary
among lines through a point: we can pass from any one luch
line to any other without passing through the plane. But a great
circle does divide the surface of a sphere. So, in the polar form,
a complete straight line docs not divide a plane, and a plane does
not divide space, and does not, like a Euclidean plane, have two
sides. 4 But, in the antipodal form, a plane is, in these respects,
like a Euclidean plane.
It is explained in section VII. in what sense the metrical
geometry of the material world can be considered to be deter-
minate and not a matter of arbitrary choice. The scientific
1 Beltrami shows also that this definition agrees with that of Gauss.
* " Sur la theorie des foyers," Nov*. Ann. voL xiL
' Math. Annalcn, iv. vi., 1871-1872.
• For an investigation of these and similar properties, see White-
head, Universal Algebra (Cambridge, 1 808), bk. vi. ch. ii. The polar
form was independently discovered by Simon Newcomb in 1877.
729
73°
GEOMETRY
di uniid rettilinee . . . (Padua, 1891, German translation. Leipzig,
1894) ; G. Foment, VHyperespace & (n — /) dimensions (Pan*, 1892) ;
and A. N. Whitehead, toe. tit. Cf. also E. Study. * Ober nkht-
Euklidische und Linkngeooietrie," Jakr. d. Deutsch. Math, Ver.
vol. xv. (1906) ; W. Burnside, " On the Kinematics of non-Euclidean
Space," Proc. Land. Math. Soc. vol. xxvi. (1894). A bibliography
on the subject up to 1878. has been published by G. B. Halstcd.
Amer. Journ. of Math. vols. i. and ii.; and one up to 1900 by R.
Bonola, Index operum ad geometriam absolute* spectaunum . .
(1902, and Leipzig, 1903). (B. A. W. R.; A. N. W.)
VII. Axioms or Geometry
Until the discovery of the non-Euclidean geometries (Lobat-
chewsky, 1826 and 1829; J. Bolyai, 1832; B. Riemann, 1854),
geometry was universally considered as being ex-
clusively the science of existent space. (See section
VI. Non-Euclidean Geometry.) In respect to the
science, as thus conceived, two controversies may be noticed.
First, there is the controversy respecting the absolute and
relational theories of space. According to the absolute theory,
which is the traditional view (held explicitly by Newton), space
has an existence, in some sense whatever it maybe, independent
of the bodies which it contains. The bodies occupy space, and
it is not intrinsically unmeaning to say that any definite body
occupies this part of space, and not that part of space, without
reference to other bodies occupying space. According to the
relational theory of space, of which the chief exponent was
Leibnitz, 1 space is nothing but a certain assemblage of the rela-
tions between the various particular bodies in space. The idea of
space with no bodies in it is absurd. Accordingly there can be
no meaning in saying that a body is here and not there, apart
from a reference to the other bodies in the universe. Thus, on
this theory, absolute motion is intrinsically unmeaning. It is
admitted on all hands that in practice only relative motion is
directly measurable. Newton, however, maintains in the
Principia (scholium to the 8th definition) that it is indirectly
measurable by means of the effects of " centrifugal force " as
it occurs in the phenomena of rotation. This irrelevance of
Absolute motion (if there be such a thing) to science has led to
the general adoption of the relational theory by modern men
of science. But no decisive argument for either view has at
present been elaborated.* Kant's view of space as being a form
of perception at first sight appears to cut across this controversy.
But he, saturated as he was with the spirit of the Newtonian
physics, must (at least in both editions of the Critique) be classed
with the upholders of the absolute theory. The form of per-
ception has a type of existence proper to itself independently
of the particular bodies which it contains. For example he
writes:' " Space does not represent any quality of objects by
themselves, or objects in their relation to one another, i.e. space
does not represent any determination which is inherent in the
objects themselves, and would remain, even if all subjective
conditions of intuition were removed."
The second controversy is that between the view that the
axioms applicable to space are known only from experience,
Axlomt% and the view that in some sense these axioms are
given a priori. Both these views, thus broadly stated,
are capable of various subtle modifications, and a discussion
of them would merge into a general treatise on cpistemology.
The cruder forms of the a priori view have been made quite
untenable by the modern mathematical discoveries. Geometers
now profess ignorance in many respects of the exact axioms
which apply to existent space, and it seems unlikely that a
profound study of the question should thus obliterate a priori
intuitions.
Another question irrelevant to this article, but with some
relevance to the above controversy, is that of the derivation
1 For an analysts of Leibnitz's ideas on space, cf. B. Russell, The
Philosophy of Leibnitt, chs. viti.-x.
* Cf. Hon. Bertrand Russell, " Is Position in Time and Space
Absolute or Relative?" Mind, n.s. vol. 10 (1901). and A N. White-
head, " Mathematical Concepts of the Material World," PhU. Trans.
*Cf. ' Critique of Pure Reason, 1st section: "Of Space," con-
chtoioa A, MmxMWer'e tnjuUdan.
of our perception of existent space from our various types of
sensation. This is a question for psychology. 4
Definition of Abstract Geometry.— Existent space is the subject
matter of only one of the applications of the modem science at
abstract geometry, viewed as a branch of pure mathematics.
Geometry has been defined * as " the study of series of two or more
dimensions." It has also been defined* as " the science of cross
classification." These definitions are founded upon the actual
practice of mathematicians in respect to their use of the tern
" Geometry." Either of them brings out the fact thai geometry
is not a science with a determinate subject matter. It is concerned
with any subject matter to which the formal axioms may apply.
Geometry is not peculiar in this respect. All branches of put
mathematics deal merely with types of relations. Thus the
fundamental ideas of geometry (e.g. those of points and of
straight lines) are not ideas of determinate entities, but of any
entities for which the axioms are true. And a set of formal
geometrical axioms cannot in themselves be true or false, since
they are not determinate propositions, in that they do not refer
to a determinate subject matter. The axioms are proposition*!
functions.' When a set of axioms is given, we can ask (1)
whether they are consistent, (2) whether their "existence
theorem " is proved, (3) whether they are independent. Axiom
are consistent when the contradictory of any axiom cannot be
deduced from the remaining axioms. Their existence theorem
is the proof that they are true when the fundamental ideas are
considered as denoting some determinate subject matter, so
that the axioms are developed into determinate proportions.
It follows from the logical law of contradiction that the proof
of the existence theorem proves also the consistency of the
axioms. This is the only method of proof of consistency. The
axioms of a set arc independent of each other when no axiom
can be deduced from the remaining axioms of the set. The
independence of a given axiom is proved by establishing the
consistency of the remaining axioms of the set, together with the
contradictory of the given axiom. The enumeration of the
axioms is simply the enumeration of the hypotheses* (with
respect to the undetermined subject matter) of which some at
least occur in each of the subsequent propositions.
Any science is called a " geometry " if it investigates the
theory of the classification of a set of entities (the points) into
classes (the straight lines), such that (x) there b one and only
one class which contains any given pair of the entities, and (2)
every such class contains more than two members. In the two
geometries, important from their relevance to existent space,
axioms which secure an order of the points on any line abo
occur. These geometries will be called " Projective Geometry "
and " Descriptive Geometry." In projective geometry any
two straight lines in a plane intersect, and the straight lines
are closed series which return into themselves, like the circum-
ference of a circle. In descriptive geometry two straight hues ia
a plane do not necessarily intersect, and a straight line is an opea
series without beginning or end. Ordinary Euclidean geometry
is a descriptive geometry; it becomes a projective geometry
when the so-called " points at infinity " are added.
Projective Geometry.
Projective geometry may be developed from two undefined
fundamental ideas, namely, that of a " point " and that of s
"straight line." These undetermined ideas take different
specific meanings for the various specific subject matters to
which projective geometry can be applied. The number of the
axioms is always to some extent arbitrary, being dependent
upon the verbal forms of statement which are adopted. They v21
4 Cf. Ernst Mach, Erhenntniss und Irrlum (Leipzig) ; the relevant
chapters are translated by T. J. McCormack, Space and Geometry
(London, 1006) ; also A. Meinong, Ober die SuUung der Gegenstomb-
theorie im System der Wissenschaflen (Leipzig, 1907).
• Cf. Russell. Principles of Mathematics, | 152 (Cambridge. 1903).
• Cf. A. N. Whitehead, The Axioms of Projective Geometry, | J
(Cambridge, 1906).
» Cf. Russell, Princ. of Math., ch. i. _
• Cf. Russell, lac. tit., and G. Frege, M Ober die GnissUacea de?
\ GeuDft&rW' JoJk?csUr.«*r De*isck*Math. Ver. (1906).
axioms) GEOMETRY
be presented 1 here as twelve in number, eight being "axioms
of classification," and four being " axioms of order."
Axioms of Classification. — The eight axioms of classification
are as follows:
i. Points form a class of entities with at least two members.
2. Any straight line is a class of points containing at least
three members.
3. Any two distinct points lie in one and only one straight
line.
4. There is at least one straight line which does not contain
all the points.
5. If A, B, C are non-collinear points, and A' is on the straight
line BC, and B' is on the straight line CA, then the straight lines
A A' and BB' possess a point in common.
Definition. — If A. B, C are any three non-colltnear points, the
plant ABC is the class of points lying on the straight lines joining
A with the various points on the straight line BC.
6. There b at least one plane which does not contain all the
points.
7. There exists a plane a, and a point A not incident in a,
such that any point lies in some straight line which contains
both A and a point in a.
Definition.— Harm. (ABCD) symbolizes the following conjoint
statements: (1) that the points A, B, C, D are collinear, and (2)
that a quadrilateral can be found with one pair of opposite sides
interse ting at A, with the other pair intersecting at C, and with its
diagore Is passing through B and D respectively. Then B and D arc
said to be " harmonic conjugates " with respect to A and C.
8. Harm. (ABCD) implies that B and D are distinct points.
In the above axioms 4 secures at least two dimensions, axiom
5 is the fundamental axiom of the plane, axiom 6 secures at
least three dimensions, and axiom 7 secures at most three
dimensions. From axioms 1-5 it can be proved that any two
distinct points in a straight line determine that line, that any
three non-collinear points in a plane determine that plane, that
the straight line containing any two points in a plane lies wholly
in that plane, and that any two straight lines in a plane intersect.
From axioms 1-6 Desargues's well-known theorem on triangles
in perspective can be proved.
The enunciation of this theorem is as follows: If ABC and
A'B'C ar« two coplanar triangles such that the lines AA', BB\
CC are concurrent, then the three points of intersection of BC and
B'C of CA and CA'. and of AB and A'B' are collinear; and
conversely if the three points of intersection are collinear, the three
lines are concurrent. The proof which can be applied is the usual
projective proof by which a third triangle A'B C' is constructed
not coplanar- with the other two, but in perspective with each
of them.
It has been proved * that Desargues's theorem cannot be deduced
from axioms 1-5, that is, if the geometry be confined to two
dimensions. All the proofs proceed by the method of producing a
specification of " points " and " straight lines " which satisfies
axioms 1-5, and such that Desargues's theorem does not hold.
It follows from axioms 1-5 that Harm. (ABCD) implies Harm.
(ADCB) and Harm. (CBAD). and that, if A, B, C be any three
distinct collinear points, there exists at least one point D such that
Harm. (ABCD). But it requires Desargues's theorem, and hence
axiom 6, to prove that Harm. (ABCD) and Harm. (ABCD') imply
the identity of D and D'.
The necessity for axiom 8 has been proved by G. Fano,* who
has produced a three dimensional geometry of fifteen points,
i.e. a method of cross classification of fifteen entities, in which
each straight line contains three points, and each plane contains
seven straight lines. In this geometry axiom 8 does not hold.
Also from axioms 1-6 and 8 it follows that Harm. (ABCD)
implies Harm. (BCDA).
Definitions. — When two plane figures can be derived from one
another by a single projection, they are said to be in perspective.
When two plane figures can be derived one from the other by a finite
— '"i of perspective relations between intermediate figures, they
73«
1 This formulation— though not in respect to number— is in all
Posi-
mst*
Ceo-
&
732
GEOMETRY
the four points are collinear and D lies in the segment comple-
mentary to the segment ABC. The property of the separation
of pairs of points by pairs of points is projective. Also it can be
proved that Harm. (ABCD) implies that B and D separate
A and C.
Definitions. — A scries of entities arranged in a serial order, open
or closed, is said to be compact, if the scries contains no immediately
consecutive entities, so that in traversing the scries from any one
entity to any other entity it is necessary to pass through entities
distinct from either. It was the merit of R. Dedclcind and of
G. Cantor explicitly to formulate another fundamental property 6f
scries. The Dedclcind property l as applied to an open series can
be defined thus: An open series possesses the Dedekind property,
if, however, it be divided into two mutually exclusive classes « and
v, which (i) contain between them the whole series, and (2) arc
such that every member of u precedes in the serial order every
member of v, there is always a member of the scries, belonging to one
of the two, m or v, which precedes every member of v (other than
itself if it belong to v), ana also succeeds every member of « (other
than itself if it belong to u). Accordingly in an open scries with the
Dedclcind property there is always a member of the series marking
the junction of two classes such as « and v. An' open scries is con-
tinuous if it is compact and possesses the Dedclcind property. a A
closed series can always be transformed into an open scries by taking
any arbitrary member as the first term and by talcing one of the two
ways round as the ascending order of the scries. Thus the definitions
of compactness and of the Dcdekind property can be at once trans-
ferred to a closed scries.
12. The last axiom of order is that there exists at least one
straight Line for which the point order possesses the Dcdekind
property.
It follows from axioms 1-12 by projection that the Dedekind
property is true for all lines. Again the harmonic system A BC,
where A, B, C arc collinear points, is defined* thus: take the
harmonic conjugates A', B', C of each point with respect to
the other two, again take the harmonic conjugates of each of
the six points A, B, C, A', B', C with respect to each pair of the
remaining five, and proceed in this way by an unending scries
of steps. The set of points thus obtained is called the harmonic
system ABC. It can be proved that a harmonic system is
compact, and that every segment of the line containing it
possesses members of it. Furthermore, it is easy to prove that
the fundamental theorem holds for harmonic systems, in the
sense that, if A, B, C are three points on a line /, and A', B', C
are three points on a Une /', and if by any two distinct series
of projections A, B, C are projected into A', B-, C, then any point
of the harmonic system ABC corresponds to the same point of
the harmonic system A'B'C according to both the projective
relations which are thus established between / and t. It now
follows immediately that the fundamental theorem must hold for
all the points on the lines / and f, since (as has been pointed out)
harmonic systems are " everywhere dense " on their containing
lines. Thus the fundamental theorem follows from the axioms
of order.
A system of numerical coordinates can now be introduced,
possessing the property that linear equations represent planes
and straight lines. The outline of the argument by which this
remarkable problem (in that " distance " is as yet undefined) is
solved, will now be given. It is first proved that the points on
any line can in a certain way be definitely associated with all
the positive and negative real numbers, so as to form with them
a one-one correspondence. The arbitrary elements in the
establishment of this relation arc the points on the line associated
with o, 1 and qo .
This association* is most easily effected by considering a
class of projective relations of the line with itself, called by
F. Scbur {loc. cit.) pros peel ivit'us.
Let / (fig. 69) be the given line, m and n any two tines intersecting
at UonCS and S' two points on n. Then a projective relation
between / and itself is formed by projecting / from S on to m, and
then by projecting m from S' back on to /. All such projective
1 Cf. Dedekind, StetigMt und irralionale Zahlen (1872).
■ Cf. v. Staudt. Geometrie der Lane (1847).
1 Cf. Pasch. VorUsunten uber neuere Geometrie (Leipzig, 1882), a
classic work; also Fiedler, Die darstetlende Gtometrie (1st ed., 1871,
?rd cd., 1888); Clebsch, Vortesungen Uber Geometrie, vol. in.;
filbert, loc. cit.; F. Schur, Matk. Ann. Bd. lv. (1902); Vahleo,
loc. cit. ; Whitehead, loc. tit.
(AXIOMS
mried, are called " prospec-
he prospectivity. It a point
ity, then all prospectivities.
applying the prospectivky
*ct!vity (OBlty. Such a
nds have the same double
double point. .
an be proved that prosper -
tisfy all the axioms of roaf •
Dciated in a one-one eorrc-
itive real numbers. Let E
from O and U. Then the
th unity, the prospectivity
FiC 71.
respect to O and U, the prospec-
tivity (OPW is associated with
the corresponding negative number. L
(The subjoined figure explains this
relation of the positive and nega-
tive prospectivities.) Then any
point P on / is associated with the same number as b the prospec-
tivity (OPU»).
It can be proved that the order of the numbers in algebraic order
of magnitude agrees with the order on the line of the associated
points. Let the numbers, assigned according to the preceding
specification, be said to be associated with the points according to
the " numeration-system (OEU)." The introduction of a coordinate
system for a plane is now managed
as follows: Take any triangle OUV
in the plane, and on the fines OU
and OV establish the numeration
systems (OEjU) and (OE,V), where
Ei and Et are arbitrarily chosen.
Then (cf. fig. 71) if M and N are
associated with the numbers x and ,
y according to these systems, the
coordinates of P are x and y. It then
follows that the equation of a straight
line is of the form ox+fry+c-o. Both coordinates of any point oa
the Une UV are infinite. This can be avoided by introducing
homogeneous coordinates X, Y, Z, where x-X/Z, and y* Y/2, and
Z*ou the equation of UV.
The procedure for three dimensions is similar. Let OUVW
(fig. 72) be any tetrahedron, and associate points on OU, OV, OW
with numbers according to the numera-
tion systems (OE,U), (OE.V). and
(OE.W). Let the planes VWP. WUP,
UVP cut OU, OV. OW in L, M, N respec-
tively; and let x, y, z be the numbers
associated with L, M, N respectively. o4
Then P is the point (*• y. *). Also
homogeneous coordinates con be In-
troduced as before, thus avoiding the
infinities on the plane UVW.
The cross ratio of a range of four _
collinear points can now be defined ric.72.
as a number characteristic of that range. Let the coordinates of any
point P, of the range Pi Pi Pi P« be
X^+^+o* Kb^rf \c+*c* (fm . 9 x A \
and let (Xrf*J be written for Vr^ Then the cross ratio
JPi Pi P. P«| is defined to be the number (XiM>(Xs««)/(*tfu)(**f);
The equality of the cross ratios of the ranges (Pi P^i r» PO.and
(Qi Qi Q» Qa) is proved to be the necessary and sufficient condition
for their mutual projectivity. The cross ratios of au harmonic
ranges are then easily seen to be all equal to - I. by comparing with
the range (OEiUE'i) on the axis of x. . .
Thus all the ordinary propositions of geometry in which distance
and angular measure do not enter otherwise than in cross ratios
can now be enunciated and proved. Accordingly the greater part at
the analytical theory of conies and quadrics belongs to geometry
AXIOMS]
at this stage The theory of distance will be considered after the
principles of descriptive geometry have been developed*
Descriptive Geometry.
Descriptive geometry is essentially the science of multiple
order for open series. The first satisfactory system of axioms
was given by M. Pasch. 1 An improved version is due to G.
Peano.' Both these authors treat the idea of the class of points
constituting the segment lying between two points as an undefined
fundamental idea. Thus in fact there are in this system two
fundamental ideas, namely, of points and of segments. It is
then easy enough to define the prolongations of the segments,
so as to form the complete straight lines. D. HilbertV formula-
tion of the axioms is in this respect practically based on the same
fundamental ideas. His work is justly famous for some of the
mathematical investigations contained in it, but his exposition of
the axioms is distinctly inferior to that of Peano. Descriptive
geometry can also be considered 4 as the science of a class of
relations, each relation being a two-termed serial relation, as
considered in the logic of relations, ranging the points between
which it holds into a linear open order. Thus the relations are
the straight lines, and the terms between which they hold arc
the points. But a combination of these two points of view
yields * the simplest statement of all. Descriptive geometry is
then conceived as the investigation of an undefined fundamental
relation between three terms (points); and when the relation
holds between three points A, B, C, the points are said to be M in
the [linear) order ABC."
O. Veblen's axioms and definitions, slightly modified, are as
follows: —
i. If the points A, B, C are in the order ABC, they are in the
order CBA.
i. If the points A, B, C are in the order ABC, they are not
in the order BCA.
3. If the points A, B, C are in the order ABC, A is distinct
from C.
4. If A and B are any two distinct points, there exists a point
C such that A, B, C are in the order ABC.
Definition.— The line AB (A *B) consists of A and B, and of all
points X in one of the possible orders, ABX. AXB. XAB. The
points X in the order AXB constitute the segment AB.
5. If points C and D (OD) lie on the line AB, then A lies on
the line CD.
6. There exist three distinct points A, B, C not in any of the
orde.s ABC, BCA, CAB.
7. If three distinct points A, B, C (fig. 73) do not lie on the
same line, and D and £ are two distinct points in the ordcis
BCD and CEA, then a point F exists
in the order AFB, and such that
D, E, F are collinear.
Definition— U A, B, C are three
non-collinear points, the plane ABC
is the claw* of points which lie on any
_^ one of the lines joining any two of the
o points belonging to the boundary of
p. r _. the triangle ABC, the boundary being
PIG - ' 3 * formed by the segments BC. CA arid
AB. The interior of the triangle ABC is formed by the points in
segments such as PQ. where P and Q are points respectively on
two of the segments BC, CA, AB.
8. There exists a plane ABC, which does not contain all the
points.
Definition.— Tf A, B, C, D are four non-coplanar points, the space
A BCD is the class of points which lie on any of the lines containing
two points on the surface of the tetrahedron A BCD, the surface
being formed by the interiors of the triangles ABC, BCD, DC A,
DAB.
9. There exists a space ABCD which contains all the points.
x CI. he. cit.
c Cf. / Princifni di geometria (Turin, 1889) and " Sui fondamenti
delta geometria, ' Rnrista di mat. vol. iv. (1894).
> Ci. he. €it.
4 Cf. Vailati, Rivista di mat. vol. iv. and Russell, toe. cit. § 376.
•Cf. O. Veblen, "On the Projective Axioms of Geometry ,"
Trans. Amer. Math. Soe. vol. iii. (190a).
GEOMETRY
733
10. The Dedckind property holds for the order of the points
on any straight line.
It follows from axioms 1-0 that the points on any straight line
are arranged in an open serial order. Also all the ordinary
theorems respecting a point dividing a straight line into two
parts, a straight line dividing a plane into two parts, and a plana
dividing space into two parts, follow.
Again, in any plane a consider a line I and a point A (fig. 74).
Let any point B divide I into two half -lines /. and 1%. Then it can
be proved that the set of half-lines, emanating from A and inter-
secting A (such as m), are bounded by two hall-lines, of which ABC
is one. Let r be the other. Then it can be proved that r does not
intersect l\. Similarly for the half-line,
such as a, intersecting 1%. Let s be its
bounding half-line. Then two cases are
possible, (t) The half-lines r and s are
collinear, and together form one com-
plete line. In this case, there is one and
only one line (via. r-f-j) through A and
lying in a which does not intersect /.
This is the Euclidean case, and the
assumption that this case holds is the
Euclidean parallel axiom. But (2) the
half-lines r and s may not be collinear. Fie. 74,
In this case there will be an infinite
number of lines, such as k for instance, containing A and lying in «.
which do not intersect /. Then the lines through A in a are divided
into two classes by reference to /, namely, the secant lines which
intersect L and the non-secant lines which do not intersect /. The
two boundary non-secant lines, of which r and s are respectively
halves, may be called the two parallels to / through A.
The perception of the possibility of case 2 constituted the starting-
point trom which Lobatchewsky constructed the first explicit
coherent theory of non-Euclidean geometry, and thus created^ a
revolution in the philosophy of the subject. For many centuries
the speculations of mathematicians on the foundations of geometry
were almost confined to hopeless attempts to prove the parallel
axiom " without the introduction of some equivalent axiom.*
Associated Project he and Descriptive Spaces, — A region of a
projective space, such that one, and only one, of the two supple-
mentary segments between any pair of points within it lies
entirely within it, satisfies the above axioms (1-10) of descriptive
geometry, where the points of the region are the descriptive,
points, and the portions of straight lines within the region are
the descriptive lines. If the excluded part of the original pro-
jective space is a single plane, the Euclidean parallel axiom also
holds, otherwise it does not hold for the descriptive space of the
limited region. Again, conversely, starting from an original
descriptive space an associated projective space can be con-
structed by means of the concept of ideal points. 1 These are also
called projective points, where it is understood that the simple
points are the points of the original descriptive space. An
ideal point fs the class of straight lines which is composed of two
coplanar fines a and b, together with the lines of intersection of
all pairs of intersecting planes which respectively contain a and a,
together with the lines of intersection with the plane ab of all
planes containing any one of the lines (other than a or b) already
specified as belonging to the ideal point. It is evident that, if
the two original lines a and b intersect, the corresponding ideal
point is nothing else than the whole class of lines which are
concurrent at the point ab. But the essence of the definition is
that an ideal point has an existence when the lines a and b do
not intersect, so long as they are coplanar. An ideal point b
termed proper, if the lines composing it intersect; otherwise it
is improper.
A theorem essential to the whole theory is the following: if
any two of the three lines a, b, c are coplanar, but the three lines
are not all coplanar, and similarly for the lines a, b, d, then e
and d are coplanar. It follows that any two lines belonging to an
ideal point can be used as the pair of guiding lines in the definition.*
An ideal point is said to be coherent with a plane, if any of the
lines composing it lie in' the plane. An ideal line is the class of
ideal points each of which is coherent with two given planes.
•Cf. P. Stackel and F. BngeL Die Tkeorie der Parattellinien ton
Euklid bis auf Gauss (Leipzig, 1895).
7 Cf Pasch, he. cit., and R. Bonola, " Sulla introduzione degfi
cnti improprii in geometria projettive," Ciorn. di mat, vol. xxxvui.
(1000) ; and Whitehead, Axioms of Descriptive Geometry (Cambridge,
1907).
73+
GEOMETRY
(AXIOMS
If I he planes intersect, the ideal line is termed proper, otherwise
it is improper. It can be proved that any two planes, with which
any two of the ideal points are both coherent, will serve as the
guiding planes used in the definition. The ideal planes are
defined as in projective geometry, and all the other definitions
(for segments, order, &c.) of projective geometry are applied
to the ideal elements. If an ideal plane contains some proper
ideal points, it is called proper, otherwise it is improper. Every
ideal plane contains some improper ideal points.
It can now be proved that all the axioms of projective geometry
bold of the ideal elements as thus obtained; and also that the
order of the ideal points as obtained by the projective method
agrees with the order of the proper ideal points as obtained from
that of the associated points of the descriptive geometry. Thus
a projective space has been constructed out of the ideal elements,
and the proper ideal elements correspond clement by element with
the associated descriptive elements. Thus the proper ideal
elements form a region in the projective space within which the
descriptive axioms hold. Accordingly, by substituting ideal
elements, a descriptive space can always be considered as a
region within a projective space. This is the justification for the
ordinary use of the " points at infinity " in the ordinary Euclidean
geometry; the reasoning has been transferred from the original
descriptive space to the associated projective space of ideal
elements; and with the Euclidean parallel axiom the improper
ideal elements reduce to the ideal points on a single improper ideal
plane, namely, the plane at infinity. 1
Congruence and Measurement. — The property of physical space
which is expressed by the term " measurability " has now to be
considered. This property has often been considered as essential
to the very idea of space. For example, Kant writes, 1 " Space
is represented as an infinite given quantity." This quantitative
aspect of space arises from the measurability of distances, of
angles, of surfaces and of volumes. These four types of quantity
depend upon the two first among them as fundamental. The
measurability of space is essentially connected with the idea of
congruence, of which the simplest examples are to be found in
the proofs of equality by the method of superposition, as used
in elementary plane geometry. The mere concepts of " part "
and of " whole " must of necessity be inadequate as the founda-
tion of measurement, since we require the comparison as to
quantity of regions of space which have no portions in common.
The idea of congruence, as exemplified by the method of super-
position in geometrical reasoning, appears to be founded upon
that of the " rigid body," which moves from one position to
another with its internal spatial relations unchanged. But unless
there is a previous concept of the metrical relations between the
parts of the body, there can be no basis from which to deduce
that they are unchanged.
It would therefore appear as if the idea of the congruence, or
metrical equality, of two portions of space (as empirically sug-
gested by the motion of rigid bodies) must be considered as a
fundamental idea incapable of definition in terms of those
geometrical concepts which have already been enumerated.
This was in effect the point of view of Pasch.' It has, however,
been proved by Sophus Lie 4 that congruence is capable of
definition without recourse to a new fundamental idea. This
he docs by means of his theory of finite continuous groups (see
Croups, Theory of), of which the definition is possible in terms
of our established geometrical ideas, remembering thai co-
ordinates have already been introduced. The displacement
of a rigid body is simply a mode of defining to the senses a one-
one transformation of all space into itself. For at any point of
space a particle may be conceived to be placed, and to be rigidly
connected with the rigid body; and thus there is a definite
correspondence of any point of space with the new point occupied
by the associated particle after displacement. Again two suc-
1 The original idea (confined to this particular case) of ideal
points is due to von Staudt (loc. cit.).
*Cf. Critique, " Trans. Acsth." Sect. I.
•a. tec. cit.
*Cf. Ober die Crmwdiagen dtr Geometric (Leiptig. B*r. t 1890);
•ndrAcoruder rroms/ormotiowgruppen (Leipzig, 1894), vol. ui.
cessive displacements of a rigid body from position A to position
B, and from position B to position C, are the same in effect as one
displacement from A to C. But this is the characteristic " group 1 *
property. Thus the transformations of space into itself defined
by displacements of rigid bodies form a group.
Call this group of transformations a congruence-group. Now
according to Lie a congruence-group is defined by the following
characteristics; —
1. A congruenco-group is a finite continuous group of one-one
transformations, containing the identical transformation.
2. It is a sub-group of the general projective group, i.e. of
the group of which any transformation converts planes into
planes, and straight lines into straight lines.
3. An infinitesimal transformation can always be found satis*
fying the condition that, at least throughout a certain enclosed
region, any definite line and any definite point on the line are
latent, s.*. correspond to themselves.
4. No infinitesimal transformation of the group exists, such
that, at least in the region for which (3) holds, a straight line,
a point on it, and a plane through it, shall all be latent.
The property enunciated by conditions (3) and (4), taken
together, is named by Lie " Free mobility in the infinitesimal."
Lie proves the following theorems for a projective space: —
1. If the above four conditions arc only satisfied by a group
throughout part of projective space, this |>art cither (a) must be the
region enclosed by a real closed quadric, or (0) must be the whole of
the projective space with the exception of a single plane. In case
(a) the corresponding congruence group is the continuous group for
which the enclosing quadric is Latent ; and in case (0) an intagiaary.
conic (with a real equation) lying in the latent plane is also latent,
and the congruence group is the continuous group for which the
plane and conic arc latent.
2. If the above four conditions arc satisfied by a group throughout
the whole of projective space, the congruence group is the continuous
group for which some imaginary quadric (with a real equation) is
latent.
By a proper choice of non-homogeneous co-ordinates the equation
of any quaorics of the types considered, either in theorem t (a), or in
theorem 2, can be written in the form 1 +c(x , -f-y , +a*) -o. where < is
negative for a real closed quadric, and positive for an imaginary
quadric. Then the general infinitesimal transformation U defined
by the three equations:
e^/<ft»«--iy+*V+c*(itt+?y-H«), )
dvfdt -»-»i+v-Ky(i"t+»y+iw), f (A)
<M*-*»--«sx+«,y+es(iijr+»y+t«). )
In the case considered in theorem 1 (0), with the proper choice of
co-ordinates the three equations defining the general infinitesimal
transformation are:
dy/<tt-» — i=+«»r.f (B)
d*Jdt-w-*tx+«iy. )
In this case the latent plane is the plane for which at least one of
x, y, t arc infinite, that is, the plane oji +0.7+0^+0—0: and the
latent conic is the conic in which the cone x*+y a +x t -o intersects
the latent plane. .
It follows from theorems t and t that there is not one unique
congruence-group, but an indefinite number of them. There is
one congruence-group corresponding to each closed real quadric,
one to each imaginary quadric with a real equation, and one to
each imaginary conic in a real plane and with a real equation.
The quadric thus associated with each congruence-group is
called the absolute for that group, and in the degenerate case
of 1 03) the absolute is the latent plane together with (he latent
imaginary conic. If the absolute is real, the congruence-group
is Hyperbolic; if imaginary, it is elliptic, if the absolute is a
plane and imaginary conic, the group is parabolic. Metrical
geometry is simply the theory of the properties of sorne particular
congruence-group selected for study.
The definition of distance is connected with the correspondiBC
congruence-group by two considerations in respect to a ranee of live
points (Ai, At. Pi, Pt. Pi), of which Ai and A« are on the absolute.
Let |A|PiA f Pt| stand for the cross ratio (as defined above) of the
range (AiPiAiPj), with a similar notation for the other ranges.
(i) Cfl loglAiP,A,P,l + log|A,P»A,Pa| - log|A,P» A.PJ.
and
(2), if the points Ai, A f , P ( , P t are transformed into A'i, A\, Pi. PS
by any transformation of the congruence-group, (a) |A,PiA|P»l-
IA\F|A'«PM , since the transformation is projective, and id) A',. A' t
L lit on tat ttovtate vsr* Kt«nd A* arc 00 m Thus if wc define
AXIOMS)
GEOMETRY
735
Thus the only metrical geometry for the whole of projective
space is of the elliptic type. But the actual measure-relations
(though not their general properties) differ according to the
elliptic congruence-group selected for study. In a descriptive
■pace a congruence-group should possess the four characteristics
of such a group throughout the whole of the space. Then form
the associated ideal projective space. The associated congruence-
group for this ideal space must satisfy the four conditions
throughout the region of the proper ideal points. Thus the
boundary of this region is the absolute. Accordingly there can
be no metrical geometry for the whole of a descriptive space
unless its boundary (in the associated ideal space) is a closed
quadric or a plane. If the boundary is a closed quadric, there
is one possible congruence-group of the hyperbolic type. If
the boundary is a plane (the plane at infinity), the possible
congruence -groups are parabolic; and there is a congruence-
group corresponding to each imaginary conic in this plane,
together with a Euclidean metrical geometry corresponding to
each such group. Owing to these alternative possibilities, it
would appear to be more accurate to say that systems of quantities
can be found in a space, rather than that space is a quantity.
Lie has also deduced 1 the jame results with respect to con-
gruence-groups from another set of denning properties, which
explicitly assume the existence of a quantitative relation (the
distance) between any two points, which is invariant for any
transformation of the congruence-group.'
The above results, in respect to congruence and metrical
geometry, considered in relation to existent space, have led to the
doctrine' that it is intrinsically unmeaning to ask which system
of metrical geometry is true of the physical world. Any one of
these systems can be applied, and in an indefinite number of ways.
The only question before us is one of convenience in respect to
simplicity of statement of the physical laws. This point of view
seems to neglect the consideration that science is to be relevant
to the definite perceiving minds of men; and that (neglecting
the ambiguity introduced by the invariable slight inexactness
of observation which is not relevant to this special doctrine)
1 Cf. A. Cayley, " A Sixth Memoir on Qua n tics," Trans. Roy. Soc.,
1859, and Cell. Papers, vol iL; and F. Klein, Math. Ann. vol. iv.,
1871.
'Cf.J0t.ffl.
* For similar deductions from a third set of axioms, suggested in
ewence by Pcano, Riv. mat. vol. iv. Ice. cit. cf. Whitehead, Desc.
Ceom. loc. eil.
• Cf. H. Poincarc, La Scum* §t Fkypothku, ch. iii.
we have, In fact, presented to our tenses a definite set of trans*
formations forming a congruence-group, resulting in a set of
measure relations which are In no respect arbitrary. Accordingly
our scientific laws are to be stated relevantly to that particular
congruence-group. Thus the investigation of the type (elliptic,
hyperbolic or parabolic) of this special congruence-group is a
perfectly definite problem, to be decided by experiment. The
consideration of experiments adapted to this object requires some
development of non-Euclidean geometry (see section VI.,
Non-Euclidean Geometry). But if the doctrine means that,
assuming some sort of objective reality for the material universe,
beings can be imagined, to whom either all congruence-groups
are equally important,*? some other congruence-group is specially
important, the doctrine appears to be an immediate deduction
from the mathematical facts. Assuming a definite congruence-
group, the investigation of surfaces (or three-dimensional tad
in space of four dimensions) with geodesic geometries of the form
of metrical geometries of other types of congruence-groups forms
an important chapter of non-Euclidean geometry. Arising
from this investigation there is a widely-spread fallacy, which
has found its way into many philosophic writings, namely, that
the possibility of the geometry of existent three-dimensional
space being other than Euclidean depends on the physical
existence of Euclidean space of four or more dimensions. The
foregoing exposition shows the baselessness of this idea.
Bibliography.— For an account of the investigations on the
axioms of geometry during the Greek period, see M. Cantor, Vor-
lesungen wber die Cesehichte der Mathematik, Bd. i. and iii. ; T. L.
Heath, The Thirteen Books of Euclid: s Elements, a New Translation
front the Creek, with Introductory Essays and Commentary. Historical.
Critical, and Explanatory (Cambridge, 1008) — this work is the standard
source of information; W. B. Franldand, Euclid, Booh /., with a
Commentary (Cambridge, 1905)— the commentary contains copious
extracts from the ancient commentators. The next period of really,
substantive importance is that of the 18th century. The leading
authors arc: G. Saccheri, S.J., Euclides ab omni naevo vindicatus
(Milan, 1733). Saccheri was an Italian Jesuit who unconsciously
discovered non-Euclidean geometry in the course of his efforts to
?rove its impossibility, f. H. Lambert, Theorie der Parallellinien
1 766) ; A. M. Lcgendre, EUments de giomitrie ( 1 794). An adequate
account of the above authors is given by P. St&ckcl and F. Engel,
Die Theorie der Parallellinien von Euktid bis auf Gauss (Leipzig,
1895). The next period of time (roughly from 1800 to 1 870) contains
two streams of thought, both of which are essential to the modern
analysis of the subject. The first stream is that which produced the
discovery and investigation of non-Euclidean geometries, the second
stream is that which has produced the geometry of position, com-
prising both projective and descriptive geometry not very accurately
discriminated. The leading authors on non-Euclidean geometry
are K. F. Gauss, in private letters to Schumacher, cf. Stackel and
Engel, loc. cit. ; N. Lobatchcwsky, rector of the university of Kazan,
to whom the honour of the effective discovery of non-Euclidean
geometry must be assigned. His first publication was at Kazan
in 1826. His various memoirs have been re-edited by Engel)
cf. Vrkunden tur Geschickte der nichteuhlidiscken Geometric by
Stackel and Engel, vol. i. " Lohatchewsky." J. Bolyai discovered
non-Euclidean geometry apparently in independence of Lobat*
chewsky. His memoir was published in 183 1 as an appendix to a
work by his father W. Bolyai, Tentamen juventutem. . . . This
memoir has been separately edited by J. Friach&ul, Absolute Geomctrie
nach J. Bolyai (Leipzig, 1872); B. Rtemann, Vber die Ilypolhesen,
vfdche der Geometric tu Grunde-liegen (1854); cf. Gesamie Werke, a
translation in The Collected Papers of W. K. Clifford. This is a
fundamental memoir on the subject and must rank with the work of
Lobatchcwsky. Ricmann discovered elliptic metrical geometry,
ind Lobatchcwsky hyperbolic geometry. A full account of Rie-
rnann's ideas, with the subsequent developments due to Cl'ffcrd,
P. Klein and W. Killing, will be found in The Boston Colloquium for
root (New York, 1905), article " Forms of Non-Euclidean Space,"
iy F. S. Woods. A. Cayley, loc. cit. (1859), and F. Klein. " Ober die
togenanntc nichteuklidiscnc Geometric, Math. Annal. vols. iv.
ind vi. (1871 and 1872), between them elaborated the projective
theory of distance; H. Helmholts, " Uber die thatsachUchesj
5rundlagen der Geometric" (1866), and " Ober die Thatsachen. die
ier Geometric zu Grundeliegen" (1868), both in his Wisscnschofltiche
Abhandlungen, vol. ii., and S. Lie, loc. cit. (1890 and 1893), between
them elaborated the group theory of congruence.
The numberless works which have been written to suggest equi-
valent alternatives to Euclid's parallel axioms may be neglected as
aeing of trivial importance, though many of them are marvels of
geometric ingenuity.
The second stream of thought confined itself within the circle of
deas of Euclidean tpKuetrj. \\.\ w\\ycv iu w^i *»* ^ v
736
GEOPONICI— GEORGE, SAINT
>r example. G. Monge.
Traili ies propneics
Apercu kistorique sur
tfrMf(BruxcHc*.i837),
t); and many others.
>f decisive influence on
to the foundations of
ks. Geometric dcr Lagc
f Act Lage (NQrnbcrg,
ecessful production of
solution of problems
thousand years. The
ial continuity is due to
en (1872), and to G.
lUigkextsUhrc (Leipzig,
ted by M. Pasch. loc.
Russell; Principles of
croncsc in his treatise,
i transl. by A. Schepp,
of the leading memoirs
n the text ; in addition
principii di gcometria
. Sci. (Turin, 1905);
rf Geometry," Trans.
. H. Bussey, "Finite
k. Sec., 1905; A. B.
cal Theory of Classes
oc. Lend. Math. Soc.,
riples oi Logic to the
:r. Math. Soc., 190$;
project iven Geometne
estimmung," Deutsche
the above investiga-
outurat, Les Principes
arc. loc. cit.i Russell
nbridge, Univ. Press).
1 geometric truth de-
Hume, Kant and J. S.
Mill. (A.N.W.)
GEOPONICI, 1 or Scriptorcs rei ruslicae, the Greek and Roman
writers on husbandry and agriculture. On the whole the Greeks
paid less attention than the Romans to the scientific study of
these subjects, which in classical times they regarded as a branch
of economics. Thus Xenophon's Occonomicta (see also Memo-
rabilia, ii. 4) contains a eulogy of agriculture and its beneficial
ethical effects, and much information is to be found in the writings
of Aristotle and his pupil Theophrastus. About the same time
as Xcnopbon, the philosopher Democritus of Abdera wrote a
treatise Utpl Tttapylas, frequently quoted and much used by
the later compilers of Ccoponica (agricultural treatises). Greater
attention was given to the subject in the Alexandrian period;
a long list of names is given by Varro and Columella, amongst
them Hiero II. and Attalus III. Philometor. Later, Cassius
Dionysius of Utica translated and abridged the great work of
the Carthaginian Mago, which was still further condensed by
Diophanes of Nkaea in Bithynia for the use of King Dcfotarus.
From these and similar works Cassianus Bassus (q.v.) compiled
his Ccoponica. Mention may also be made of a little work
Utpl Ttwpytiuoy by Michael Psellus (printed in Boissonadc,
A need oia Gracca, i).
The Romans, aware of the necessity of maintaining a numerous
and thriving order of agriculturists, from very early times
endeavoured to instil into their countrymen both a theoretical
and a practical knowledge of the subject. The occupation of
the farmer was regarded as next in importance to that of the
soldier, and distinguished Romans did not disdain to practise
it. In furtherance of this object, the great work of Mago was
translated into Latin by order of the senate, and the elder Cato
wrote his Dc agri cullura (extant in a very corrupt state), a
simple record in homely language of the rules observed by the old
Roman landed proprietors rather than a theoretical treatise.
He was followed by the twoSasernae (father and son) and Gnaeus
Trcmellius Scrofa, whose works are lost. The learned Marcus
Terentius Varro of Reate, when eighty years of age, composed
his Rerum rusticarum, libri ires, dealing with agriculture, the
'The latinized form of a non-existent Tmmtm*l* used (or
rearing of cattle, and the breeding of fishes. He' was the first 10
systematize what had been written on the subject, and supple-
mented the labours of others by practical experience gained
during his travels. In the Augustan age Julius Hyginus wrote
on farming and bee-keeping, Sabinus Tiro on horticulture, and
during the early empire Julius Graecinus and Julius Atticus on
Lhc culture of vines, and Cornelius Cclsus (best known for h:s
De medicima) on farming. The chief work of the kind, however,
is that of Lucius Junius Moderatus Columella (<?»). About lhc
middle of the 2nd century the two Quintilii, natives of Troji.
wrote on the subject in Greek. It is remarkable that Columella
work exercised less influence in Rome and Italy than in southern
Gaul and Spain, where agriculture became one of the principal
subjects of instruction in the superior educational establish menu
that were springing up in those countries. One result of this *a»
lhc preparation of manuals of a popular kind for use in the schools.
In the 3rd century Gargilius Martialis of Mauretania compiled
a Ccoponica in which medical botany and the veterinary art
were included. The Dc re ruslica of Palladius (4th century), in
fourteen books, which is almost entirely borrowed from Columella,
is greatly inferior in style and knowledge of the subject. It b a
kind of farmer's calendar, in which the different rural occupations
are arranged in order of the months. The fourteenth book
(on forestry) is written in elegiacs (85 distichs). The whole of
Palladius and considerable fragments of Martialis are extant.
The best edition of the Scriptorcs rei ruslicae is by J. G. Schneider
(1794-1797), and the whole subject is exhaustively treated by
A. Magerstcdt, Bilder aus dcr rdmischen Landvirtsckaft (185&-
1863); see also Teuffel-Schwabe, Hist, of Roman Literature, 54;
C. F. Bahr in Ersch and Grubcr's AUgcmeme Encyklopddic.
GEORGE, SAINT (d. 303), the patron saint of England, Aragoa
and Portugal. According to the legend' given by Metaphraste*
the Byzantine hagiologist, and substantially repealed in the
Roman Acta sanctorum and in the Spanish breviary, he was born
In Cappadocia of noble Christian parents, from whom he receded
a careful religious training. Other accounts place his birtb at
Lydda, but preserve his Cappadocian parentage. Having em-
braced the profession of a soldier, he rapidly rose under Dio-
cletian to high military rank. In Persian Armenia he organized
and energized the Christian community at Urmi (Urumiab),
and even visited Britain on an imperial expedition. When
Diocletian bad begun to manifest a pronounced hostility towards
Christianity, George sought a personal interview with him, ia
which he made deliberate profession of his faith, and, earnestly
remonstrating against the persecution which had begun, resigned
his commission. He was immediately laid under arrest, and
after various tortures, finally put to death at Nicomedia (his body
being afterwards taken to Lydda) on the 23rd of April 303. His
festival is observed on that anniversary by the entire Roman
Catholic Church as a semi-duplex, and by the Spanish Catholics
as a duplex of the first class with an octave. The day is also
celebrated as a principal feast in the Orthodox Eastern Church,
where the saint is distinguished by the titles pwyakbpaprvp and
rpoirauxphpot.
The historical basis of the tradition is particularly unsound,
there being two claimants to the name and honour. Eusebius.
Hist. eccl. viii. 5, writes: " Immediately on the promulgation
of the edict (of Diocletian) a certain man of no mean origin, but
highly esteemed for his temporal dignities, as soon as the decree
was published against the churches in Nicomedia. stimulated
by a divine zeal and excited by an ardent faith, took it as it was
openly placed and posted up for public inspection, and tore it
to shreds as a most profane and wicked act. This, too, was
done when the two Caesars were in the city, the first of whom
was the eldest and chief of all and the other held fourth grade of
the imperial dignity after him. But this man, as the first tha»
was distinguished there in this manner, after enduring whit
was likely to follow an act so daring, preserved his mind, calm
and serene, until the moment when his spirit fled." Rivalling
this anonymous martyr, who is often supposed to have
been St George, is an earlier martyr briefly mentioned in the
Chronicon Pose ale: " In the year 225 of the Ascension of our
lot& a, yraeoitafe <A >tat Ctvt\tfC\*m \»ok olace x and many
GEORGE I.
737
suffered martyrdom, among whom also the Holy George was
martyred."
Two Syrian church inscriptions bearing the name, one at Err'a
and the other at Shaka, found by Burckhardt and Porter, and
discussed by J. Hogg in the Transactions of Ike Royal Literary
Society, may with some probability be assigned to the middle
of the 4th century. Calvin impugned the saint's existence
altogether, and Edward Reynolds (i 500-1676), bishop of Norwich,
like Edward Gibbon a century later, made him one with George
of Laodicea, called " the Cappadocian," the Arian bishop of
Alexandria (see George of Laodicea).
Modem criticism, while rejecting this identification, is not
unwilling to accept the main fact that an officer named Georgios,
of high rank in the army, suffered martyrdom probably under
Diocletian. In the canon of Pope Gelasius (494) George is
mentioned in a list of those " whose names are justly reverenced
among men, but whose acts are known only to God," a statement
which implies that legends had already grown up around his
name. The caution of Gelasius was not long preserved; Gregory
of Tours, for example, asserts that the saint's relics actually
existed in the French village of Le Maine, where many miracles
were wrought by means of them; and Bcde, while still explaining
that the Ccsta Ceorgii are reckoned apocryphal, commits himself
to the statement that the martyr was beheaded under Dacian,
king of Persia, whose wife Alexandra, however, adhered to the
Christian faith. The great fame of George, who is reverenced
alike by Eastern and Western Christendom and by Mahom-
medans, is due to many causes. He was martyred on the eve
of the triumph of Christianity, his shrine was reared near the
scene of a great Greek legend (Perseus and Andromeda), and
his relics when removed from Lydda, where many pilgrims had
visited them, to Zorava in the Hauran served to impress his fame
not only on the Syrian population, but on their Moslem con-
querors, and again on the Crusaders, who in grateful memory
of the saint's intervention on their behalf at Antioch built a new
cathedral at Lydda to take the place of the church destroyed
by the Saracens. This cathedral was in turn destroyed by
Saladin.
The connexion of St George with a dragon, familiar since the
Golden Legend of Jacobus dc Voragine, can be traced to the
close of the 6th century. At Arsuf or Joppa — neither of them
far from Lydda — Perseus had slain the sea-monster that
threatened the virgin Andromeda, and George, like many another
Christian saint, entered into the inheritance of veneration pre-
viously enjoyed by a pagan hero. 1 The exploit thus attaches
itself to the very common Aryan myth of the sun-god as the
conqueror of the powers of darkness.
The popularity of St George in England has never reached
the height attained by St Andrew in Scotland, St David in Wales
or St Patrick in Ireland. The council of Oxford in 1222 ordered
that his feast should be kept as a national festival; but it was
not until the time of Edward HI. that he was made patron of
the kingdom. The republics of Genoa and Venice were also
under his protection.
See P. Heylin, The History of . . . S. George of Cappaiocia (1631);
S. Baring-Gould. Curious Myths of the Middle Ages\ r Kr. Gorrcs,
" Der Hitter St Gcorg in dcr Geschichtc, Lcgcndc und Kunst " (Zeit-
schrifl fur vnssenscholUiche Thcologie, xxx., 1887, Heft i.); E. A. W.
Budge, The Martyrdom and Miracles of St George of Cappadocia:
the Coptic texts edited with an English translation (1888); Holland,
Acta Sancti, iii. 101; E. O. Gordon. Saint George (1907); M. 11.
Bulley, St George for Marie England (1908).
*G. A. Smith (Hist. Geog. of Holy Land, p. 164) points out another
coincidence. " The Mahommedans who usually identify St George
with the prophet Elijah, at Lydda confound hi* legend with one
about Christ himself. Their name for Antichrist is Dajjal, and they
have a tradition that Jesus will slay Antichrist by the Rate of Lydda.
The notion sprang from an ancient bas-relief of George and the
Dragon on the Lydda church. But Dajjal may be derived, by a
very common confusion between n and /, from Dagon, whose name
two neighbouring villages bear to this day, while one of the gates of
Lydda used to be called the Gate of Dagon. It is a curious process
by which the monster that symbolized heathenism conquered by
Christianity has been evolved out of the first great rival of the God of
Israel
GEORGB L (George Louis) (1660-17 27), king of Great Britain
and Ireland, born in 1660, was heir through bis father Ernest
Augustus to the hereditary lay bishopric of Osnabruck, and to
the duchy of Calenberg, which formed one portion of the Hano-
verian possessions of the house of Brunswick, whilst he secured
the reversion of the other portion, the duchy of Celle or Zell,
by his marriage (1682) with the heiress, his cousin Sophia
Dorothea. The marriage was not a happy one. The morals
of German courts in the end of the 17th century took their tone
from the splendid profligacy of Versailles. It became the
fashion for a prince to amuse himself with a mistress or more
frequently with many mistresses simultaneously, and he was
often content that the mistresses whom he favoured should be
neither beautiful nor witty. George Louis followed the usual
course. Count Kdnigsmark — a handsome adventurer — seized
the opportunity of paying court to the deserted wife. Conjugal
infidelity was held at Hanover to be a privilege of the male sex.
Count Kdnigsmark was assassinated. Sophia Dorothea was
divorced in 1694, and remained in seclusion till her death in
1726. When George IV., her descendant in the fourth genera-
tion, attempted in England to call his wife to account for sins of
which he was himself notoriously guilty, free-spoken public
opinion reprobated the offence in no measured terms. But in
the Germany of the 17th century all free-spoken public opinion
had been crushed out by the misery of the Thirty Years' War,
and it was understood that princes were to arrange their domestic
life according to their own pleasure.
The prince's father did much to raise the dignity of his family.
By sending help to the emperor when he was struggling against
the French and the Turks, he obtained the grant of a ninth
electorate in 1692. His marriage with Sophia, the youngest
daughter of Elizabeth the daughter of James I. of England,
was not one which at first seemed likely to confer any prospect
of advancement to bis family. But though there were many
persons whose birth gave them better claims than she had to the
English crown, she found herself, upon the death of the duke of
Gloucester, the next Protestant heir after Anne. The Act of
Settlement in 1701 secured the inheritance to herself and her
descendants. Being old and unambitious she rather permitted
herself to be burthened with the honour than thrust herself
forward to meet it. Her son George took a deeper interest in
the matter. In his youth he had fought with determined courage
in the wars of William HI. Succeeding to the electorate on his
father's death in 1608, he had sent a welcome reinforcement
of Hanoverians to fight under Marlborough at Blenheim. With
prudent persistence he attached himself closely to the Whigs
and to Marlborough, refusing Tory offers of an independent
command, and receiving in return for his fidelity a guarantee by
the Dutch of his succession to England in the Barrier treaty of
1709. In 1714 when Anne was growing old, and Bolingbroke
and the more reckless Tories were coquetting with the son of
James II., the Whigs invited George's eldest son, who was duke
of Cambridge, to visit England in order to be on the spot in case
of need. Neither the elector nor his mother approved of a step
which was likely to alienate the queen, and which was specially
distasteful to himself, as he was on very bad terms with his son.
Vet they did not set themselves against the strong wish of the
party to which they looked for support, and it is possible that
troubles would have arisen from any attempt to carry out the
plan, if the deaths, first of the elect ress (May 28) and then of the
queen (August 1, 1714), had not laid open George's way to the
succession without further effort of his own.
In some respects the position of the new king was not unlike
that of William III. a quarter of a century before. Both
sovereigns were foreigners, with little knowledge of English
politics and little interest in English legislation. Both sovereigns
arrived at a time when party spirit had been running high, and
when the task before the ruler was to still the waves of contention.
In spite of the difference between an intellectually great man
and an intellectually small one, in spite too of the difference
between the king who began by choosing his ministers from
both parties and the king who persisted in choosing hi*, mvwsfc.«».
738
GEORGE II.
from only one, the work of pacification was accomplished by
George even more thoroughly than by William.
George I. was fortunate in arriving in England when a great
military struggle had come to an end. He had therefore no
reason to call upon the nation to make great sacrifices. AU
that he wanted was to secure for himself and his family a high
position which he hardly knew bow to occupy, to fill the pockets
of his German attendants and his German mistresses, to get
away as often as possible from the uncongenial islanders whose
language he was unable to speak, and to use the strength of
England to obtain petty advantages for his German principality.
In order to do this he attached himself entirely to the Whig
parly, though he refused to place himself at the disposal of its
leaders. He gave his confidence, not to Somers and Wharton
and Marlborough, but to Stanhope and Townshend, the states-
men of the second rank. At first he seemed to be playing a
dangerous game. The Torics,whom he rejccted.were numerically
superior to their adversaries, and were strong in the support
of the country gentlemen and the country clergy. The strength
of the Whigs lay in the towns and in the higher aristocracy.
Below both parlies lay the mass of the nation, which cared
nothing for politics except in special seasons of excitement,
and which asked only to be let alone. In 1715 a Jacobite in-
surrection in the north, supported by the appearance of the
Pretender, the son of James II., in Scotland, was suppressed,
and its suppression not only gave to the government a character
of stability, but displayed its adversaries in an unfavourable
light as the disturbers of the peace.
Even this advantage, however, would have been thrown
away if the Whigs in power had continued to be animated by
violent party spirit. What really happened was that the Tory
leaders were excluded from office, but that the principles and
prejudices of the Tories were admitted to their full weight in the
policy of the government. The natural result followed. The
leaders to whom no regard was paid continued in opposition.
The rank and file, who would personally have gained nothing
by a party victory, were conciliated into quiescence.
This mingling of two policies was conspicuous both in the
foreign and the domestic actions of the reign. In the days of
Queen Anne the Whig party had advocated the continuance
of war with a view to the complete humiliation of the king of
France, whom they feared as the protector of the Pretender,
and in whose family connexion with the king of Spain they saw
a danger for England. The Tory party, on the other hand, had
been the authors of the peace of Utrecht, and held that France
was sufficiently depressed. A fortunate concurrence of circum-
stances enabled George's ministers, by an alliance with the
regent of France, the duke of Orleans, to pursue at the same time
the Whig policy of separating France from Spain and from the
cause of the Pretender, and the Tory policy of the maintenance
of a good understanding with their neighbour across the Channel.
The same eclecticism was discernible in the proceedings of the
home government. The Whigs were conciliated by the repeal
of the Schism Act and the Occasional Conformity Act, whilst
the Tories were conciliated by the maintenance of the Test Act
in all its vigour. The satisfaction of the masses was increased
by the general well-being of the nation.
Very little of all that was thus accomplished was directly
owing to George I. The policy of the reign is the policy of bis
ministers. Stanhope and Townshend from 17 14 to 17 17 were
mainly occupied with the defence of the Hanoverian settlement.
After the dismissal of the latter in 171 7, Stanhope in conjunction
with Sunderland took up a more decided Whig policy. The
Occasional Conformity Act and the Schism Act were repealed
in 1 719. But the wish of the liberal Whigs to modify if not to
repeal the Test Act remained unsatisfied. In the following
year the bursting of the South Sea bubble, and the subsequent
deaths of Stanhope in 1721 and of Sunderland in 1722, cleared
the way for the accession to power of Sir Robert Walpolc, to
whom and not to the king was due the conciliatory policy which
quieted Tory opposition by abstaining from pushing Whig
principles to their legitimate consequences.
Nevertheless something of the honour due to Walpole most
be reckoned to the king's credit. It is evident that at bis acces-
sion his decisions were by no means unimportant. The royal
authority was still able within certain limits to make its own
terms. This support was so necessary to the Whigs that they
made no resistance when he threw aside their leaders on las
arrival in England. When by his personal intervention he
dismissed Townshend and appointed Sunderland, he had no
such social and parliamentary combination to fear as that which
almost mastered his great-grandson in his struggle for power.
If such a combination arose before the end of his reign it was
owing more to his omitting to fulfil the duties of his station than
from the necessity of the case. As he could talk no English,
and his ministers could talk no German, he absented himself
from the meetings of the cabinet, and his frequent absences
from England and his want of interest in English polities
strengthened the cabinet in its tendency to assert an independent
position. Walpole at last by his skill in the* management of
parliament rose as a subject into the almost royal position denoted
by the name of prime minister. In connexion with Walpole
the force of wealth and station established the Whig aristocracy
in a point of vantage from which it was afterwards difficult
to dislodge them. Yet, though George had allowed the power
which had been exercised by William and Anne to slip through
his hands, it was understood to the last that if he chose to exert
himself he might cease to be a mere cipher in the conduct of
affairs. As late as 1 727 Bolingbrokc gained over one of the king's
mistresses, the duchess of Kendal; and though her support of
the fallen Jacobite took no effect, Walpolc was not without fear
that her reiterated entreaties would lead to his dismissal.. The
king's death in a carriage on his way to Hanover, in the night
between toth and nth June in the same year, put an end to
these apprehensions.
His only children were his successor George II. and Sophia
Dorothea (1687-1757), who married in 1706 Frederick William,
crown prince (afterwards king) of Prussia. She was the mother
of Frederick the Great. (S. R. G.)
Sec the standard English histories. A recent popular work it
L. Melville's The First George in Hanover and England (1908).
GEORGE II. [George Augustus] (1683-1760), king of Great
Britain and Ireland, the only son of George I., was born in 1683.
In 1705 he married Wilhclmina Caroline of Anspach. In 1706
he was created earl of Cambridge. In 170S he fought bravely
at Oudenarde. At his father's accession to the English throne
he was thirty-one years of age. He was already on bad terms
with his father. The position of an heir-apparent is in no case an
easy one to fill with dignity, and the ill-treatment of the prince's
mother by his father was not likely to strengthen in him a
reverence for paternal authority. It was most unwillingly that,
on his first journey to Hanover in 1716, George I. appointed the
prince of Wales guardian of the realm during his absence. In
1 71 7 the existing ill-feeling ripened into an open breach. At
the baptism of one of his children, the prince selected one god-
father whilst the king persisted in selecting another. The young
man spoke angrily, was ordered into arrest, and was subsequently
commanded to leave St James's and to be excluded from all
court ceremonies. The prince took up his residence at Leicester
House, and did everything in his power to support the opposition
against his father's ministers.
When therefore George I. died in 1 727, it was generally supposed
that Walpole would be at once dismissed The first direction
of the new king was that Sir Spencer Compton would draw up
the speech in which he was to announce to the privy council his
accession. Compton, not knowing how to set about his task,
applied to Walpole for aid. Queen Caroline took advantage
of this evidence of incapacity, advocated Walpole 's cause with
her husband and procured his continuance in office. Tins
curious scene was indicative of the course likely to be taken by
the new sovereign. His own mind was incapable of rising above
the merest details of business. He made war in the spirit of a
drill-sergeant, and he economized his income with the minute
te^oAarivy oi % clerk. A blunder of a master of the ceremonies
GEORGE II.
739
in marshalling (he attendants on a levee put him out of temper.
He took the greatest pleasure in counting his money piece by
piece, and he never forgot a date. He was above all things
methodical and regular. " He seems," said one who knew him
well, " to think his having done a thing to-day an unanswerable
reason for his doing it to-morrow."
Most men so utterly immersed in details would be very
impracticable to deal with. They would obstinately refuse to
listen to a wisdom and prudence which meant nothing in their
ears, and which brought home to them a sense of their own
inferiority. It was the happy peculiarity of George II. that he
was exempt from this failing. He seemed to have an instinctive
understanding that such and such persons were either wiser or
even stronger than himself, and when he had once discovered that ,
he gave way with scarcely a struggle. Thus it was that, though
in his domestic relations he was as loose a liver as his father had
been, he allowed himself to be guided by the wise but unobtrusive
counsels of his wife until ber death in 1737, and that when once
be had recognized Walpole's superiority be allowed himself to
be guided by the political sagacity of the great minister. It is
difficult to exaggerate the importance of such a temper upon the
development of the constitution. The apathy of the nation in
all but the most exciting political questions, fostered by the
calculated conservatism of Walpolc, had thrown power into the
hands of the great landowners. They maintained their authority
by supporting a minister who was ready to make use of corrup-
tion, wherever corruption was likely to be useful, and who could
veil over the baseness of the means which he employed by his
talents in debate and in finance. To shake off a combination
to strong would not nave been easy. George II. submitted to
it without a struggle.
So strong indeed had the Whig aristocracy grown that it
began to lose its cohesion. Walpole was determined to monopolize
power, and he dismissed from office all who ventured to oppose
him. An opposition formidable in talents was gradually formed.
In its composite ranks were to be found Tories and discontented
Whigs, discarded official hacks who were hungry for the emolu-
ments of office, and youthful purists who fancied that if Walpolc
were removed, bribes and pensions would cease to be attractive
to a corrupt generation. Behind them was Bolingbroke, excluded
from parliament but suggesting every party move. In 1737 the
opposition acquired the support of Frederick, prince of Wales.
The young man, weak and headstrong, rebelled against the
strict discipline exacted by his father. His marriage in 1736
to Augusta of Saxony brought on an open quarrel. In 1737,
just as the princess of Wales was about to give birth to her first
child, she was hurried away by her husband from Hampton
Court to St James's Palace at the imminent risk of her life,
simply in order that the prince might show hU spite to his father
who had provided all necessary attendance at the former place.
George ordered his son to quit St James's, and to absent himself
from court. Frederick in disgrace gave the support of his name,
and he had nothing else to give, to the opposition. Later in the
year 2737, on the 20th of November, Queen Caroline died. In
1742 Walpole, weighed down by the unpopularity both of his
reluctance to engage in a war with Spain and of his supposed
remissness in conducting the operations of that war, was driven
from office. His successors formed a composite ministry in which
Walpole's old colleagues and Walpole's old opponents were alike
to be found.
The years which followed settled conclusively, at least for this
reign, the constitutional question of the power of appointing
ministers. The war between Spain and England had broken
out in j 739. In 1741 the death of the emperor Charles VI.
brought on the war of the Austrian succession. The position of
George II. as a Hanoverian prince drew him to the side of Maria
Theresa through jealousy of the rising Prussian monarchy.
Jealousy of France led England in the same direction, and in
1 74 1 a subsidy of £300,000 was voted to Maria Theresa. The
king himself went to Germany and attempted to carry on the
wax according to his own notions. Those notions led him to
regard the safety of Hanover as of far more importance than
the wishes of England. Finding that a French army was about
to march upon his German states, he concluded with France a
treaty of neutrality for a year without consulting a single English
minister. In England the news was received with feelings of
disgust. The expenditure of English money and troops was to
be thrown uselessly away as soon as it appeared that Hanover
was in the slightest danger. In 1742 Walpole was no longer in
office. Lord Wilmington, the nominal head of the ministry, was
a mere cipher. The ablest and most energetic of his colleagues,
Lord Carteret (afterwards Granville), attached himself specially
to the king, and sought to maintain himself in power by his
special favour and by brilliant achievements in diplomacy.
In part at least by Carteret's mediation the peace of Brcslau
was signed, by which Maria Theresa ceded Silesia to Frederick
(July 28, 1742). Thus relieved on her northern frontier, she
struck out vigorously towards the west. Bavaria was overrun
by her troops. In the beginning of 1743 one French army was
driven across the Rhine. On June 27th another French army
was defeated by George II. in person at Dcttingen. Victory
brought elation to Maria Theresa. Her war of defence was
turned into a war of vengeance. Bavaria was to be annexed.
The French frontier was to be driven back. George II. and
Carteret after some hesitation placed themselves on her side.
Of the public opinion of the political classes in England they
took no thought. Hanoverian troops were indeed to be employed
in the war, but they were to be taken into British pay. Collisions
between British and Hanoverjan officers were frequent. A
storm arose against the preference shown to Hanoverian
interests. After a brief struggle Carteret, having become
Lord Granville by his mother's death, was driven from office
in November 1744.
Henry Pelham, who had become prime minister in the preceding
year, thus saw himself established in power. By the acceptance
of this ministry, the king acknowledged that the function of
choosing a ministry and directing a policy had passed from his
hands. In 1745 indeed he recalled Granville, but a few days
were sufficient to convince him of the futility of his attempt, and
the effort to exclude Pitt at a later time proved equally fruitless.
Important as were the events of the remainder of the reign,
therefore, they can hardly be grouped round the name of George
II. The resistance to the invasion of the Young Pretender in
274s. the peace of Aix-la-Chapcllc in 1748, the great war ministry
of Pitt at the close of the reign, did not receive their impulse from
him. He had indeed done his best to exclude Pitt from office.
He disliked him on account of his opposition in former years to
the sacrifices demanded by the Hanoverian connexion. When
in 1756 Pitt became secretary of state in the Devonshire adminis-
tration, the king bore the yoke with difficulty. Early in the next
year he complained of Pitt's long speeches as being above his
comprehension, and on April 5, 2757, he dismissed him, only
to take him back shortly after, when Pitt, coalescing with
Newcastle, became master of the situation. Before Pitt's dis-
missal George II. had for once an opportunity of placing himself
on the popular side, though, as was the case of his grandson during
the American war, it was when the popular side happened to be
in the wrong. In the true spirit of a martinet, he wished to see
Admiral Byng executed. Pitt urged the wish of the House of
Commons to have him pardoned. " Sir, " replied the king," you
have taught me to look for the sense of my subjects in another
place than in the House of Commons." When George II. died
in 1760, he left behind him a settled understanding that the
monarchy was one of the least of the forces by which the policy
of the country was directed. To this end he had contributed
much by his disregard of English opinion in 1743; hut it may
fairly be added that, but for his readiness to give way to irresistible
adversaries, the -struggle might have been far more bitter and
severe than it was.
Of the connexion between Hanover and England in this reign
two memorials remain more pleasant to contemplate than the
records of parliamentary and ministerial intrigues. With the
support of George II., amidst the derision of the English fashion-
able world, the Hanoverian Handel otoduced v\ EoaJaajiOtaB*
74°
GEORGE III.
masterpieces which have given delight to millions, whilst the
foundation of the university of Gbltingen by the same king
opened a door through which English political ideas afterwards
penetrated into Germany.
George II. had three sons, — Frederick Louis (1707-1751);
George William (17 17- 17 18); and William Augustus, duke of
Cumberland (17a 1- 1 765); and five daughters, Anne (1700-1750),
married to William, prince of Orange, 1734; Amelia Sophia
Eleonora (1711-1786); Elizabeth Caroline (1713-1757); Mary
(1723-1772), married to Frederick, landgrave of Hesse-Cassel,
1740; Louisa (1724-1751), married to Frederick V., king of
Denmark, 1743. (S. R. G.)
■ Sec Lord Hcrvcy. Memoirs of the Reign of George II., ed. by J. W,
Crokcr (3 vols., London, 1884) ; Horace Walpole. Mem of Ike Reign
of George II., with notes by Lord Holland (3 vols., 2nd ed., 1847).
GEORGE III. [George William Frederick] (1 738-1820), king
of Great Britain and Ireland, son of Frederick, prince of Wales,
and grandson of George II., whom he succeeded in 1 760, was born
on the 4th of June 1738. After his father's death in 1751 he had
been educated in seclusion from the fashionable world under
the care of his mother and of her favourite counsellor the earl
of Bute. He had been taught to revere the maxims of Boling-
broke's " Patriot King," and to believe that it was his appointed
task in life to break the power of the Whig houses resting upon
extensive property and the influence of patronage and corruption.
That power had already been gravely shaken. The Whigs
from their incompetency were obliged when the Seven Years'
War broke out to leave its management in the hands of William
Pitt. The nation learned to applaud the great war minister
who succeeded where others had failed, and whose immaculate
purity put to shame the ruck of ban ere rs of votes for places and
pensions.
In some sort the work of the new king was the continuation
of the work of Pitt. But his methods were very different. He
did not appeal to any widely spread feeling or prejudice; nor
did he disdain the use of the arts which had maintained his
opponents in power. The patronage of the crown was to be
really as well as nominally his own; and he calculated, not
without reason, that men would feel more flattered in accepting
a place from a king than from a minister. The new Toryism of
which he was the founder was no recurrence to the Toryism of
the days of Charles 11. or even of Anne. The question of the
amount of toleration to be accorded to Dissenters had been
entirely laid aside. The point at issue was whether the crown
should be replaced In the position which George I. might have
occupied at the beginning of his reign, selecting the ministers
and influencing the deliberations of the cabinet. For this struggle
George III. possessed no inconsiderable advantages. With an
Inflexible tenacity of purpose, he was always ready to give way
when resistance was really hopeless. As the first English-born
sovereign of his house, speaking from his birth the language of
bis subjects, he found a way to the hearts of many who never
regarded his predecessors as other than foreign intruders.
The contrast, too, between the pure domestic life which he led
with his wife Charlotte, whom he married in 1761, and the
habits of three generations of his house, told in his favour with
the vast majority of his subjects. Even his marriage had been
a sacrifice to duty. Soon after his accession he had fallen in love
with Lady Sarah Lennox, and had been observed to ride morning
by morning along the Kensington Road, from which the object
of his affections was to be seen from the lawn of Holland House
making hay, or engaged in some other ostensible employment.
Before the year was over Lady Sarah appeared as one of the
queen's bridesmaids, and she was herself married to Sir Charles
Bunbury in 1762.
At first everything seemed easy to him. Pitt had come to
be regarded by his own colleagues as a minister who would pursue
war at any price, and in get ting rid of Pitt in 1 761 and in carrying
on the negotiations which led to the peace of Paris in 1762, the
king was able to gather round him many persons who would not
be willing to acquiesce in any permanent change in the system
of government. With the mgnatun of the peace his reeA dim-
cultics began. The Whig houses, indeed, were divided amongst
themselves by personal rivalries. But they were none of then
inclined to let power and the advantages of power slip from their
hands without a struggle. For some yean a contest of influence
was carried on without dignity and without any worthy airr
The king was not strong enough to impose upon parliament a
ministry of his own choice. But he gathered round himself a
body of dependants known as the king's friends, who were secure
of his favour, and who voted one way or the other according
to his wishes. Under these circumstances no ministry could
possibly be stable; and yet every ministry was strong enough
to impose some conditions on the king. Lord Bute, the king's
first choice, resigned from a sense of bis own incompetency fc
1763. George GrcnviUo was in office till 1765; the marquis of
Rockingham till 1766; Pitt, becoming earl of Chatham, tiJ
illness compelled him to retire from the conduct of affairs in
1767, when he was succeeded by the duke of Grafton. Bat 1
struggle of interests could gain no real strength for any govern-
ment, and the only chance the king had of effecting a permanent
change in the balance of power lay in the possibility of his
associating himself with some phase of strong national feeling,
as Pitt had associated himself with the war feciing caused by
the dissatisfaction spread by the weakness and ineptitude of hh
predecessors.
Such a chance was offered by the question of the right to tax
America. The notion that England was justified in throwing
on America part of the expenses caused in the late war wis
popular in the country, and no one adopted it more pertinaciously
then George HI. At the bottom the position which he assumed
was as contrary to the principles of parliamentary government
as the encroachments of Charles I. had been. But it was veiled in
the eyes of Englishmen by the prominence given to the power
of the British parliament rather than to the power of the British
king. In fact the theory of parliamentary government , like most
theories after their truth has long been universally acknowledged,
had become a superstition. Parliaments were held to be properly
vested with authority, not because they adequately represented
the national will, but simply because they were parliaments.
There were thousands of people in England to whom it never
occurred that there was any good reason why a British parliament
should be allowed to levy a duty on tea in the London docks
and should not be allowed to levy a duty on tea at the wharves
of Boston. Undoubtedly George III. derived great strength
from his honest participation in this mistake. Contending under
parliamentary forms, he did not wound the susceptibilities of
members of parliament, and when at last in 1770 he appointed
Lord North — a minister of his own selection — prime minister,
the object of his ambition was achieved with the concurrence of a
large body of politicians who had nothing in common with the
servile band of the king's friends.
As long as the struggle with America was carried on with any
hope of success they gained that kind of support which is always
forthcoming to a government which shares in the errors and
prejudices of its subjects. The expulsion of Wilkes from the
House of Commons in 1 760, and the refusal of the House to accept
him as a member after his re-election, raised a grave constitutional
question in which the king was wholly in the wrong; and Wilkes
was popular in London and Middlesex. But his case roused
no national indignation, and when in 1774 those sharp measures
were taken with Boston which led to the commencement of the
American rebellion in 1775, the opposition to the course taken
by the king made little way either in parliament or in the country.
Burke might point out the folly and inexpedience of the proceed-
ings of the government. Chatham might point out that the true
spirit of English government was to be representative, and that
that spirit was being violated at home and abroad. George III ,
who thought that the first duty of the Americans was to obey
himself, had on his side the mass of unreflecting Englishmen who
thought that the first duty of all colonists was to be useful and
submissive to the mother-country. The natural dislike of every
country engaged in war to see itself defeated was on his side,
\ md ^YitTvXYftTiVw^K&^w^jTAL^^vrrecider at Saratoga arrived
GEORGE m.
74i
in 1777, subscriptions of money to raise new regiments poured
freely in.
In March 1778 the French ambassador in London announced
that a treaty of friendship and commerce had been concluded
between France and the new United States of America. Lord
North was anxious to resign power into stronger hands, and
begged the king to receive Chatham as his prime minister.
The lung would not hear of it. He would have nothing to say to
" that perfidious man " unless he would humble himself to enter
the ministry as North's subordinate. Chatham naturally refused
to do anything of the kind, and his death in the course of the year
relieved the king of the danger of being again overruled by too
overbearing a minister. England was now at war with France,
and in 1779 she was also at war with Spain.
George III. was still able to control the disposition of office.
He could not control the course of events. His very ministers
gave up the struggle as hopeless long before he would acknowledge
the true state of the case. Before the end of 1779, two of the
leading members of the cabinet, Lords Gower and Weymouth,
resigned rather than bear the responsibility of so ruinous an
enterprise as the attempt to overpower America and France
together. Lord North retained office, but he acknowledged to
the king that his own opinion was precisely the same as that
of his late colleagues.
The year 1780 saw an agitation rising in the country for
economical reform, an agitation very closely though indirectly
connected with the war policy of the king. The public meetings
held in the country on this subject have no unimportant place
in the development of the constitution. Since the presentation
of the Kentish petition in the reign of William III. there had
been from time to time uphcavings of popular feeling against
the doings of the legislature, which kept up the tradition that
parliament existed in order to represent the nation. But these
uphcavings had all been so associated with ignorance and violence
as to make it very difficult for men of sense to look with dis-
pleasure upon the existing emancipation of the House of Commons
from popular control. The Sacheverell riots, the violent attacks
upon the Excise Bill, the no less violent advocacy of the Spanish
War, the declamations of the supporters of Wilkes at a more
recent time, and even in this very year the Gordon riots, were
not likely to make thoughtful men anxious to place real power
in the hands of the classes from whom such exhibitions of folly
proceeded. But the movement for economical reform was of
a very different kind. It was carried on soberly in manner, and
with a definite practical object. It asked for no more than the
king ought to have been willing to concede. It attacked useless
expenditure upon sinecures and unnecessary offices in the
household, the only use of which was to spread abroad corruption
amongst the upper classes. George III. could not bear to be
interfered with at all, or to surrender any element of power
which had served him in his long struggle with the Whigs. He
held out for more than another year. The news of the capitula-
tion of Yorktown reached London on the 25th of November
1781. On the 20th of March 17S.2 Lord North resigned.
George III. accepted the consequences of defeat. He called
the marquis of Rockingham to office at the head of a ministry
composed of pure Whigs and of the disciples of the late earl of
Chatham, and he authorized the new ministry to open negotia-
tions for peace. Their hands were greatly strengthened by
Rodney's victory over the French fleet, and the failure of the
combined French and Spanish attack upon Gibraltar; and
before the end of 178a a provisional treaty was signed with
America, preliminaries of peace with France and Spain being
signed early in the following year. On the 3rd of September x 783
the definitive treaties with the three countries were simultane-
ously concluded. " Sir," said the king to John Adams, the first
minister of the United States of America accredited to him,
u I wish you to believe, and that it may be understood in America,
that I have done nothing in the late contest but what I thought
myself indispensably bound to do by the duty which I owed to
my people. I will be very frank with you. I was the last to
consent to the separation: but the separation having been made
and having become inevitable, I have always said, as I say now,
that I would be the first to meet the friendship of the United
States as an independent power."
Long before the signature of the treaties Rockingham died
(July i, 1783). The king chose Lord Shelburne, the head of
the Chatham section of the government, to be prime minister.
Fox and the followers of Rockingham refused to serve except
under the duke of Portland, a minister of their own selection,
and resigned office. The old constitutional struggle of the reign
was now to be fought out once more. Fox, too weak to obtain
a majority alone, coalesced with Lord North, and defeated
Shelburne in the House of Commons on the 27th of February
1 783. On the *nd of April the coalition took office, with Portland
as nominal prime minister, and Fox and North the secretaries
of state as its real heads.
This attempt to impose upon him a ministry which he disliked
made the king very angry. But the new cabinet had a large
majority in the House of Commons, and the only chance of
resisting it lay in an appeal to the country against the House of
Commons. Such an appeal was not likely to be responded to
unless the ministers discredited themselves with the nation.
Goerge III. therefore waited his time. Though a coalition
between men bitterly opposed to one another in all political
principles and drawn together by nothing but love of office was
in itself discreditable, it needed some more positive cause of
dissatisfaction to arouse the constituencies, which were by no
means so ready to interfere in political disputes at that time as
they arc now. Such dissatisfaction was given by the India Bill,
drawn up by Burke. As soon as it had passed through the Com-
mons the king hastened to procure its rejection in the House of
Lords by his personal intervention with the peers. He authorized
Lord Temple to declare In his name that he would count any
peer who voted for the bill as bis enemy. On the 17 th of
December x 783 the bill was thrown out. The next day ministers
were dismissed. William Pitt became prime minister. After
some weeks' struggle with a constantly decreasing majority in
the Commons, the king dissolved parliament on the 35th of
March 1784. The country rallied round the crown and the
young minister, and Pitt was firmly established in office.
There can be no reasonable doubt 1 that Pitt not only took
advantage of the king's intervention in the Lords, but was
cognizant of the intrigue before it was actually carried out. It
was upon him, too, that the weight of reconciling the country
to an administration formed under such circumstances lay.
The general result, so far as George HI. was concerned, was
that to all outward appearance he had won the great battle of
his life. It was he who was to appoint the prime minister, not
any clique resting on a parliamentary support. But the circum-
stances under which the victory was won were such as to place
the constitution in a position very different from that in which
it would have been if the victory bad been gained earlier in the
reign. Intrigue there was indeed in 1783 and 1784 as there had
been twenty years before. Parliamentary support was con-
ciliated by Pitt by the grant of royal favours as it had been in
the days of Bute. The actnal blow was struck by a most question-
able message to individual peers. But the main result of the
whole political situation was that George III. had gone a long
way towards disentangling the reality of parliamentary govern-
ment from its accidents. His ministry finally stood because
it had appealed to the constituencies against their representatives.
Since then it has properly become a constitutional axiom that
no such appeal should be made by the crown itself. But it
may reasonably be doubted whether any one but the king
was at that time capable of making the appeal. Lord Shelburne,
the leader of the ministry expelled by the coalition, was unpopular
in the country, and the younger Pitt had not had time to make
his great abilities known beyond a limited circle. The real
question for the constitutional historian to settle is not whether
under ordinary circumstances a king is the proper person to
place himself really as well as nominally at the head of the
government; but whether under the special circumstances
•See Lord Fitzmaurice's Life of 5Wtocrne,lU. VW
74*
GEORGE ID.
which existed in 1783 it was not better that the king should
call upon the people to support him, than that government
should be left in the hands of men who. rested their power on
close boroughs and the dispensation of patronage, without
looking beyond the walls of the House of Commons for support.
That the king gained credit far beyond his own deserts by the
glories of Pitt's ministry is beyond a doubt. Nor can there be
any reasonable doubt that his own example of domestic propriety
did much to strengthen the position of his minister. It is true
that that life was insufferably dull. No gleams of literary or
artistic taste lightened it up. The dependants of the court
became inured to dull routine unchequered by loving sympathy.
The sons of the household were driven by the sheer weariness of
such an existence into the coarsest profligacy. But all this was
not visible from a distance. The tide of moral and religious
improvement which had set in in England since the days of
Wesley brought popularity to a king who was faithful to his
wife, in the same way that the tide of manufacturing industry
and scientific progress brought popularity to the minister who
in some measure translated into practice the principles of the
Wealth of Nations.
Nor were there wanting subjects of importance beyond the
circle of politics in which George III. showed a lively interest.
The voyages of discovery which made known so large a part of
the islands and coasts of the Pacific Ocean received from him
a warm support. In the early days of the Royal Academy,
its finances were strengthened by liberal grants from the privy
purse. His favourite pursuit, however, was fanning. When
Arthur Young was issuing his Annals of Agriculture, he was
supplied with information by the king, under the assumed name
of Mr Ralph Robinson, relating to a farm at Petersham.
The life of the king was suddenly clouded over. Early in his
reign, in 1765, he had been out of health, and ^-though the fact
was studiously concealed at the time— -symptoms of mental
aberration were even then to be perceived. In October 1788 he
was again out of health, and in the beginning of the following
month his insanity was beyond a doubt. Whilst Pitt and Fox
were contending in the House of Commons over the terms on
which the regency should be committed to the prince of Wales,
the king was a helpless victim to the ignorance of physicians and
the brutalities of his servants. At last Dr Willis, who had made
himself a name by prescribing gentleness instead of rigour in
the treatment of the insane, was called in. Under his more
humane management the king rapidly recovered. Before the
end of February 1789 he was able to write to Pitt thanking him
lor his warm support of his interests during his illness. On the
93rd of April he went in person to St Paul's to return thanks
for his recovery.
The popular enthusiasm which burst forth around St Paul's
was but a foretaste of a popularity far more universal. The
French Revolution frightened the great Whig landowners till
they made their peace with the king. Those who thought that
the true basis of government was aristocratical were now of one
mind with those who thought that the true basis of government
was monarchical; and these two classes were joined by a far
larger multitude which had no political ideas whatever, but which
had a moral horror of the guillotine. As Elizabeth had once
been the symbol of resistance to Spain, George was now the
symbol of resistance to France. He was not, however, more
than the symbol. He allowed Pitt to levy taxes and incur debt,
to launch armies to defeat, and to prosecute the English imitators
of French revolutionary courses. At last, however, after the
Union with Ireland was accomplished, he learned that Pitt was
planning a scheme to relieve the Catholics from the disabilities
under which they laboured. The plan was revealed to him by
the chancellor, Lord Loughborough, a selfish and intriguing
politician who had served all parties in turn, and who sought to
forward his own interests by falling in with the king's prejudices.
George III. at once took up the position from which he never
swerved. He declared that to grant concessions to the Catholics
involved a breach of his coronation oath. No one has ever
doubted that the king was absolutely convinced of the serious
nature of the objection. Nor can there be any doubt that he
had the English people behind him. Both in his peace ministry
land in his war ministry Pitt had taken his stand on royal favour
and on popular support. Both failed, him alike now, and he
resigned office at once. The shock to the king's mind was so
great that it brought on a fresh attack of insanity. This time,
however, the recovery was rapid. On the 14th of March 1801
Pitt's resignation was formally accepted, and the late speaker,
Mr Addington, was installed in office as prime minister.
The king was well pleased with the change. He was never
capable of appreciating high merit in any one; and he wis
unable to perceive that the question on which Pitt had resigned
was mere than an improper question, with which he ought never
to have meddled. " Tell him," he said, in directing his physicUn
to inform Pitt of his restoration to health, "lam now quite well,
quite recovered from my illness; but what has be not to answer
for, who has been the cause of my having been ill at all? "
Addington was a minister after his own mind.. Thoroughly
honest and respectable, with about the same share of abilities
as was possessed by the king himself, he was certainly not likely
to startle the world by any flights of genius. Bat for one circum-
stance Addington's ministry would have lasted long. So strong
was the reaction against the Revolution that the bulk of the nation
was almost as suspicious of genius as the king himself. Not only
was there no outcry for legislative reforms, but the very idea of
reform was unpopular. The country gentlemen were predominant
in parliament, and the country gentlemen as a body looked upon
Addington with respect and affection. Such a minister was there-
fore admirably suited to preside over affairs at home in the existing
state of opinion. But those who were content with inaction at
home would not be content with inaction abroad. In time of
peace Addington would have been popular for a season. In
time of war even his warmest admirers could not say thai he
was the man to direct armies in the most terrible struggle which
had ever been conducted by an English government.
For the moment this difficulty was not felt. On the xst of
October 1801, preliminaries of peace were signed between
England and France, to be converted into the definitive peace
of Amiens on the 27th of March 1802. The ruler of France was
now Napoleon Bonaparte, and few persons in England believed
that he had any real purpose of bringing his aggressive violence
to an end. " Do you know what I call this peace?" said the
king; " an experimental peace, for it is nothing else. But it
was unavoidable."
The king was right. Cm the 1 8th of May 1803 the declaration
of war was laid before parliament. The war was accepted by
all classes as inevitable, and the French preparations for an
invasion of England roused the whole nation to a glow of
enthusiasm only equalled by that felt when the Armada
threatened its shores. On the 20th of October the king r e v icme d
the London volunteers in Hyde Park. He found himself the
centre of a great national movement with which he heartily
sympathised, and which heartily sympathised with him.
On the 1 ath of February 1804 the king's mind was agaii
affected. When he recovered, he found himself in the midst
of a ministerial crisis. Public feeling allowed but one opinion
to prevail in the country — that Pitt, not Addington, was the
proper man to conduct the administration in time of war. Pitt
was anxious to form an administration on a broad basis, including
Fox and all prominent leaders of both parties. The king would
not hear of the admission of Fox. His dislike of him was personal
as well as political, as he knew that Fox had bad a great share
in drawing the prince of Wales into a. life of profligacy. Pitt
accepted the king's terms, and formed an administration in
which he was the only man of real ability. Eminent men, such
as Lord Grenville, refused to join a ministry from which the king
had excluded a great statesman on purely personal grounds.
The whole question was reopened on Pitt's death on the 23rd of
January 1806. This time the king gave way. The ministry of
All the Talents, as it was called, included Fox amongst its
members. At first the king was observed to appear depressed
at the necessity of surrender. But Fox's charm of 1
GEORGE IV.
743
gained upon him. " Mr Fox," said the king, " I little thought
that you and I should ever meet again in this place; but I have
no desire to look back upon old grievances, and you may rest
assured I never shall remind you of them." On the 13th of
September Fox died, and it was not long before the king and the
ministry were openly in collision. The ministry proposed a
measure enabling all subjects of the crown to serve in the army
and navy in spite of religious disqualifications. The king objected
even to so slight a modification of the laws against the Catholics
and Dissenters, and the ministers consented to drop the bill
The king asked more than this. He demanded a written and
positive engagement that this ministry would never, under any
circumstances, propose to him " any measure of concession to
the Catholics, or even connected with the question." The
ministers very properly refused to bind themselves for the future.
They were consequently turned out of office, and a new ministry
was formed with the duke of Portland as first lord of the treasury
and Mr Perceval as its real leader. The spirit of the new ministry
was distinct hostility to the Catholic claims. On the 27th of April
1807 a dissolution of parliament was announced, and a majority
in favour of the king's ministry was returned in the elections
which speedily followed.
The elections of 1807, like the elections of 1784, gave the
king the mastery of the situation. In other respects they were
the counterpart of one another. In 1784 the country declared,
though perhaps without any clear conception of what it was
doing, for a wise and progressive policy. In 1807 it declared
for an unwise and retrogressive policy, with a very clear under-
standing of what it meant. It is in his reliance upon the prejudices
and ignorance of the country that the constitutional significance
of the reign of George III. appears. Every strong government
derives its power from its representative character. At a time
when the House of Commons was less really representative than
at any other, a king was on the throne who represented the
country in its good and bad qualities alike, in its hatred of
revolutionary violence, its moral sturdiness, its contempt of
foreigners, and its defiance of all ideas which were in any way
strange. Therefore it was that his success was not permanently
injurious to the working of the constitution as the success of
Charles I. would have been. If he were followed by a king
less English than himself, the strength of representative
power would pass into other bands than those which held
the sceptre.
The overthrow of the ministry of All the Talents was the last
political act of constitutional importance in which George III.
took part. The substitution of Perceval for Portland as the
nominal head of the ministry in 1809 was not an event of any
real significance, and in 181 x the reign practically came to an end.
The king's reason finally broke down after the death of the
princess Amelia, his favourite child; and the prince of Wales
(see George IV.) became prince regent. The remaining nine
years of George m.'s life were passed in insanity and blindness,
and he died on the 29th of January 1820.
His wife, Charlotte Sophia (1744-18x8), was a daughter of
Charles Louis of Mecklenburg-Strelitz (d. 18x6), and was married
to the king in London on the 8th of September 1761. After a
peaceful and happy married life the queen died at Kew on the
17th of November x8x8.
George HI. had nine sons. After his successor came Frederick,
duke of York and Albany (1763-1827); William Henry, duke
of Clarence, afterwards King William IV. (1765-1837); Edward
Augustus, duke of Kent (1 767-1825), father of Queen Victoria;
Ernest Augustus, duke of Cumberland, afterwards king of
Hanover (1771-1851); Augustus Frederick, duke of Sussex
(1773-1843); Adolphus Frederick, duke of Cambridge O774-
1850); Octavius (1770-1783); Alfred (1780-X782). He had
also six daughters— Charlotte Augusta (1 766-1828), married in
1797 to Frederick, afterwards king of Wurttemberg; Augusta
Sophia (1768-1840); Elizabeth (1 770-1840), married Frederick,
landgrave of Hesse-Homburg, x8xS; Mary (1776-1857), married
to William Frederick, duke of Gloucester, 18x6; Sophia (1777-
X848); Amelia (1783-18x0). (S. R. G.)
The numerous contemporary memoirs and diaries are full of the
best material for a picture of George HI 's reign, apart from the
standard histories. Thackeray'* Four Georges must not be trusted
so far as historical judgment is concerned; Jesse's Memoirs of the
Life and Reign ofGeorrelll. (and ed., 1867) is chiefly concerned with
personalities. See also Beckles Willson, George III., as Mam,
Monarch and Statesman (1907).
GEORGE IV. [George Augustus Frederick] (1762-1830), king
of Great Britain and Ireland, eldest son of George III., was born
at St James's Palace, London, on the 12th of August 1762. Ht
was naturally gifted, was well taught in the classics, learnt to
speak French, Italian and German fluently, and had considerable
taste for music and the arts; and in person he was remarkably
handsome. His tutor, Bishop Richard Hurd, said of him when
fifteen years old that be would be " either the most polished
gentleman or the most accomplished blackguard in Europe—
possibly both "; and the latter prediction was only too fully
justified. Reaction from the strict and parsimonious style of
his parents' domestic life, which was quite out of touch with the
gaiety and extravagance of London " society," had its natural
effect in plunging the young prince of Wales, flattered and
courted as he was, into a whirl of pleasure-seeking. At the outset
his disposition was brilliant and generous, but it was essentially:
unstable, and he started even before he came of age on a career of
dissipation which in later years became wholly profligate. He
had an early amour with the actress Mary (" Perdita ") Robinson,
and in the choice of his friends be opposed and annoyed the king,
with whom he soon became (and always remained) on the worst
of terms, by associating himself with Fox and Sheridan and the
Whig party. When in 1783 he came of age, a compromise
between the coalition ministry and the king secured him an
income of £50,000 from the Civil List, and £60,000 was voted
by parliament to pay his debts and start his separate establish-
ment at Carlton House. There, under the auspices of C. J. Fox
and Georgiana, duchess of Devonshire, he posed as a patron of
Whig politics and a leader in all the licence and luxury of gay
society — the " First gentleman in Europe," as his batterers
described him as years went on. And at this early age he fell
seriously in love with the famous Mrs Fitxherbert.
His long connexion with this lady may most conveniently
be summarized here. It was indeed for some time the one re-
deeming and restraining factor in his life, though her devotion
and self-sacrificing conduct were in marked contrast with his
unscrupulousness and selfishness. Mary Anne (or as she always
called herself, Maria) Fitxherbert (1 756-1837) was the daughter
of Walter Smythe, the second son of Sir John Smythe, Bart.,
of Acton Burnell Park, Shropshire, and came of an old Roman
Catholic family. Educated at a French convent, she married
first in X775 Edward Weld, who died within the year, and
secondly in 1778 Thomas Fitxherbert, who died in 1781, leaving
his widow with a comfortable fortune. A couple of years later
she became a prominent figure in London society, and her beauty
and charm at once attracted the young prince, who wooed her
with all the ardour of a violent passion. She herself was distracted
between her desire to return his love, her refusal to contemplate
becoming his mistress, and her knowledge that state reasons
made a regular marriage impossible. The Act of Settlement
(1689) entailed his forfeiture of the succession if he married a
Roman Catholic, apart from the fact that the Royal Marriage
Act of x 772 made any marriage illegal without the king's consent,
which was out of the question. But after trying for a while
to escape his attentions, her scruples were overcome. In Mrs
Fitxherbert's eyes the state law was, after all, not everything.
To a Roman Catholic, and equally to any member of the Christian
church, a formal marriage ceremony would be ecclesiastically
and sacramen tally binding; and after a period of passionate
importunacy on his part they were secretly married by the Rev.
R. Burt, a clergyman of the Church of England, on the 15th
of December 1785. 1 There is no doubt as to Mrs Fitxherbert's
belief, supported by ecclesiastical considerations, in her correct
1 For a discussion of the ecdenaatkal validity of the marries*
see W. H. WiUam, Mn Fittktrberi and George IV. (1909), chs. £
aadvii.
7+4
GEORGE IV.
and binding, though admittedly illegal, relationship to the prince
as his canonical wife; and though that relationship was not, and
for political reasons could not be, publicly admitted, it was in
fact treated by their intimates on the footing of a morganatic
marriage. The position nevertheless was inevitably a false one;
Mrs Fitzherbert had promised not to publish the evidence of the
marriage (which, according to a strict interpretation of the Act
of Settlement might have barred succession to the crown), and
the rumours which soon got about led the prince to allow it to be
disavowed by his political friends. He lived in the most extra-
vagant way, became heavily involved in debt, and as the king
would not assist him, shut up Carlton House, and went to live
with Mrs Fitzherbert at Brighton. In 1787 a proposal was
brought before the House of Commons by Alderman Newnham
for a grant in relief of his embarrassments. It was on this
occasion that Fox publicly declared in the House of Commons,
as on the prince's own authority, in answer to allusions to the
marriage, that the story was a malicious falsehood. A little
later Sheridan, in deference to Mrs Fitzherbert 's pressure and
to the prince's own compunction, made a speech guardedly
modifying Fox's statement; but though in private the denial was
understood, it effected its object, the House voting a grant of
£1 2 1 ,000 to the prince and the king adding £10,000 to his income ;
and Mrs Fitzherbert, who at first thought of severing her
connexion with the prince, forgave him. Their union— there was
no child of the marriage — was brutally broken off in June 1794
by the prince, when further pressure of debts (and the influence of
a new Egeria in Lady Jersey) made him contemplate his official
marriage with princess Caroline; in 1S00, however, it was
renewed, after urgent pleading on the prince's part, and after
Mrs Fitzherbert had obtained a formal decision from the pope
pronouncing her to be bis wife, and sanctioning ber taking him
back; her influence over him continued till shortly before the
prince became regent, when his relations with Lady Hertford
brought about a final separation. For the best years of his life
he had at least had in Mrs Fitzherbert the nearest approach to
a real wife, and this was fully recognized by the royal family. 1
But his dissolute nature was entirely selfish, and his various
liaisons ended in the dominance of Lady Conyngham, the " Lady
Steward " of his household, from 182 1 till his death.
Notorious as the prince of Wales had become by 1788, it
was in that year that his father's first attack of insanity made
his position in the state one of peculiar importance. Fox main-
tained and Pitt denied that the prince of Wales, as the heir-
apparent, had a right to assume the regency independently
of any parliamentary vote. Pitt, with the support of both
Houses, proposed to confer upon him the regency with certain
restrictions. The recovery of the king in February 1 789 put an
end, however, to the prince's hopes. In 1704 the prince con-
1 Mrs Fitzherbert herself, after her final separation from the prince,
with an annuity of £6000 a year, lived an honoured and more or less
retired life mainly at Brighton, a town which owed its rapid develop-
ment in fashionable popularity and material wealth to its selection
by the prince and herself as a residence from the earliest veare of
their union; and there she died, seven years after the death of
George IV., in 1837. William IV. on his accession offered to create
her a duchess, but she declined; she accepted, however, his per-
mission to put her servants in royal livery. William IV. in fact did
all he could, short of a public acknowledgment (which the duke of
Wellington opposed on state grounds), to recognize her position
as his brother's widow. Charles Greville, writing of her after her
death, says in his Diary, " She was not a clever woman, but of a verjr
noble spirit, disinterested, generous, honest and affectionate. '
The actual existence of a marriage tie and the documentary evidence
of her rights were not definitely established for many years; but in
1905 a sealed packet, deposited at Coutts's bank in 1833, was at
length opened by royal permission, and the marriage certificate
and other conclusive proofs therein contained were published in
Mr W. H. Wilkins's Mrs Fitzherbert and George IV. In 1796 the
prince had made a remarkable will in Mrs Fitzherbert 's favour,
which he gave her in 1799, and it is included among these documents
(now in the private archives at Windsor). In this he speaks of her
emphatically throughout as " my wife." It also contained directions
that at his death a locket with her miniature, which he always wore,
should be interred with him; and Mrs Fitzherbert was privately
+*sund, on the duke of Wellington's authority, that when the king
was burled at Windsor the miniature was on nis breast.
sented to a marriage with a German Protestant princess, because
his father would not pay his debts on any other terms, and his
cousin, Princess Caroline of Brunswick, was brought over from
Germany and married to him in 1795. Her behaviour was
light and flippant, and he was brutal and unloving. The ill.
assorted pair soon parted, and soon after the birth of their
only child, the princess Charlotte, they were formally separated.
With great unwillingness the House of Commons voted fresh
sums of money to pay the prince's debts.
In 181 1 he at last became prince regent in consequence of his
father's definite insanity. No one doubted at that time that it
was in his power to change the ministry at his pleasure. He had
always lived in close connexion with the Whig opposition, and
he now empowered Lord Grenville to form a ministry. There
soon arose differences of opinion between them on the answer
to be returned to the address of the Houses, and the prince
regent then informed the prime minister, Mr Perceval, that he
should continue the existing ministry in office. The ground
alleged by him for this desertion of his friends was the fear lest
his father's recovery might be rendered impossible if he should
come to hear of the advent of the opposition to power. Lord
Wellcslcy's resignation in February 181 2 made the reconstruction
of the ministry inevitable. As there was no longer any hope of
the king's recovery, the former objection to a Whig administration
no longer existed. Instead of taking the course of inviting
the Whigs to take office, he asked them to join the existing
administration. The Whig leaders, however, refused to join,
on the ground that the question of the Catholic disabilities was
too important to be shelved, and that their difference of opinioa
with Mr Perceval was too glaring to be ignored. The prince
regent was excessively angry, and continued Perceval in office
till that minister's assassination on the xxlh of May, when be
was succeeded by Lord Liverpool, after a negotiation in which
the proposition of entering the cabinet was again made to the
Whigs and rejected by them. In the military glories of the
following years the prince regent had no share. When the,
allied sovereigns visited England in 1S14, he played the part of
host to perfection. m So great was his unpopularity at home that
hisses were heard in the streets as he accompanied his guests
into the city. The disgust which his profligate and luxurious
life caused amongst a people suffering from almost universal
distress after the conclusion of the war rapidly increased, la
181 7 the windows of the prince regent's carriage were broken
as he was on his way to open parliament.
The death of George III. on the 29th of January 1820, gave to
his son the title of king without in any way altering the position
which he had now held for nine years. Indirectly, however,
this change brought out a manifestation of popular feeling such
as his father bad never been subjected to even in the early days
of his reign, when mobs were burning jack-boots and petticoats.
The relations between the new king and his wife unavoidably
became the subject of public discussion. In 1S06 a charge
against the princess of having given birth to an illegitimate
child had been conclusively disproved, and the old king had
consequently refused to withdraw her daughter, the princess
Charlotte, from her custody. When in the regency the prince
was able to interfere, and prohibited his wife from seeing her
daughter more than once a fortnight. Ob this; in 1813, the
princess addressed to her husband a letter setting forth her
complaints, and receiving no answer published it in the If mint
Chronicle, The prince regent then referred the letter, together
with all papers relating to the inquiry of 1806, to a body of
twenty-three privy councillors for an opinion whether it was fit
that the restrictions on the intercourse between the princess
Charlotte and her mother should continue in force. All except
two answered as the regent wished them to answer. But if the
official leaning was towards the husband, the leaning of thegcncral
public was towards the wife of a man whose own life bad not been
such as to justify him in complaining of her whom he had thrust
from him without a charge of any kind. Addresses of sympathy
were sent up to the princess from the city of London and
other public bodies. The discord again broke out in 1814 ia
GEORGE V.
745
consequence of the exclusion of the princess from court during the
visit of the allied sovereigns. In August in that year she left
England, and after a little time took up her abode in Italy. The
accession of George IV. brought matters to a crisis. He ordered
that no prayer for his wife as queen should be admitted into the
Prayer Book. She at once challenged the accusation which was
implied in this omission by returning to England. On the 7th of
June she arrived in London. Before she left the continent she
had been informed that proceedings would be taken against her
for adultery if she landed in England. Two years before, in 1818,
commissioners had been sent to Milan to investigate charges
against her, and their report, laid before the cabinet in 1810,
was made the basis of the prosecution. On the day on which
she arrived in London a message was laid before both Houses
recommending the criminating evidence to parliament. A
secret committee in the House of Lords after considering this
evidence brought in a report on which the prime minister founded
a Bill of Pains and Penalties to divorce the queen and to deprive
her of her royal title. The bill passed the three readings with
diminished majorities, and when on the third reading it obtained
only a majority of nine, it was abandoned by the Government.
The king's unpopularity, great as it had been before, was now
greater than ever. Public opinion, without troubling itself
to ask whether the queen was guilty or not, was roused to
indignation by the spectacle of such a charge being brought by a
husband who had thrust away his wife to fight the battle of life
alone, without protection or support, and who, whilst surrounding
her with spic* to detect, perhaps to invent, her acts of infidelity,
was himself notorious for his adulterous life. In. the following
year (18 2t) she attempted to force her way into Westminster
Abbey to take her place at the coronation. On this occasion
the popular support failed her; and her death in August relieved
the king from further annoyance.
Immediately after the death of the queen, the king set out for
Ireland. He remained there but a short time, and his effusive
declaration that rank, station, honours were nothing compared
with the exalted happiness of living in the hearts of his Irish
subjects gained him a momentary popularity which was beyond
his attainment in a country where he was better known. His
reception in Dublin encouraged him to attempt a visit to Edin-
burgh in the following year (August 1822). Since Charles II.
had come to play the sorry part of a covenanting king in 1650
no sovereign of the country had set foot on Scottish soil. Sir
Walter Scott took the leading part in organizing his reception.
The enthusiasm with which he was received equalled, if it did
not surpass, the enthusiasm with which he had been received in
Dublin. But the qualities which enabled him to fix the fleeting
sympathies of the moment were not such as would enable him
to exercise the influence in the government which had been
indubitably possessed by his father. He returned from Edin-
burgh to face the question of the appointment of a secretary of
state which had been raised by the death of Lord Londonderry
(Castlereagh). It was upon the question of the appointment of
ministers that the battle between the Whigs and the king had
been fought in the reign of George III. George IV. had neither
the firmness nor the moral weight to hold the reins which his
father had grasped. He disliked Canning for having taken his
wife's side very much as his father had disliked Fox for taking
his own. But Lord Liverpool insisted on Canning's admission
to office, and the king gave way. Tacitly and without a struggle
the constitutional victory of the last reign was surrendered.
But it was not surrendered to the same foe as that from which
it had been won. The coalition ministry in 1784 rested on the
great landowners and the proprietors of rotten boroughs. Lord
•Liverpool's ministry had hitherto not been very enlightened,
and it supported itself to a great extent upon a narrow constitu-
ency. But it did appeal to public opinion in a way that the
coalition did not, and what it wanted itself in popular support
would be supplied by its successors. What one king had gained
from a clique another gave up to the nation. Once more, on
Lord Liverpool's death in 1827, the same question was tried
with the same result. The king not only disliked Canning
personally, but he was opposed to Canning's policy.' Yet after
some hesitation he accepted Canning as prime minister; and
when, after Canning's death and the short ministry of Lord
Goderich, the king in 1828 authorized the duke of Wellington to
form a ministry, he was content to lay down the principle that the
members of it were not expected to be unanimous on the Catholic
question. When in 1829 the Wellington ministry unexpectedly
proposed to introduce a Bill to remove the disabilities of the
Catholics, he feebly strove against the proposal and quickly
withdrew his opposition. The worn-out debauchee had neither
the merit of acquiescing in the change nor the courage to
resist it.
George IV. died on the 26th of June 1830, and was succeeded
by his brother, the duke of Clarence, as William IV His only
child by Queen Caroline, the princess Charlotte Augusta, was
married in 1S16 to Leopold of Saxc-Coburg, afterwards king of
the Belgians, and died in childbirth on the 6th of November
181 7.
George IV. was a bad king, and his reign did much to disgust the
country with the Georgian type of monarchy; but libertine and
profligate as he became, the abuse which has been lavished on his
personal character has hardly taken into sufficient consideration
the loose morals of contemporary society, the political position of
the Whig party, and his own ebullient temperament. Thackeray,
in his Four G«or%es, is frequently unfair in this respect. The just
condemnation of the moralist and satirist requires some qualification
in the light of the picture of the period handed down in the memoirs
and diaries of the time, such as Greville's, Crokcr's, Crecvcy's, Lord
Holland's, Lord Malmcsbury's, &c. Among later works sec Tki
First GtntUman of Europe, by Lewis Melville (1906), a book for the
general reader. (S. K. G. ; H. Ch.)
GEORGE V. [George Frederick Ernest Albert], king of
Great Britain and Ireland and of the British Dominions beyond
the Seas, emperor of India (1865- ), second son of King
Edward VII., was born at Marlborough House, London, on the
3rd of June 1865. When four years old, he and his elder brother,
Prince Albert Victor, two years his senior, were placed under
the tutorship of John Ncalc Dalton, then curate of Sand-
ringham. In 1877 the two princes became naval cadets on the
" Britannia " at Spithead, where they passed through the
ordinary curriculum, and in 1870 they joined H.M.S. " Bac-
chante " under the command of Captain Lord Charles Scott,
making a voyage to the West Indies, in the course of which
they were rated midshipmen. After a month at home In 1880
they returned to the ship to make another prolonged cruise in
H.M.S. " Bacchante," in the course of which they visited South
America, South Africa, Australia, the Fiji Islands, Japan, Ceylon,
Egypt, Palestine and Greece. A narrative of this voyage,
The Cruise of H.Af£. " Bacchante," compiled from the letters,
diaries and notebooks of the princes, was published in 1886.
At the dose of this tour in 18S2 the brothers separated. Prince
George, who remained in the naval service, was appointed to
H.M.S. " Canada," commanded by Captain Durrant, on the
North American and West Indian station, and was promoted
sub-lieutenant. On his return home he passed through the
Royal Naval College at Greenwich and the gunnery and torpedo
schools, being promoted lieutenant in 1885. A year later he
was appointed to H.M.S. " Thunderer " of the Mediterranean
squadron, and was subsequently transferred to H.M.S. " Dread-
nought " and H.M.S. " Alexandra." 4n 1889 he joined the
flagship of the Channel squadron, H.M.S. " Northumberland,"
and in that year was in command of torpedo boat No. 79 for
the naval manoeuvres. In 1890 he was put in command of
the gunboat H.M.S. " Thrush "for service on the North American
and West Indian station. After his promotion as commander
in 1891 he commissioned H.M.S. " M clam pus," the command
of which he relinquished on the death of his brother, Albert
Victor, the duke of Clarence, in January 1892, since his duties
as eventual heir to the crown precluded him from devoting
himself exclusively to the navy. He was promoted captain
in 1893, rear-admiral in 1901, and vice-admiral in 1903. He
was created duke of York, carl of Inverness, and Baron Killarnry
In 1892, and on the 6th of July 1893 he married Princess Victoria
Mary (b. toth May 1861^ dsAisjhtet q( Frauds **&&<* 'Mi*
746 GEORGE V., OF HANOVER— GEORGE, OF SAXONY
and Princess Mary Adelaide, duchess of Teck, daughter of
Adolphus Frederick, duke of Cambridge. Their eldest son,
Prince Edward Albert, was born at White Lodge, Richmond,
on the 23rd of June 1894; Prince Albert Frederick George was
born at Sandringham on the 14th of December 1805; Princess
Victoria Alexandra on the 25th of April 1897; Prince Henry
William Frederick Albert on the 51st of March 1900; Prince
George Edward Alexander Edmund on the 20th of December
1002; and Prince John Charles Francis on the 12th of July 1905.
The duke and duchess of York visited Ireland in 1899, and
it had been arranged before the death of Queen Victoria that
they should make a tour in the colonies. On the accession of
King Edward VII. (1901) this plan was confirmed. They sailed
in the " Ophir" on the x6th of March 1901, travelling by the
ordinary route, and landed at Melbourne in May, when they
opened the first parliament of the Commonwealth. They then
proceeded to New Zealand, returning by way of South Africa
and Canada. An official account of the tour was published by
Sir Donald Mackenzie Wallace as The Web of Empire (1002). In
November 1901 the duke was created prince of Wales. On the
death of Edward VII. (May 6, 1910) he succeeded to the Crown
as George V., his consort taking the style of Queen Mary.
GEORGE V., king of Hanover (18 19- 1878), was the only son
of Ernest Augustus, king of Hanover and duke of Cumberland,
and consequently a grandson of the English king George III.
Born in Berlin on the 27th of May 1819, his youth was passed
in England and in Berlin until 1837, when bis father became
king of Hanover and he took up his residence in that country.
He lost the sight of one eye during a childish illness, and the
other by an accident in 1833. Being thus totally blind there
were doubts whether he was qualified to succeed to the govern*
mcnl of Hanover; but his father decided that he should do so,
as the law of the dissolved empire only excluded princes who
were born blind. This decision was a fatal one to the dynasty.
Both from his father and from his maternal uncle, Charles
Frederick, prince of Mccklenburg-Strelitz (1785-1837), one of
the most influential men at the Prussian court, George had learned
to take a very high and autocratic view of royal authority. His
blindness prevented him from acquiring the shrewdness and
knowledge of the world which had assisted his father, and he
easily fell into the hands of unwise, and perhaps dishonest and
disloyal, advisers. A man of deep religious feeling, he formed
a fantastic conception of the place assigned to the house of Guelph
in the divine economy, and had ideas of founding a great Guelph
state in Europe. It is, therefore, not surprising that from the
time of his accession in November 1851 he was constantly
engaged in disputes with his Landtag or parliament, and was
consequently in a weak and perilous position when the crisis
in the affairs of Germany came in 1866. Having supported
Austria in the diet of the German confederation in June 1866,
he refused, contrary to the wishes of his parliament, to assent
to the Prussian demand that Hanover should observe an unarmed
neutrality during the war. As a result his country and his
capital were at once occupied by the Prussians, to whom his
army surrendered on the 29th of June 1866, and in the following
September Hanover was formally annexed by Prussia. From
his retreat at Hietzing near Vienna, George appealed in vain
to the powers of Europe; and supported by a large number of
his subjects, an agitation was carried on which for a time caused
some embarrassment to Prussia. All these efforts, however,
to bring about a restoration were unavailing, and the king passed
the remainder of his life at Gmttndcn in Austria, or in France,
refusing to the last to be reconciled with the Prussian government.
Whilst visiting Paris for medical advice he died in that city on
the 1 2th of June 1878, and was buried in St George's chapel,
Windsor. In February 1843 be had married Marie, daughter
of Joseph, duke of Saxe-Altenburg, by whom be left a son and
two daughters. His son, Ernest Augustus, duke of Cumberland
(b. 1845), continued to maintain the claim of his house to the
kingdom of Hanover.
By the capitulation of 1866 the king was allowed to retain
JUf personal property, which included money ftfl4 ttcurilia
equal to nearly £1,500,000, which had been sent to England
before the Prussian invasion of Hanover. The crown jewels
had also been secretly conveyed to England. His valuable
plate, which bad been hidden at Herrcnhausen, was restored
to him in 1867; his palace at Herrcnhausen, near Hanover,
was reserved as his property; and in 1867 the Prussian govern-
ment agreed to compensate him for the loss of bis landed estates,
but owing to his continued hostility the payment of the in-
terest on this sum was suspended in the following year (see
Hanover).
See O. Klopp, Kdnig Ceorg V. (Hanover. 1878); O. Theodor,
Erinnerungen an Ceorg V. (Bremerhaven, 1878); and O. Mediog,
Mcmoircn tur Zeitgesckkhte (Leipzig, 1881-1884).
GEORGE I., king of the Hellenes (1845- ), second son of
King Christian IX. of Denmark, was born at Copenhagen 00
the 24th of December 1845. After the expulsion of King Otto
in 1862, the Greek nation, by a plebiscite, elected the British
prince, Alfred, duke of Edinburgh (subsequently duke of Coburg),
to the vacant throne, and on his refusal the national assembly
requested Great Britain to nominate a candidate. The choice
of the British government fell on Prince Christian William
Ferdinand Adolphus George of Schkswig-Holstcin-Sonderburg-
GlUcksburg, whose election as king of the Hellenes, with the
title George I., was recognized by the powers (6th of June 1863).
The sister of the new sovereign, Princess Alexandra, had a few
months before (10th March) married the prince of Wales, after-
wards King Edward VII., and his father succeeded to the crown
of Denmark in the following November. Another sister, Princess
Dagmar, subsequently married the grand duke Alexander
Alexandrovitch, afterwards Emperor Alexander III. of Russia.
On his accession, King George signed an act resigning his right
of succession to the Danish throne in favour of his younger
brother Prince Waldemar. He was received with much enthusiasm
by the Greeks. Adopting the motto, " My strength is the love
of my people," he ruled in strict accordance with constitutional
principles, though not hesitating to make the fullest use of the
royal prerogative when the intervention of the crown seemed to
be required by circumstances. For the events of his reign see
Greece: History.
King George married, on the 27th of October 1867, the grand
duchess Olga Const ant inovna of Russia, who became distinguished
in Greece for her activity on behalf of charitable objects. Their
children were Prince Constantino, duke of Sparta (b. 1868), who
married in 1889 Princess Sophia of Prussia, daughter of the
emperor Frederick, and granddaughter of Queen Victoria;
Prince George (b. 1869), from November 1808 to October 1906
high commissioner of the powers in Crete; Prince Nicholas
(b. 1872), who married in 1002 the grand duchess Helen- Vladi-
mirovna of Russia; Prince Andrew (b. 1882), who married in
1003 Princess Alice of Battenberg; Prince Christopher (b, 1888);
and a daughter, Princess Marie (b. 1876), who married in 1900
the grand duke George MichailovVch of Russia.
GEORGE, king of Saxony (183 2-1 004), the youngest son of
King John of Saxony (d. 1873) and Queen Amelia, was born at
Dresden on the 8th of August 1832* From an early age he
received a careful scientific and military training, and in 1 846
entered the active army as a lieutenant of artillery. In 1840-
1850 he was a student at the university of Bonn, but soon returned
to military life, for which he had a predilection. In the Austrc-
Prussian War of 1866 he commanded a Saxon cavalry brigade,
and in the early part of the war of 1870-71 a division, but
later succeeded to the supreme command of the XII. (Saxon)
army corps in the room- of his brother, the crown prince Albert
(afterwards king) of Saxony. His name is inseparably associated
with this campaign, during which he showed undoubted military
ability and an intrepidity which communicated itself to all
ranks under his command, notably at the battles of St Privat
and Beaumont, in which he greatly distinguished himself. On
his brother succeeding to the throne he became commander-in:
chief of the Saxon army, and was in 1888 made a Prussian
field marshal by the emperor William I. He married in 1850
1 the. VdIviI* MvcvitSisAKx q( Kin& Louis of Portugal, and Xing
GEORGE OF LAODICEA— GEORGE, HENRY
747
Alberfirxnarriage being childless, succeeded on his death in 1902
to the throne of Saxony. He died on the 15th of October 1004,
at Pillnitz.
GEORGE OF LAODICEA in Syria, often called " the Cappa-
dociari," from 356 to 361* Arian archbishop of Alexandria, was
born about the beginning of the 4th century. According to
Ammianus (xxiL xi), he was a native of Epiphania, in Cilicia.
Gregory Nazianzcn tells us that his father was a fuller, and that
he himself soon became notorious as a parasite of so mean a
type that he would "sell himself for a cake." After many
wanderings, in the course of which he seems to have amassed
a considerable fortune, first as an army-contractor and then as
a receiver of taxes, he ultimately reached Alexandria. It is not
known how or when he obtained ecclesiastical orders; but,
after Athanasius had been banished in 356, George was pro-
moted by the influence of the then prevalent Arian faction'to the
vacant sec. His theological attitude was that known as scmi-
Arian or Homoiousian, and his associates were Eustathius of
Sebaste and Basil of Ancyra. At George's instigation the
second Sirmian formula (promulgated by the third council of
Sirmium 357), which was conciliatory towards strict Arianism,
was opposed at the council of Ancyra in 358 (Harnack, Hist,
of Dogma, iv. 76). His persecutions and oppressions of the
orthodox ultimately raised a rebellion which compelled him to
flee for his life; but his authority was restored,- although with
difficulty, by a military demonstration. Untaught by experience,
he resumed his course of selfish tyranny over Christians and
heathen alike, and raised the irritation of the populace to such
a pitch that when, on the accession of Julian, his downfall was
proclaimed and he was committed to prison, they dragged him
thence and killed him, finally casting his body into the sea
(24th of December 361). With much that was sordid and
brutal in his character George combined a highly cultivated
literary taste, and in the course of his chequered career he had
found the means of collecting a splendid library, which Julian
ordered to be conveyed to Antioch for his own use. An anony-
mous work against the Manichcans discovered by Lagarde in
1S59 in a MS. of Titus of Bostra has been attributed to him.
The original sources for the facts of the life of George of Laodicea
are Ammianus. Gregory Nazianzen, Epiphanius and Athanasius.
His character has been drawn with graphic fidelity by Gibbon in
the 23rd chapter of the Decline and Fall; but the theory, accepted
jC 33rd chapter or the Ucclme and fall; but the theory, r .._
by Gibbon, which identifies him with the patron saint of England it
now rejected (see Georgr, Saint). See C. S. Hulst, St George of
ppaiocia in Legend and History (1910).
Cap*
GEORGB OF TREBIZOND (1395-1484), Greek philosopher
and scholar, one of the pioneers of the revival of letters in the
Western world, was bom in the island of Crete, and derived
his surname Trapezuntios from the fact that his ancestors were
from Trebizond. At what period he came to Italy is not certain;
according to some accounts he was summoned to Venice about
X430 to act as amanuensis to Francesco Barbara, who appears
to have already made his acquaintance; according to others he
did not visit Italy till the time of the council of Florence (143&-
1439). He learned Latin from Vittorino da Feltre, and made
such rapid progress that in three years he was able to teach
Latin literature and rhetoric. His reputation as a teacher and
a translator of Aristotle was very great, and he was selected as
secretary by Pope Nicholas V., an ardent Aristotelian. The
needless bitterness of his attacks upon Plato (in the Com par at io
Aristoldis et Plalonis), which drew forth a powerful response
from Bessarion (?.v.)> and the manifestly hurried and inaccurate
character of his translations of Plato, Aristotle and other classical
authors, combined to ruin his fame as a scholar, and to endanger
his position as a teacher of philosophy. The indignation against
him on account of his first-named work was so great that he
would probably have been compelled to leave Italy had not
Alphonso V. given him protection at the court of Naples. He
subsequently returned to Rome, where he died in great poverty
on the 1 2th of August 1484. He had long outlived his
reputation, and towards the end of his Kfe-his Intellect failed him.
From ail accounts he was a man of very disagreeable character,
conceited and quarrelsome.
*e G. Voigt. Die Wiederbelebung des klossiscken AUertums (1891),
i article by C. F. Bahr in Erich and Gruber's AUtemeine EncyUe*
lie. For a complete list of his numerous works, consisting of
nslations from Greek into Latin (Plato, Aristotle and the Fathers)
1 original essays in Greek (chiefly theological) and Latin (gram*
tical and rhetorical), see 'Fabricius, Bibtiotheta Grace* (ed.
rlcs), xii.
BEORGB THE MONK [Georgzos Monachos], called Hamar-
os (Greek for " sinner "), Byzantine chronicler, lived during
1 reign of Michael III. (843-867). He wrote a Chronicle of
mts, in four books, from the creation of the world to the death
Lhe emperor Thcophilus (842), whose widow Theodora restored
i worship of images in the same year. It is the only original
itemporary authority for the years 813-842, and therefore
far indispensable; the early parts of the work are merely a
npilation. In the introduction the author disclaims all prec-
isions to literary style, and declares that his only object was
relate such things as were " useful and necessary " with a
ict adherence to truth. Far too much attention, however,
devoted to religious matters; the iconoclasts arc fiercely
acked, and the whole is interlarded with theological discussions
1 quotations from the fathers. The work was very popular,
i translations of it served as models for Slavonic writers,
e MSS. give a continuation down to 048, the author of which
indicated simply as " the logothcte," by whom probably
tncon Mctaphrastes (second half of the 10th century) is meant.
this religious questions are relegated to the background,
re attention is devoted to political history, and the language
more popular. Still further continuations of little value go
wi to 1 143. The large circulation of the work and. its sub-
[ucnt reissues, with alterations and interpolations, make it
y difficult to arrive at the original text.
editions: E. dc Muralt (St ^Petersburg, 1859); J. P. Migne,
Irologia Graeca, ex.; C. dc Boor (in TcuBncr scries, 1904- ).
: F. Hirsch, Bysantinische Studitn (1876); C. dc Boor in His*
sche Untersuckungcn (in honour of Arnold Schafer, Bonn, 1882);
Krumbacher, Gcsckichle der byianlinischcn Litteratur (1897).
3E0RGE THE SYNCELLUS [Georcios SynkellosJ, of
nstantinoplc, Byzantine chronicler and ecclesiastic, lived
the end of the 8th and the beginning of the 9th century a.d.
was the synccllus (cell-mate, the confidential caropanion
igncd to the patriarchs, sometimes little more than a spy;
Svncellus) or private secretary of Tara(u)sius, patriarch
Constantinople (784-806), after whose death he retired to a
lvcnt, and wrote his Chronicle of events from Adam to Dio-
tian (285). At his earnest request, the work, which he doubt-
> intended to bring down to his own times, was continued after
death by his friend Thcophanes Confessor. The Chronicle,
ich, as its title implies, is rather a chronological table (with
les) than a history, is written with special reference to pre-
ristian times and the introduction of Christianity, and exhibits
i author as a staunch upholder of orthodoxy. But in spite of
religious bias and dry and uninteresting character, the frag-
nts of ancient writers and apocryphal books preserved in it
der it specially valuable. For instance, considerable portions
the original text of the Chronicle of Eusebius have been
tored by the aid of Syncellus. His chief authorities were
nianus of Alexandria (5th century) and Panodorus, an
yptian monk, who wrote about the year 400 and drew largely
m Eusebius, Dexippus and Julius Africanus.
Iditio princeps, by J. Gear (1652); in Bonn Corpus scriptorum
" byWTDindorf(i82 9 ). See a •• ~ ' ■ - -
,h\ 1 (18
leratur (1897).
. Byz., by W. Dindorf (1829)! See also H. Gelzef, Sextus Julius
, if. 1 (1885) ; C. Krumbacher, Geschichle der bynntinischen
IEORGE, HENRY (1839- 1897), American author and political
nomist, was born in Philadelphia, Penn., oh the 2nd of Sep-
iber 1839. He settled in California in 1858; removed to
w York, 1880; was first a printer, then an editor, but finally
t>ted all his life to economic and social questions. In 1871
published Our Land Policy, which, as further developed in
9 under the title of Progress and Poverty, speedily attracted
widest attention both in America and in Europe. In 1886
published Protection or Free Trade. Henry George had no
[Heal atafbrlfcra, but in 1886 he received an, taia>$e»faB&
ainalUm u may* «AT&«* , H<s&><2fcs ,«A\*km».<» v*»fc»
74»
GEORGE PISIDA— GEORGE, LAJCB
that it required a coalition of the two strongest political parties
to prevent his election. He received 68,000 votes, against
00,000 for the coalition candidate. His death on the 29th of
October 1897 was followed by one of the greatest demonstrations
Of popular feeling and general respect that ever attended the
funeral of any strictly private citizen in American history.
The fundamental doctrine of Henry George, the equal right of
all men to the use of the earth, did not originate with him; but
his clear statement of a method by which it could be enforced,
without increasing state machinery, and indeed with a great
simplification of government, gave it a new form. This method
he named the Single Tax. His doctrine may be condensed as
follows: The bmd of every country belongs of right to all the
people of that country. This right cannot be alienated by one
generation, so as to affect the title of the next, any more than
men can sell their yet unborn children for slaves. Private
ownership of land has no more foundation in morality or reason
than private ownership of air or sunlight. But the private
occupancy and use of land are right and indispensable. Any
attempt to divide land into equal shares is impossible and un-
desirable. Land should be, and practically is now, divided for
private use in parcels among those who will pay the highest price
for the use of each parcel. This price is now paid to some persons
annually, and it is called rent. By applying the rent of land,
exclusive of all improvements, to the equal benefit of the whole
community, absolute justice would be done to all. As rent is
always more than sufficient to defray all necessary expenses of
government, those expenses should be met by a tax upon rent
alone, to be brought about by the gradual abolition of all other
taxes. Landlords should be left in undisturbed possession and
nominal ownership of the land, with a sufficient margin over the
tax to induce them to collect their rents and pay the lax. They
would thus be transformed into mere land agents. Obviously
this would involve absolute free trade, since all taxes on imports,
manufactures, successions, documents, personal property, build-
ings or improvements would disappear. Nothing made by man
would be taxed at all. The right of private property in all things
made by man would thus be absolute, for the owner of such
things could not be divested of his property, without full com-
pensation, even under the pretence of taxation. The idea of
concentrating all taxes upon ground-rent has found followers
in Great Britain, North America, Australia and New Zealand.
In practical politics this doctrine is confined to the "Single Tax,
Limited," which proposes to defray only the needful public
expenses from ground-rent, leaving the surplus, whatever it
may be, in the undisturbed possession of land-owners.
The principal books by Henry George are: Progress and Poverty
J1879). The Irish Land Question (1881), Social Problems (1884),
Protection or Free Trade (1886), The Condition of Labor (1891),
A Perplexed Philosopher (1892), Political Economy (1898). His son,
Henry George (b. 1862), has written a Life (1900). For the Single
Tax theory ace Shearman's Natural Taxation (1899). O". G. S.)
GEORGE PISIDA [Geokcios Pisides], Byzantine poet, born in
Pisidia, flourished during the 7th century a.o. Nothing is known
of him except that he was a deacon and chartophylax (keeper
of the records) of the church of St Sophia. His earliest work,
in three cantos (Acpodavts), on the campaign of the emperor
Heraclius against the Persians, seems to be the work of an eye-
witness. This was followed by the Avarice, an account of a
futile attack on Constantinople by the Avars (626), said to have
been repulsed by the aid of the Virgin Mary; and by the Hcradias,
a general survey of the exploits of Heraclius both at home and
abroad down to the final overthrow of Chosroes in 627. George
Pisida was also the author of a didactic poem, Hcxaemeron or
Cosmourgia, upon the creation of the world; a treatise on the
vanity of life, after the manner of Ecclcsiastcy, a controversial
composition against Severus, bishop of Antioch; two short poems
upon the resurrection of Christ and on the recovery of the sacred
crucifix stolen by the Persians. The metre chiefly used is the
iambic. As a versifier Pisida is correct and even elegant; as a
chronicler of contemporary events he is exceedingly useful;
Mad later Byzantine writers enthusiastically compared him with,
Mad even preferred him to Euripides. Recent criticism, however.,
characterizes his compositions as artificial and almost uniformly
duU.
Complete works in J. P. Migne, Patrotogia Craeea. xcii.; see alio
De Ccorgii Pisida* a pud Theophanem aliosqu* historic** reliqum.
(1900), by S. L. Sternbach, who has edited several new poemi fur
the first time from a Paris MS. in Wiener Stndien, xiii.. xiv. (1891-
1892); C. Krumbacher. Ceschichte der byzattiiniscken LiUetetnt
(1897); C. F. Bahr in Ersch and Grubcr's AUgcmcine Encyklopudu.
GEORGE. LAKE, a lake in the £. part of New York, U.S.A.,
among the S.E. foothills of the Adirondack Mountains. It
extends from N.N.E. to S.S.W. about 34 m., and varies in width
from 2 to 4 m. It has a maximum depth of about 400 ft., and is
323 ft. above the sea and 227 ft. above Lake Champlain, into
which it has an outlet to the northward through a narrow channel
and over falls and rapids. The lake is fed chiefly by mountain
brooks and submerged springs; its bed is for the most part
covered with a clean sand; its clear water is coloured with
beautiful tints of blue and green; and its surface is studded with
about 220 islands and islets, all except nineteen of- which belong
to the stale and constitute a part of its forest reserve. Near the
head of the lake is Prospect Mountain, rising 1736 ft. above the
sea, while several miles farther down the shores is BlackMountain,
2661 ft. in height. Lake George has become a favourite sum ma
resort. Lake steamers ply between the village of Lake George
(formerly Caldwell) at the southern end of the lake and Baldwin,
whence there is rail connexion with Lake Champlain steamers.
Lake George was formed during the Glacial period by glacial
drift which clogged a pre-existing valley. According to Prof. J. F.
Kemp the valley occupied by Lake George was a low pass before
the Glacial period; a dam of glacial drift at the southern end
and of lacustrine clays at the northern end formed the lake which
has submerged the pass, leaving higher parts as islands. Before
the advent of the white man the lake was a part of the war-path
over which the Iroquois Indians frequently made their way
northward to attack the Algonquins and the Hurons, and during
the struggle between the English and the French for supremacy
in America, waterways being still the chief means of communica-
tion, it was of great strategic importance (see Champlain, Laic).
Father Isaac Jogues, Ren6 Goupil and Guillaume Couture
seem to have been the first white men to see the lake (on the 9th
of August 1642) as they were being taken by their Iroquois
captors from the St Lawrence to the towns of the Mohawks,
and in 1646 Father Jogues, having undertaken a half -religious,
half-political mission to the Mohawks, was again at the lake,
to which, in allusion to his having reached it on the eve of Corpus
Christi, he gave the name Lac Saint Sacremcnt. This name
it bore until the summer of 1755, when General William Johnson
renamed it Lake George in honour of King George II.
General Johnson was at this time in command of a force of
colonists and Indians sent against the French at Crown Point on
Lake Champlain. The expedition, however, had proceeded
no farther than to the head of Lake George when Johnson was
informed that a force of French and Indians under Baron Ludwig
August Dicskau was pushing on from Crown Point to Fort
Lyman (later Fort Edward), 24 m. to the S. of their encampment.
Accordingly, on the morning of the 8th of September.* detach-
ment of 1000 colonials under Colonel Ephraim Williams (1715-
1755) *nd 200 Indians under Hendrick, a Mohawk chief, was
sent to aid Fort Lyman, but when about 3 m. S. of the lake this
detachment fell into an ambuscade prepared for it by Dieskaa
and both Williams and Hendrick were killed. The survivor;
were pursued to their camp, and then followed on the same day
the main battle of Lake George, in which 1000 colonials fighting
at first behind a hastily prepared barricade defeated about 1400
French and Indians. Both commanders were wounded; Dieskau
was captured; the French lost about 300; and the colonials
nearly the same (including those who fell earlier in the day).
Johnson now built on the lake shore, near the battlefield, a fort
of gravel and logs and called it Fort William Henry (the site was
occupied by the Fort William Henry Hotel till it was burned
in 1909). In the meantime the French entrenched them-
selves at Ticondcroga at the foot, of the lake. In March 1757
\ Yot\. VTAWam "Wsvrj ^wws&VvWj V\\.W«*i an. attack of 1600
GEORGE JUNIOR REPUBLIC— GEORGETOWN
men sent out by the marquis dc Vaudreuil, governor of Canada,
but on the 9th of August of the same year its garrison, after
being reduced to desperate straits, surrendered to the marquis de
Montcalm. By the terms of surrender the garrison was to be
allowed to march out with the honours of war and was to be
escorted to Fort Edward, but the guard provided by Montcalm
was inadequate to protect them from his Indian allies and on the
day following the surrender many were massacred or taken
prisoners. The fort was razed to the ground. In 1758 General
James Abercrombie proceeded by way of Lake George against
Fort Ticonderoga, and in 1759 Baron Jeffrey Amherst, while on
his way to co-operate with General James Wolfe against Quebec,
built near the site of Fort William Henry one bastion of a fort
since known as Fort George, the ruins of which still remain.
A monument commemorative of the battle of Lake George
was unveiled on the 8th of September 1903, on the site of the
battle, and within the state reservation of 35 acres known as
Fort George Battle Park. Horicon is a name that was given
to the lake by James Fenimore Cooper The Indian name of
the lake was Andia-ta-roc-te.
See Francis Parkman. Montcalm and Wolfe (Boston, 1884), and
E. E. Seelye, Lake George in History (Lake George, 1897).
GEORGE JUNIOR REPUBLIC, an American industrial
institution, situated near the small village of Frceville, in Tomp-
kins county, New York, U.S.A., 9 m. E.N.E. of Ithaca, at the
junction of the Sayre- Auburn and the Elmira-Cortland branches
of the Lehigh Valley railway. The George Junior Republic
forms a miniature state whose economic, civic and social condi-
tions, as nearly as possible, reproduce those of the United States,
and whose citizenship is vested in young people, especially those
who are neglected or wayward, who are thus taught self-reliance,
self-control and morality. The founder, William Reuben George
(b. 1866), was a native of West Dryden, a village near Freeville,
who as a business man in New York City became interested in
the Fresh Air Fund charity supervised by the New York Tribune,
took charge of summer outings for city children (1800-1894),
and, becoming convinced that such charities tended to promote
pauperism and crime among the older of their proteges, devised
first (1894) the plan of requiring payment by the children in
labour for all they received during these summer jaunts, then
(1895) self-government for a summer colony near Freeville,
and finally a permanent colony, in which the children stay for
several years. The Republic was founded on the iotb of July
1895; the only check on the powers of executive, representative
and judicial branches of the government lies in the veto of the
superintendent. " Nothing without labour " is the motto of
the community, so strictly carried out that a girl or boy in the
Republic who has not money l to pay for a night's lodging must
sleep in jail and work the next day for the use of the cell. The
legislative body, originally a House of Representatives and a
Senate, in 1809 became more like the New England town meeting.
The respect for the law that follows its enactment by the citizens
themselves is remarkable in a class so largely of criminal tend-
encies; and it is particularly noticeable that positions on the
police force are eagerly coveted. Fifteen is the age of majority;
suffrage is universal, children under fifteen must be in charge of a
citizen guardian. The average age of citizens was seventeen in
1908. The proportion of girls to boys was originally small, but
gradually increased; in 1008 there were about 70 girls and 90 boys.
The tendency is to admit only those aged at least sixteen and
physically well equipped. In the Republic's earlier years .the
citizens lived in boarding-houses of different grades, but later in
family groups in cottages (there were in 1910 twelve cottages)
under the care of " house-mothers." The labour of the place is
divided into sewing, laundry work, cooking and domestic service
for the girls, and furniture making, carpentry, farm work, baking
bread and wafers (the business of an Auburn biscuit factory was
bought in 1903), plumbing and printing for the boys. Masonry and
1 The " government " issued its own currency in tin and later
in aluminium, and " American " money could not be passed within
the 48 acres of the Republic until 1906, when depreciation forced the
Republic's coinage out of use and American " coin was made legal
tender.
749
shoe and harness making were tried for a few years. There is
an efficient preparatory and high school, from which students
enter directly leading colleges. The religious influence is strong,
wholesome and unsectarian; students in Auburn Theological
Seminary have assisted in the religious work: Roman Catholic
and Hebrew services are also held; and attendance at church
services is compulsory only on convicts and prisoners.
There are " Woman's Aid " societies in New York City,
Ithaca, Syracuse, Buffalo, Boston and elsewhere, to promote
the work of the Republic. A " republic " for younger boys,
begun at Freeville, was established in Litchfield, Connecticut;
and a National Junior Republic near Annapolis Junction,
Maryland, and a Carter Junior Republic at Readington, near
Easton, Pennsylvania, are modelled on the George Junior
Republic. In 1908-1010 new "states" were established at
Chino, California, Grove City, Pennsylvania, and Flemington
Junction, New Jersey. In February 1008 the National Associa-
tion of Junior Republics was formed with Mr George (its founder)
as its director, its aims being to establish at least one " republic "
in each state of the Union, and in other countries similar institu-
tions for youth and miniature governments modelled on that of
the country in which each " state " is established, and to establish
colonies for younger children, to be sent at the age of fifteen
to the Junior Republic. At the time of its formation the National
Association included the " states " at Freeville, N.Y , Litchfield,
Conn., and Annapolis Junction, Md.; others joined the federa-
tion later.
See William R. George, The Junior Republic: its History and
Ideals (New York, 1910); The Junior Republic Citizen (Freeville.
1895 sqq.)t written and printed by "citizens"; Nothing Without
Labor, George Junior Republic (7th ed., Freeville, 1909), a manual;
J. R. Commons, " The J unior Republic," in The A merican Journal
of Sociology (1898); D. F. Lincoln, *' The George Junior Republic,"
in The Coming Age (1900); and Lyman Abbott, "A Republic
within a Repubiic,' r in the Outlook for February 15, 1908.
GEORGETOWN, the capital of British Guiana (see Gttcana),
and the seat of the colonial government, situated on the left
bank of the Demerara river at its mouth, in 6° 29' 24' N. and
58 xx' 30* W. It was known during the Dutch occupation
as Stabroek, and was established as the seat of government
of the combined colonies of Essequibo and Demerara (now with
Berbice forming the three counties of British Guiana) in 1784,
its name being changed to Georgetown in 1812. It is one of
the finest towns in this part of the world, the streets being wide
and straight, intersecting each other at right angles, several
having double roadways with lily-covered canals in the centre,
the grass banks on either side carrying rows of handsome shade
trees. In Main Street, the finest street in Georgetown, the canal
has been filled in to form a broad walk, an obvious precedent
for the treatment of the other canals, which (however beautiful)
are useless and merely act as breeding grounds for mosquitoes.
The principal residences ..standing in their own gardens surrounded
by foliage and flowers, are scattered over the town, as are also
the slums, almost the worst of which abut on the best residential
quarters. Water Street, the business centre, runs parallel to
the river for about *\ m. and contains the stores of the wholesale
and retail merchants, their wharves running out into the river
to allow steamers to come alongside. Most of the houses and
public buildings are constructed of wood, the former generally
raised on brick pillars some 4 ft. to xo ft. from the ground, the
bright colouring of the wooden walls, jalousies and roofs adding
to the beauty of the best streets. The large structure known
as the Public Buildings in the centre of the city, containing
the offices of the executive government and the hall of the
court of policy, was erected between 1829 and 1834. It is a
handsome, E-shaped, brick-plastered building of considerable
size, with deep porticos and marble-paved galleries carried oxr
cast-iron columns. The law courts, built in the 'eighties, have
a ground floor of concrete and iron, the upper storey being of
hardwood. Among other public buildings arc the town hall,
the Anglican and Roman Catholic cathedrals, several handsome
churches, the local banks and insurance offices, and the almshouse.
The public hospital consists of several large blocks. The Royal
752
GEORGIA
and Effingham counties. Here the prevailing soils are grey and
sandy with a subsoil of loam, but they are less fertile than those
of the Lime Sink or Cotton Belts. The coast counties of the S.E.
and generally those on the Florida frontier are not suitable for
cultivation, on account of the numerous marshes and swamps,
Okefinokee Swamp being 45 m. long and approximately 30 m.
wide; but the southern portions of Decatur, Grady, Thomas and
Brooks counties arc sufficiently elevated for agriculture, and the
islands off the coast are exceedingly productive.
had been worked [or tombstones near I ate, the centre of the marble
belt, in 1840; after its commercial exploitation it was used in the
capitol buildings of Georgia, Rhode Island, Mississippi and Minne-
sota, in the Corcoran Art Gallery, Washington, D.C., and in St
Luke's Hospital, New York City. It is sometimes used for the
entire building, and sometimes only for decoration. Other colours
than the snowy white are found tn the main marble belt of the
state, which runs from Canton, Cherokee county, 60 m. generally
N. to the northern boundary of the state. Other deposits, less well
known, are the dark brown and light grey marbles of Whitfield
county, which resemble the stone quarried in eastern Tennessee.
Limestone and slate are quarried at Rock Mart, Polk county, and
there arc cement quarries at Cement, near Kingston, Bartow county.
Iron deposits occur in Bartow, Polk and Floyd counties, where are
the more important brown ores, and (red ores) in Walker and
Chattooga counties. The quantity of iron ore mined in Georgia
declined from 1890 to 1900; it was 200,842 long tons in 1905 and
321,060 long tons in 1908. when 319,812 tons were brown haematite
and 1248 tons were red haematite. Before the discovery of gold
in California the Georgia " placers " were very profitable, the earliest
mining being in 1829 by placer miners from the fields of Burke
county, North Carolina, wl
county, and went thence t
Dahlonega and Auraria, the
owned a mine there, were
Work was summarily stop
governor's proclamation in
minimi region; but it was so
at Dahlonega in 1838. Aft
mining in Georgia was not
scale until the early 'eighties
at $56,207 (it was $96,910
f 106. Up to 1909 the gold
Survey Bulletin 19) was abou
occur in all parts of the sta
parativc freedom from impi
the most valuable are sedin
wide across the middle of the state from Augusta to Columbus.
In 1908 the clay products of the state were valued at $1,928,611.
More asbestos has been found in Georgia than in any other state of
the Union; it occurs in the amphibole form throughout the N. nart
of the state, and most of the country's domestic supply comes from
the Sail Mountain mine in White county. Manganese ores, found
in Bartow, Polk and Floyd counties, were formerly important;
in 1896 4096 long tons were mined, in 1905 only 150 tons, and in
1908 none. Bauxite was found in Georgia first of the United States,
near Rome, in 1887; the output, principally from Floyd, Bartow
and Polk counties, was the entire product of the United States until
1891, and in 1902 was more than half the country's product, but in
1908, even when combined with the Alabama output, was less than
the amount mined in Arkansas. Coal is not extensively found, but
the mine on Sand Mountain, in Walker county, was one of the first
opened S. of the Ohio river; in 1908 the value of the coal mined in the
state was $364,279 (264,822 short tons), the value of coke at the ovens
wa » $ 1 37*524 (39.42J short tons), and the value of ammonium sul-
phate, coal tar, illuminating gas and gas coke was more than $800,000.
Copper was mined in Fannin and Cherokee counties before the Ovfl
War. In 1906 the copper mined was valued at $5957* Coruaduia
was discovered on Laurel Creek in Rabun county in 1871, and was
worked there and at Trackrock, Union county, especially betweea
1880 and 1893. but in later years low prices closed most of the mines.
The limestone formations furnished most of the lime for domestic
use. Sandstone, ochre, slate, soapstone. graphite arc also mined,
and lead, sine, barytcs, gypsum and even diamonds have been
discovered but not exploited.
Agriculture. — The principal occupation in Georgia is agricul-
ture, which in 1900 engaged seven-tenths of the land surface of the
state and the labour of three-fifths of the population, ten years
old and over, who are employed in profitable occupations. The
products are so diversified that, with the exception of some
tropical fruits of California and Florida, almost everything
cultivated in the United States can be produced. The chief
staple is cotton, of which a valuable hybrid called the Floradora
a cross of long and short staple, has been singularly successful
Cotton is raised in all counties of the state except Rabun, Towns
and Fannin in the extreme north, and about one-third of the
total cultivated land of the state was devoted to it in 1900- 1007.
In 1890-1904 the crop exceeded that of the other cotton-produc-
ing states except Texas, and in 1899, 1900 and 1903 Mississippi,
averaging 1,407,121 commercial bales per annum; the crop
in 1004 was 1,991,719 bales, and in 1907-190S the crop was
1 1815,834 bales, second only to the crop of Texas. The cause of
this extensive cultivation of cotton is not a high average yield
per acre, but the fact that before i860 " Cotton was King,"
and that the market value of the staple when the Civil War
closed was so high that farmers began to cultivate it to the ex-
clusion of the cereals, whose production, Indian corn excepted,
showed a decline during each decade from 1879 to 1800. But
in the 'nineties the price of the cotton fell below the cost of pro-
duction, owing to the enormous supply, and this was accompanied
by economic depression. These conditions have caused some
diversification of crops, and successful experiments in cattle*
raising, movements encouraged by the Department of Agriculture
and the leading newspapers.
The principal cereals cultivated are Indian corn (product,
53,750,000 bushels in 1908) and wheat; the cultivation of the
latter, formerly remunerative, declined on account of the com-
petition of the Western States, but revived after 1800, largely
owing to the efforts of the Georgia Wheat Growers' Association
(organized in 1897), and in 1908 the yield was 2,208,000 bushels.
The sugar-cane crop declined in value after 1890, and each
year more of it was made into syrup. In 1008 the tobacco crop
was 2,705,625 lb, and the average farm price was 35 cents,
being nearly as high as that of the Florida crop; Sumatra leaf
for wrappers is grown successfully. The acreage and product of
tobacco and peanuts increased from 1890 to 1000 respectively
188% and 319*2%* ar >d 92 6% and 129-9%. and in the pro-
duction of sweet potatoes Georgia was in 1809 surpassed only
by North Carolina. Alfalfa and grasses grow well. Truck
farming and the cultivation of orchard and small fruits have
long been remunerative occupations; the acreage devoted to
peaches doubled between 1890 and 1900. Pecan nuts are aa
increasingly important crop.
Agriculture in Georgia was in a state of transition at the beginaing
itury Owing to the abundance of land and to negro
tative methods of cultivation were employed before
and such methods, by which lands after being worked
ire deserted for new fields, had not yet been altogether
me reason for this was that, according to the census
f 9 of the farms were operated by negroes, of whoa
its who desired to secure the greatest possible product
I to the care of the soil. Consequently there were
untitled " waste " land ; but these rapidly responded
and rotation of crops, often yielding 800 to 1200 fi>
of cotton per acre, and Georgia in 1809 used more fertilizers than any
other state in the Union. Another feature of agriculture in Georgia
was the great increase in the number of farms, the average sise of
plantations having declined from 440 acres in i860 to 117*5 in 1900.
or almost 75%, while the area in cultivation increased only l$*6%
between 1 850 and 1 900. The tenantry system was also undergoing a
change—the share system which developed in the years siicceediaf
the Civil War being replaced by a system of cash rental.
Manufactures. — Although excelled by Alabama in the
II
GEORGIA
753
Manufacture of mineral products, and by North Carolina and
South Carolina in the number and output of cotton mills, in 1000
and in 1005 Georgia surpassed each of those states in the total
value of factory products, which was, however, less than the value
of the factory products of Louisiana and Virginia among the
southern states. The chief features of this industrial activity
are its early beginning and steady, constant development. As
far back as 1850 there were 1522 manufacturing establishments
(35 of which were cotton mills) in the state, whose total product
was valued at $7,082,075. Despite the Civil War, there was
some advance during each succeeding decade, the most prosperous
relatively being that from 1S80 to 1800. In 1900 the number of
establishments was 7504, an increase of 75-1% over the number
in 1890; the capital invested was $89,789,656, an increase of
57*7 °/ot and the value of products ($106,654,5:7) was 54-8%
more than in 1890. Of the 7504 establishments in 1900, 3015
were conducted under the " factory system," and had a capital
of $79,303,316 and products valued at $94,532,368. In 1005
there were 3219 factories, with a capital of $135,211,551 (an
increase of 70-5% over 1900), and a gross product valued at
$151,040,455 (59*8% greater than the value of the factory
product in 1000).
The most important manufacturing industries are those that
depend upon cotton for raw material, with a gross product in 1900
valued at S 67 mills engaged
in the man al of $24,158,159,
and they yi ,645 : the increase
between 19 (and proportion-
ately very 1900; the number
of factories 7% over 1900);
their capita 1 1900) ; and their
gross produ ise of 906 % since
1900). Th <n manufacturing
states was s otton-sccd oil and
cake factor rora 1890 to 1900,
and to 112 ct increased from
$1,670.1961 nd to $13,539,899
in 1905, or 1900 and in 1905
the state n try in the United
States. This growth in cotton manufactures is due to various
causes, among them being the proximity of raw material, convenient
water-power, municipal exemption from taxation and the cheapness
of labour. The relation between employer and employee is in the
main far more personal and kindly than in the mills of the Northern
States.
The forests of Georgia, next to the fields, furnish the largest
amount of raw material for manufactures. The yellow pines of the
southern part of the state, which have a stand of approximately
13,778,000 ft., yielded in 1 000 rosin and turpentine valued at
$8,1 10,468 (more than the product of any other state in the Union)
and in 1905 valued at $7,705,643 (second only to the product of
Florida). From the same source was derived most of the lumber
product valued* in 1900 at $13,341,160 (more than double what it
was in 1890) and in 1905 at $16,716,594. The other important
woods arc cypress, oak and poplar.
Fourth in value in 1905 (first, cotton goods; second, lumber and
timber; third, cotton-seed oil and cake) were fertilizers, the value of
which increased from $3,367,353 in 1900 to $9461,415 in 190$, when
the state ranked first of the United States in this industry; in 1900
it had ranked sixth.
Communications.- -Means of transportation for these products
are furnished by the rivers, which are generally navigable as far
north as the " fall line " passing through Augusta, Milledgeville,
Macon and Columbus; by ocean steamship lines which have piers
at St Mary's, Brunswick, Darien and Savannah; and by railways
whose mileage in January 1909 was 6,871 -8 m. The most important
of the railways are the Central of Georgia, the Southern, the Atlantic
Coast Line, the Seaboard Air Line, the Georgia and the Georgia
Southern & Florida. In 1878 a state railway commission was estab-
lished which has mandatory power for the settlement of all traffic
problems and makes annual reports.
Population. — The population of Georgia in 1880 was 1,542,180;
m 1890 1,837,353, an increase of 19*1%; in 1900 2,216,331, a fur-
?The manufacturing statistics for 1900 which follow are not
those given in the Twelfth Census, but are taken from the Census
of Manufactures, 1905, the 1900 figures here given being only for
" establishments on a factory basis," and thus being comparable
with those of 1905. In 1890 there were 53 mills with a capital of
$17,664,675 and a product valued at $12,035,629.
'In these valuations for 1000 and for 1905 the rough lumber
dressed or remanufactured in planing mfib enters twice into tbe value
of the product.
XL 13
tber increase of 20 6%*; in igio, 2,609,121. Of the 1900 population,
533% were whites and 46*7% were negroes/ the centre of the
black population being a little south of the " fall line." Here the
negroes increased, from 1890 to 1000, faster than the whites in
eighteen counties, but in northern Georgia, where the whites
are in the majority, the negro population declined in twelve
counties. Also the percentage of negro illiteracy is higher
in northern Georgia than in other parts of the state, the per-
centage of negro male illiterates of voting age being 38-3% in
Atlanta in 1000, and in Savannah only 30-7% The population
of Georgia has a very slight foreign-born element (-6% in 1000)
and a small percentage (1-7*% in 1900) of people of foreign
parentage. The urban population (i.e. the population in places
of 2500 inhabitants and over) was 15*6% of the total in 1900,
and the number of incorporated cities, towns and villages was
372. Of these only forty had a population exceeding 2000, and
thirteen exceeding 5000. The largest city in 1900 was Atlanta,
the capital since 1868 (Louisville, Jefferson county, was the
capital in x 795*1804, and Milledgeville in 1804-1868), with
89,872 inhabitants. Savannah ranked second with 54,244,
and Augusta third with 39,44** In 1900 the other cities in the
state with a population of more than 5000 were: Macon (23,272),
Columbus (17,614), Athens (10,245), Brunswick (0081), Amcricus
(7674), Rome (729O, Griffin (6857), Waycross (5919), Valdosta
(5613), and Thomasville (5322).
The total membership of the churches in 1906 was about
1,029,037, of whom 506,319 were Baptists, 349,079 were Metho-
dists, 24,040 were Presbyterians, 19,273 were Roman Catho-
lics, 12,703 were Disciples of Christ, 9790 were Protestant
Episcopalians, and 5581 were Congrcgationalists.
Government. — The present constitution, which was adopted
in 1877,' provides for a system of government similar in general
to that of the other states (see United States). The executive
officials are elected for a term of two years, and the judges of
the Supreme Court and of the court of appeals for six years,
while those of the superior court and of the ordinaries and the
justices of the peace are chosen every four years. Before 1909
all male citizens of the United States at least twenty-one years
of age (except those mentioned below), who had lived in the state
for one year immediately preceding an election and in the county
six months, and had paid their taxes, were entitled to vote.
From the suffrage and the holding of office are excluded idiots
and insane persons and all those who have been convicted of
treason, embezzlement, malfeasance in office, bribery or larceny,
or any crime involving moral turpitude and punishable under
the laws of the state by imprisonment in the penitentiary — this
last disqualification, however, is removable by a pardon for
the offence. Before 1009 there was no constitutional discrimina-
tion aimed against the exercise of the suffrage by the negro,
but in fact the negro vote had in various ways been greatly
reduced. By a constitutional amendment adopted by a large
majority at a special election in October 1908, new requirements
for suffrage, designed primarily to exclude negroes, especially
illiterate negroes, were imposed (supplementary to the require-
ments mentioned above concerning age, residence and the
payment of taxes), the amendment coming into effect on the
1 st of January 1909: in brief this amendment requires that
the voter shall have served in land or naval forces of the United
States or of the Confederate States or of the state of Georgia
in time of war, or be lawfully descended from some one who did
so serve; or that he be a person of good character who proves
to the satisfaction of the registrars of elections that he under-
stands the duties and obligations of a citizen; or that he read
correctly in English and (unless physically disabled) write any
paragraph of the Federal or state constitution; or that he own
40 acres of land or property valued at $500 and assessed for
* The population of the state was 82,548 in 1790, 162,686 In 1800,
353.433 >n 1810, 340,989 in 1820, 516,823 in 1830, 691,392 in 1840,
906,185 in 1850, 1,057,286 in i860, and 1,184,100 in 1870.
* This negro percentage includes an Chinese, Japanese and
Indians.
* The state has had four other constitations--tbos« of 1777. > 7$9,
1798 and 1868.
75+
GEORGIA
taxation. After the ist of January 1915 no one may qualify
as a voter under the first or second of these clauses (the " grand-
father " and "understanding" clauses); but those who shall
have registered under their requirements before the xst of
January 1915 thus become voters for life.
The governor, who receives a salary of $5000, must be at least
thirty years old, must at the time of his election have been a
citizen of the United Slates for fifteen years and of the state for
six years, and " shall not be eligible to re-election after the
expiration of a second term, for the period of four years." In
case of his " death, removal or disability," the duties of his
office devolve in the first instance upon the president of the
Senate, and in the second upon the speaker of the House of
Representatives. The governor's power of veto extends to
separate items in appropriation bills, but in every case his veto
may be overriden by a two-thirds vote of the legislature. An
amendment to the constitution may be proposed by a two-
thirds vote of the legislature, and comes into effect on receiving
a majority of the popular vote. Members of the Senate must
be at least twenty-five years old, must be citizens of the United
States, and must, at the time of their election, have been citizens
of the state for four years, and of the senatorial district for one
year; representatives must be at least twenty-one years old,
and roust, at the time of their election, have been citizens of the
state for two years. By law, in Georgia, lobbying is a felony.
Habitual intoxication, wilful desertion for three years, cruel
treatment, and conviction for an offence the commission of
which involved moral turpitude and for which the offender
has been sentenced to imprisonment for at least two years, are
recognized as causes for divorce. All petitions for divorce
must be approved by two successive juries, and a woman holds
in her own name all property acquired before and after marriage.
Marriage between the members of the white and negro races
is prohibited by law.
As the result of the general campaign against child labour, an
act was passed in 1006 providing that no child under 10 shall
be employed or allowed to labour in or about any factory, under
any circumstances; after the xst of January 1907 no child
under 12 shall be so employed, unless an orphan with no
other means of support, or unless a widowed mother or disabled
or aged father is dependent on the child's labour, in which case
a certificate to the facts, holding good for one year only, is
required; after the xst of January 1908 no child under 14
shall be employed in a factory between the hours of 7 p.m. and
6 a.m.; after the same date no child under 14 shall be employed
in any factory without a certificate of school attendance
for 12 weeks (of which 6 weeks must be consecutive) of
the preceding year; no child shall be employed without the
filing of an affidavit as to age. Making a false affidavit as to
age or as to other facts required by the act, and the violation
of the act by any agent or representative of a factory or by any
parent or guardian of a child are misdemeanours.
In 1907 a state law was passed prohibiting after the xst of
January 1008 the manufacture or sale of intoxicating liquors;
nine-tenths of the counties of the state, under local option laws,
were already " dry " at the passage of this bill. The law permits
druggists to keep for sale no other form of alcoholic drink than
pure alcohol; physicians prescribing alcohol must fill out a
blank, specifying the patient's ailment, and certifying that
alcohol is necessary; the prescription must be filled the day
it is dated, must be served directly to the physician or to the
patient, must not call for more than a pint, and may not be
refilled. 1
The state supports four benevolent institutions: a lunatic
asylum for the whites and a similar institution for the negroes,
both at Milledgevillc, an institute for the deaf and dumb at
Cave Spring, and an academy for the blind at Macon. There axe
1 Owing to the custom which holds in Georgia of choosing state
senators in rotation from each of the counties making up a senatorial
district, it happened in 1907 that few cities were represented directly
by senators chosen from municipalities. It is believed that this fact
contributed to the passage of the prohibition law.
also a number of private charitable institutions, the oldest being
the Bethesda orphan asylum, near Savannah, founded by George
Whitefield in 1739. The Methodist, Baptist, Roman Catholic
and Protestant Episcopal Churches, and the Hebrews of the state
also support homes for orphans. A penitentiary was established
in 181 7 at Milledgevillc. In 1866 the lease system was introduced,
by which the convicts were leased for a term of years to private
individuals. In 1897 this was supplanted by the contract
system, by which a prison commission accepted contracts for
convict labour, but the prisoners were cared for by state officials.
But the contract system for convicts and the peonage system
(under which immigrants were held in practical slavery whik
they " worked out " advances made for passage-money, &c)
were still sources of much injustice. State laws made liable
to prosecution for misdemeanour any contract labourer who,
having received advances, failed for any but good cause to
fulfil the contract; or any contract labourer who made a second
contract without giving notice to his second employer of a prior
and unfulfilled contract; or any employer of a labourer who had
not completed the term of a prior contract. In September 1008,
after an investigation which showed that many wardens had
been in the pay of convict lessees and that terrible cruelty had
been practised in convict camps, an extra session of the legislature
practically put an end to the convict lease or contract system;
the act then passed provided that after the 31st of March 1909,
the date of expiration of leases in force, no convicts may be
leased for more than twelve months and none may be leased
at all unless there are enough convicts to supply all demands
for convict labour on roads made by counties, each county to
receive its pro rata share on" a population basis, and to satisfy
all demands made by municipalities which thus secure labour
for $100 per annum (per man) paid into the state treasury,
and all demands made by the state prison farm and factory
established by this law.
Education. — Georgia's system of public instruction was not
instituted until 1870, but as early as 181 7 the legislature provided
a fund for the education in the private schools of the state of
children of indigent parents. The constitution of x 868 authorized
" a thorough system of general education, to be for ever free
to all children of the State," and in 1870 the first public school
law was enacted. Education, however, has never been made
compulsory. The constitution, as amended in 1905, provides
that elections on the question of local school taxes for counties
or for school districts may be called upon a petition signed by
one-fourth of the qualified voters of the county, or district, in
question; under this provision several counties and a large
number of school districts are supplementing the general fund.
But the principal source of the annual school revenue is a state
tax; the fund derived from this tax, however, is not large
enough. In 1908 the common school fund approximated
$3,786,830, of which amount the state paid $2,163,200 and
about $1,010,680 was raised by local taxation. In 1008 69%
of the school population (79% of whites; 58% of negroes)
were enrolled in the schools; in 1.002 it was estimated that the
negroes, 52-3 % of whom (10 years of age and over) were illiterates
(i.e. could not write ox could neither read nor write) in 1900
(8 1*6% of them were illiterate in 1880), received the benefit
of only about a fifth of the school fund. Of the total population,
xo years of age and over, 30-5% were illiterates in xooo— 49-9%
were illiterates in 18S0— -and as regards the whites of native
birth alone, Georgia ranked ninth in illiteracy, in xooo, among
the states and territories of the Union. Of the illiterates about
four-fifths were negroes in 1900. In addition to the public
schools, the state also supports the University of Georgia; and
in 1906 $235,000 was expended for the support of higher educa-
tion. In 1006-1007 eleven agricultural and mechanical arts
colleges were established, one in each congressional district of
the state. Of the colleges of the university, Franklin was the
first state college chartered in America (1785); the Medical
College of Georgia, at Augusta, was opened in 1829; the State
College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts was established at
Athens in 1872; the North Georgia Agricultural College, at
GEORGIA
755
Dahlonega, was opened in 1873; the Georgia School of Tech-
nology, at Atlanta, in x888; the Georgia Normal and Industrial
College (for women), in Milledgeville, in 1809; the Georgia
State Normal School, at Athens, in 1895; the Georgia State
Industrial College for Coloured Youth, near Savannah, in 1800;
the School of Pharmacy, at Athens, in 1003; and the School
of Forestry, and the Georgia State College of Agriculture, at
Athens, in 1006. Affiliated with the university, but not receiving
state funds, are three preparatory schools, the South Georgia
Military and Agricultural College at Thomasville, the Middle
Georgia Military and Agricultural College at Milledgeville,
and the West Georgia Agricultural and Mechanical CoDege at
Hamilton. Among the institutions generally grouped as denomi-
national are — Baptist: Mercer University, at Macon (Penfield,
1837; Macon, 1871), Shorter College (1877) at Rome, Spelman
Seminary (x88i) in Atlanta for negro women and girls, and
Bessie Tift College, formerly Monroe College (1849) for women,
at Forsyth; Methodist Episcopal: Emory College (1836), at
Oxford, and Wesleyan Female College (1836) at Macon, both
largely endowed by George Ingraham Scncy (183 7-1 893), and
the latter one of the earliest colleges for women in the country;
Methodist Episcopal Church, South: Young Harris College
(1855) at Young Harris, Andrew Female College (1854) at
Cuthbert, and Dalton Female College (1872) at Dalton; Presby-
terian: Agnes Scott College at Decatur; and African Methodist
Episcopal: Morris Brown College (1885) at Atlanta. A famous
school for negroes is the non-sectarian Atlanta University
(incorporated in 1867, opened in 1869), which has trained many
negroes tor teaching and other professions. Non-sectarian
colleges for women are: Lucy Cobb Institute (1858) at Athens,
Cox College (1843) at College Park, near Atlanta, and Brenau
College Conservatory (1878) at Gainesville.
Finance.— The assessed value of taxable proper ty In 1910 was
about $735,000,000. A general property tax, which furnishes about
four-fifths of the public revenue, worked »o inequitably that a
Board of Equalization was appointed in 1901. By the Constitution
the tax rate is limited to $5 on the thousand, and, as the rate of
taxation has increased faster than the taxable property, the state
has been forced to contract several temporary loans since 1901,
none of which has exceeded $200,000, the limit for each year set by
the Constitution. On the 1st of January 1910 the bonded debt
was $6,944,000, mainly incurred by the extravagance of the Re-
construction administration (see History, below). Each year
$100,000 of this debt is paid off, and there arc annual appropriations
for the payment of interest (about $303,260 in 1910). The state
owns the Western & Atlantic railway (137 m. long) from Chattanooga,
Tennessee, to Atlanta, which has valuable terminal facilities in both
cities, and which in 1910 was estimated to be worth $8400,240
(more than the amount of the bonded debt): this railway the state
built in 1841-1850, and in 1890 leased for 39 years, at an annual
rental of $420,012, to the Nashville, Chattanooga & St Louis railway.
Banking in Georgia is in a prosperous condition. The largest
class of depositors are the farmers, who more and more look to the
banks for credit, instead of to the merchants and cotton speculators.
Hence the number of banks in agricultural districts is increasing.
The state treasurer is the bank examiner, and to him all banks must
make a quarterly statement and submit their books for examination
twice a year. The legal rate of interest is 7%, but by contract
it may be 8%.
History.— Georgia derives its name from King George II. of
Great Britain. It .was the last to be established of the English
colonies in America. Its formation was due to a desire of the
British government to protect South Carolina from invasion
by the Spaniards from Florida and by the French from Louisiana,
as well as to the desire of James Edward Oglethorpe (q.v.) to
found a refuge for the persecuted Protestant sects and the
unfortunate but worthy indigent classes of Europe. A charter
was granted in 1732 to " the Trustees for establishing the colony
of Georgia in America," and parliament gave £ 10,000 to the
enterprise. The first settlement was made at Savannah in 1733
under the personal supervision of Oglethorpe. The early colonists
were German Lutherans (Salzburgers), Piedmontese, Scottish
Highlanders, Swiss, Portuguese Jews and Englishmen; but
the main tide of immigration, from Virginia and the Carolinas,
did not set in until 1752. As a bulwark against the Spanish,
the colony was successful but as an economic experiment it ■
was a failure. The trustees desired that there should be grown I
in the colony wine grapes, hemp, silk and medical plants (barilla,
kali, cubeb, caper, madder, &c.) for which England wasdependent
upon foreign countries; they required the settlers to plant
mulberry trees, and forbade the sale of rum, the chief commercial
staple of the colonies. They also forbade the introduction of
negro slaves. Land was leased by military tenure, and until
1739 grants were made only in male tail and alienations were
forbidden. The industries planned for the colony did not thrive,
and as sufficient labour could not be obtained, the importation
of slaves was permitted under certain conditions in 1740. About
the same time the House of Commons directed the trustees
to remove the prohibition on the sale of rum. In 1753 the
charter of the trustees expired and Georgia became a royal
province.
Under the new regime the colony was so prosperous that
Sir James Wright (1 716-1785), the last of the royal governors,
declared Georgia to be " the most flourishing colony on the
continent." The people were led to revolt against the mother
country through sympathy with the other colonies rather than
through any grievance of their own. The centre of revolutionary
ideas was St John's Parish, settled by New Englanders (chiefly
from Dorchester, Massachusetts). The Loyalist sentiment was
so strong that only five of the twelve parishes sent repre-
sentatives to the First Provincial Congress, which met on the
1 8th of January 1775, *nd its delegates to the Continental
Congress therefore did not claim seats in that assembly. But
six months later all the parishes sent representatives to another
Provincial Congress which met on the 4th of July 1775. Soon
afterward the royal government collapsed and the administration
of the colony was assumed by a council of safety.
The war that followed was really a severe civil conflict, the
Loyalist and Revolutionary parties being almost equal in
numbers. In 1778 the British seized Savannah, which they
held until 1782, meanwhile reviving the British civil administra-
tion, and in 1779 they captured Augusta and Sunbury; but
after 1780 the Revolutionary forces were generally successful.
Civil affairs also fell into confusion. In 1 777 a state constitution
was adopted, but two factions soon appeared in the government,
led by the governor and the executive council respectively, and
harmony was not secured until 1781.
Georgia's policy in the formation of the United States govern-
ment was strongly national. In the constitutional convention
of 1787 its delegates almost invariably gave their support to
measures designed to strengthen the central government.
Georgia was the fourth state to ratify (January 2, 1788), and one
of the three that ratified unanimously, the Federal Constitution.
But a series of conflicts between the Federal government and the
state government caused a decline of this national sentiment
and the growth of States Rights theories.
First of these was the friction involved in the case, before the
Supreme Court of the United States, of Ckisoim v. Georgia, by
which the plaintiff, one Alexander Chisolm, a citizen of South
Carolina, secured judgment in 1793 against the state of Georgia
(see 2 Dallas Reports 419). In protest, the Georgia House of
Representatives, holding that the United States Supreme Court
had no constitutional power to try suits against a sovereign state,
resolved that any Federal marshal who should attempt to execute
the court's decision would be " guilty of felony, and shall suffer
death, without benefit of clergy, by being hanged." No effort
was made to execute the decision, and in 1798 the Eleventh
Amendment to the Federal Constitution was adopted, taking
from Federal courts all jurisdiction over any suit brought
" against one of the United States by citizens of another state,
ot by citizens or subjects of any foreign state."
The position of Congress and of the Supreme Court with
reference to Georgia's policy in the Yazoo Frauds also aroused
distrust of the Federal government. In 1795 the legislature
granted for $500,000 the territory extending from the Alabama
and Coosa rivers to the Mississippi river and between 35* and
31° N. tat. (almost all or the present state of Mississippi and more
than half of the present state of Alabama) to four land companies,
but In the following year a new legislature rescinded ttecoAttactft
756
GEORGIA
on the ground that they had been fraudulently and corruptly
made, as was probably the case, and the rescindment was em-
bodied in the Constitution of 1798. In the meantime the United
States Senate had appointed a committee to inquire into Georgia's
claim to the land in question, and as this committee pronounced
that claim invalid, Congress in 1800 established a Territorial
government over the region. The legislature of Georgia remon-
strated but expressed a willingness to cede the land to the United
States, and in 1803 the cession was ratified, it being stipulated
among other things that the United States should pay to the
state $1,350,000, and should extinguish " at their own expense,
for the use of Georgia, as soon as the same can be peaceably
obtained on reasonable terms," the Indian title to all lands
within the state of Georgia. Eight years later the Supreme
Court of the United States decided in the case of Fletcher v. Peck
(6 Cranch 87) that such a rescindment as that in the new state
constitution was illegal, on the ground that a state cannot
pass a law impairing the obligation of contracts; and at an
expense of more than four millions of dollars the Federal govern-
ment ultimately extinguished all claims to the lands.
This decision greatly irritated the political leaders of Georgia,
and the question of extinguishing the Indian titles, on which
there had long been a disagreement, caused further and even more
serious friction between the Federal and state authorities. The
National government, until the administration of President
Jackson, regarded the Indian tribes as sovereign nations with
whom it alone had the power to treat, while Georgia held that the
tribes were dependent communities with no other right to the
toil than that of tenants at will. In 1785 Georgia made treaties
with the Creeks by which those Indians ceded to the state their
lands S. and W. of the Altamaha river and £. of the Oconee
river, but after a remonstrance of one of their half-breed chiefs
Congress decided that the cessions were invalid, and the National
government negotiated, in 1700, a new treaty which ceded only
the lands E. of the Oconee. The state appealed to the National
government to endeavour to secure further cessions, but none
had been made when, in 180a, the United States assumed its
obligation to extinguish all Indian titles within the state. Several
cessions were made between 1802 and 1834, but the state in
the latter year remonstrated in vigorous terms against the
dilatory manner in which the National government was discharg-
ing its obligation, and the effect of this was that in 1825 a treaty
was negotiated at Indian Springs by which nearly all the Lower
Creeks agreed to exchange their remaining lands in Georgia
for equal territory beyond the Mississippi. But President
J. Q. Adams, learning that this treaty was not approved by the
entire Creek nation, authorized a new one, signed at Washington
in 1826, by which the treaty of 1825 was abrogated and the
Creeks kept certain lands W. of the Chattahoochee. The Georgia
government, under the leadership of Governor George M. Troup
(1780-1856), had proceeded to execute the first treaty, and the
legislature declared the second treaty illegal and unconstitutional.
In reply to a communication of President Adams early in 1827
that the United States would take strong measures to enforce its
policy, Governor Troup declared that he felt it his duty to resist
to the utmost any military attack which the government of the
United States should think proper to make, and ordered the
military companies to prepare to resist " any hostile invasion
of the territory of this state." But the strain produced by these
conditions was relieved by information that new negotiations
bad been begun for the cession of all Creek lands in Georgia.
These negotiations were completed late in the year.
There was similar conflict in the relation of the United States
and Georgia with the Cherokees. In 1785 the Cherokees of
Georgia placed themselves under the protection of the Federal
government, and in 1823 their chiefs, who were mostly half-breeds,
declared: " It is the fixed and unalterable determination of this
nation never again to cede one foot more of land," and that they
could not " recognize (be sovereignty of any state within the
limits of their territory "; in 1827 they framed a constitution
and organized a representative government. President Monroe
sad President J. Q. Advns treated the Cherokees with the
courtesy due toa sovereign nation, and held that the United States
had done all that was required to meet the obligation assumed
in 1802. The Georgia legislature, however, contended that the
United States had not acted in good faith, declared that all
land within the boundaries of the state belonged to Georgia,
and in 1828 extended the jurisdiction of Georgia law to the
Cherokee lands. Then President Jackson, holding that Georgia
was in the right on the Indian question, informed the Cherokees
that their only alternative to submission to Georgia was emigra-
tion. Thereupon the chiefs resorted to the United States
Supreme Court, which in 1832 declared that the Cherokees
formed a distinct community " in which the laws of Georgia
have no force," and annulled the decision of a Georgia court
that had extended its jurisdiction into the Cherokee country
(Worcester v. Georgia). But the governor of Georgia declared
that the decision was an attempt at usurpation which would
meet with determined resistance, and President Jackson refused
to enforce the decree. The President did, however, work for
the removal of the Indians, which was effected in 1838.
On account of these conflicts a majority of Georgians adopted
the principles of the Democratic-Republican party, and early
in the 19th century the people were virtually nnanhnom ia
their political ideas. Local partisanship centred in two factions:
one, led by George M. Troup, which represented the interests
of the aristocratic and slave-holding communities; the other,
formed by John Clarke (1766-1832) and his brother Elijah,
found support among the non-slave-holders and the frontiersmen.
The cleavage of these factions was at first purely personal;
but by 1832 it had become one of principle. Then the Troup
faction under the name of States Rights party, endorsed the
nullification policy of South Carolina, while the Clarke faction,
calling itself a Union party, opposed South Carolina's conduct,
but on the grounds of expediency rather than of principle.
On account, however, of its opposition to President Jackson's
attitude toward nullification, the States Rights party affiliated
with the new Whig party, which represented the national
feeling in the South, while the Union party was merged into
the Democratic party, which emphasised the sovereignty of
the states.
The activity of Georgia in the slavery controversy was import-
ant. As early as 1835 the legislature adopted a resolution
which asserted the legality of slavery in the Territories, a principle
adopted by Congress in the Kansas Bill in 1854, and in 1847
ex-Governor Wilson Lumpkin (1783-1870) advocated the
organization of the Southern states to resist the aggression of
the North. Popular opinion at first opposed the Compromise
of 1850, and some politicians demanded immediate secession from
the Union; and the legislature had approved the Alabama
Platform of 1848. But Congressmen Robert Toombs, Alexander
H. Stephens, Whigs, and Howell Cobb, a Democrat, upon their
return from Washington, contended that the Compromise was
a great victory for the South, and in a campaign on this issue
secured the election of such delegates to the state convention
(at Milledgeville) of 1850 that that body adopted on the 10th
of December, by a vote of 237 to 19, a series of conciliatory
resolutions, since known as the " Georgia Platform, " which
declared in substance: (1) that, although the state did not
wholly approve of the Compromise, it would " abide by it as a
permanent adjustment of this sectional controversy," to preserve
the Union, as the thirteen original colonies had found compromise
necessary for its formation; (2) that the state " will and ought
to resist, even (as a last resort) to the disruption of every tie
that binds her to the Union," any attempt to prohibit slavery
in the Territories or a refusal to admit a slave state. The adoption
of this platform was accompanied by a party reorganization,
those who approved it organizing the Constitutional Union party,
and those who disapproved, mostly Democrats, organizing the
Southern Rights party; the approval in other states of the
Georgia Platform in preference to the Alabama Platform (see
Alabama) caused a reaction in the South against secession.
The reaction was followed for a short interval by a return to
approximately the former party alignment, but in 1854 the rank
GEORGIA
757
and file of the Whigs joined the American or Know-Nothing party
while most of the Whig leaders went over to the Democrats.
The Know-Nothing party was nearly destroyed by its crushing
defeat in 1856 and in the next year the Democrats by a large
majority elected for governor Joseph Emerson Brown (1821-
1894)1 who by three successive re-elections was continued in
that office, until the close of the Civil War. Although Governor
Brown represented the poorer class of white citizens he had
taken a course in law at Yale College, had practised law, and at
the time of his election was judge of a superior court; although
he had never held slaves he believed that the abolition of
slavery would soon result in the ruin of the South, and be was
a man of strong convictions. The Kansas question and the
attitude of the North toward the decision in the Dred Scott
case were arousing the South when he was inaugurated the first
time, and in his inaugural address he clearly indicated that be
would favour secession in the event of any further encroachment
on the part of the North. In July 1859 Senator Alfred Ivcrson
(1708-1874) declared that in the event of the election of a Free-
Soil president in i860 he would favour the establishment of an
independent confederacy; later in the same year Governor
Brown expressed himself to a similar effect and urged the improve-
ment of the military service. On the 7 th of November following
the election of President Lincoln the governor, in a special
message to the legislature, recommended the calling of a con-
vention to decide the question of secession, and Alexander H.
Stephens was about the only prominent political leader who
contended that Lincoln's election was insufficient ground for
such action. On the 17th of November the legislature passed
an act directing the governor to order an election of delegates
on the and of January 1861 and their meeting in a convention
on the 16th. On the 19th this body passed an ordinance of
secession by a vote of 208 to 89. Already the first regiment of
Georgia Volunteers, under Colonel Alexander Lawton (1818-
1896) had seized Fort Pulaski at the mouth of the Savannah
river and now Governor Brown proceeded to Augusta and seized
the Federal arsenal there. Toward the close of the same year,
however, Federal warships blockaded Georgia's ports, and early
in 1862 Federal forces captured Tybee Island, Fort Pulaski,
St Mary's, Brunswick and St Simon Island. Georgia bad
responded freely to the call for volunteers, but when the Con-
federate Congress had passed, in April 1862, the Conscript Law
which required all white men (except those legally exempted
from service) between the ages of x8 and 35 to enter
the Confederate service, Governor Brown, in a correspondence
with President Davis which was continued for several months,
offered serious objections, his leading contentions being that
the measure was unnecessary as to Georgia, unconstitutional,
subversive of the state's sovereignty, and therefore "at war
with the principles for the support of which Georgia entered
into this revolution."
In 1863 north-west Georgia was involved in the Chattanooga
campaign. In the following spring Georgia was invaded from
Tennessee by a Federal army under General William T. Sherman;
the resistance of General Joseph £. Johnston and General J. B.
Hood proved ineffectual; and on the zst of September Atlanta
was taken. Then Sherman began his famous " march to the sea,"
from Atlanta to Savannah, which revealed the weakness of the
Confederacy. In the spring of 1865, General J. H. Wilson with
a body of cavalry entered the state from Alabama, seized
Columbus and West Point on the 16th of April, and on the xoth
of May captured Jefferson Davis, president of the Confederacy,
at Irwinville in Irwin county.
In accord with President Andrew Johnson's plan for reorganiz-
ing the Southern States, a provisional governor, James Johnson,
was appointed on the 17th of June 1865, and a state convention
reformed the constitution to meet the new conditions, rescinding
the ordinance of secession, abolishing slavery and formally
repudiating the state debt incurred in the prosecution of the war.
A governor and legislature were elected in November 1865, the
legislature ratified the Thirteenth Amendment on the oth of
December and five days later the govenwr-efectwaiiiMnigurated.
But both the convention and legislature incurred the suspicion,
and ill-will of Congress; the convention had congratulated the
president on his policy, memorialized him on behalf of Jefferson
Davis, and provided pensions for disabled Confederate soldiers
and the widows of those who had lost their lives during the war,
while the legislature passed apprenticeship, labour and vagrancy
laws to protect and regulate the negroes, and rejected the
Fourteenth Amendment. Although the civil rights were con-
ferred upon the frcedmen, Congress would not tolerate the
political incapacity and social inferiority which the legislature
had assigned to them, and therefore Georgia was placed under
military government, as part of the third military district, by the
Rcconst ruction Act of the 2nd of March 1867. Under the auspices
of the military authorities registration of electors for a new state
convention was begun and 95,168 negroes and 96,333 whites
were registered. The acceptance of the proposition to call the
convention and the election of many conscientious and intelligent
delegates were largely due to the influence of ex-Governor
Brown, who was strongly convinced that the wisest course for
the South was to accept quickly what Congress had offered.
The convention met in Atlanta on the 9th of December 1867
and by March 1868 had revised the constitution to meet the
requirements of the Reconstruction Acts. The constitution
was duly adopted by popular vote, and elections were held for
the choice of a governor and legislature. Rufus Brown Bullock
(b. 1834), Republican, was chosen governor, the Senate had a
majority of Republicans, but in the House of Representatives
a tie vote was cast for the election of a speaker. On the 21st of
July the Fourteenth Amendment was ratified, and a section of
the state constitution (which denied the power of state courts
to entertain against any resident of the state suits founded on
contracts existing on the 15th of June 1865) was repealed by the
legislature in pursuance of the congressional "Omnibus Bill"
of the 25th of June 1868, and as evidence of the restoration of
Georgia to the Union tjie congressmen were seated on the 25th
of July in that year.
But in September of the same year the Democrats in the
state legislature, being assisted by some of the white
Republicans, expelled the 27 negro members and seated their
defeated white contestants, relying upon the legal theory that
the right to hold office belonged only to those citizens designated
by statute, the common law or custom. In retaliation the 41st
Congress excluded the state's representatives on a technicality,
and, on the theory that the government of Georgia was a pro-
visional organization, passed an act requiring the ratification of
the Fifteenth Amendment before the admission of Georgia's
senators and representatives. The war department now con-
cluded that the state was still subject to military authority, and
placed General A. H. Terry in command. With bis aid, and that
of Congressional requirements that all members of the legislature
must take the Test Oath and none be excluded on account of
colour, a Republican majority was secured for both houses,
and the Fifteenth Amendment was ratified. Georgia was now
finally admitted to the Union by Act of Congress, on the 15th of
July 1870.
The Reconstruction period in Georgia is remarkable for its
comparative moderation. Although there was great political
excitement, there was not as much extravagance in public
administration as there was in other Southern States, the
state debt increasing approximately from $6,600,000 to
$16,000,000. The explanation lies in the fact that there were
comparatively few "carpet-baggers" or adventurers in the
state, and that a large number of conservative citizens, under the
leadership of ex-Governor Brown, supported the Reconstruction
policy of Congress and joined the Republican party.
The election of 1871 gave the Democrats a majority in the
legislature; Governor Bullock, fearing impeachment, resigned,
and at a special election James M. Smith was chosen to fill the
unexpired term. After that the control of the Democrats was
complete. In 1891 the Populist party was organized, but it
never succeeded in securing a majority of the votes in the
state.
75»
GEORGIA
List of Governors
I. Administration of the Trustees.
lames Edward Oglethorpe » . . i73*-»743
William Stephens * .... 1743-175*
Henry Parker' I75»~»753
Patrick Graham* .... i753->754
II. Royal Administration.
John Reynolds 1 754-' 757
Henry Ellis 1 757"! 7&>
Sir James Wright .... 1760- 1 78a
III. Provincial Administration.
William Ewen ' .... 1775
Archibald Bulloch « .... 1776
Button Gwinnett * . 1777
Jonathan Bryan • . 1777
IV. Georgia as a Slate.
k . . . . 1777-177*
. . . . i77*-«779
. . . . 1779 .
. . . . 1779-1780
1780
. 1780-1781
1781
. 1781-1781
. 178a-! 783
. . . . 1 783-1 785
. 1785-1786
. 1786-1787
. 1787-1788
1788-1789
1789-1790 Democratic- Republican
1790-1793
1 793-1 796
1796-1798 „
1798-1801 „
1801 „
1801-1802 „
1802-1806 „
1806-1809 „
1809-1813 „
1813-1815
1815-1817 »
1817-1819
1819 „
I 8 19- 1 823 „
Alexander H. Stephens
Tames S. Bovnton T .
Henry D. Mc Daniel ,
John B. Gordon
W.J. Northen .
W. V. Atkinson .
A. D.Candler .
toseph M. Terrell
loke Smith
Joseph M. Brown
Hoke Smith
1868-1871 Republican
1871-1872 „
1872-1876 Democrat
1876-1882 M
1882-1883 „
1883
1883-1886 „
1886-1890 „
1890-189$
1894-189S
1898-1902
1902- 1007 ..
1907-1909
1909-1911
1911-
the Department of Agriculture, which include weekly and monthly
Bulletins, biennial Reports and a volume entitled Geortia, Historical
and Industrial (Atlanta, 1901). The Reports of the United States
Census (especially the Twelfth Census for 1900 and the special census
of manufactures for 1905) should be consulted, and Memoirs of
Geortia (2 vols., Atlanta, Ga., 1895) contains chapters on industrial
conditions.
The principal sources for public administration are the annual
reports of the state officers, philanthropic institutions, the prison
commission and the railroad commission, and the revised Code of
Georgia (Atlanta, 1896), adopted in 1895; see also L. F. Schmeckc-
bier's " Taxation in Georgia " (Johns Hopkins University Studies, vol
xviii.) and " Banking in Georgia " (Banker's Magazine, vol. xlviii.).
Education and socialconditions are treated in C. E. Jones's History
of Education in Georgia (Washington, 1890), the Annual Reports of
Judicious monograph by E. C. Woollcy, Reconstruction in" Georgia
A brief bibliography, chiefly of historical materials, is given by
U. B. Phillips in his monograph "Georgia and State Rights," in
vol ii. of the Annual Report of the American Historical Association
for iqoi (Washington, 1902). Valuable information concerning the
resources and products of the state is given in the publications of
l De facto. * President of the Colony.
• President of the Council of Safety. 4 President of Georgia.
• First Governor under a State Constitution.
• President Executive Council and de facto Governor.
' President of Senate. * Provisional.
GEORGIA, a former kingdom of Transcaucasia, which existed
historically for more than 2000 years. Its earliest name was
Kaxthli or Karthveli; the Persians knew it as Gurjtstan, the
Romans and Greeks as Iberia, though the latter placed Colchis
also in the west of Georgia. Vrastan is the Armenian name and
Gruzia the Russian. Georgia proper, which included KanhE
and Kakhctta, was bounded on the N. by Ossetia and DagbcsUn,
on the S. by the principalities of Erivan and Kars, and on the
W. by Guria and Imcrctia; but the kingdom also included at
different times Guria, Mingrclia, Abkhasia, Imcrctia and Dag-
hestan, and extended from the Caucasus range on the N. to the
Aras or Araxes on the S. It is now divided between the Russian
governments of Tiflis and Kutais, under which headings further
geographical particulars are given. (See also Caucasia.)
History. — According to traditional accounts, the Georgian
(Karthltan), Kakhetian, Lesghian, Mingrelian and other races of
Transcaucasia are the descendants of Thargaraos, great-grandson
of Japheth, son of Noah, though Gen. x. 3 makes Togarmah to
be the son of Gomer, who was the son of Japheth. These various
races were subsequently known under the general name of
Thargamosides. Karthlos, the second son of Thargamos, is the
eponymous king of his race, their country being called Karthli
after him. Mlskhclhos, son of Karthlos, founded the city of
Mtskhetha (the modern Mlskhct) and made it the capital of his
kingdom. We come, however, to firmer historic ground when
we read that Georgia was conquered by Alexander the Great,
or rather by one of his generals. The Macedonian yoke was
shaken off by Pharnavaz or Pharnabazus, a prince of the royal
race, who ruled from 302 to 237 B.C. All through its history
Georgia, being on the outskirts of Armenia and Persia* both oi
GEORGIA
759
them more powerful neighbours than itself, was at times more
or less closely affected by their destinies. In this way it was
sometimes opposed to Rome, sometimes on terms of friendship
with Byzantium, according as these were successively friendly
or hostile to the Armenians and the Persians. In the end of the
2nd century B.C. the last Pharnavaaian prince was dethroned
by his own subjects and the crown given to Arsaces, king of
Armenia, whose son Arshag, ascending the throne of Georgia
in 93 B.C., established there the Arsacid dynasty. This close
association with Armenia brought upon the country an invasion
(6s B.C.) by the Roman general Pompey, who was then at war
with Mithradates, king of Pontus and Armenia; but Pompey
did not establish his power permanently over Iberia. A hundred
and eighty years later the Emperor Trajan penetrated (a.d. 114)
into the heart of the country, and chastised the Georgians; yet
bis conquest was only a little more permanent than Pompey 's.
During one of the internecine quarrels, which were not infrequent
in Georgia, the throne fell to Mirhan or Mirian (265-343), a son
of the Persian king, who had married a daughter of Asphagor,
the last sovereign of the Arsacid dynasty.
With Mirian begins the Sassanian dynasty. He and his subjects
were converted to Christianity by a nun Nuno (Nino), who had
escaped from the religious persecutions of Tiridates, king of
Armenia. Mirian erected the first Christian church in Georgia on
the site now occupied by the cathedral of Mtskhet. In or about
the year 371 Georgia was overrun by the Persian king Shapur
or Sapor II., and in 379 a Persian general built the stronghold
of Tphiiis (afterwards Tiflis) as a counterpoise to Mtskhet. The
Persian grasp upon Georgia was loosened by Tiridates, who
reigned from 393 to 405. One of Mirian's successors, Vakhtang
(446-499), surnamed Gurgaslan or Gurgasal, the Wolf-Lion,
established a patriarchate at Mtskhet and made Tphiiis his
capital. This sovereign, having conquered Mingrelia and
Abkhasia, and subdued the Ossetes, made himself master of a
large part of Armenia. Then, co-operating for once with the
king of Persia, he led an army into India; but towards the.
end of his reign there was enmity between him and the Persians,
against whom he warred unsuccessfully. His son Dachi or
Darchil (400-514) upon ascending the throne transferred the
seat of government permanently from Mtskhet to Tphiiis (Tiflis).
Again Persia stretched out her hand over Georgia, and proved a
formidable menace to the existence of the kingdom, until, owing
to the severe pressure of the Turks on the one side and of the
Byzantine Greeks on the other, she found it expedient to relax
her grasp. The Georgians, seizing the opportunity, appealed
(571) to the Byzantine emperor, Justin II. who gave them a king
in the person of Guaram, a prince of the Bagratid family of
Armenia, conferring upon him the title, not of king, but of viceroy.
Thus began the dynasty of the Bagratids, who ruled until 1803.
This was not, however, the first time that Byzantine influence
had been effectively exercised in Georgia. As early as the
reign of Mirian, in the 3rd century, the organizers of the early
Georgian church had looked to Byzantium, the leading Christian
power in the East, for both instruction and guidance, and the
connexion thus begun had been strengthened as time went on.
From this period until the Arab (i.e. Mahommedan) invasions
began, the authority of Byzantium was supreme in Georgia.
Some seventy years after the Bagratids began to rule in Georgia
the all-conquering Arabs appeared on the frontiers of the country,
and for the next one hundred and eighty years they frequently
devastated the land, compelling its inhabitants again and again
to accept Islam at the sword's point. But it was not until the
death of the Georgian king Ashod (787-826) that they completely
subdued the Caucasian state and imposed their will upon it.
Nevertheless they were too much occupied elsewhere or too
indifferent to its welfare to defend it against alien aggressors,
for in 842 Bogha, a Turkish chief, invaded the country, and early
in the 10th century the Persians again overran it. But a period
of relief from these hostile incursions was afforded by the reign
of Bagrat HI. (080-1014). During bis father's lifetime be bad
been made king of Abkhasia, ha. mother belonging to the royal
house of that land, and after ascending the Georgian throne he
made his power felt far beyond the frontiers of his hereditary
dominions, until his kingdom extended from the Black Sea
to the Caspian, while Armenia, Azerbaijan and Kirman all
paid him tribute. Not only did he encourage learning and
patronize the fine arts, but he built, in 1003, the cathedral at
Kutais, one of the finest examples extant of Georgian architecture.
During the reign of Bagrat IV. (1027-107 2) the Seljuk Turks
more than once burst, after 1048, into the country from Asia
Minor, but they were on the whole successfully repulsed, although
they plundered Tiflis. During the reign of the next king, George
II., they again devastated Tiflis. But once more fortune changed
after the accession of David II. (1080-1125), surnamed the
Renovator, one of the greatest of Georgian kings. With the help
of the Kipchaks, a Mongol or Turkish race, from the steppe
lands to the north of the Caucasus, whom he admitted into his
country, David drove the Seljuks out of his domains and forced
them back over the Armenian mountains. Under George III.
(n 56-1 184), a grandson of David II., Armenia was in part
conquered, and Ani, one of its capitals, taken. George's daughter
Thamar or Tamara, who succeeded him, reigned over the kingdom
as left by David II. and further extended her power over
Trebizond, Erzerum, Tovin (in Armenia) and Kars. These
successes were continued by her son George IV. (1 212-1223),
who conquered Ganja (now Eliaavetpol) and repulsed the attacks
of the Persians; but in the last years of his reign there appeared
(1220 and 1222) the people who were to prove the ruin of Georgia,
namely the Mongol hosts of Jenghiz Khan, led by his sons.
George IV. was succeeded by his sister Rusudan, whose capital
was twice captured by the Persians and her kingdom overrun
and fearfully devastated by the Mongols in 1236. Then, after a
period of wonderful recovery under George V. (1318-1346),
who conquered Imeretia and reunited it to his crown, Georgia
was ag&n twice (1386 and 1393-1304) desolated by the Mongols
under Timur (Tamerlane), prince of Samarkand, who on the
second occasion laid waste the entire country with fire and
sword, and crushed it under his relentless heel until the year
1403. Alexander I. (1413-1442) freed his country from the last
of the Mongols, but at the end of his reign divided his territory
between his three sons, whom he made sovereigns of Imeretia,
Kakhctia and Karthli (Georgia) respectively. The first men-
tioned remained a separate state until its annexation to Russia
in 1810; the other two were soon reunited.
Political relations between Russia and Georgia began in the
end of the same century, namely in 1492, when the king of
Kakhetia sought the protection of Ivan III. during a war between
the Turks and the Persians. In the 17th century the two
states were brought into still closer relationship. In 1619,
when Georgia was harried by Shah Abbas of Persia, Tbdmuras
(1629-1634), king of Georgia, appealed for help to Michael,
the first of the Romanov tsars of Russia, and his example was
followed later in the century by the rulers of other petty Tharga-
mosid or Caucasian states, namely Imeretia and Guria. In
1638 the prince of Mingrelia took the oath of allegiance to the
Russian tsar, and in 1650 the same step was taken by the prince
of Imeretia. Vakhtang VI. of Georgia put himself under the
protection of Peter the Great early in the 18th century. When
Persia fell into the grip of the Afghans early in the x8th century
the Turks seized the opportunity, and, ousting the Persians from
Georgia, captured Tiflis and compelled Vakhtang to abdicate.
But in 1735 they renounced all claim to supremacy over the
Caucasian states. This left Persia with the predominating
influence, for though Peter the Great extorted from Persia
(1722) her prosperous provinces beside the Caspian, he left
the mountaineers to their own dynastic quarrels. Heraclius II.
of Georgia declared himself the vassal of Russia in 1 783, and when,
twelve years later, he was hard pressed by Agha Mahommed,
shah of Persia, who seized Tiflis and laid it in ruins, he appealed
to Russia for help. The appeal was again renewed by the next
king of Georgia, George XIII., in 179s* and » n the following
year he renounced his crown in favour of the tsar, and in 1801
Georgia was converted into a Russian province. The state of
Guria submitted to Russia in 1820. 0- T. Bb.)
76o
GEORGIA
Etknohgy.—Of the three main groups into which the Caucasian
races are now usually divided, the Georgian is in every respect
the most important and interesting. It has accordingly largely
occupied the attention of Orientalists almost incessantly from
the days of Klaproth. Yet such are the difficulties connected
with the origin and mutual relations of the Caucasian peoples
that its affinities are still far from being clearly established.
Anton von Schiefner and P. V. Uslar, however, arrived at some
negative conclusions valuable as starting-points for further
research. In their papers, published in the Memoirs of the St
Petersburg Imperial Academy of Sciences and elsewhere (1859
et seq.), they finally disposed of the views of Bopp and
Brosset (1836), who attempted on linguistic grounds to connect
the Georgians with the Indo-European family. They also clearly
show that Max Midler's "Turanian" theory is untenable,
and they go a long way towards proving that the Georgian,
with all the other Caucasian languages except the Ossetian,
forms a distinct linguistic family absolutely independent of all
others. This had already been suspected by Klaproth, and
the same conclusion was arrived at by Fr. M tiller and Zagarelli.
Uslar's " Caucasian Family " comprises the following three
great divisions:
1. Western Group. Typical races: Circassians and Abkhasians.
a. Eastern Group. Typical races: Chechens and Lesghians.
3. Southern Group. Typical race: Georgians.
Here the term " family " must be taken in a far more clastic
sense than when applied, for instance, to the Indo-European,
Semitic or Eastern Polynesian divisions of mankind. Indeed
the three groups present at least as wide divergences as are found
to exist between the Semitic and Hamitic linguistic families.
Thus, while the Abkhasian of group z is still at the agglutinating,
the Lesghian of group 2 has fairly reached the inflecting stage,
and the Georgian seems still to waver between the two. In
consequence of these different stages of development, Uslar
hesitated finally to fix the position of Georgian in the family,
regarding it as possibly a connecting link between groups z and
3, but possibly also radically distinct from both.
Including all its numerous ramifications, the Georgian or
southern group occupies the greater part of Transcaucasia,
reaching from about the neighbourhood of Batum on the Black
Sea eastwards to the Caspian, and merging southwards with the
Armenians of Aryan stock. It comprises altogether nine sub-
divisions, as in the subjoined table:
1. The Georgians Proper, who are the Iberians of the ancients
and the Grusians of the Russians, but who call themselves Karthlians,
and who in medieval times were masters of the Rion and Upper
Kura as far as its confluence with the Alazan.
2. The Imerbtiam, west of the Suram mountains as far as the
river Tskheniz-Tskhali.
3. The Gurians. between the Rion and Lazistan.
4. The Lazis of Lazistan on the Black Sea.
5. The Svanetians, Shvans or Swakiams, on the Upper Ingur
and Tskheniz-Tskhali rivers.
6. The Mingreuans, between the rivers Tskheniz-Tskhali, Rion,
Ingur and the Black Sea.
o.ThcKHEvsuRS J Alazan and Yora rivers.
The representative branch of the race has always been the
Karthlians. It is now pretty well established that the Georgians
are the descendants of the aborigines of the Pambak highlands,
and that they found their way to their present homes from the
south-east some four or five thousand years ago, possibly under
pressure from the great waves of Aryan migration flowing from
the Iranian tableland westwards to Asia Minor and Europe.
The Georgians proper are limited on the east by the Alazan, on
the north by the Caucasus, on the west by the Meskes hills,
separating them from the Imeretians, and on the south by the
Kura river and Kara-dagh and Pambak mountains. South-
wards, however, no hard and fast ethnical line can be drawn,
for even immediately south of Tiflis, Georgians, Armenians and
Tatars are found intermingled confusedly together.
The Georgian race, which represents the oldest elements of
civilization in the Caucasus, is distinguished by some excellent
mental qualities, and Is especially noted for personal courage and
a passionate love of music. The people, however, are described
as fierce and cruel, and addicted to intemperance, though Max
von Thiermann (Journey in the Caucasus, &c, 1875) speaks of
them as " rather hard drinkers than drunkards/' Physically
they are a fine athletic race of pure Caucasian type; hence
during the Moslem ascendancy Georgia supplied, next to Cir-
cassian the largest number of female slaves for the Turkish
harems and of recruits for the Osmanli armies, more especially
for the select corps of the famous Mamelukes.
The social organization rested on a highly aristocratic basis,
and the lowest classes were separated by several grades of
vassalage from the highest. But since their incorporation
with the Russian empire, these relations have become greatly
modified, and a more sharply defined middle class of merchants,
traders and artisans has been developed. The power of life
and death, formerly claimed and freely exercised by the nobles
over their serfs, has also been expressly abolished. The Georgians
are altogether at present in a fairly well-to-do condition, and
under Russian administration they have become industrious,
and have made considerable moral and material progress.
Missionaries sent by COnstantine the Great introduced Chris-
tianity about the beginning of the 4th century. Since that time
the people have, notwithstanding severe pressure from sur-
rounding Mahommedan communities, remained faithful to the
principles of Christianity, and are still amongst the most devoted
adherents of the Orthodox Greek Church. Indeed it was their
attachment to the national religion that caused them to call in
the aid of the Christian Muscovites against the proselytizing
attempts of the Shiite Persians — a step which ultimately brought
about their political extinction.
As already stated, the Karthli language is not only funda-
mentally distinct from the Indo-European linguistic family,
but cannot be shown to possess any dearly ascertained affinities
with either of the two northern Caucasian groups. It resembles
them chiefly in its phonetic system, so that according to Rosen
(Spracke der Laten) all the languages of central and western
Caucasus might be adequately rendered by the Georgian alphabet
Though certainly not so harsh as the Avar, Lesghian and other
Daghestan languages, it is very far from being euphonious, and
the frequent recurrence of such sounds as ts, ds, Ihz, kJt, khA, f*
(Arab. £)* q (Arab, ^j), for all of which there are distinct
characters, renders its articulation rather more energetic and
rugged than is agreeable to ears accustomed to the softer tones
of the Iranian and western Indo-European tongues. It presents
great facilities for composition, the laws of which are very
regular. Its peculiar morphology, standing midway between
agglutination and true inflexion, is well illustrated by its simple
declension common to noun, adjedtive and pronoun, and its
more intricate verbal conjugation, with its personal endings,
seven tenses and incorporation of pronominal subject and
object, all showing decided progress towards the inflecting
structure of the Indo-European and Semitic tongues.
Georgian is written in a native alphabet obviously based on
the Armenian, and like it attributed to St Mesropius (Mesrop),
who flourished in the 5th century. Of this alphabet there
are two forms, differing so greatly in outline and even in the
number of the letters that they might almost be regarded as two
distinct alphabet ic syst ems. The first and oldest , used exclusively
in the Bible and liturgical works, is the square or monumental
Khutsuri, ic "sacerdotal," consisting of 38 letters, and approach-
ing the Armenian in appearance. The second is the Mkhcdrui
kh€li, le. "soldier's hand," used in ordinary writing, and
consisting of 40 letters, neatly shaped and full of curves, hence
at first sight not unlike the modern Burmese form of the Pall
Of the Karthli language there are several varieties; and, besides
those comprised in the above table, mention should be made
of the Kakhetian current in the historic province of Kakbetia.
A distinction is sometimes drawn between the Karthlians proper
and the Kakhetians, but it rests on a purely political basis,
having originated with the partition in 1424 of the ancient Iberian
GEORGIAN BAY— GERANDO
761
estates into the three new kingdoms of Karthlinia, Kakhetia
and Imeretia. On the other hind, both the Las of Lazistan
and the Svanetian present such serious structural and verbal
differences from the common type that they seem to stand
rather in the relation of sister tongues than of dialects to the
Georgian proper. All derive obviously from a common source,
but have been developed independently of each other. The
Tush or Mosok appears to be fundamentally a Kistinian or
Chechen idiom affected by Georgian influences.
The Bible is said to have been translated into Georgian as
early as the 5th century. The extant version, however, dates
only from the 8th century, and is attributed to St Euthymius.
But even so, it is far the most ancient work known to exist in
the language. Next in importance is, perhaps, the curious
poem entitled The Amours of Turiel and N titan Darejan, or The
man clothed in Ihe panther's skin, attributed to Rustevel, who
lived during the prosperous reign of Queen Thamar (nth
century). . Other noteworthy compositions are the national epics
of the Baramiani and the Roslomiani, and the prose romances
of Visramiani and Darcjaniani, the former by Sarg of Thmogvi,
the latter by Mosi of Khoni. Apart from these, the great bulk
of Georgian literature consists of ecclesiastical writings, hymns
sacred and profane, national codes and chronicles.
Bibliography. — The standard authority on the history is M. F.
Brossct's translation of the Georgian chronicles under the title of
Histoire de la Gtergie (5 vols., St Petersburg, 1849-1858); but com-
pare also Khakanov, Histoire dt Giorgie (Paris, lQoo). See further
A. Leist, Das georgucke Volk (Dresden, 1903T; M. de Villcneuve,
La Giorgie (Paris, 1870); O. Wardrop, The Kingdom of Georgia
(London. 1888); and Langlois, Numtsmatique gtorgienne (Paris,
i860). For the philology see ZaeareBi, Examen de la lilterature
relative & la grammaire georgienne (1873) ; Friedrieh Mutter, Grund-
riss der Sprachwissenschxft (1887), iii. 2; Lcist, Georgische Dichter
(1887); Erskert, Spracken des haukasischen Stammes (1895). For
other points as to anthropology, Michel Smirnow's paper in Revue
a" anthropologic (April 15, 1878) ; Chant re, Reekerches anlhropologiques
dans le Caucase (1885-1887); and Erckert, Der Kamhoius una seine
V biker (1887).
GEORGIAN BAY, the N.E. section of Lake Huron, separated
from it by Manitoulin Island and the peninsula comprising
the counties of Grey and Bruce, Ontario. It Is about 100 m.
long and 50 m. wide, and b said to contain 30,000 islands. It
receives numerous rivers draining a large extent of country; of
these the chief are the French river draining Lake Ni pissing,
the Maganatawan draining a number of small lakes, the Musk oka
draining the Muskoka chain of lakes (Muskoka, Rosseau, Joseph,
&c.) and the Severn draining Lake Simcoe. Into its southern
extremity, known as Nottawasaga Bay, flows the river of the
same name. The Trent valley canal connects Georgian Bay
with the Bay of Quiote and Lake Ontario, and a canal system
has long been projected to Montreal by way of the French and
Ottawa rivers and Lake Ni pissing.
GEORGSWALDE, a town of Bohemia, Austria, 115 m. N.E.
of Prague by rail. Pop. (1000) 8131, including Neu-Georgswalde,
Wiesenthal and Philippsdorf, which form together a single
commune. Georgswalde is one of the oldest industrial places
of Bohemia, and together with the neighbouring town of Rum-
burg is the principal centre of the linen industry. The village
of Philippsdorf, now incorporated with Georgswalde, has become
since 1866 a famous place of pilgrimage, owing to the miracles
attributed to an image of the Virgin, placed now in a magnificent
new church (1885).
GRPHYREA, the name used for several groups of worm-like
animals with certain resemblances but of doubtful affinity. In
the article " Annelida " in the 9th edition of this Encyclopaedia,
W. C. Mcintosh followed the accepted view in associating
in this group the Echiuridae, Sipunculidae and Priapulidae.
E. Ray Lankester, in the preface to the English translation of
C. Gegenbaur's Comparative Anatomy (1878), added the Phoro-
nidae to these forms. Afterwards the same author (article
" Zoology," Ency. Brit., 9th ed.) recognized that the Phoronidae
had other affinities, and placed the other " gephyreans " in
association with the Polyzoa as the two classes of a phylum
Podaxonia. In the present state of knowledge the old group
Gephyrea is broken up into Echiuroidea (g.v.) or Gephyrea
ormata, which are certainly Annelids; the Sipu ncu l oi d ea fajr.) or
Gephyrea achaela, an independent group, certainly coelomate,
but of doubtful affinity; the Priapuloidea (?.*), equally of
doubtful affinity; and the Phoronidea (?.v.), which are almost
certainly Hemkhordata.
GERA, a town of Germany, capital of the principality of Reuss-
Schleiz (called also Reuss younger line), situated in a valley
on the banks of the White Elster, 45 m. S.S.W. of Leipzig on
the railway to Probstzella. Pop. (1885) 34.15a; (1005) 47,455.
It has been mostly rebuilt since a great fire in 1780, and the streets
are in general wide and straight, and contain many handsome
houses. There are three Evangelical churches and one Roman
Catholic. Among other noteworthy buildings are the handsome
town-hall (1576, afterwards restored) and the theatre (1002). Its
educational establishments include a gymnasium, a commercial
and a weaving school. The castle of Ostcrstein, the residence
of the princes of Reuss, dates from the 9th century, but has been
almost entirely rebuilt in modern times. Gcra is noted for its
industrial activity. Its industries include wool-weaving and
spinning, dyeing, iron-founding, the manufacture of cotton and,
silk goods, machinery, sewing machines and machine oil, leather
and tobacco, and printing (books and maps) and flower gardening*
Gera (in ancient chronicles Geraha) was raised to the rank of
a town in the nth century, at which time it belonged to the
counts of Groitch. In the 12th century it came into the posses-
sion of the lords of Reuss. It was stormed and sacked by the
Bohemians in 1450, was two-thirds burned down by the Swedes
in 1639 during the Thirty Years' War, and suffered afterwards
from great conflagrations in 1686 and 1780, being in the latter
year almost completely destroyed.
GERALDTON, a town in the district of Victoria, West Australia,
on Champion Bay, 306 m. by rail N.W. of Perth. Pop. (1001)
2 593- It is the seat of a Roman Catholic bishop, an important
seaport carrying on a considerable trade with the surrounding
gold-fields and agricultural districts, the centre of a considerable
railway system and an increasingly popular seaside resort.
The harbour is safe and extensive, having a pier affording
accommodation for large steamers. The chief exports are gold,
copper, lead, wool and sandalwood.
GBRAHDO, MARIS JOSEPH DB (1772-1842), French
philosopher, was born at Lyons on the 29th of February 1772.
When the city was besieged in 1793 by the armies of the Republic,
de Glrando took up arms, was made prisoner and with difficulty
escaped with his life. He took refuge in Switzerland, whence he
afterwards fled to Naples. In 1796 the establishment of the
Directory allowed him to return to France. At the age of twenty-
five he enlisted as a private in a cavalry regiment. About this
time the Institute proposed as a subject for an essay this question,
— " What is the influence of symbols on the faculty of thought ? "
Dc GeVando gained the prize, and heard of his success after the
battle of ZUrich, in which he had distinguished himself. This
literary triumph was the first step in his upward career. In
1799 he was attached to the ministry of the interior by Lucien
Bonaparte; in 1804 he became general secretary under Cham-
pagny; in 1805 he accompanied Napoleon into Italy; in 1808
he was nominated master of requests; in 181 1 he received the
title of councillor of stale; and in the following year he was
appointed governor of Catalonia, On the overthrow of the
empire, de Gerando was allowed to retain this office; but having
been sent during the hundred days into the department of the
Moselle to organize the defence of that district, he was punished
at the second Restoration by a few months of neglect. He
was soon after, however, readmitted into the council of state,
where he distinguished himself by the prudence and conciliatory
tendency of his views. In 18 19 he opened at the law-school of
Paris a class of public and administrative law, which in 182s
was suppressed by government, but was reopened six years
later under the Martignac ministry. In 1837 he was made a
baron. He died at Paris on the 9th of November 1842.
De Gerando's best-known work is his Histoire comparie des
syslemes de philosophie relativement aux principes des connais-
sances humaines (Paris, 1804, 3 vols.). The germ of this work
762
GERANIACEAE
had already appeared in the author's Mtmoire de la generation
des connaissances kumaines (Berlin, 1802), which was crowned
by the Academy of Berlin. In it de Gerando, after a rapid
review of ancient and modern speculations on the origin of our
ideas, singles out the theory of primary ideas, which he endeavours
to combat undet all its forms. The latter half of the work,
devoted to the analysis of the intellectual faculties, is intended
to show how all human knowledge is the result of experience;
and reflection is assumed as the source of our ideas of substance,
of unity and of Identity. It is divided into two parts, the first
of which is purely historical, and devoted to an exposition of
various philosophical systems; in the second, which comprises
fourteen chapters of the entire work, the distinctive characters
and value of these systems are compared and discussed. In
spite of the disadvantage that it is impossible to separate
advantageously the history and critical examination of any
doctrine in the arbitrary manner which de Gerando chose, the
work has great merits. In correctness of detail and comprehensive-
ness of view it was greatly superior to every work of the same kind
that had hitherto appeared in France. During the Empire and
the first years of the Restoration, de Gerando found time to
prepare a second edition (Paris, 182a, 4 vols.), which is enriched
with so many additions that it may pass for an entirely new
work. The last chapter of the part published during the author's
lifetime ends with the revival of letters and the philosophy
of the 15th century. The second part, carrying the work down
to the close of the 18th century, was published posthumously
by his son in 4 vols. (Paris, 1847). Twenty-three chapters of this
were left complete by the author in manuscript; the remaining
three were supplied from other sources, chiefly printed but
unpublished memoirs.
His essay Du perfecUonnement moral el deV education de sop-mime
was crowned by the French Academy in 1825. The fundamental
idea of this work is that human life is in reality only a great
education, of which perfection is the aim.
Besides the works already mentioned, de Gerando left many
others, of which we may indicate the following : — Considerations sur
diverse; meihodes d' observation des peuples sausages (Paris, 1801);
tioge de Dumarsais, — discours qui a remporte le prix propose" par la
second* classe de I'Institut National (Paris, 1805); Le Vtsiteur
de pauinre (Paris, 1820); Instituts du droit administratif (4 vols.,
Pans, 1830); Cows normal des institukurs primaires ou directions
relatives d F Mutation physique, morale, et inteUectueUe dans les eceles
primaires (Paris, 1832); De V Education des sourds-muets (2 vols.,
Paris. 1832) ; De la btenfaisance publique (4 vols., 1838). A detailed
analysis of the Histoire comparee des sysltmes will be found in the
Fragments philosopkiques of M. Cousin. In connexion with his
psychological studies, it is interesting that in 188* the French
Anthropological Society reproduced his instructions lor the obser-
vation of primitive peoples, and modern students of the beginnings
of speech tn children and the cases of deaf-mutes have found useful
matter in his works. See also J. P. Damiron, Essai sur la pkilosopkie
en France au XIX' siecle.
GERANIACEAE, in botany, a small but very widely distributed
natural order of Dicotyledons belonging to the subclass Poly-
petalae, containing about 360 species in 11 genera. It is re-
presented in Britain by two genera, Geranium (crane's-bill) and
Erodium (stork's-bill), to which belong nearly two-thirds of the
total number of species. The plants are mostly herbs, rarely
becoming shrubby, with generally simple glandular hairs on
the stem and leaves. The opposite or alternate leaves have a
pair of small stipules at the base of the stalk and a palminerved
blade. The flowers, which are generally arranged in a cymose
inflorescence, are hermaphrodite, hypogynous, and, except in
Pelargonium regular. The parts are arranged in fives. There
are five free sepals, overlapping in the bud, and, alternating with
these, five free petals. In Pelargonium the flower is zygomorphic
with a spurred posterior sepal and the petals differing in size
or shape. In Geranium the stamens are obdiplostemonous, i.e.
an outer whorl of five opposite the petals alternates with an
inner whorl of five opposite the sepals; at the base of each of
the antisepalous stamens is a honey-gland. In Erodium the
members of the outer whorl are reduced to scale-like structures
(staminodes). and in Pelargonium from two to seven only are
fertile. There is no satisfactory explanation of this break in
the regular alternation of successive whorls; the outer whorl
of stamens arises in course of development before the inner, so
that there is no question of subsequent displacement. There
are five, or sometimes fewer, carpels, which unite to form an
ovary with as many chambers, in each of which are one or two,
rarely more, pendulous anatropous ovules, attached to the
central column in such a way that the micropyle points outwards
and the raphe is turned towards the placenta. The long beak-like
style divides at the top into a corresponding number of slender
stigmas.
The larger-flowered species of Geranium are markedly prolan-
drous, the outer stamens, inner stamens and stigmas becoming
functional in succession. For instance, in meadow crane's-bill,
G. pratense, each whorl of stamens ripens in turn, becoming
erect and shedding their pollen; as the anthers wither the fila-
ments bend outwards, and when all the anthers have diverged
the stigmas become mature and ready for pollination. By this
X
\
Meadow Crane's-bill, Geranium pratense (After
Curtis, Flora Londinensis.)
1, Flower after removal of petals. 3, Floral diagram, the dots
a, Fruit after splitting. 1 and 2 opposite the inner stamens
about natural size. rep r esen t honey-gland*,
arrangement self-pollination is prevented and cross-pollination
ensured by the visits of bees which come for the honey secreted
by the glands at the base of the inner stamens.
In species with smaller and less conspicuous flowers, such as
G. moile, the flowers of which are only i to i in.- in diameter,
self-pollination is rendered possible, since the divisions of the
stigma begin to separate before the outer stamens have shed
all their pollen; the nearness of the stigmas to the drhisring
anthers favours self-pollination.
In the ripe fruit the carpels separate into five one-seeded
portions (cocci), which break away from the central column,
either rolling elastically outwards and upwards or becoming
spirally twisted. In most species of Geranium the coed split
open on the inside and the seeds are shot out by the elastic
uptwisting (fig. 1); in Erodium and Pelargonium each coccus
remains closed, and the long twisted upper portion separates
from the central column, forming an awn, the distribution of
which is favoured by the presence of bristles or hairs. The
embryo generally fills the seed, and the cotyledons are rolled ox
folded on each other.
GERANIUM
763
Geranium ts the most widely distributed genus; it has 160
species and is spread over all temperate regions with a few
species in the tropics. Three British species— G. sytvaticum,
G. praUnsc and G. Robertianum (herb-Robert)— reach the
arctic tone, while G. patagonicum and G. mageUamcmm are
found in the antarctic Erodium contains 50 species (three are
British), most of which are confined to the Mediterranean
region and west Asia, though others occur in America, in South
Africa and West Australia. Pelargonium, with 175 species, has
its centre in South Africa, the well-known garden and green-
house " geraniums " are species of Pelargonium (see Geranium).
GERANIUM, the name of a genus of plants, which is taken by
botanists as the type of the natural order Geraniaceae. The
name, as a scientific appellation, has a much more restricted
application than when taken in its popular sense. Formerly
the genus Geranium was almost conterminous with the order
Geraniaceae. Then as now the geranium was very popular
as a garden plant, and the species included in the original genus
became widely known under that name, which has more or less
clung to them ever since, in spite of scientific changes which
have removed the larger number of them to the genus Pelar-
gonium. This result has been probably brought about in some
degree by an error of the nurserymen, who seem in many cases
to have acted on the conclusion that the group commonly
known as Scarlet Geraniums were really geraniums and not
pelargoniums, and were in consequence inserted under the
former name in their trade catalogues. In fact it may be said
that, from a popular point of view, the pelargoniums of the
botanist are still better known as geraniums than are the
geraniums themselves, but the term " zonal Pelargonium " is
gradually making its way amongst the masses.
The species of Geranium consist mostly of herbs, of annual or
perennial duration, dispersed throughout the temperate regions
of the world. They number about 160, and bear a considerable
family resemblance. The leaves are for the most part palmatcly-
lobed, and the flowers are regular, consisting of five sepals, five
imbricating petals, alternating with five glandules at their base,
ten stamens and a beaked ovary. Eleven species are natives
of the British Isles and are popularly known as crane's-bill.
G. Robertianum is herb-Robert, a common plant in bedgebanks.
G. songuineum, with flowers a deep rose colour, is often grown
in borders, as are also the double-flowered varieties of 17. pratense.
Many others of exotic origin form handsome border plants in
our gardens of hardy perennials; amongst these G. armenum,
G. Endressi, G. ibaicum and its variety platypctalum are con-
spicuous.
From these regular-flowered herbs, with which they had
been mixed up by the earlier botanists, the French botanist
L'Heritier in 1787 separated those plants which have since
borne the name of Pelargonium, and which, though agreeing
with them in certain points of structure, differ in others which
are admitted to be of generic value. One obvious distinction of
Pelargonium is that the flowers are irregular, the two petals
which stand uppermost being different— larger, smaller or
differently marked— from the other three, which latter are
occasionally wanting. This difference of irregularity the modern
florist has done very much to annul, for the increased size given
to (he flowers by high breeding has usually been accompanied
.by the enlargement of the smaller petals, so that a very near
approach to regularity has been in some cases attained. Another
well-marked difference, however, remains in Pelargonium: the
back or dorsal sepal has a hollow spur, which spur is adnate, i.e.
joined for its whole length with the flowqr-stalk; while in
Geranium there is no spur. This peculiarity is best seen by
cutting clean through the flower-stalk just behind the flower,
when in Pelargonium there will be seen the hollow tube of the
spur, which in the case of Geranium will not be found, but the
stalk will appear as a solid mass. There are other characters
which support those already pointed out, such as the absence of
the glandules, and the declination of the stamens; but the
features already described offer the most ready and obvious
distinct inns.
To recapitulate, the geraniums properly so-called are regular-
flowered herbs with the flower-stalks solid, while many geraniums
falsely so-called in popular language are really pelargoniums,
and may be distinguished by their irregular flowers and hollow
flower-stalks. In a great majority of cases too, the pelargoniums
so commonly met with in greenhouses and summer parterres
are of shrubby or sub-shrubby habit.
The various races of pelargoniums have sprung from the
intermixture of some of the species obtained from the Cape.
The older show-flowered varieties have been gradually acquired
through a long series of years. The fancy varieties, as well as
the French spotted varieties and the market type, have been
evolved from them. The zonal or bedding race, on the other
hand, has been more recently perfected; they are supposed
to have arisen from hybrids between Pelargonium inqmnans
and P. MonaU. In all the sections the varieties are of a highly
ornamental character, but for general cultivation the market
type is preferable for indoor purposes, while the zonals are
effective either in the greenhouse or flower garden. Some of the
Cape species are still in cultivation— the leaves of many of them
being beautifully subdivided, almost fern-like in character,
and some of them are deliriously scented; P. quercifolium
is the oak-leaf geranium. The ivy-leaf geranium, derived
from P. pcltatum, has given rise to an important class of both
double- and single-flowered forms adapted especially for pot
culture, hanging baskets, window boxes and the greenhouse.
Of late years the ivy-leaf " geraniums " have been crossed with
the " zonals," and a new race is being gradually evolved from
these two distinct groups.
The best soil for pelargoniums is a mellow fibrous loam with
good well-rotted stable manure or leaf-mould in about the pro-
portion of one-fifth; when used it should not be sifted, but
pulled to pieces by the hand, and as much sand should be added
as will allow the water to pass freely through it. The large-
flowered and fancy kinds cannot bear so much water as most
soft-wooded plants, and the latter should have a rather lighter
soil.
All the pelargoniums are readily increased by cuttings made
from the shoots when the plants arc headed down after flowering,
or in the spring, when they will root freely in a temperature of
65 to 70°. They must not be kept too close, and must be very
moderately watered. When rooted they may be moved into
well-drained 3-in. pots, and when from 6 to 8 in. high, should
have the points pinched out in order to induce them to push
out several shoots nearer the base. These shoots are, when long
enough, to be trained in a horizontal direction; and when they
have made three joints they should have the points again pinched
out. These early-struck plants will be ready for shifting into
6-in. pots by the autumn, and should still be trained outwards.
The show varieties after flowering should be set out of doors in
a sunny spot to ripen their wood, and should only get water
enough to keep them from flagging. In the course of two or
three weeks they will be ready to cut back within two joints
of where these were last stopped, when they should be placed
in a frame or pit, and kept close and dry until they have broken.
When they have pushed an inch or so, turn them out of their
pots, shake off the old soil, trim the straggling roots, and repot
them firmly in smaller pots if practicable; keep them near the
light, and as the shoots grow continue to train them outwardly.
They require to be kept in a light house, and to be set well up
to the glass; the night temperature should range about 45*;
and air should be given on all mild days, but no cold currents
allowed, nor more water than is necessary to keep the soil from
getting parched. The young shoots should be topped about
the end of October, and when they have grown an inch or two
beyond this, they may be shifted into 7-in. pots for flowering.
The shoots must be kept tied out so as to be fully exposed to
the light. If required to flower early they should not be stopped
again; if not until June they may be stopped in February.
The zonal varieties, which are almost continuous bloomers,
are of much value as decorative subjects; they seldom require
much pruning after the first stopping* For winter flowering,
764
GERARD— GERARD, F.
young plants should be raised from cuttings about March, and
grown on during the summer, but should not be allowed to
flower. When blossoms are required, they should be placed
close up to the glass in a hght house with a temperature of 65 ,
only just as much water being given as will keep them growing.
For bedding purposes the zonal varieties are best struck towards
the middle of August in the open air, taken up and potted or
planted in boxes as soon as struck, and preserved in frames or in
the greenhouse during winter.
The fancy varieties root best early in spring from the half-
ripened shoots; they are slower growers, and rather more
delicate in constitution than the zonal varieties, and very im-
patient of excess of water at the root.
GERARD (d. 1x08), archbishop of York under Henry I., began
his career as a chancery clerk in the service of William Rufus.
He was one of the two royal envoys who, in 1095, persuaded
Urban 11. to send a legate and Anselm's pallium to England.
Although the legate disappointed the king's expectations,
Gerard was rewarded for his services with the see of Hereford
(1006). On the death of Rufus he at once declared for Henry I.,
by whom he was nominated to the see of York. He made diffi-
culties when required to give Anselm the usual profession of
obedience; and it was perhaps to assert the importance of his
see that he took the king's side on the question of investitures.
He pleaded Henry's cause at Rome with great ability, and claimed
that he had obtained a promise, on the pope's part, to condone
the existing practice of lay investiture. But this statement
was contradicted by Paschal, and Gerard incurred the suspicion
of perjury. About 1 103 he wrote or inspired a series of tracts
which defended the king's prerogative and attacked the oecumeni-
cal pretensions of the papacy with great freedom of language.
He changed sides in 1105, becoming a stanch friend and sup-
porter of Anselm. Gerard was a man of considerable learning
and ability; but the chroniclers accuse him of being lax in his
morals, an astrologer and a worshipper of the deviL
See the Tractatus Eboracenses edited by H. Bochmer in LibeUi de
lite Saccrdotii et Imperii, vol. iii. (in the Monumenta hist. Germanic*.
quarto scries), and the same author's Kirch* und Stoat in England
und in der Normandic (Leipzig, 1899). (H. W. C. D.)
GERARD (c. 1040-1120), variously surnamed Tuv, Tunc,
Tenque or Thom, founder of the order of the knights of St John
of Jerusalem (9.?.), was born at AmaJfi about the year 1040.
According to other accounts Martigues in Provence was his
birthplace, while one authority even names the Chateau d'Avesncs
in Hainaut. Either as a soldier or a merchant, he found his way
to Jerusalem, where a hospice had for some time existed for the
convenience of those who wished to visit the holy places. Of
this institution Gerard became guardian or provost at a date not
later than 1100; and here he organized that religious order of
St John which received papal recognition from Paschal II. in
11 13, by a bull which was renewed and confirmed by Calixtus II.
shortly before the death of Gerard in 11 20.
GERARD OF CREMONA (c. 1114-1187), the medieval trans-
lator of Ptolemy's Astronomy, was born at Cremona, Lombardy,
in or about 11 14. Dissatisfied with the meagre philosophies
of his Italian teachers, be went to Toledo to study in Spanish
Moslem schools, then so famous as depositories and interpreters
of ancient wisdom; and, having thus acquired a knowledge of
the Arabic language, he appears to have devoted the remainder
of his life to the business of making Latin translations from its
literature. The dale of his return to his native town is uncertain,
but he is known to have died there in x 187. His most celebrated
work is the Latin version by which alone Ptolemy's Almagest
was known to Europe until the discovery of the original MrvaXn
Zwra£ts. In addition to this, he translated various other
treatises, to the number, it is said, of sixty-six; among these
were the Tables of " Arzakjicl," or Al Zarkala of Toledo, Al
Farabi On the Sciences (De scienliis), Euclid's Geometry, Al
Farghani's Elements of Astronomy, and treatises on algebra,
arithmetic and astrology. In the last-named latitudes are
reckoned from Cremona and Toledo. Some of the works, how-
4ve*» wiU» which he has been credited, (including the fhaow
or Thecriea pianetarum, and the versions of Avkenna's Canon
of Medicine — the basis of the numerous subsequent Latin
editions of that well-known work— and of the Almansorius of
Abu Bakr Razi) are probably due to a later Gerard, ol the 13th
century, also called Crcmonensis but more precisely de Sabloneu
(Sabbionetta). This writer undertook the task of interpreting
to the Latin world some of the best work of Arabic physicians,
and his translation of Aviccnna is said to have been made by
order of the emperor Frederic IL
See Pipini, " Cronica," in Muratori, Script, rer. Hal. voL ix.;
Nicol. Antonio, BMiotheca Hispana vetus, vol. ii.; Tiraboschi,
Sloria delta letleralura Jtaliana, vols. iii. (333) and iv. ; Ami,
Cremona liter ata\ Jourdain, Recherche s sur . . . Vorigrne da
traductions latines <TA ristote; Chasles, A percu kistorique des miiko d es
en gtomilrie, and in Comptes rendus de FAcadlmie des Sciences, vol.
xiii. p. 506; J. T. Rcinaud, Geographic d'Abouifeda, introduction,
vol. 1. pp. ccxlvi.-ccxlviii. ; Boncompacni, Delia vita e dette open di
GherardoCremoneseediGherardo da Sabbionetta (Rome. 1851). Much
of the work of both the Gerards remains in manuscript, as in Paris,
National Library, MSS. Lat. 7400, 7421 ; MSS. Suppl.Lat.49; Rome,
Vatican library, 4083, and Ottobon, 1826; Oxford, Bodleian library,
Digby, 47, 61. The Vatican MS. 2392 is stated to contain a eulogy
of Gerard of Cremona "andalistof " his "translations, apparently
confusing the two scholars. The former's most valuable work was
in astronomy; the latter 'a in medicine. (C R. B.)
G&RARD, ftnBNHE MAURICE, Count (1773-1852), French
general, was born at Damvillicrs (Meusc), on the 4th of April
1773. He joined a battalion of volunteers in X701, and served
in the campaigns of 1792-1793 under Generals Dumouriez and
Jourdan. In 1795 he accompanied Bernadotte as aide-de-camp.
In 1799 he was promoted chef d'escadron, and in 1800 colonel.
He distinguished himself at the battles of Austerlits and Jena,
and was made general of brigade in November 1806, and for his
conduct in the battle of Wagram be was created a baron. In
the Spanish campaign of 1810 and 18x1 he gained special dis-
tinction at the battle of Fuentes d'Onor; and in the expedition
to Russia he was present at Smolensk and Valutina, and displayed
such bravery and ability in the battle of Borodino that he was
made general of division. He won further distinction in the
disastrous retreat from Moscow, In the campaign of 1813, in
command of a division, he took part in the battles of Lutzen and
Bautzen and the operations of Marshal Macdonald, and at the
battle of Leipzig (in which he commanded the XI. corps) be was
dangerously wounded. After the battle of Bautzen he was
created by Napoleon a count of the empire. In the campaign
of France of 1814, and especially at La Rothiere and Montereau,
he won still greater distinction. After the first restoration he
was named by Louis XVIII. grand cross of the Legion of Honour
and chevalier of St Louis. In the Hundred Days Napoleon made
Gerard a peer of France and placed him in command of the IV.
corps of the Army of the North. In this capacity Gerard took
a brilliant part in the battle of Ligny (sec Waterloo Campaign),
and on the morning of the 18th of June he was foremost in advis-
ing Marshal Grouchy to march to the sound of the guns. Gerard
retired to Brussels after the fall of Napoleon, and did not return
\o France till 181 7. He sat as a member of the chamber of
deputies in 1822-1824, and was re-elected in 1827. He took part
in the revolution of 1830, after which he was appointed minister
of war and named a marshal of France. On account of his
health he resigned the office of war minister in the October
following, but in 183 1 he took the command of the northern army,
and was successful in thirteen days in driving the army of Holland
out of Belgium. In 1832 he commanded the besieging army in
the famous scientific siege of the citadel of Antwerp. He was
again chosen war minister in July 1834, but resigned in the
October following. In 1836 he was named grand chancellor of
the Legion of Honour in succession to Marshal Morticr, and in
1838 commander of the National Guards of the Seine, an office
which he held till 1842. He became a senator under the empire
in 1852, and died on the 17th of April in the same year.
GfiRARD, FRANCOIS* Baron (1770-1837), French painter,
was born on the 4th of May 1770, at Rome, where his father
occupied a post in the house of the French ambassador. At the
age of twelve Gerard obtained admission into the Pension da
Roi at Paris. From the Pension he passed to the studio of
GERARD, J. I. I.— GERASA
765
Pajou (sculptor), which he left at the end of two years for that
of the painter Brenet, whom he quitted almost immediately to
place himself under David. In 1789 he competed for the Prix
de Rome, which was carried off by his comrade Girodet. In the
following year (1790) he again presented himself, but the death
of his father prevented the completion of his work, and obliged
him to accompany his mother to Rome. In 1791 he returned to
Paris; but his poverty was so great that he was forced to forgo
his studies in favour of employment which should bring in
immediate profit. David at once availed himself of his help,
and one of that master's most celebrated pictures— Le Pelleticr
dc St Fargcau — may owe much to the hand of Gerard. This
painting was executed early in 1793, the year in which Glrard,
at the request of David, was named a member of the revolu-
tionary tribunal, from the fatal decisions of which he, however,
invariably absented himself. In 1704 be obtained the first prize
in a competition, the subject of which was " The Tenth of August,"
and, further stimulated by the successes of his rival and friend
Girodet in the Salons of 1793 and 1794, Gerard (nobly aided
by Isabey the miniaturist) produced in 179s his famous " Belis-
aire." In 1796 a portrait of his generous friend (in the Louvre)
obtained undisputed success, and the money received from
Isabey for these two works enabled Gerard to execute in 1797
his " Psyche et 1' Amour." At last, in 17091 his portrait of
Madame Bonaparte established his position as one of the first
portrait-painters of the day. In 1808 as many as eight, in 18 10
no less than fourteen portraits by him, were exhibited at the
Salon, and these figures afford only an indication of the enormous
numbers which he executed yearly; all the leading figures of
the empire and of the restoration, all the most celebrated men
and women of Europe, sat to Glrard. This extraordinary
vogue was due partly to the charm of his manner and conversa-
tion, for his salon was as much frequented as his studio; Madame
de Stael, Canning, Talleyrand, the duke of Wellington, have all
borne witness to the attraction of his society. Rich and famous,
Gerard was stung by remorse for earlier ambitions abandoned;
at intervals he had indeed striven to prove his strength with
Girodet and other rivals, and his " Bataillc d'Austerlitz " (1810)
showed a breadth of invention and style which are even more
conspicuous in" L'Enlree d' Henri IV " (Versailles) — the work
with which in 18 17 he did homage to the Bourbons. After this
date Gerard declined, watching with impotent grief the progress
of the Romantic school. Loaded with honours — baron of the
empire, member of the Institute, officer of the legion of honour,
first painter to the king— he worked on sad and discouraged;
the revolution of 1830 added to his disquiet; and on the nth of
January 1837, after three days of fever, he died. By his portraits
Ge'rard is best remembered; the colour of his paintings has
suffered, but his drawings show in uninjured delicacy the purity
of his line; and those of women are specially remarkable for a
virginal simplicity and frankness of expression.
M. Ch. Lcnormant published in 1846 Essai de biographie el de
critique sur Francois Girard, a second edition of which appeared
in 1847; and M. Dclecluwr devoted several pages to the same subject
in his work Louis David, son icole et son temps.
OftRARD, JEAN IGNACB ISIDORE (1803-1847). French
caricaturist, generally known by the pseudonym of Grandville —
the professional name of his grandparents, who were actors —
was born at Nancy on the 13th of September 1803. He received
his first instruction in drawing from his father, a miniature
painter, and at the age of twenty-one came to Paris, where he
soon afterwards published a collection of lithographs entitled
Les Tribulations de la petite propriiU. He followed this by Les
Plaisirs de loutdge and La Sibyllc des salons; but the work
which first established his fame was Mttamorphoses du jour,
published in 1828, a series of seventy scenes in which individuals
with the bodies of men and faces of animals are made to play a
human comedy. These drawings are remarkable for the extra-
ordinary skill with which human characteristics are represented
in animal features. The success of this work led to his being
engaged as artistic contributor to various periodicals, such as La
Silhouette, V Artiste, La Caricature, Le Charivari; and his political
caricatures, which were characterized by marvellous fertility of
satirical humour, soon came to enjoy a general popularity.
Besides supplying illustrations for various standard works,
such as the songs of Beranger, the fables of La Fontaine, Don
Quixote, Gulliver's Travels, Robinson Crusoe, he also continued
the issue of various lithographic collections, among which may
be mentioned La Vie privit el ptiblique des animaux, Les Cent
Proverb**, V Autre Monde and La Fleurs animtes. Though
the designs of Gerard are occasionally unnatural and absurd,
they usually display keen analysis of character and marvellous
inventive ingenuity, and his humour is always tempered and
refined by delicacy of sentiment and a vein of sober thoughtful-
ness. He died of mental disease on the 17th of March 1847.
A short notice of Gerard, under the name of Grandville. is con-
tained in Theophflc Gau tier's Portraits content porains. See also
Charles Blanc, Grandville (Paris, 1855).
GERARD, JOHN (1 545-161 2), English herbalist and surgeon,
was born towards the end of 1545 at Nantwich in Cheshire. He
was educated at Wisterson, or Willaston, 2 m. from Nantwich,
and eventually, after spending some lime in travelling, took up
his abode in London, where he exercised his profession. For
more than twenty years he also acted as superintendent of the
gardens in London and at Theobalds, in Hertfordshire, of William
Cecil, Lord Burghlcy. In 1596 he published a catalogue of
plants cultivated in his own garden in Holborn, London, 1039 in
number, inclusive of varieties of the same species. Their English
as well as their Latin names arc given in a revised edition of the
catalogue issued in 1 599. In 1 597 appeared Gerard's well-known
Her ball, described by him in its preface as " the first fruits of
these mine own labours," but more truly an adaptation of the
Stirpium hist or ice pemptades of Rembcrt Dodocns (15 18-1585),
published in 1583, or rather of a translation of the whole or part
of the same by Dr Priest, with M. Lobcl's arrangement. Of the
numerous illustrations of the Her ball sixteen appear to be
original, the remainder are mostly impressions from the wood
blocks employed by Jacob Theodoras Tabernacmontanus in
his hones stirpium, published at Frankfort in 1500. A second
edition of the Her ball, with considerable improvements and
additions, was brought out by Thomas Johnson in 1633, and
reprinted in 1636. Gerard was elected a member of the court of
assistants of the barber-surgeons in 1595, by which company
he was appointed an examiner in 1598, junior warden in 1605,
and master in 1608. He died in February 1612, and was buried
at St Andrews, Holborn.
See Johnson's preface to his edition of the Herball', and A Cata-
logue 0} Plants cultivated in the Garden of John Gerard in the years
ifofr-iS99, edited with Notes, References to Gerard's Herball, the
Addition of modern Names, and a Life of the Author, by Benjamin
Daydon Jackson, F.L.S., privately printed (London, 1876, 4to).
G&RARDMBR, a town of north-eastern France, in the depart-
ment of Vosges, 33 m. E.S.E. of Epinal by rail. Pop. (1006)
of the town, 3093; of the commune, 10,041. Gerardmer is
beautifully situated at a height of 2200 ft. at the eastern end
of the small Lake of Gdrardmer (285 acres in extent) among
forest-clad mountains. It is the chief summer-resort of the
French Vosges and is a centre for excursions, among which may
be mentioned those to the Hdhneck (4481 ft.), the second
highest summit in the Vosges, the Schlucht, the mountain past
from France to Germany, and, nearer the town, the picturesque
defile of Granges, watered by the Vologne, which at one point
forms the cascade known as the Saut des Cuves. The town
itself, in which the chief object of interest is the huge lime-tree
in the market-place, carries on cloth-weaving, bleaching, wood-
sawing and the manufacture of wooden goods; there is trade
in the cheeses (geromis) manufactured in the neighbourhood.
Gerardmer is said to owe its name to Gerard of Alsace, 1st duke
of Lorraine, who in the nth century built a tower on the bank
of the lake or mer, near which, in 1285, a new town was founded.
GERASA (mod. Gerask or J crash), a city of Palestine, and a
member of the league known as the Decapolis (7.9.). situated amid
the mountains of Gilead, about 1757 ft. above the sea, 20 m.
from the Jordan and 21 m. N. of Philadelphia. Of its origin
nothing Is known; it has been suggested that it represents
the biblical Ramoth Gilead. From Josepbus we learn that it
766
GERAULT-RICHARD— HERBERT
was captured by Alexander Jannaeus (c. 83 B.C.), rebuilt by the
Romans (c. a.d. 65), burned by the Jews in revenge for the
massacre at Caesarea, and again plundered and depopulated
by Annius, the general of Vespasian; but, in spite of these
disasters, it was still in the 2nd and 3rd centuries of the Christian
era one of the wealthiest and most flourishing cities of Palestine.
It was a centre of Greek civilization, devoted especially to the
worship of Artemis, and producing famous teachers, of whom
Stephen the Byzantine mentions Ariston, Kerykos and Plato.
As late as 1 121 the soldiers of Baldwin II. found it defended by
a castle built by a king of Damascus; but at the beginning of
the following century the Arabian geographer Yaqut speaks of
it as deserted and overthrown. The ruins of Jerash, discovered
about 1806, and since then frequently visited and described,
still attest the splendour of the Roman city. They are distributed
along both banks of the Kerwan, a brook which flows south
through the Wadi-cd-DCr to join the Zerka or Jabbok; but all
the principal buildings are situated on the level ground to the
right of the stream. The town walls, which can still be traced
and indeed are partly standing, had a circuit of not more than
2 m., and the main street was less than half a mile in length;
but remains of buildings on the road for fully a mile beyond the
south gate, show that the town had outgrown the limit of its
fortifications. The most striking feature of the ruins is the pro-
fusion of columns, no fewer than 230 being even now in position ;
the main street is a continuous colonnade, a large part of which
is still entire, and it terminates to the south in a forum of similar
formation. Among the public buildings still recognizable are a
theatre capable of accommodating 6000 spectators, a naumachia
(circus for naval combats) and several temples, of which the
largest was probably the grandest structure in the city, possessing
a portico of Corinthian pillars 38 ft. high. The desolation of
the city is probably due to earthquake; and the absence of
Moslem erections or restorations seems to show that the disaster
took place before the Mahommedan period.
The town is now occupied by a colony of Circassians, whose
houses have been built with materials from the earlier buildings,
and there has been much destruction of the interesting ruins.
44 The country of the Gerasenes " (Matt. viii. 28 and parallels;
other readings, Gadarcncs, Gergesenes) must be looked for in
another quarter— on the E. coast of the Sea of Galilee, probably
in the neighbourhood of the modern Khersa (C. W. Wilson in
Recovery of Jerusalem, p. 369). (R. A.SM.)
GftRAULT-RICHARD, ALFRED LfiON (i860- ), French
journalist and politician, was born at Bonne'table in the depart-
ment of Sarthc, of a peasant family. He began life as a working
upholsterer, first at Mans, then at Paris (1880), where his peasant
and socialist songs soon won him fame in the Montmartre quarter.
Lissagaray, the communist, offered him a position on La BaioilU,
and he became a regular contributor to the advanced journals,
especially to La Petite Ripubtique, of which he became editor-in-
chief in 1897. In 1893 he founded Le Chambard, and was im-
prisoned for a year (1894) on account of a personal attack upon
the president, Casimir-Pericr. In January 1895 be was elected
to the chamber as a Socialist for the thirteenth arrondissement
of Paris. He was defeated at the elections of 1898 at Paris,
but was re-elected in 1902 and in 1906 by the colony of
Guadeloupe.
OERBER, ERNST LUDWIG (1746-1819), German musician,
author of a famous dictionary of musicians, was born at Sonders-
hausen in the principality of Schwarzburg-Sondcrshausen on
the 29th of September 1746. His father, Henry Nicolas Gerber
(1702-1775), a pupil of J. S. Bach, was an organist and composer
of some distinction, and under his direction Ernst Ludwig at
an early age had made great progress in his musical studies.
In 176s he went to Leipzig to study law, but the claims of music,
which had gained additional strength from his acquaintanceship
with J. A. HiUer, soon came to occupy almost his sole attention.
On his return to Sondershausen he was appointed music teacher
to the children of the prince, and in 177s he succeeded his father
as court organist. Afterwards he devoted much of his time to
the study of the literature and history of music, and with this
view he made himself master of several modern languages. His
Hislorisck-biograpkisckcs Lexikon der TonkUnstlcr appeared in
1790 and 1792 in two volumes; and the first volume of what
was virtually an improved and corrected edition of this work
was published in 1810 under the title Neues kistorisch-bio-
grapkisches Lexikon der TonkunslUr, followed by other three
volumes in 181 2, 1813 and 1814. Gerber also contributed 1
number of papers to musical periodicals, and published several
minor musical compositions. He died at Sondershausen on the
30th of June 1819.
OERBERON, GABRIEL (1628-1711), French Janscnist monk,
was born on the 12th of August 1628 at St Calais, in the depart-
ment of Sarthe. At the age of twenty he took the vows of the
Benedictine order at the abbey of Ste Mclaine, Rcnncs. and after-
wards taught rhetoric and philosophy in several monasteries.
His open advocacy of Jansenist opinions, however, caused his
superiors to relegate him to the most obscure houses of the order,
and finally to keep him under surveillance at the abbey of St
Gcrmain-dcs-Pres at Paris. Here he wrote a defence of the
doctrine of the Real Presence against the Calvinists in the form
of an apology for Rupert, abbot of Deutz {Apologia pro Ruptrto
abbate Tuitensi, Paris, 1669). In 1676 he published at Brussels,
under the name of " Sieur Flore dc Ste Foi " his Miroir de la
piiti chrftienne, an enlarged edition of which appeared at Liege
in the following year. This was condemned by certain arch-
bishops and theologians as the repetition of the five condemned
propositions of Jansen, and Gerbcron defended it, under the
name of " Abbe" Valentin " in Le Miroir sans taehe (Paris, 16S0).
He had by this time aroused against him the full fury of the
Jesuits, and at their instigation a royal provost was sent to
Corbie to arrest him. He had, however, just time to escape,
and fled to the Low Countries, where he lived in various towns.
He was invited by the Jansenist clergy to Holland, where he
wrote another controversial work against the Protestants:
Dtfense de l'£glise Romain contre la calomnie da Protestants
(Cologne, 1688-1691). This produced unpleasantness with the
Reformed clergy, and feeling himself no longer safe be returned
to Brussels. In 1700 he published his history of Jansenism
(Hisloire generate du Jansinisme),* dry work, by which, however,
he is best remembered. He adhered firmly to the August inian
doctrine of Predestination, and on the '30th of May 1703 he was
arrested at Brussels at the instance of the archbishop of Malines,
and ordered to subscribe the condemnation of the five sentences
of Jansen. On his refusal, he was handed over to his superiors
and imprisoned in the citadel of Amiens and afterwards at
Vincennes. Every sort of pressure was brought to bear upon
him to make his submission, and at last, broken in health and
spirit, he consented to sign a formula which the cardinal de
Noailles claimed as a recantation. Upon this he was released
in 1 7 10. The first use he made of his freedom was to write a
work (which, however, his friends prudently prevented him from
publishing), Le Vaine Triomphcdu cardinal de Noailles, containing
a virtual withdrawal of the compulsory recantation. He died
at the abbey of St Denis on the 29th of March 17x1.
QERBERT. MARTIN (1720-1793), German theologian,
historian and writer on music, belonged to the noble family of
Gerbert von Hornau, and was born at Horb on the Neckar,
Wurttemberg, on the 12th (or nth or 13th) of August 172a
He was educated at Freiburg in the Breisgau, at Klingenau in
Switzerland and at the Benedictine abbey of St Blasien in the
Black Forest, where in 1737 he took the vows. In 1744 he was
ordained priest, and immediately afterwards appointed professor,
first of philosophy and later of theology. Between 1754 and
1764 he published a series of theological treatises, their main
tendency being to modify the rigid scholastic system by an
appeal to the Fathers, notably Augustine; from 1759 to 1762
he travelled in Germany, Italy and France, mainly with a view
to examining the collections of documents in the various monastic
libraries. In 1764 he was elected prince-abbot of St Blasien,
and proved himself a model ruler both as abbot and prince.
His examination of archives during his travels had awakened
in him a taste for historical research, and under bis rale St
GERBIL— GERHARD, J,
767
Blasien became a notable centre of the methodical study of
history; it was here that Marquard Herrgott wrote his Monu-
tnenla domus Austriacae, of which the first two volumes were
edited, for the second edition, by Gerbert, who also published a
Codex epistol or is Rudolphi /., Romani regis (1772) and De
Rudolpho Suevico comite de Rhinjclden, duce el rege, deque ejus
familia (1785). It was, however, in sacramental theology,
liturgiology, and notably ecclesiastical music that Gerbert was
mainly interested. In 1774 he published two volumes De canlu
et musica sacra; in 1777, Monumenla velcris Uturgiac Alcmannicae;
and in 1784, in three volumes, Scriptores ecclesiaslici de musica
sacra, a collection of the principal writers on church music from
the 3rd century till the invention of printing. The materials
for this work he had gathered during his travels, and although
it contains many textual errors, its publication has been of great
importance for the history of music, by preserving writings
which might either have perished or remained unknown. His
interest in music led to his acquaintance with the composer
Cluck, who became his intimate friend.
As a prince of the Empire Gerbert was devoted to the interests
of the house of Austria; as a Benedictine abbot he was opposed
to Joseph II. 's church policy. In the Fcbronian controversy
(see Febroman'ISm) he had early taken a mediating attitude,
and it was largely due to his influence that Bishop Honlhcim
had been induced to retract his extreme views.
In 1768 the abbey of St Blasien, with the library and church,
was burnt to the ground, and the splendid new church which
rose on the ruins of the old (1783) remained until its destruction
by fire in 1874, at once a monument of Gerbert 's taste in archi-
tecture and of his Habsburg sympathies. It was at his request
that it was made the mausoleum of all the Austrian princes
buried outside Austria, whose remains were solemnly transferred
to its vaults. In connexion with its consecration he published
his Historia Nigrae Silvae, ordinis S. Bencdicti coloniae (3 vols.,
St Blasien, 1783).
Gerbert, who was beloved and respected by Catholics and
Protestants alike, died on the 3rd of May 1793.
See Joseph Bader, Das ehemalige Kloster St Blasien und seine
CeUkrtenakademie (Frciburg-im-Brcisgau, 1874), which contains
a chronological list of Gcrbcrt's works.
GERBIL, or Gekbille, the name of a group of small, elegant,
large-eyed, jumping rodents typified by the North African
Cerbillus aegyptiacus (or gerbillus), and forming a special sub-
family, Cerbillinae, of the rat tribe or Muridae. They are found
over the desert districts of both Asia and Africa, and arc classed
in the genera Cerbillus (or Tatera), Pachyuromys, Mcriones,
Psammomys and Rhombomys, with further divisions into sub-
genera. They have elongated hind-limbs and long hairy tails;
and progress by leaps, in the same manner as jerboas, from which
they differ in having five hind-toes. The cheek-teeth have trans-
verse plates of enamel on the crowns; the number of such plates
diminishing from three in the first tooth to one or one and a half
in the third. The upper incisor teeth arc generally marked by
grooves. Gcrbils arc inhabitants of open sandy plains, where
they dwell in burrows furnished with numerous exits, and con-
taining large grass-lined chambers. The Indian G. indie us
produces at least a dozen young at a birth. All arc more or less
completely nocturnal.
GERENUK, the Somali name of a long- necked aberrant gazelle,
commonly known as Waller's gazelle (Lithocranius u-allcri),
and ranging from Somaliland to Kilimanjaro. The long neck
and limbs, coupled with peculiarities in the structure of the skull,
entitle the gcrcnuk, which is a large species, to represent a genus.
The horns of the bucks arc heavy, and have a peculiar forward
curvature at the tips; the colour of the coat is red-fawn, with
a broad brown band down the back. Gcrcnuk arc browsing
ruminants, and, in Somaliland, arc found in small family-parties,
and feed more by browsing on the branches and leaves of trees and
shrubs than by grazing. Frequently they raise themselves by
standing on their hind-legs with the forefeet resting against the
t runk of th-? tree on which they arc feeding. Their usual pace is
an awkward trot, not unJike that of a camel; and they seldom
break into a gallop. The Somali form has been separated as
L. sdaleri, but is not more than a local race. (See Antelope.)
OERGOVIA (mod. Cergovie), in ancient geography, the chief
town of the Arverni, situated on a hill in the Auvergne, about
8 m. from the Puy de Dome, France. Julius Caesar attacked
it in 52 B.C., but was beaten off; some walls and earthworks
seem still to survive from this period. Later, when Gaul had been
subdued, the place was dismantled and its Gaulish inhabitants
resettled 4 m. away in the plain at the new Roman city of
Augustoncmgtum (mod. Clermont-Ferrand).
GERHARD. FRIEDRICH WILHELM BDUARD (1795-1867),
German archaeologist, was born at Posen on the 29th of
November 1795, and was educated at Breslau and Berlin. The
reputation he acquired by his Lectiones Apotlonianac (181 6)
led soon afterwards to his being appointed professor at the
gymnasium of Posen. .On resigning that office in 18 19, on
account of weakness of the eyes, he went in 1822 to Rome, where
he remained for fifteen years. He contributed to Plainer*!
Besckreibung der Stadl Rom t then under the direction of Bunsen,
and was one of the principal originators and during his residence
in Italy director of the Institulo di eorrispondema archeolngica,
founded at Rome in 1828. Returning to Germany in 1 837 he was
appointed archaeologist at the Royal Museum of Berlin, and in
1844 was chosen a member of the Academy of Sciences, and a pro-
fessor in the university. He died at Berlin on the 1 2th of May 1867.
Besides a large number of archaeological papers in periodicals, in
the Annali of the Institute of Rome, and in the Transactions o( the
Berlin Academy, and several illustrated catalogues of Greek. Roman
and other antiquities in the Berlin, Naples and Vatican Museum*
Gerhard was the author of the following works: Antike Bitdwerkt
(Stuttgart, 1 827- 1 844); Aus'rtcsenegrieck. Vasenbilder (1839-1858);
Etruskische Spiegel (1 839-1 865) ; Hyperboreisck-rom. Sludun (vol. i.,
1833; vol. ii., 1852); Prodromus mytholog. Kunslerklarung (Stutt-
girt and Tubingen. 1828) ; and Griech. htythologie (1854-1855). Hit
esammrlte akademische Abhandlnngen und kleine Schrijten were
published posthumously in 2 vols., Berlin, 1867.
GERHARD, JOHANN (1 582-1637), Lutheran divine, was born
in Qucdlinburg on the 17th of October 1582. In his fifteenth,
year, during a dangerous illness, he came under the personal
influence of Johann Arndt, author of Das wahre Christcnthum,
and resolved to study for the church. He entered the university
of Wittenberg in 1509, and first studied philosophy. He also
attended lectures in theology, but, a relative having persuaded
him to change his subject, he studied medicine for two years.
In 1603, however, he resumed his theological reading at Jena,
and in the following year received a new impulse from J. W.
Winckelmann (1551-1626) and Balthasar Mentzer (1565-1637)
at Marburg. Having graduated and begun to give lectures at
Jena in 1605, he in 1606 accepted the invitation of John Casimir,
duke of Coburg, to the supcrintendency of Heldburg and master-
ship of the gymnasium; soon afterwards he became general
superintendent of the duchy, in which capacity he was engaged
in the practical work of ecclesiastical organization until 1616,
when he became theological professor at Jena, where the re-
maindcr of his life was spent. Here, with Johann Major and
Johann Himmcl, he formed the "Trias Johannca." Though
still comparatively young, Gerhard had already come to be
regarded as the greatest living theologian of Protestant Germany;
in the numerous " disputations " of the period he was always
protagonist, while on all public and domestic questions touching
on religion or morals his advice was widely sought. It is recorded
that during the course of his lifetime he had received repeated
calls to almost every university in Germany {e.g. Giesscn, Altdorf,
Helmsliidt, Jena, Wittenberg), as well as to Upsala in Sweden.
He died in Jena on the 20th of August 1637.
His writings arc numerous, alike in exegetical, polemical, dog-
matic and practical theology. To the first category belong the
Conzmentarius in karmoniam historiae evangeticar de passionr Ckristi
(1617), the Comment, super prior em D. Petri epistolam (1641). and
also his commentaries on Genesis (1637) and on Deuteronomy
(1658). Of a controversial character arc the Confessio Catholua
(1633-T637), an extensive work which seeks to prove the evanccKcal
and catholic charartcr of »hc doctrine of the Augsburg Confession
from the writings of ap,,.ovctl Roman Catholic authors; and the
Loci communes thcoloztci (1610-1622), his principal contribution
to science, in which Luihcranism is expounded " ncrvose, solide.
768
GERHARDT, C. F.— GERICAULT
et copiose," In fact with a fulness of learning, a force of logic and
a minuteness of detail that had never before been approached.
The MeditaHoues iacra* (1606), a work expressly devoted to the
met of Christian edification, has been frequently reprinted in Latin
and has been translated into most of the European languages,
Including Greek. The English translation by R. Winterton (1631)
has passed through at least nineteen editions. There is also an
edition by W. Papillon in English blank verse (1801). His life,
Vita Joh. Gtrhardi, was published by E. R. Fischer ih 1723, and by
C. J. Bottcher, Das Leben Dr Johaim dr hards, in 1858. See also
W. Gass. Geschich* der prolestantischen Dogmoiik (1854-1867), and
Che article in the Allgemtine deutsche Biographic
GERHARDT. CHARLES FREDERIC (1816-1856), French
chemist, was born at Strassburg on the 21st of August 1816.
After attending the gymnasium at Strassburg and the polytechnic
at Karlsruhe, he was sent to the school of commerce at Leipzig,
where he studied chemistry under Otto Erdmann. Returning
home in 1834 he entered his father's white lead factory, but soon
found that business was not to his liking, and after a sharp
disagreement with his father enlisted in a cavalry regiment.
In a few months military life became equally distasteful,. and he
purchased his discharge with the assistance of Liebig, with whom,
after a short interval at Dresden, he went to study at Gicssen
in 1836. But his stay at Giessen was also short, and in 1837
he re-entered the factory. Again, however, he quarrelled with
his father, and in 1838 went to Paris with introductions from
Liebig. There he attended Jean Baptiste Dumas' lectures and
worked with Auguste Cahours (1813-1891) on essential oils,
especially cumin, in Michel Eugene Chevrcul's laboratory, while
he earned a precarious living by teaching and making translations
of some of Liebig's writings. In 1841 , by the influence of Dumas,
he was charged with the duties of the chair of chemistry at the
MontpeUier faculty of sciences, becoming titular professor in
1844. In 1842 he annoyed his friends in Paris by the matter and
manner of a paper on the classification of organic compounds,
and in 1845 he and his opinions were the subject of an attack
by Liebig, unjustifiable in its personalities but not altogether
surprising in view of his wayward disregard of his patron's
advice. The two were reconciled in 1850, but his faculty for
disagreeing with bis friends did not make it easier for him to
get another appointment after resigning the chair at MontpeUier
in 1851, especially as he was unwilling to go into the provinces.
He obtained leave of absence from MontpeUier in 1848 and from
that year till 1855 resided in Paris. During that period he
established an " Ecole de chimic pratique " of which he had
great hopes; but these were disappointed, and in 1855, after
refusing the offer of a chair of chemistry at the new Zurich
Polytechnic in 1854, he accepted the professorships of chemistry
at the Faculty of Sciences and the Ecole Polytcchnique at
Strassburg, where he died on the 19th of August in the following
year. Although Gcrbardt did some noteworthy experimental
work— for instance, his preparation of acid anhydrides in 1852 —
his contributions to chemistry consist not so much in the dis-
covery of new facts as in the introduction of new ideas that
vitalized and organized an inert accumulation of old facts.
In particular, with his fellow- worker Auguste Laurent (1807-
1853), he did much to reform the methods of chemical formula-
tion by insisting on the distinction between atoms, molecules
and equivalents; and in his unitary system, directly opposed
to the dualistic doctrines of Berzelius, he combined Dumas'
substitution theory with the old radicle theory and greatly
extended the notion of types of structure. His chief works were
Prtcis de chimic organique (1844-1845), and Traiti de chimic
organique (1853^-1856).
bee Charles Gerhardt, sa vie, son more, sa correspondence, by
his son, Charles Gerhardt. and E. Grimaux (Paris, 1900).
GERHARDT, PAUL (c. 1606-1676), German hymn-writer,
was bom of a good middle-class family at Grifenhainichen, a
small town on the railway between Halle and Wittenberg, in
1606 or 1607— some authorities, indeed, give the date March 12,
1607, but neither the year nor the day is accurately known.
His education appears to have been retarded by the troubles
of the period, the Thirty Years' War having begun about the
time he reached his twelfth year. After completing his studies
for the church be is known to have lived for some years at
Berlin as tutor in the family of an advocate named Berthold,
whose daughter he subsequently married, on receiving; his first
ecclesiastical appointment at Mittelwald (a small town in the
neighbourhood of Berlin) in 165 1. In 1657 he accepted an
invitation as "diaconus" to the Nicolaikirche of Berlin; but,
in consequence of his uncompromising Lutheranism in refusing
to accept the elector Frederick William's " syncretislic " edict
of 1664, he was deprived in 1666. Though absolved from
submission and restored to office early in the following year, on
the petition of the citizens, his conscience did not allow him to
retain a post which, as it appeared to him, could only be held on
condition of at least a tacit repudiation of the Formula Concordiae,
and for upwards of a year he lived in Berlin without fixed employ-
ment. In 1668 he was appointed archdeacon of Lubben in the
duchy of Saxe-Mcrseburg, where, after a somewhat sombre
ministry of eight years, he died on the 7th of June 1676. Gerhardt
is the greatest hymn-writer of Germany, if not indeed of Europe.
Many of his best-known hymns were originally published in
various church hymn-books, as for example in that for Branden-
burg, which appeared in 1658; others first saw the b'ghl in
Johantt Crflger's CeisUiche Kirchenmelodien (1649) and Praxis
pielatis mclica (1656). The first complete set of tbem is the
CeisUiche Andachten, published in 1666-1667 by Ebeling, music
director in Berlin. No hymn by Gerhardt of a later date than
1667 is known to exist.
The life of Gerhardt has been written by Roth (1820), by Lang-
Decker (1841), by Schultz (1842), by Wiidenhahn (1845) and by
Bachmann (1863); also by Kraft in Ersch u. G ruber's Aug. EhcjcI
(1855). The best modern edition of the hymns, published by
Wackernagel in 1843, has often been reprinted. There is an English
translation by Kelly {Paul Ccrhardl's Spiritual Songs, 1867).
OBRJCAULT, JEAN LOUIS ANDRE THEODORE (X791-X824),
French painter, the leader of the French realistic school, was
born at Rouen in 1 791. In 1808 he entered the studio of Charles
Verne t, from which, in 1810, he passed to that of Guetin, whom
he drove to despair by his passion for Rubens, and by the un-
orthodox manner in which he persisted in interpreting nature.
At the Salon of 181 2 Qericault attracted attention by bis "Ofikkr
de Chasseurs a Cheval " (Louvre), a work in which he personified
the cavalry in its hour of triumph, and turned to account the
solid training received from Guerin in rendering a picturesque
point of view which was in itself a protest against the cherished
convictions of the pseudo-classical school. Two years later
(1814) he re-exhibited this work accompanied with the reverse
picture " Cuirassier bless* " (Louvre), and in both subjects
called attention to the interest of contemporary aspects of life,
treated neglected types of living form, and exhibited that
mastery of and delight in the horse which was a feature of his
character. Disconcerted by the tempest of contradictory
opinion which arose over these two pictures, Gericault gave way
to his enthusiasm for horses and soldiers, and enrolled himself
in the numsquetaires. During the Hundred Days be followed
the king to Bcthune, but, on his regiment being disbanded,
eagerly returned to his profession, left France for Italy in 1816,
and at Rome nobly illustrated his favourite animal by his great
painting " Course des Chevaux Libres." Returning to Paris,
Gericault exhibited at the Salon of 1819 the " Radeau de la
Meduse " (Louvre), a subject which not only enabled him to
prove his zealous and scientific study of the human form, but
contained those elements of the heroic and pathetic, as existing
in situations of modern life, to which he had appealed in his
earliest productions. Easily depressed or elated, Gericault
took to heart the hostility which this work excited, and passed
nearly two years in London, where the " Radeau " was exhibited
with success, and where he executed many series of admirable
lithographs now rare. At the close of 1822 he was again in Paris,
and produced a great quantity of projects for vast compositions,
models in wax, and a horse icorchi, as preliminary to the produc-
tion of an equestrian statue. His health was now completely
undermined by various kinds of excess, and on the 26th of
January 1824 he died, at the age of thirty-three.
Gericault'* biography, accompanied by a catalogue raisaume of
his works, was published by M. C. Clement in 1868.
GERIZIM— GERMAN BAPTIST BRETHREN
769
GBRIZIlf, a mountain in the hill-country of Samaria, 2849 ft.
above the sea-level, and enclosing, with its companion Ebal;
(he valley in which lies the town of Nablus (Shechcm). It is the
holy place of the community of the Samaritans, who bold that
it was the scene of the sacrifice of Isaac — a tradition accepted
by Dean Stanley but no other western writers of importance.
Here, on the formal entrance of the Israelites into the possession
of the Promised Land, were pronounced the blessings connected
with a faithful observance of the law (Josh. viii. 33, 34; cf.
Dcut. xi. 29, 30, xxvii. 12-26), the six tribes, Simeon, Levi,
Judah, Issachar, Joseph and Benjamin, standing here for the
purpose* while the remaining tribes stood on Ebal to accept
the curses attached to specific violations thereof. Gcrizim was
probably chosen as the mount of blessing as being on the right
hand, the fortunate side, of a spectator facing cast. The counter-
suggestion of Eusebius and Jerome that the Ebal and Gcrizim
associated with this solemnity were not the Shechcm mountains
at all, but two small hills near Jericho, is no longer considered
important. From this mountain Jotham spoke his parable to
the elders of Shechcm (Judg. ix. 7). Manassch, the son of the
Jewish high-priest in the days of Nehcmiah, married the daughter
of Sanballat and, about 432 B.C., erected on this mountain a
temple for the Samaritans; it was destroyed by Hyrcanus about
300 years afterwards. Its site is a small level plateau a little
under the summit of the mountain. Close to this is the place
where the Passover is still annually celebrated in exact accordance
with the rites prescribed in the Pentateuch. On the summit of
the mountain, which commands a view embracing the greater
part of Palestine, are a small Moslem shrine and the ruins of a
castle probably dating from Justinian's time. There was an
octagonal Byzantine church here, but the foundations alone
remain. Joseph us describes it as the highest of the mountains of
Samaria, but Ebal and Tell Azur are both higher. (R. A. S. M.)
GERLACHE, ETIENNE CONST AN TIN, Baron oe (17S5-
1S71), Belgian politician and historian, was born at Biourgc,
Luxemburg, on the 24th of December 1785. He studied law
in Paris and practised there for some time, but settled at Liege
after the establishment of the kingdom of the Netherlands.
As member of the states-general he was an energetic member
of the opposition, and, though he repudiated an ultramontane
policy, he supported the alliance of the extreme Catholics with
the Liberal party, which paved the way for the revolution of
1830. On the outbreak of disturbance in August 1830 he still,
however, thought the Orange-Nassau dynasty and the union
with the Dutch states essential; but his views changed, and,
after holding various offices in the provisional government, he
became president of congress, and brought forward the motion
inviting Leopold of Saxe-Coburg to become king of the Belgians.
In 1832 he was president of the chamber of representatives, and
for thirty-five years he presided over the court of appeal. He
presided over the Catholic congresses held at Malines between
1863 and 1867. That his early Liberal views underwent some
modification is plain from the Conservative principles enunciated
in his Essai sur le mouvemeM des partis en Bclgique (Brussels,
1852). As an historian his work was strongly coloured by his
anti-Dutch prejudices and his Catholic predilections. His
Histoire des Pays-Bas depuis J 8 14 jusqu'en i8jo (Brussels, 2
vols;, 1839), which reached a fourth edition in 1875, was a piece
of special pleading against the Dutch domination. The most
important of his other works were his Histoire de Liige (Brussels,
1843) and his Etudes stir Salluste el sur quelques-uns des principaux
kistoriens de Vanliquiti (Brussels, 1847).
A complete edition of his works (6 vols., Brussels, 1874-1875)
contains a biography by M. Thonissen.
GERLE, CHRISTOPHE ANTOINE (1736-c, 1801), French
revolutionist and mystic, was born at Riom in Auvergne. Enter-
ing the Carthusian order early in life, he became prior of Laval-
Dieu in Perche,and afterwards of Pont-Sainte-Maric at Moulins.
Elected deputy to the states-general in 1789, Gcrlc became very
popular, and though he had no seat in the assembly until after
the Tennis Court oath, being only deputy suppliant, he is repre-
sented in David's classic painting as taking part in it. In 1792
he was chosen elector of Paris. In the revolutionary turmoil
Gerlc developed a strong vein of mysticism, mingled with ideas
of reform, and in Juqc 1700 the prophetic powers of Suzanne
Labrousse (1747-1821), a visionary who had predicted the
Revolution ten years before, were brought by him to the notice
of the Convention. In Paris, where he lived first with a spiritual-
istic doctor and afterwards, like Robespierre, at the house of a
cabinetmaker, his mystical tendencies were strengthened. The
insane fancies of Catherine Theot, a convent servant turned
prophetess, who proclaimed herself the Virgin, the " Mother of
God " and the " new Eve," were eminently attractive to Gerle;
in the person of Robespierre he recognized the Messiah, and at the
meetings of the Theorists he officiated with the aged prophetess
as co-prcsident. But the activities of Catherine and her adepts
were short-lived. The Theorists' cult of Robespierre was a
weapon in the hands of his opponents; and shortly after the
festival of the Supreme Being, Vadicr made a report to the
Convention calling for the prosecution of Catherine, Gerle and
others as fanatics and conspirators. They were arrested, thrown
into prison and, in the confusion of Robespierre's fall, apparently
forgotten. Catherine died in prison, but Gcrlc, released by the
Directory, became one of the editors of the htessagcr du soir, and
was afterwards in the office of Pierre Bcnezech (1775-1802),
minister of the interior. Having renounced his monastic vows
in Paris, he is thought to have married, towards the close of.
his life, Christine Raffct, aunt of the artist Denis Raffet. The
date of his death is uncertain.
GERMAN BAPTIST BRETHREN, or German Brethren, a
sect of American Baptists which originated in Germany, and
whose members are popularly known in the United Slates as
" Dunkcrs," " Dunkards " or " Tunkcrs," corruptions of the
German verb tunken, " to dip," in recognition of the sect's
continued adherence to the practice of trine immersion. The
sect was the outcome of one of the many Pietistic movements
of the 17th century, and was founded in 1708 by Andrew Mack
of Swartzcnau, Germany, and seven of his followers, upon the
gcocral issue that both the Lutheran and Reformed churches
were taking liberties with the literal teachings of the Scriptures,
The new sect was scarcely organized in Germany when its members
were compelled by persecution to lake refuge in Holland, whence
they emigrated to Pennsylvania, in small companies, between
1 7 19 and 1729. The first congregation in America was organ-
ized on Christmas Day 1723 by Peter Becker at Germantown,
Pennsylvania, and here in 1743 Christopher Sauer, one of the
sect's first pastors, and a printer by trade, primed the first
Bible (a few copies of which are still in existence) published in a
European language in America. From Pennsylvania the sect
spread chiefly westward, and, after various vicissitudes, caused
by defections and divisions due to doctrinal differences, in 1008
were most numerous in Pennsylvania, Maryland, Virginia, Ohio,
Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Missouri, Nebraska, Kansas and North
Dakota.
There is much uncertainty about the early theological history
of the sect, but it is probable that Mack and his followers were
influenced by both the Greek Catholics and the Waldensians.
P. H. Bashor in his historical sketch, read before the World's Fair
Congress of the Brethren Church (1894), says: "From the history
of extended labour by Greek missionaries, from the active pro-
paganda of doctrine by scattered Waldcnsian refugees, through
parts of Germany and Bavaria, from the credence that may
generally be given to local tradition, and from the strong simi-
larity between the three churches in general features of circum-
stantial service, the conclusion, without additional evidence, is
both reasonable and natural that the founders of the new church
received their teaching, their faith and. much of their church
idea from intimate acquaintance with the established usages of
both societies, and from their amplification and enforcement
by missionaries and pastors. ... In doctrine the church has
been from the first contentious for believers' baptism, holding
that nowhere in the New Testament can be found any authority
even by inference, precept or example for the baptism of infants.
On questions of fundamental doctrine they held to the belief
770
GERMAN CATHOLICS
in one self-existing supreme ruler of the Universe — the Divine
Godhead— the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit— the tri-
pcrsonality." Hence their practice of triple immersion, which
provides that the candidate shall kneel in the water and be
immersed, face first, three times— in the name of the Father,
the Son and the Holy Spirit. (From this practice the sect
received the less commonly used nickname " Dompclacrs,"
meaning " tumblers/') They accept implicitly and literally the
New Testament as the infallible guide in spiritual matters,
holding it to be the inspired word of God, revealed through Jesus
Christ and, by inspiration, through the Apostles. They also
believe in the inspiration of the Old Testament. In their cele-
bration of the communion service they aim exactly to imitate
the forms observed by Christ. It is celebrated in the evening,
and is accompanied by the ancient love feast (partaken by all
communicants seated at a common table), by the ceremony of
the washing of feet and by the salutation of the holy kiss, the
three last-named ceremonies being observed by the sexes separ-
ately. They pray over their sick and, when so requested,
anoint them with oil. They are rigid non-resistants, and will
not bear arms or study the art of war; they refuse to take oaths,
and discountenance going to law over issues that can possibly
be settled out of the courts. The taking of interest was at first
forbidden, but that prohibition is not now insisted upon. They
" testify " against the use of intoxicating liquor and tobacco,
and advocate simplicity in dress. In its earlier history the sect
opposed voting or taking any active part in political affairs, but
these restrictions have quite generally disappeared. Similarly
the earlier prejudice against higher education, and the mainten-
ance of institutions for that purpose, has given place to greater
liberality along those lines. In 1782 the sect forbade slave-
holding by its members.
The church officers (generally unpaid) comprise bishops for
ministers), ciders, teachers, deacons (or visiting brethren) and
deaconesses — chiefly aged women who are permitted at times
to take leading parts in church services. The bishops arc chosen
from the teachers; they arc itinerant, conduct marriage and
funeral services, and are present at communions, at ordinations,
when deacons are chosen or elected, and at trials for the ex-
communication of members. The ciders arc the first or oldest
teachers of congregations, for which there is no regular bishop.
They have charge of the meetings of such congregations, and
participate in excommunication proceedings, besides which
they preach, exhort, baptize, and may, when needed, take the
offices of the deacons. The teachers, who arc chosen by vote,
may also exhort or preach, when their services are needed for
such purposes, and may, at the request of a bishop, perform
marriage or baptismal, ceremonies. The deacons have general
oversight of the material aflairs of the congregation, and are
especially charged with the care of poor widows and their children .
In the discharge of these duties they arc expected to visit" each
family in the congregation at least once a year. The govern-
ment of the church is chiefly according to the congregational
principle, and the women have an equal voice with the men;
but annual meetings, attended by the bishops, teachers and
other delegates from the several congregations arc held, and at
these sessions the larger questions involving church polity arc
considered and decided by a committee of five bishops.
An early secession from the general body of Dunkcrs was that
of the Seventh Day Dunkcrs, whose distinctive principle was
that the seventh day was the true Sabbath. Their founder
was Johann Conrad Bcissel (1600-1768), a native of Eberbach
and one of the first emigrants, who, after living as a hermit for
several years on Mill Creek, Lancaster county, Pennsylvania,
founded the sect (1725), then again lived as a hermit in a cave
(formerly occupied by another hermit, one Elimclcch) on the
Cocalico Creek in Pennsylvania, and in 1732-1735 established a
semi-monastic community (the " Order of the Solitary ") with a
convent (the " Sister House ") and a monastery (the " Brother
House ") at Ephrata, in what is now Lancaster county, about
55 m. W. by N. from Philadelphia. Among the industries of
the men were printing (in both English and German), book-
binding, tanning, quarrying, and the operation of t saw mill,
a bark mill, and perhaps a pottery; the women did embroidery,
quilting, and engrossing in a beautiful but peculiar hand, known
as Fracturschrift. 1 The monastic feature was gradually aban-
doned, and in 18 14 the Society was incorporated as the Seventh
Day Baptists, its affairs being placed in the hands of a board
of trustees. More important in the history of the modern
church was the secession, in the decade between 1880 and 1800,
of the Old Order Brethren, who opposed Sunday Schools and
the missionary work of the Brethren, in Asia Minor and India,
and in several European countries; and also in 1882 of the
radicals, or Progressives, who objected to a distinctive dress and
to the absolute supremacy of the yearly conferences. Higher
education was long forbidden and is consistently opposed by
the Old Order. The same clement in the Brethren opposed a
census, but according to Howard Miller's census of 1880 {Record
of the Faithful) the number of Dunkers was 59,749 in that
year; by the United Stales census of 1800 it was then 73,795;
the figures for 1004 are given by Henry King Carroll in hit
" Statistics of the Churches " in the Christian Advocate (Jan.
5. 1005): Conservatives, or German Baptist Brethren, 95.000;
Old Order, 4000; Progressives or Brethren, 15,000; Seventh
Day, 194; total, 114,194. In igogthe German Baptist Brethren
had an estimated membership of approximately 100,000, and the
Brethren of 18,000. The main body, or Conservatives, support
schools at Huitingdon, Pennsylvania; Mt. Morris, Illinois;
Lordsburg, California, McPhcrson, Kansas; Bridgewater,
Virginia; Canton, Ohio; Chicago, Illinois, North Manchester,
Indiana; Platlsburg, Missouri; Elizabcthtown, Pennsylvania;
Union Bridge, Maryland; and Fruitdalc, Alabama. They
have a publishing house at Elgin, Illinois, and maintain missions
in Denmark, Sweden, France, Italy, India and China. The
Progressives have a college, a theological seminary and a publish-
ing house at Ashland, Ohio; and they carry on missionary
work in Canada, South America and Persia.
Authorities. — Lamcch and
German (Ephrata, Pcnn.. 1786!
(i N Falkcnstein. " The Gcnr
part 8 of " Pennsylvania: The
and Development." in vol. x. c
Proceeding ana\ Addresses (Lane
Sachsc. The German Sectarian
Critical and Legendary History o\
(Philadelphia, 1900); and J or
Sociological Interpretation (New
with full bibliography.
GERMAN CATHOLICS (Deulsckkathotiken), the name assumed
in Germany towards the close of 1844 by certain dissentients
from the Church of Rome. The most prominent leader of the
German Catholic movement was Johann Ronge, a priest who
in the Sdchsische V atcrlandsblitttcr for the 15th of October 1844
made a vigorous attack upon Wilhelm Arnoldi, bishop of Trier
since 1842, for having ordered (for the first time since 1810) the
exposition of the " holy coat of Trier," alleged to be the seamless
robe of Christ, an event which drew countless pilgrims to the
cathedral. Ronge, who had formerly been chaplain at Grotikao,
was then a schoolmaster at Laurahuue near the Polish border.
The article made a great sensation, and led to Ronge 's excom-
munication by the chapter of Breslau in December 1844. The
ex-priest received a large amount of public sympathy, and a
dissenting congregation was almost immediately formed at
Breslau with a very simple creed, in which the chief articles
were belief in God the Father, creator and ruler of the universe;
out-
iter.
and
irof
unl
ship
B
GERMAN EAST AFRICA
771
in Jesus Christ the Saviour, who delivers from the bondage of sin
by his life, doctrine and death; in the operation of the Holy
Ghost; in a holy, universal, Christian church; in forgiveness
of sins and the life everlast ing. The Bible was made the sole rule,
and all external authority was barred. Within a few weeks
similar communities were formed at Leipzig, Dresden, Berlin,
Offenbach Worms, Wiesbaden and else where; and at a
" council " convened at Leipzig at Easter 1845, twenty-seven
congregations were represented by delegates, of whom only two
or at most three were in clerical orders.
Even before the beginning of the agitation led by Ronge,
another movement fundamentally distinct, though in some
respects similar, had been originated at Schneidcmuhl, Posen,
under the guidance of Johann Czcrski (1813-1803), also a priest,
who had come into collision with the church authorities on the
then much discussed question of
mixed marriages, and also on that
of the celibacy of the clergy. The
result had been his suspension from
office in March 1844; his public
withdrawal, along with twenty-four
adherents, from the Roman com-
munion in August; his excom-
munication; and the formation, in
October, of a " Christian Catholic "
congregation which, while rejecting
clerical celibacy, the use of Latin*
in public worship, and the doctrines
of purgatory and transubst an na-
tion, retained the Niccne theology
and the doctrine of the seven sacra-
ments. Czerski had been at some of
thesittingsof the" German Catholic "
council of Leipzig; but when a
formula somewhat similar to that
of Breslau had been adopted, he
refused his signature because the
divinity of Christ had been ignored,
and he and his congregation con-
tinued to retain by preference the
name of " Christian Catholics."
which they had originally assumed.
Of the German Catholic congrega-
tions which had been represented at
Leipzig some manifested a preference
for the fuller and more positive creed
of Schneidcmuhl. but a great majority
continued to accept the compara-
tively rationalistic position of the
Breslau school. The number of thc.se
rapidly increased, and the congrega-
tions scattered over Germany num-
bered nearly 200. External and in-
ternal checks, however, soon limited
this advance. In Austria, and ulti-
mately also in Bavaria, the use of the
name German Catholics was officially prohibited, that of " Dis-
sidents " being substituted, while in Prussia. Baden and Saxony
the adherents of the new creed were laid under various disabilities,
being suspected both of undermining religion and of encouraging
the revolutionary tendencies of the age. Ronge himself was a
foremost figure in the troubles of 1848, after the dissolution of
the Frankfort parliament he lived for some lime in London,
returning in 1S61 to Germany. He died at Vienna on the 26th of
October 1887. In 1859 some of the German Catholics entered
into corporate union with the " Free Congregations," an associa-
tion of free-thinking communities that had since 1844 been
gradually withdrawing from, the orthodox Protestant Church,
when the united body took the tille of " The Religious Society
of Free Congregations." Before that time many of the congrega-
tions which were formed in 1844 and the years immediately
following had been dissolved, including that of Schneidcmuhl
itself, which ceased to exist in 1857. There are now only about
2000 strict German Catholics, all in Saxony. The movement
has been superseded by the Old Catholic (q.v.) organization.
Sec G. G. Gcrvinus, Pie Mission des DeutschkatkoXkismus (1846);
F. Kampe, Das Wesen des Deutschkatholicismus (i860); Findd,
Per DeulsrhkaiholUtsmus in Sacksen (1895); Carl Mirbt, in Herzog*
Hauck's Realnuyk.Jur prot. Thiol, iv. 583.
GERMAN EAST AFRICA, a country occupying the east-
central portion of the African continent. The colony extends
at its greatest length north to south from x° to u° S., and west
to east from 30° to 40° E. It is bounded E. by the Indian Ocean
(the coast-line extending from 4 20' to io° 40' S.). N.E. and N.
by British East Africa and Uganda, W. by Belgian Congo, S.W.
by British Central Africa and S. by Portuguese East Africa.
Area and Boundaries. — On the north the boundary line runs N.W.
from the mouth of the Umba river to Lake Jipe and Mount KiUV
manjaro. including both in the protectorate, and thence to Victoria
Nyanza, crossing it at i° S.. whkh parallel it follows till it xearhct
y>* E In the wi*st the frontier i> as follows. From the point of
intersection of i° S. and 30° £.. a line running S. and S.W. to the
north-west end of Lake Kivu, thence across that lake near its
western bhore. and along the river Rusizi, which issues from it. to the
spot where the Rusizi enters the north end of Lake Tanganyika:
along the middle line of Tanganyika to near its southern end, when
it is deflected eastward to the point where the river Kalambo enters
The lake (thus leaving the southern end of Tanganyika to Great
Britain) From this point the frontier runs S.E. across the plateau
between Lake* Tanganyika and Nya»a. in its southern seel mn follow-
ing the rounse of the river Sonewe Thenre it goes down the middle
of Xya«a as far a*. 11° 30' 5 The southern frontier goes direct
from the last-named point eastward to the Rovuma river, which
separate* <*erman and Portuguese territory. A little before the
Indian Orcan i- reached the frontier is deflected south so as to leave
the mouih ol the Rovuma in t,erman East Africa. These boundaries
include an area of about 364.000 sq m (nearly double lhe uze of
Germany), with a population estimated m 1910 at 8,000,000. Of
772
GERMAN EAST AFRICA
ians and Goa
The island
n East Afrw
itants of the !
, and is gene
d with den*
ished scttlen
?m give varic
o m. wide an
ipitotrs castei
plateau, con
ughest devat
s), where sevc
rise over 7000 ft, one to 9600, while its mean altitude
3000 to 4000 ft. From this region the country slopes toi
north-west, and is not distinguished by any considerable 1
ranges. A deep narrow gorge, the so-called " eastern rif
traverses the middle of the plateau in a meridional direc
the northern part of the country it spreads into several sid
from one of which rises the extinct volcano Kilimanjaro I
highest mountain in Africa (19.321 ft.). Its glaciers scn<
thousand rills which combine to form the Pangani river
40 m. west of Kilimanjaro is Mount Mcru (14.955 ft.)
volcanic peak, with a double crater. The greater steepn
•ides makes Meru in some aspects a more striking object thai
neighbour. South-cast of Mount Kilimanjaro are the Pa:
tains and Usambara highlands, separated from the coast t
Earativcly narrow strip of plain. To the south of the I
ills, and on the eastern edge of the plateau, arc the moi
regions of Nguru (otherwise Unguru), Uscguha and Usa{
already indicated, the southern half of Victoria Nyanza
eastern shores, in whole or in part, of Lakes Kivu, Tangar
Nyasa, are in German territory. (The lakes are acpar
•cribed.) Several smaller lakes occur in parts of the cas
valley. Lake Rukwa<<g.v.) north-west of Nyasa is pr
only the remnant of a much larger bkc. Its extent va
the rainfall of each year. North-west of Kilimanjaro is a
water known as the Natron Lake from the mineral alkali it
tn the northern part of thccolony the Victoria Nyanza isthc<
physical feature. The western frontier coincides with pa
eastern wall of another depression, the Central African or
rift-valley, in which lie Tanganyika. Kivu and other lakei
the north-west frontier north of Kivu are volcanic p
Mfumbiro).
The country is well watered, but with the exception of t
the rivers, save for a few miles from their mouths, arc unri
The largest streams are the Rovuma and Rufiji (q.v.). be
in the central plateau and flowing to the Indian Ocean,
importance is the Pangani river, which, as stated above, ha
springs on the slopes of Kilimanjaro. Flowing in a soutl
direction it reaches the sea after a course of some 250
Wami and Kingani, smaller streams, have their origin in t
tainous region fringing the central plateau, and reach t
opposite the island of Zanzibar. Of inland river systems
four— one draining to Victoria Nyanza. another to Tai
a third to Nyasa and a fourth to Rulcwa. Into Victoria
are emptied, on the east, the waters of the Mori and man
Streams; on the west, the Kagcra (q.v.). besides smalli
Into Tanganyika flows the Malagarasi. a considerable ri
many affluents, draining the west -centra! part of the plate
Kalambo river, a comparatively small stream near the
end of Tanganyika, flows in a south-westerly direction,
from its mouth there is a magnificent fall, a large volume
falling 600 ft. sheer over a rocky ledge of horse-shoe sh
the streams entering Nyasa the Songwc has been mention
Ruhuhu. which enters Nyasa in io° 30' S.. and its ti
drain a considerable area west q[ 36 ° E. The chief feeder
Rukwa are the Saisi and the Ru pa-Song we.
Mafia Island lies off the coast imrm-diutcly north of £
has an area of 200 sq. m. The island is low and fertile, ai
aivcly planted with coco-nut palms. It is continued so
by an extensive reef, on which stands the chief village, Ci
residence of a few Arabs and Banyan traders. Chobc sta
shallow creek almost inaccessible to shipping.
Geology. — The narrow foot-plateau of UritUh East Africa
out to the south of Bagamoyo to a wrdth of over 100 m.
covered to a considerable extent by rocks of recent and bte
ages. Older Tertiary rocks form the bluffs of Lindi. C
marls and limestones appear at intervals, extending in pla<
edge of the upper plateau, and are extensively develope
Makondc plateau. They arc underlain by Jurassic roc
beneath which sandstones and shales yielding Ctossopteris b
var. indica, and therefore of Lower Karroo age, appear in 1
but arc overlapped on the north by Jurassic strata. Th
plateau consists almost entirely of rnotamorphic rocks with
tracts of granite in Unyamwczi. In the vicinity of Laic
and Tanganyika, sandstones and shales of Lower Karroo
yielding seams of coal are considered to owe their posi
preservation to being let down by rift faults into holloi.
dif
crystalline rocks. In Karagwc certain quartzites. slates and
schistose sandstones resemble the ancient gold-bearing rocks of
South Africa.
The volcanic plateau of British East Africa extends over the
boundary in the region of Kilimanjaro. Of the sister peaks. Kibo
and Mawcnzi.the latter is far the oldest and has bccngreatly denuded,
while Kibo retains its cratcriform shape intact. The rift-valley
faults continue down the depression, marked by numerous volcanoes,
in the region of the Natron Lake and Lake Manyara; while the
steep walls of the deep depression of Tanganyika and Nyasa represent
the western rift system at its maximum development.
Fossil remains of saurians of gigantic size have been found ; ore
thigh bone measures 6 ft. 10 in., the same bone in the Diptodont
Carnegii measuring only 4 ft. II in.
Climate. — The warm currents setting landwards from the Indian
Ocean bring both moisture and heat, so that the Swabili coast ha»
a higher temperature and heavier rainfall than the Atlantic seaboard
under the same parallels of latitude. The mean temperature on the
west and east coasts of Africa is 72* and 8o° Fahr. respectively, the
average rainfall in Angola 36 in., in Dar-cs-Salaam 60 in. On the
Swahili coast the south-cast monsoon begins in April and the north-
east monsoon in November. In the interior April brings south-east
winds, which continueuntil about the beginning of October. During
the rest of the year changing winds prevail. These windsarechargeo
with moisture, which they part with on ascending the precipitous
side of the plateau. Rain comes with the south-east monsoon, and
on the northern part of the coast the rainy season is divided into
two parts, the great and the little Masika: the former falls in the
months of September, October, November; the latter in February
and March. In the interior the climate has a more continental
character, and is subject to considerable changes of temperature;
the rainy season sets in a little earlier the fan her west and north the
region, and is well marked, the rain beginning in November and
ending in April; the rest of the vear is dry. On the highest parts
of the plateau the climate is almost European, the nights being
sometimes exceedingly cold. Kilimanjaro has a climate of its own;
the west and south sides of the mountain receive the greatest rainfall,
while the east and north sides are dry nearly all the year. Malarial
diseases are rather frequent, more so on the coast than farther
inland. The Kilimanjaro region is said to enjoy immunity. Small*
pox is frequent on the coast, but is diminishing before vaccination;
other epidemic diseases arc extremely rare.
Flora and Fauna.— The character of the vegetation varies with
and depends on moisture, temperature and soil. On the low littoral
zone the coast produced a rich tropical bush, in which the mangrove
is very prominent. Coco-palms and mango trees have been planted
in great numbers, and also many varieties of bananas. The bush
is grouped in copses on meadows, which produce a coarse tall grass.
The river banks are lined with belts of dense forest, in whkh
useful timber occurs. The Hytkaenc palm is frequent, as
well as various kinds of gum-producing mimosas. The slopes of
the plateau which face the rain-bringing monsoon are in some
places covered with primeval forest, in which timber is plentiful
The silk-cotton tree (Bombax ceibc), miomba. tamarisk, copal tree
(Hytncnaea courbaril) are frequent, besides sycamores, banyan trees
(Fuus indica) and the dcleb palm (Borauus acikiopum). • It is
here we find the Landdpkta ftorida, which yields the best rubber.
The plateau is partly grass land without bush and forest, partly
steppe covered with mimosa bush, which sometimes is almost
impenetrable. Mount Kilimanjaro and Mount Mcru exhibit on a
vertical scale the various forms of vegetation which characterize
East Africa (see Kilimanjaro^.
East Africa is rich in all kinds of antelope, and the elephant,
rhinoceros and hippopotamus are still plentiful in parts. Character-
istic are the giraffe, the chimpanzee and the ostrich. Buffaloes and
zebras occur in two or three varieties. Lions and leopards are
found throughout the country. Crocodiles arc numerous in all the
larger rivers. Snakes, many venomous, abound. Of birds there are
comparatively few on the steppe, but by rivers, lakes and swamps
they arc found in thousands. Locusts occasion much damage, and
ants of various kinds arc often a plague. The tsetse fly (&oisi*a
morsitans) infests several districts; the sand-flea has been imported
from the west coast. Land and water'turtles are numerous.
Inhabitants.— On the coast and at the chief settlements inland
are Arab and Indian immigrants, who are merchants and agri-
culturists. The Swahili (q.v.) are a mixed Bantu and Semitic race
inhabiting trie seaboard. The inhabitants of the interior may be
divided into two classes, those namely of Bantu and those of
Hamitic stock. What may be called the indigenous population
consists of the older Bantu races. These tribes have been subject
to the intrusion from the south of more recent Bantu folk, such as
the Yao, belonging to the A ma-Zulu branch of the race, while
from the north there has been an immigration of If amito-Ncgroid
peoples. Of these the Masai and Wakuafi are found in the region
between Victoria Nyanza and Kilimanjaro. The Masai («»-)
and allied tribes are nomads and caltlc raisers. Tbeyaxc wariikx.
GERMAN EAST AFRICA 773
and live in square mud-plastered houses called teniae which can be
easily fortified and defended. The Bantu tribes are in general
peaceful agriculturists, though the Bant us of recent immigration
retain the warlike instincts of the Zulus. The most important
group of the Banlus is the Wanyamwezi (see Unyam WEZi),divided
into many tribes. They are spread over the central plains, and
have for neighbours on the south-east, between Nyasa and the
Rufiji, the warlike Wahche. The Wangoni (Angoni), a branch
of the Ama-Zulu, are widely spread over the central and Nyasa
regions. Other well-known tribes arc the Wasambara, who have
given their name to the highlands between Kilimanjaro and the
coast, and the Warundi, inhabiting the district between Tangan-
yika and the Kagera. In Karagwe, a region adjoining the south'
west shores of Victoria Nyanza, the Bahima are the ruling caste.
Formerly Karagwe under its Bahima kings was a powerful state.
Many different dialects are spoken by the Bantu tribes, Swahili
being the most widely known (see Bantu Languages). Their
religion is the worship of spirits, ancestral and otherwise, accom-
panied by a vague and undefined belief in a Supreme Being,
generally regarded as indifferent to the doings of the people.
The task of civilizing the natives is undertaken in various
ways by the numerous Protestant and Roman Catholic missions
established in the colony, and by the government. The slave
trade has been abolished, and though domestic slavery b allowed,
all children of slaves born after the 31st of December 1005 are
free. For certain public works the Germans enforce a system of
compulsory labour. Efforts are made by instruction in govern-
ment and mission schools to spread a knowledge of the German
language among the natives, in order to fit them for subordinate
posts in administrative offices, such as the customs. Native
chiefs in the interior are permitted to help in the administration
of justice. The Mission du Sacre" Coeur in Bagamoyo, the oldest
mission in the colony, has trained many young negroes to be
useful mechanics. The number of native Christians is small.
The Moslems have vigorous and successful missions.
Chief Towns.— The seaports of the colony are Tanga (pop. about
6000), Bagamoyo 5000 (with surrounding district some 18.000),
Dar-es-Salaam 24,000, Kiiwa 5000, (these have separate notices).
Pangani. Sadani, Lindi and Mikindani. Pangani (pop. about 3500)
is situated at the mouth of the river of the same name; it serves a
district rich in tropical products, and does a thriving trade with
Zanzibar and Pemba. Sadani is a smaller port midway between
Pangani and Bagamoyo. Lindi (io° o' S.. 39 4°' E-) i» 80 m. north
of (-ape Dclgado. Lindi (Swahili for The Deep Below) Bay runs
inland 6 m. and is 3 m. across, affording deep anchorage. Hills to
the west of the bay rise over 1000 ft. The town (pop. about 4000)
b picturesquely situated on the north side of the bay. The Arab
boma, constructed in 1800, has been rebuilt by the Germans, who
have retained the fine sculptured gateway. Formerly a rendezvous
for slave caravans Lindi now has a more legitimate trade in white
ivory. Mikindani b the most southern port in the colony. Owing
to the prevalence of malaria there, few Europeans live at the town,
and trade b almost entirely in the hands of Banyans.
Inland the principal settlements are Korogwe, Mrogoro, Kilossa,
Mpapua and Tabora. Korogwe b in the Usambara hilb, on the
north bank of the Pangani river, and b reached by railway from
Tanga. Mrogoro b some 140 m. due west of Dar-es-Salaam, and is
the first important station on the road to Tanganyika. Kilossa and
M papua are farther inland on the same caravan route. Tabora (pop.
about 37,000). the chief town of the Wanyamwezi tribes, occupies an
important position on the central plateau, being the meeting-place
of the trade routes from Tanganyika. Victoria Nyanza and the
coast. In the railway development of the colony Tabora b destined
to become the central junction of lines going north, south, east and
west. w
On Victoria Nyanza there are various settlements. Mwanza, on
the southern shore, b the lake terminus of the route from Bagamoyo:
Bukoba b on the western shore, and Schirati on the eastern shore;
both situated a little south of the British frontier. On the German
coast of Tanganyika are Ujiji (q.v.), pop. about 14.000, occupying a
central position ; Usumbura, at the northern end of the lake where
b a fort built by the Germans; and Bbmarckburg, near the southern
end. On the shores of the lake between Ujiji and Bbmarckburg are
four stations of the Algerian " White Fathers," aU possessing
churches, schools and other stone buildings. Langcnburg is a
settlement on the north-east side of Lake Nyasa. The government
station, called New Langenburg, occupies a higher and more healthy
site north-west of the lake. Wiedhafen b on the east side of Nyasa
at the mouth of the Ruhubu, and b the terminus of the caravan
route from Kilwa. . . . » « . . »
Productions.— The chief wealth of the country it derived from
774 GERMAN EVANGELICAL SYNOD
from tbem to the sultan of Zanzibar. From about 1830, or a
little earlier, the Zanzibar Arabs began to penetrate inland,
and by 1850 bad established themselves at Ujiji on the eastern
shore of Lake Tanganyika. The Arabs also made their way
south to Nyasa. This extension of Arab influence was accom-
panied by vague claims on the part of the sultan of Zanzibar
to include all these newly opened countries in his empire. How
far from the coast the real authority of the sultan extended was
never demonstrated. Zanzibar at this time was in semi-
dependence on India, and British influence was strong at the
court of Bargash, who succeeded to the sultanate in 1870.
Bargash in 1877 offered to Sir (then Mr) William Mackinnon a
lease of all his mainland territory. The offer, made in the year
in which H. M. Stanley's discovery of the course of the Congo
initialed the movement for the partition of- the continent, was
declined. British influence was, however, still so powerful
in Zanzibar that the agents of the German Colonization Society,
who in 1884 sought to secure for their country territory on the
east coast, deemed it prudent to act secretly, so that both Great
Britain and Zanzibar might be confronted with accomplished
facts. Making their way inland, three young Germans, Karl
Peiers, Joachim Count Pfcil and Dr Juhlkc, concluded a
•* treaty " in November 1884 with a chieftain in Usambara who
was declared to be independent of Zanzibar. Other treaties
followed, and on the 17th of February 1S85, the German emperor
granted a charter of protection to the Colonization Society.
The German acquisitions were resented by Zanzibar, but were
acquiesced in by the British government (the second Gladstone
administration). The sultan was forced to acknowledge their
validity, and to grant a German company a lease of his mainland
territories south of the mouth of the Uraba river, a British
company formed by Mackinnon taking a tease of the territories
north of that point. The story of the negotiations between
Great Britain, Germany and France which led to this result is
told elsewhere (see Africa, section 5). By the agreement of the
isl of July 1800, between the British and German governments,
and by agreements concluded between Germany and Portugal in
1886 and 1894, and Germany and the Congo Free State in 1884
and later dates, the German sphere of influence attained its
present area. On the 28th of October 1 890 the sultan of Zanzibar
ceded absolutely to Germany the mainland territories already
leased to a German company, receiving as compensation £200,000.
While these negotiations were going on, various German
companies had set to work to exploit the country, and on the
16th of August 18S8 the -German East African Company, the
lessee of the Zanzibar mainland strip, took over the administra-
tion from the Arabs. This was followed, five days later, by a
revolt of all the coast Arabs against German rule—the Germans,
raw hands at the task of managing Orientals, having aroused
intense hostility by their brusque treatment of the dispossessed
rulers. The company being unable to quell the revolt, Captain
Hermann Wissmann— subsequently Major Hermann von Wiss-
mann (1853-1905) — was sent out by Prince Bismarck as imperial
commissioner. Wissmann, with 1000 soldiers, chiefly Sudanese
officered by Germans, and a German naval contingent, succeeded
by the end of 1889 in crushing the power of the Arabs. Wissmann
remained in the country until 1891 as commissioner, and later
(1805-1806) was for eighteen months governor of the colony—
as the German sphere had been constituted by proclamation
(isl of January 1897). Towards the native population Wiss-
mann 's attitude was conciliatory, and under his rule the develop-
ment of the resources of the country was pushed on. Equal
success did not attend the efforts of other administrators; in
1891-1892 Karl Peters had great trouble with the tribes in
the Kilimanjaro district and resorted to very harsh methods,
such as the execution of women, to maintain his authority.
In 1896 Peters was condemned by a disciplinary court for a
misuse of official power, and lost his commission. After 1891,
in which year the Wabche tribe ambushed and almost completely
annihilated a German military force of 350 men under Baron
voa Zelcwtki, there were for many years no serious risings
Gemma tutbority, which by the cad of 1800 had bteo
GERMANIC LAWS
775
responsibility to God himself, is the inalienable privilege of
every believer." The church, which has (1009) 085 ministers
and some 238,000 communicant members, is divided into seven-
teen districts, with officers responsible to the General Synod,
which meets every four years. There are boards for home
and foreign missions, the latter operating chiefly in the Central
Provinces of India. The literature of the church is mainly in
German, though English is rapidly gaining ground.
GERMANIC LAWS, EARLY. Of those Germanic laws of
the early middle ages which are known as leges barbarorum,
we here deal with the principal examples other than Frankisb,
viz. (1) Leges Wisigothorum, (2) Lex Burgundionum, (3) Pactus
Alamannorum and Lex Alamannorum, (4) Lex Bajuvariontm,
(5) Lex Saxonum, (6) Lex Frisionnm, (7) Lex Angliorum el Wcri-
norum, hoc est, Thuringorum, and (8) Leges Langobardorum.
All these laws may in general be described as codes of procedure
and tariffs of compositions. They present somewhat similar
features with the Salic law, but often differ from it in the date of
compilation, the amount of fines, the number and nature of
the crimes, the number, rank, duties and titles of the officers,
&c. For the Salic law and other Frankisb laws, see Salic Law,
and for the edict of Thcodoric I., which was applicable to the
Ostrogoths and Romans, see Roman Law.
For the whole body of the Germanic laws see P. Candani, Bar-
barorum leges antiquae (Venice, 1781-1789); F. Walter. Corpus
juris germanici anliqui (Berlin, 1824); Monumenta Germaniae
historica. Leges. For further information on the codes in general,
ace H. M. Zdpfl, Deutsche RcchlsgeschichU (4th ed.. Heidelberg,
187 1- 1876); J. E. O. Stobbe. Geschichte der deutschen RechtsqueUen
(Brunswick, 1860-1864): Paul Viollet, Histoire du droit civil francais
(2nd ed., Paris, 1893); H. Brunner, Deutsche Rechtsgeschichie
(2nd ed., Leipzig, 1900).
1. Leges Wisigothorum. — Karl Zeumer's edition of these laws
in the 410 series of the Mon. Germ. Hist, throws new light on all
questions relating to their date and composition. It is now
certain that the earliest written code of the Visigoths dates back
to King Euric (466-485). Besides his own constitutions, Euric
included in this collection constitutions of his predecessors,
Thcodoric I. (410-451), Thorismund (451-453). andTheodoric II.
(453~4o6), and he arranged the whole in a logical order. Of
this code fragments of chapters eclxxvi. to ccexxxvi. 1 have been
discovered in a palimpsest MS. in the Bibliothcque Nationale
at Paris (Latin coll., No. 12161), a fact which proves that the
code ran over a large area. Euric's code was used for all cases
between Goths, and between them and Romans; in cases
between Romans, Roman law was used. At the instance of
Euric's son, Alaric II., an examination was made of the Roman
laws in use among Romans in his dominions, and the resulting
compilation was approved in 506 at an assembly at Aire, in
Gascony, and is known as the Breviary of Alaric, and sometimes
as the Liber Aniani, from the fact that the authentic copies
bear the signature of the refcrendarius Anian.
Euric's code remained in force among the Visigoths of Spain
until the reign of Lcovigild (568-586), who made a new one,
improving upon that of his predecessor. This work is lost, and
we have no direct knowledge of any fragment of it. In the 3rd
codification, however, many provisions have been taken from
the 2nd, and these are designated by the word " antique "; by
means of these " antique. " wc are enabled in a certain measure
to reconstruct the work of Lcovigild.
After the reign of Leovigild the legislation of the Visigoths
underwent a transformation. The new laws made by the kings
were declared to be applicable to all the subjects in the king-
dom, of whatever race— in other words, they became territorial;
and this principle of territoriality was gradually extended to
the ancient code. Moreover, the conversion of Reccared I.
(586-601) to orthodoxy effaced the religious differences among
his subjects, and all subjects, qua Christians, had to submit to
the canons of the councils, which were made obligatory by the
kings. After this change had been accepted, Recceswinth (640-
672) made a new code, which was applicable to Visigoths and
Romans alike. This code, known as the Liber judiciorum, is
1 The lacunae in these fragments have been filled in by the aid of
the law of the Bavarian*, where the chief provisions are reproduced.
divided into xs books, which are subdivided into tituli and
chapters (aerae): It comprises 324 constitutions taken from
Leovigild's collection, a few of the laws of Reccared and Sisebut,
99 taws of Chindaswinth (642-653), and 87 of Recceswinth.
A recension of this code of Recceswinth was made in 681 by
King Erwig (680-087), and is known as the Lex Wisigothorum
renovate; and, finally, some additamenta were made by Egica
(687-702). In Zeumer's edition of the Leges Wisigothorum the
versions of Recceswinth and Erwig, where they differ from each
other, are shown in parallel columns, and the laws later than
Erwig are denoted by the sign " nov."
For further information see the preface to Zeumer's edition;
H. Brunner, Deutsche Rechtsgeschichte (2nd ed., Leipzig. 1906);
Urena y Smenyaud, La Legislation Gotico-hispana (Madrid, 1905).
a. Lex Burgundionum.— This code was compiled by King
Gundobald (474-516), very probably after his defeat by Clovis
in 500. Some additamenta were subsequently introduced either
by Gundobald himself or by his son Sigismund. This law bears
the title of Liber Constitulionum, which shows that it emanated
from the king; it is also known as the Lex Gundobada or Lex
Gombala. It was used for cases between Burgundians, but was
also applicable to cases between Burgundians and Romans.
For cases between Romans, however, Gundobald compiled the
Lex Romano Burgundionum, called sometimes, through a mis-
reading of the MSS., the Liber Papiani or simply Papianus.
The barbarian law of the Burgundians shows strong traces of
Roman influence. It recognizes the will and attaches great
importance to written deeds, but on the other hand sanctions
the judicial dud and the cojuralores (sworn witnesses). The
vehement protest made in the 9th century by Agobard, bishop
of Lyons, against the Lex Gundobada shows that it was still in
use at that period. So late as the xoth and even the nth
centuries we find the law of the Burgundians invoked as personal
law in Cluny charters, but doubtless these passages refer to
accretions of local customs rather than to actual paragraphs
of the ancient code.
The text of the Lex Burgundionum has been published by F.
Bluhme in the Hon. Germ, hist.. Leges, iii. 525; by Karl Binding
in the Fomtes return Bernensium (vol. i., 1880); by J. E. Valentin
Smith (Paris, 1889 scq.); and by von Salis (1892) in the 4to series
of the Mon. Germ. hist. Cf. R. Darestc, " La Loi Combctte," in the
Journal des savants (July 1891).
3. Pactus Alamannorum and Lex Alamannorum. — Of the
laws of the Alamanni, who dwelt between the Rhine and the
Lech, and spread over Alsace and what is now Switzerland to
the south of Lake Constance, wc possess two different texts.
The earlier text, of which five short fragments have come down
to us, is known as the Pactus Alamannorum, and from the per-
sistent recurrence of the expression " et sic convenit " was most
probably drawn up by an official commission. The reference to
affranchisement in ecdesia shows that it was composed at a period
subsequent to the conversion of the Alamanni to Christianity.
There is no doubt that the text dates back to the reign of
Dagobcrt I., i.e. to the first half of the 7 th century. The later
text, known as the Lex Alamannorum, dates from a period when
Alamannia was independent under national dukes, but recognized
the theoretical suzerainty of the Frankish kings. There seems
no reason to doubt the St Gall MS., which slates that the law
had its origin in an agreement between the great Alamannic
lords and Duke Land f rid, who ruled the duchy f rota 709 to 730.
The two texts have been published by J. Mcrkcl in the Mon.
Germ, hist., Leges, iii., and by Karl Lehniann in the 4to scries of
the same collection.
4. Lex Bajuvariorum. — We possess an important law of the
Bavarians, whose duchy was situated in the region east of the
Lech, and was an outpost of Germany against the Huns, known
later as Avars. Parts of this law have been taken directly from
the Visigothic law of Euric and from the law of the Alamanni.
The Bavarian law, therefore, is later than that of the Alamanni.
It dates unquestionably from a period when the Frankish
authority was very strong in Bavaria, when the dukes were
vassals of the Frankish kings, immediately after the revolt of
Bavaria in m tf* Rvivfab ^.vfc* ^*&& <««aA««x&.>s* ^feaafe.
lo Fippfo. sua CvtVna**, ^Nt wa «* QB»Vs\k»s^ «&Mife
776
GERMANICUS CAESAR
recognise the Prankish suzerainty. About the tame period, too,
the church of Bavaria was organized by St Boniface, and the
country divided into several bishoprics; and we find frequent
references to these bishops (in the plural) in the law of the
Bavarians. On the other hand, we know that the law is anterior
to the reign of Duke Tassilo III. (740-788). The date of com-
pilation must, therefore, be placed between 743 and 740.
There is an edition of the Lex Bajuvariorum by J. Merkd in the
Mon. Germ, hist., Leges, iii. 183, and another was undertaken by
E. von Schwind for the 4to series of the same collection. Cf. von
Schwind's article in. the Neues Archil, voL xxzL
5. Lex Saxonum. — Germany comprised two other duchies,
Sazo&y and Frisia, of each of which we possess a text of law.
The Lex Saxonum has come down to us in two MSS. and two old
editions (those of B. J. Herold and du Tillct), and the text has
been edited by Karl von Richthofen in the lion. Germ, hist..
Leges, v. The law contains ancient customary enactments of
Saxony, and, in the form in which it has reached us, is later than
the conquest of Saxony by Charlemagne. It is preceded by two
capitularies of Charlemagne for Saxony — the Capilulatio de
portions Saxoniae (A. Boretius i. 68), which dates undoubtedly
from 782, and is characterized by great severity, death being the
penalty for every offence against the Christian religion; and the
Capitular* Saxonicum (A. Boretius i. 71), of the 28th of October
797, in which Charlemagne shows less brutality and pronounces
simple compositions for misdeeds which formerly entailed death.
The Lex Saxonum apparently dates from 803, since it contains
provisions which are in the Capitulcre Icgi Ribuariae additum
of that year. The law established the ancient customs, at the
same time eliminating anything that was contrary to the spirit
of Christianity; it proclaimed the peace of the churches, whose
possessions it guaranteed and whose right of asylum it recognized.
6. Lex Frisionum. — This consists of a medley of documents
of the most heterogeneous character. Some of its enactments
are purely pagan — thus one paragraph allows the mother to kill
her new-born child, and another prescribes the immolation to
the gods of the denier of their temple; others are purely Christian,
such as those which prohibit incestuous marriages and working
on Sunday. The law abounds in contradictions and repetitions,
and the compositions arc calculated in different moneys. From
this it would appear that the documents were merely materials
collected from various sources and possibly with a view to the
compilation of a homogeneous law. These materials were appar-
ently brought together at the beginning of the 9th century, at a
time of intense legislative activity at the court of Charlemagne.
There are no MSS. of the document extant ; our knowledge of it
is based upon B. J. Herold 's edition (Originum ac Germanicarum
antiquitatum libri, Basel. 1557), which has been reproduced by
Karl von Richthofen in the Mon. Germ. hisL, Leges, iii. 631.
7. Lex Angliorum et Werinorum, hoc est, Tkuringorum. — In
early times there dwelt in Thuringia, south of the river Unstrut,
the Angti, who gave their name to the pagus Engili, and to the
east, between the Saale and the Elstcr, the Warni (Wcrini, or
Varini), whose name is seen in Wercnofcld. In the 9th century,
however, this region (then called Wercnofcld) was occupied by
the Sorabi, and the Warni and Angli either coalesced with the
Thuringi or sought an asylum in the north of Germany. A
collection of laws has come down to us bearing the name of
these two peoples, the Lex Angliorum et Werinorum, hoc est,
Tkuringorum. This text is a collection of local customs arranged
in the same order as the law of the Ripuarians. Parts of it arc
based on the Copilulare legi Ribuariae additum of 803, and it
seems to have been drawn up in the same conditions and circum-
stances as the law of the Saxons. There is an edition of this code
by Karl von Richthofen in the Mon. Germ, hist., Leges, v. 103.
The old opinion that the law originated in south Holland is
entirely without foundation.
8. Leges Langobardorum.— We possess a fair amount of
information on the origin of the last barbarian code, the laws
of the Lombards. The first part, consisting of 388 chapters,
is known as the Edictus Langobardorum, and was promulgated
by King Rothar at a diet held at Pavia on the 22nd of November
645. This work, composed at one time and arranged on a
systematic plan, is very remarkable. The compilers knew Roman
law, but drew upon it only for their method of presentation and
for their terminology; and the document presents Germanic law
in its purity. Rothar's edict was augmented by his successors:
Grimoald (668) added nine chapters; Liutprand (7 13-735),
fifteen volumes, containing a great number of ecclesiastical
enactments; Ratchis (746), eight chapters; and Aistulf (755),
thirteen chapters. After the union of the Lombards to the
Frankish kingdom, the capitularies made for the entire kingdom
were applicable to Italy. There were also special capitularies
for Italy, called Capitula Ilalica, some of which were appended
to the edict of Rothar.
At an early date compilations were formed in Italy for the use
of legal practitioners and jurists. Eberhard, duke and margrave
of Rhactia and Friuli, arranged the contents of the edict with its
successive additamenta into a Concordia de singulis ecus is
(820-832). In the xoth century a collection was made of the
capitularies in use in Italy, and this was known as the Capitulart
Langobardorum, Then appeared, under the influence of the
school of law at Pavia, the Liber legis Langobardorum, also
called Liber Papi&sis (beginning of nth century), and the
Lombarda (end of nth century) in two forms — that given in a
Monte Cassino MS. and known as the Lombarda Casinensis, and
the Lombarda Vulgata.
There are editions of the Edictus, the Concordia, and the Liber
Papiensis by F. Bluhme and A. Boretius in the Mon. Germ, hist.,
Leges, iv. Bluhme also gives the rubrics of the Lombardae, which
were published by F. Ltndenberg in his Codex tegum antiquamm in
1613. For further information on the laws of the Lombards see
J. Mcrkcl, Gesehickte des Langobordenrechts (1850); A. Boretius.
Die Kabitularien im Langobardenrrich (1864); and C. Kier. Edictus
Rotori (Copenhagen, 1898). Cf. R. Dareste in the Noutclte Ram
historique de droit franfais et itranger (1900, p. 143). (C. Pf.)
GERMANICUS CAESAR (15 b.c.-a.d. 19), a Roman general
and provincial governor in the reign of Tiberius. The name
Germanicus, the only one by which he is known in history, he
inherited from his father, Nero Claudius Drusus, the famous
general, brother of Tiberius and stepson of Augustus. His mot her
was the younger Antonia, daughter of Marcus Antonius and
niece of Augustus, and he married Agrippina, the granddaughter
of the same emperor. It was natural, therefore, that he should
be regarded as a candidate for the purple. Augustus, it would
seem, long hesitated whether he should name him as his successor,
and as a compromise required his uncle Tiberius to adopt him,
though Tiberius had a son of his own. Of his early years and
education little is known. That he possessed considerable
literary abilities, and that these were carefully trained, we gather,
both from the speeches which Tacitus puts into his mouth, and
from the reputation he left as an orator, as attested by Suetonius
and Ovid, and from the extant fragments of his works.
At the age of twenty he served his apprenticeship as a soldier
under Tiberius, and was rewarded with the triumphal insignia
for his services in crushing the revolt in Dalmalia and Pannonia.
In a.d. 1 1 he accompanied Tiberius in his campaign on the Rhine,
undertaken, in consequence of the defeat of Varus, with the
object of securing the German frontier. In 12 he was made
consul, and increased his popularity by appearing as an advocate
in the courts of justice, and by the celebration of brilliant games.
Soon afterwards he was appointed by Augustus to the important
command of the eight legions on the Rhine. The news of the
emperor's death (14) found Germanicus at Lugdunum (Lyons),
where he was superintending the census of Gaul. Close upon this
came the report that a mutiny had broken out among his legions
on the lower Rhine. Germanicus hurried back to the camp,
which was now in open insurrection. The tumult was with
difficulty quelled, partly by well-timed concessions, for which
the authority of the emperor was forged, but chiefly owing to
his personal popularity. Some of the insurgents actually
proposed that he should put himself at their head and secure
the empire for himself, but their offer was rejected with indig-
nation. In order to calm the excitement Germanicus determined
at once on an active campaign. Crossing the Rhine, he attacked
and touted the Marsi, and laid waste the valley of the Ens
GERMANIUM— GERMAN LANGUAGE
777
In the following year be inarched against Arminius, the conqueror
of Varus, and performed the last rites over the remains of the
Roman soldiers that still lay there unburied, erecting a barrow
to mark the spot. Arminius, however, favoured by the marshy
ground, was able to hold his own, and it required another
campaign before he was finally defeated. A masterly combined
movement by land and water enabled Germanicus to concentrate
his forces against the main body of the Germans encamped on
the Weser, and to crush them in two obstinately contested battles.
A monument erected on the field proclaimed that the army of
Tiberius had conquered every tribe between the Rhine and the
Elbe. Great, however, as the success of the Roman arms had
been, it was not such as to justify this boastful inscription; we
read of renewed attacks from the barbarians, and plans of a
fourth campaign for the next summer.
But the success of Germanicus had already stirred the jealousy
and fears of Tiberius, and he was reluctantly compelled to return
to Rome. On the 26th of May 17 he celebrated a triumph.
The enthusiasm with which he was welcomed, not only by the
populace, but by the emperor's own praetorians, was so great
that the earliest pretext was seized to remove him from the capital.
He was sent to the East with extraordinary powers to settle a
disputed succession in Parthia and Armenia. At the same time
Gnaeus Calpurnius Piso, one of the most violent and ambitious
of the old nobility, was sent as governor of Syria to watch his
movements. Germanicus proceeded by easy stages to his
province, halting on his way in Dalmatia, and visiting the battle-
field of Actium, Athens, Ilium .and other places of historic interest.
At Rhodes he met his coadjutor Piso, who was seeking everywhere
to thwart and malign him. When at last he reached his destina-
tion, he found little difficulty in effecting the settlement of the
disturbed provinces, notwithstanding Piso's violent and persistent
opposition. At Artaxata Zeno, the popular candidate for the
throne, was crowned king of Armenia. To the provinces of
Cap.jadocia and Commagene Roman governors were assigned;
Parthia was conciliated by the banishment of the dethroned
king Vonones.
After wintering in Syria Germanicus started for a tour in
Egypt. The chief motive for his journey was love of travel and
antiquarian study, and it seems never to have occurred to him,
till he was warned by Tiberius, that he was thereby transgressing
an unwritten law which forbade any Roman of rank to set foot
in Egypt without express permission. On his return to Syria
he found that all his arrangements had been upset by Piso.
Violent recriminations followed, the result of which, it would
seem, was a promise on the part of Piso to quit the province.
But at this juncture Germanicus was suddenly attacked at
Epidaphne near Antioch by a violent illness, which he himself
and his friends attributed to poison administered by Plancina,
the wife of Piso, at the instigation of Tiberius. Whether these
suspicions were true is open to question; it seems more probable
that his death was due to natural causes. His ashes were brought
to Rome in the following year (20) by his wife Agrippina, and
deposited in the grave of Augustus. He had nine children,
six of whom, three sons and three daughters, survived him,
amongst them the future emperor Gaius and the notorious
Agrippina, the mother of Nero. The news of his death cast a
gloom over the whole empire. Nor was Germanicus unworthy
of this passionate devotion. He had wiped out a great national
disgrace; he had quelled the most formidable foe of Rome.
His private life had been stainless, and he possessed a singularly
attractive personality. Yet there were elements of weakness
in his character which his short life only half revealed: an
impetuosity which made him twice threaten to take his own
life; a superstitious vein which impelled him to consult oracles
and shrink from bad omens; an amiable dilettantism which led
him to travel in Egypt while his enemy was plotting his ruin;
a want of nerve and resolution which prevented him from coming
to an open rupture with Piso till it was too late.
He possessed considerable literary abilities; his speeches and
Greek comedies were highly spoken of by his contemporaries.
But the only specimen of his work that has come down to us is
the translation in Latin hexameters (generally attributed to
him, although some consider Domitian the author), together with
scholia, of the Phaenomena of Aratus, which is superior to those
of Cicero and Avienus (best edition by A. Breysig, 1867; 1890,
without the scholia). A few extant Greek and Latin epigrams
als
I
A.
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Tih
urn
Ka
Get
Set
GERMANIUM (symbol Ge, atomic weight 72*5); one of the
metallic elements included in the same natural family as carbon,
silicon, tin and lead. It was discovered in 1886 by C. Winkler
in argyrodite, a mineral found at Freiberg in Saxony. On ex-
amination of the metal and its salts it was shown to be identical
with the hypothetical element ckasilicon, whose properties
had been predicted by D. Mendclecff many years previously.
The element is of extremely rare occurrence, being met with
only in argyrodite and, to a very small extent, in euxenitc. It
may be obtained from argyrodite by heating the mineral in a
current of hydrogen; or by healing the dioxide to redness with
carbon. It forms grey coloured octahedra of specific gravity
5-406 at 20° C, melting at 900 s C; it burns at a red heat, is
insoluble in hydrochloric acid, but dissolves in aqua regia, and
is also soluble in molten alkalis. Two oxides of germanium
are known, the dioxide, GeOj, being obtained by roasting the
sulphide and treatment with nitric acid. It is a white powder,
very slightly soluble in water, and possesses acid properties.
By heating with a small quantity of magnesium it is converted
into germanious oxide, GcO. By heating the metal with chlorine,
germanic chloride, GeCL, is obtained as a colourless fuming
liquid boiling at 86-87" C., it is decomposed by water forming
a hydrated germanium dioxide. Germanium dichloride, GeCIj,
and germanium chloroform, GeHCU, have also been described.
Germanium compounds on fusion with alkaline carbonates
and sulphur form salts known as thiogermanates. If excess of
a mineral acid be added to a solution of an alkaline thibgermanate
a while precipitate of germanium disulphide, GcSj, is obtained.
It can also be obtained by passing sulphuretted hydrogen through
a solution of the dioxide in hydrochloric acid. It is appreciably
soluble in water, and also in solutions of the caustic alkalis and
alkaline sulphides. By heating the disulphide in a current of
hydrogen, germanious sulphide, GeS, is formed. It sublimes in
thin plates of a dark colour and metallic lustre, and is soluble
in solutions of the caustic alkalis. Alkyl compounds of ger-
manium such as germanium letra-ethyl, Ge(CiH 4 )«, a liquid boiling
at 160° C, have been obtained. The germanium salts are
most readily recognized by the white precipitate of the disulphide,
formed in acid solutions, on passing sulphuretted hydrogen.
The atomic weight of the element was determined by C. Winkler
by analysis of the pure chloride GeCU, the value obtained being
72-32, whilst Lecoq de Boisbaudran (Comptes rend us, 1886, 103,
452), by a comparison of the lines in the spark spectrum of
the element, deduced the value 72-3-
GERMAN LANGUAGE. Together with English and Frisian,
the German language forms part of the West Germanic group
of languages. To this group belongs also Langobardian, a
dialect which died out in the 9th or 10th century, while Burgun-
dian, traces of which are not met with later than the 5th century,
is usually classed with the East Germanic group. Both these
tongues were at an early stage crushed out by Romance dialects,
a fate which also overtook the idiom of the Western Franks,
who, in the so-called Strassburg Oaths 1 of 842, use the
Romance tongue, and are addressed in that tongue by Louis
the German.
Leaving English and Frisian aside, we understand by Deutsche
1 K. Mullenhoff and W. Scherer. Denkmdler deutscker Poesi* und
Prosa, 3rd ed., by E. Steinmeyer, 1892, No. Ixvii.
77«
GERMAN LANGUAGE
Spracha the language of those West Germanic tribes, who,
at their earliest appearance in history, spoke a Germanic tongue,
and still speak it at the present day. The chief of these tribes
are: the Saxons, the Franks (but with the restriction noted
above), the Chatti (Hessians), Thuringians, Alemannians and
Bavarians. This definition naturally includes the languages
spoken in the Low Countries, Flemish and Dutch, which are
offsprings of the Low Franconian dialect, mixed with Frisian
and Saxon elements; but, as the literary development of these
languages has been in its later stages entirely independent of
that of the German language, they are excluded from the present
survey.
The German language, which is spoken by about seventy-one
millions, and consequently occupies in this respect the third
place among European languages, borders, in the west and south,
on Romance languages (French, Italian), and also to some
extent on Slavonic. On Italian and Slovenian territory there
are several German-speaking " islands,' 1 notably the Sctte and
Trcdici Communi, east and north-east of the Lake of Gaxda,
and the " Gottschee Landchen " to the south of Laibach. The
former of these is, however, on the point of dying out. Neighbours
on the east, where the boundary line runs by no means as straight
as on the west or south, are the Magyars and again Slavonic
races. Here, too, there are numerous " islands " on Hungarian
and Slavonic territory. Danes and Frisians join hands with
the Germans in the north. 1
In the west and south the German language has, compared
with its status in earlier periods, undoubtedly lost ground,
having been encroached upon by Romance tongues. This is
the case in French Flanders, in Alsace and Lorraine, at any
rate before the war of 1870, in the valleys south of Monte Rosa
and in southern Tirol; in Styria and Carinthia the encroachment
Is less marked, but quite perceptible. On the east, on the other
hand, German steadily spread from the days of Charles the
Great down to recent times, when it has again lost considerable
ground in Bohemia, Moravia and Livonia. At the time of
Charles the Great the eastern frontier extended very little beyond
the lower Elbe, following this river beyond Magdeburg, whence
it passed over to the Saale, the Bohemian forest and the river
Enns (cf. the map in F. Dahn, Ur geschichte der germanischen
und romanischen Volker, vol. iii.). Partly as a result of victories
gained by the Germans over the Avars and Slavs, partly owing to
peaceful colonization, the eastern boundary was pushed forward
in subsequent centuries; Bohemia was in this way won for the
German tongue by German colonists in the 13th century, Silesia
even a little earlier; in Livonia German gained the upper hand
during the 13th century, while about the same time the country
of the Prussians was conquered and colonized by the knights
of the Teutonic order. The dialect which these colonists and
knights introduced bore the Middle German character; and this,
in various modifications, combined with Low German and even
Dutch elements, formed the German spoken in these newly-won
territories. In the north (Sc hies wig), where at the time of
Charles the Great the river Eider formed the linguistic boundary,
German has gained and is still gaining on Danish.
Before considering the development of the language spoken
within these boundaries, a word of explanation is perhaps
necessary with regard to the word deutsch. As applied to the
language, dcutsch first appears in the Latin form theotiscus,
lingua theotisca, teutisca, in certain Latin writings of the 8th and
9th centuries, whereas the original Old High German word
thiudisc, tiutisc (from thiol, diot, " people," and the suffix -isc)
signified only " appertaining to the people," " in the manner
of the people." Cf . also Gothic \>iudisko as a translation of tfruc&s
(Gal. ii. 14). It, therefore, seems probable that if the application
of the word to the language (lingua theotisca) was not exactly
an invention of Latin authors of German nationality, its use
in this sense was at least encouraged by them in order to
1 For a detailed description of the boundary line cf. O. Behaghcl's
article in Paul's Grundrtss, 2nd ed., pp. 652-657, where there is also
a map, and a very full bibliography relative to the changes in the
boundary.
distinguish their own vernacular (lingua vulgaris) from Latin as
well as from the lingua romana*
In the 8th and 9th centuries German or " Deutsch *' first
appears as a written language in the dialects of Old High German
and Old Low German. Of an " Urdeutsch " or primitive
German, i.e. the common language from which these sharply
distinguished dialects of the earliest historical period must have
developed, we have no record; we can only infer its character —
and it was itself certainly not free from dialectic variations—
by a study of the above-named and other Germanic dialects.
It is usual to divide the history of the German language from
this earliest period, when it appears only in the form of proper
names and isolated words as glosses to a Latin text, down to
the present day, into three great sections: (1) Old High German
(Althochdeutsck) and Old Low German (Old Saxon; Altmeder-
deutsck, AltsUchsisch); (2) Middle High German (MiUdkoch-
deutsch) and Middle Low German (Mittelniederdeutsek); and
(3) Modern High German and Modern Low German (NeuMtch-
deutsch and Neunieder deutsch). It is more difficult to determine
the duration of the different periods, for it is obvious that the
transition from one stage of a language to another takes place
slowly and gradually.
The first or Old High German period is commonly regarded
as extending to about the year x 100. The principal characteristic
of the change from Old High German to Middle High German
is the weakening of the unaccented vowels in final syllables
(cf. O.H.G. logd, gesti, geban, gdbum and M.H.G. tage, gcsU,
geben, gdben). But it must be remembered that this process
began tentatively as early as the roth century in Low German,
and also that long, unaccented vowels are preserved in the
Alemannic dialect as late as the 14th century and even later.
Opinion is more at variance with regard to the division between
the second and third periods. Some would date Modern High
German from the time of Luther, that is to say, from about
250a But it must be noted that certain characteristics attributed
to the Modern German vowel system, such as lengthening of
Middle High German short vowels, the change from Middle
High German f, *, iu to Modern High German «, au, eu (9u),
of Middle High German ic, uo, He to Modern High German
i, i, £, made their appearance long before 1500. Taking this
fact into consideration, others distinguish a period of classical
Middle High German extending to about 1250, and a period
of transition (sometimes called FrUhneuhochdeutsck t or Early
Modern High German) from 2250 to 1650. The principal
characteristics of Modern High German would then consist in
a greater stability of the grammatical and syntactical rules, due
to the efforts of earlier grammarians, such as Schottdius,
Gottsched and others, and the substitution of a single vowel
sound for the varying vowels of the singular and plural of the
preterite of strong verbs (cf. Middle High German schreib,
schriben, and Modern High German schricb, schrieben, &c.).
The much debated question of the origins of Modern High German
has been recently reopened by O. Behaghel (Geschichte der
dculschen Sprache, I.e. 661), who hopes that a more satisfactory
solution may be arrived at by the study of certain syntac-
tical peculiarities to be seen in the dialects of more recent
periods.
As the middle ages did not produce a German Schriftspracht
or literary language in the modern sense of the word, which—
as is undoubtedly the case in Modern German— might have
influenced the spoken language (Umgangssprache), the history
of the language in its earlier stages is a history of different
dialects. These dialects will, therefore, claim our attention at
some length.
It may be assumed that the languages of the different West
Germanic tribes enumerated above were, before the appearance
of the tribes in history, distinguished by many dialectic variations;
• Cf. J. Grimm, Deutsche Grammatik, 3rd ed., i. p. 13; F. Kluge,
Etymologiuhes W6rterbuth, 6th ed., pp. 75 ff.; K. Luick. " Zur
Geschichte des Wortcs 'deutsch,' " xnAnuigerfur deulsches AlUrium,
xv-. PP- »35. 248; H. Fischer, " Theotiscus. Deutsch." in Paul and
Braune's Beitrdge, xviii. p. 203; H. Paul. Deutsches Warterbuch
(1897). P. 93-
GERMAN LANGUAGE
779
this was certainly the case immediately after the Migrations,
when the various races began to settle down. But these differ-
ences, consisting presumably in matters of phonology and
vocabulary, were nowhere so pronounced as to exclude a mutual
understanding of individuals belonging to different tribes.
One might compare the case of the Poles and Czechs of the
present day. During the 6th century, however, a phonological
process set in, which ultimately resulted in the separation of
Germany into two great linguistic divisions, south and north,
or, as the languages are called, High and Low German. This
fundamental change, which is known as the second or High
German Soundshifting (Lautocrschiebung), spread northward
from the mountainous districts in the south, and, whatever its
cause may have been, 1 left behind it clear and easily recognizable
effects on the Germanic voiced stop d, which became changed
to /, and more especially on the voiceless stops /, p and k.
Dialects which have shifted initial / and // in the middle of a
word to the affricate tz (written z, tz) and p and k in corresponding
positions to the affricates />/and kx (written ck), further, /, p and
k in the middle of words between vowels, to the double spirant
b (now written «,«),/, AA (written <-A),are called High German;
those in which these changes have not taken place form the
Low German group, this group agreeing in this respect with
English and Frisian.
Of these sound changes, that of / to tz and a {ss) is the most
universal, extending over the whole region in which shifting
occurs; that of k to kx (ch), the most restricted, being only found
in Old Bavarian, and in the Swiss pronunciation, e.g. in chind.
The remaining dialects occupy positions between the two
extremes of complete shifting and the absence of shift ing. Some
Franconian dialects, for instance, leave p unchanged under
certain conditions, and in one dialet t at least, Middle Franconian,
I has remained after vowels in certain pronominal forms {dot,
wat, allet, &c). On this ground a subdivision has been made in
the High German dialects into (a) an Upper German (Obcrdeuisch)
and (b) a Middle German (Miitcldcuisch) group; and this sub-
division practically holds good for all periods of the language,
although in Old High German times the Middle German group
is only represented, as far as the written language is concerned,
by Franconian dialects.
As the scientific study of the German language advanced
there arose a keen revival of interest — and that not merely on the
part of scholars — in the dialects which were so long held in con-
tempt as a mere corruption of the Schriftspracke. 1 We arc st ill in
the midst of a movement which, under the guidance of scholars,
has, during the last three decades, bestowed great care on many
of the existing dialects; phonological questions have received
most attention, but problems of syntax have also not been
neglected. Monumental works like Wcnkcr's Sprachatlas des
deutschen Rcichcs and dialect dictionaries arc either in course
of publication or preparing;* while the difficult questions
concerned with defining the boundaries of the various dialects
1 Cf. P. Kretschmer, EinleUung in die Ceschichte der gricchischeu
Spratke (Gttttingen, 1896). who holds the mingling of Celtic and
Germanic elements in southern and south- western Germany re-
sponsible for the change. It might also be mentioned here that
H. Meyer {Zeitschrifl 1. drul. A Iter turn, xlv pp. 101 ff.) endeavours to
explain the first soundshifting by thechangcof abode of the Germanic
tribes from the lowlands to the highlands of the Carpathian
Mountains.
•Of writers who have made extensive use of dialects, it must
suffice to mention here the names of 1. H. Voss, Hebcl, Klaus Groth,
Frit* Reuter. Usteri, G. D. Arnold. Holtci. Castclli, J. G. Seidl and
Anzengruber, and in our own days G. Hauptmann.
»Cf. F. Staub and L. Toblcr Sckweizerisches Idiolikon (1881 ff.):
E. Martin and F. Licnhart. Wortcrbuch der elsassischen Mundarten
(Strassburg. 1899 ff.): H. Fischer, Schwabisehes Wdrterbuch
(Tubingen, 1901 ff.). Earlier works, which are already completed,
are J. A. Schmeller, Bayrisches Worterbuch (2nd cd., 2 vols., Munich,
1872-1877): J. B. Schopf. Tiroler Idiotikon (Innsbruck. 1886):
M. Lexer, Karntisches Wbrterbuch (1862); H. Gradl. Egerlander
W&rUrbuch, i. (Eger, 1883): A. F. C. Vilmar. Idiolikon von Kur-
hessen (Marburg, 1883) (with supplements by H. von Pfistcr);
W. Creed i us. Oberhessisches Wbrterbuch (Darmstadt. 1800-1898).
Professor J. Franck is responsible for a Rheinisches Wbrterbuch for
the Prussian Academy.
the reasons for them form the subject of many
ho north wc shall now pass briefly in review the
throughout the German-speaking area.
A. The Low German Dialects
tan dialects, as wc have seen, stand nearest to the
ian languages, owing to the total absence of the
ing which characterizes High German, as well as
ilics of sounds and inflections, e.g. the loss of the
fore the spirants/, s and p. Cf . Old Saxon kf (five),
uncouth). The boundary-line between Low and
the so-called Benrather Lime, may roughly be
It
np
JO
, I
ill
th
1st
all
,1
B. The High German Dialects
German Croup.— This group, which comprises the
iddlv Rhine, of Hcs&c, Thuringia, Upper Saxony
and East Prussia to the east of the lower Vistula
swerdcr. Marienburg. Elbing. Wormditt and
istrict originally colonized from Silesia — may be
/ divided into an La*t and a West Middle German
>n characteristic of all these dialect * i» the diminu-
* compared with ken and
n-letn (O.H.C. /Ji consists
r Saxon and Th the lin-
East Prussia. \ > shifted
> to ph. or even to Middle
[roughly speak ins rshed of
1) have retained ivincing
tuhrijt fur deulu .) by F.
East and South icr may
anconian — with the Upper German dialects, there
the West Middle German group: 1 (a) Middle
" Mundartcn " by R. Locwc in R. Bcthgc. Ergeh-
hritte der germaniitischen Wissenscho.fi (Leipzig,
and F. Menu. Bibliographic der deutschen hfund-
pzig, 1892). Of periodicals may be mentioned
ten. by J. W. Nagl (Vienna. 1896 ff.): Zeitschrift
lundartcn, by O. Hcilig and Ph. Lcnz (Heidelberg,
cd as Zeitschnjt /. deutsche Mundarten, Vcrlag des
schen Sprachvcrcins. Owing to its importance as a
ent monograph* J. Kintcler's Die Kcre nzer Mundart
ts (Leipzig, 1876) should not be passed unnoticed.
H. Tumpcl. " Die Mundarten desalten niedcrsach-
zwischen 1300 und 1500" (Paul und Braunc's
1-104); Niedcrdeutscke Sludien, by the same writer
Bahnke, " Ober Sprach- und Gaugrcnzen zwischen
(Jahrbuchdes Vcretns fiir niederdeutsche Sprachjor-
and Thuringian arc sometimes taken as a separate
e, '* Zur Kcnntnis des Frdnkiscnen " (Beilrdge, i.
hme, Zur Kenntnis des Oberfrankischen im tj. 14.
dissertation) (Leipzig, 1893). where a good account
s between the Rhenish Franconian and South
ts will be found.
780
Franconian and (b) Rhenish Fr
with its dot, xoat. allet, &c. (cf. «
Sirant b (written v) represent
H-man, is itself divided into
Cologne and Aachen (Aix-la-C
Franconian.' with Trier (Trev
distinguished by the fact that
it shifts Germanic -r£- and -rd-
•rt- (cf. vierfen, hirtin with voer£
dialect is spoken in the Rhenu
Baden (Heidelberg), Hesse 4
speaking part of Lorraine. A
French frontier to Siegen on
Boppard, roughly indicates the
Franconian.
GERMAN LANGUAGE
The Old Hicr German Period
the dialect of the kingdom of Wurttcmbcrg and the north-western
part of Tirol (cf. H. Fischer, Geographic der sckwabischen Mundart,
1 Cf. C. Norrcnbcrg, " Lautvcrschicbungsstufc des Mittelfr&n-
kischen " (Beitrdge. ix. 371 ff.); R. Hcinzcl, GeschichU der niederjran-
kischen Geschdftssprache (Padcrborn, 1874).
• This is also the dialect of the so-called Sicbcnbttrger Sachsen.
»Cf. E. Sicvcrs. Oxf order Benediklinerregd (Halle. 1887).
p. xvi.; J. Meier, Jolande (1887), pp. vii. If., O. Bohmc. I.e.
p. 60.
4 Lower Hesse (the northern and eastern parts) goes, however,
in many respects its own way.
*Od the High German dialects cf. K. Weinhold, Alemannische
Grammatik (Berlin, 1863); F. Kauffmann, Gtschichle der schwa-
bischen Mundart (Strassburg, 1870); E. Hacndckc, Die mundartluhen
Eiemente in den elsdssischen Urkunden (Strassburg. 1894); K.
Weinhold. Bairiscke Grammatik (1867); J. A. Schmcllcr, Die Mund-
arten Baierns (Munich, 1821); J. N. Schwabl, Die altbairischen
Mundarten (Munchcn, 1903); 6. Brenner, Mundart en und Schrift-
sPrache in Bayern (Bamberg, 1800); J. Schatz. Die Mundart von
Imst (Strassburg. 1807); J. W. Nagl, Der Vocalismus der bairisch-
Csterreiehischen Mundarten (1890-1891); VV. Gradl, Die Mundarten
Westbdhmens (Munich, 1896) ; P. Lcsstak. " Die Mundart von Pernegg
in Karnten " (Paul and Braune. Beitrdge, voL xxviik).
vowelsat a period when the cause of it, the 1 orj, no longer existed. A
no less important change, for it helped to differentiate High from Low
German, was that of Germanic <t (a closed <-sound) and 6 diph-
thongs in Old High German, while they were retained in Old Low
German. Cf. O.ILG. her, hear, hiar, O.L.G. hfr; O.H.G. fun. O.L.G.
fdt. The final result was that in the loth century ie (older forms, ta.
"1 Franconian) had
utn dialects. Again
t» and om were pre-
at the end of a word
1 the one case, and
it, zdh from tiokau,
the monophthongs
d(d. O.L.G. steu.
I in Rhenish Fran-
I the Upper Saxon
in: .Stem or Stan.
n and Alemannic.
>axon arc more or
d. But this litera-
ti's Eaangetienbuck
(a life of Christ in
• Gospel Harmony
by Bishop Isidore
nconi&n), is almost
Dnc isconscquentry
tains of the Ililde-
rms. The didactic
cntarics of Notkrr
as well as a para-
tm of Ebersberg a
t throughout this
lawbooks (there is
the Anglo-Saxons),
lecdlcss to say that
rifhpracht) during
at most, we might
speak of schools in the large monasteries, such as Reichenau. St
Gall. Fulda, which contributed to the spread and acceptance of
certain orthographical rules.
The Middle High German Period
The following are the chief changes in sounds and forms which
mark the development of the language in the Middle High German
period. The orthography of the MSS. reveals a much more extensive
employment of mutation (Umlaut) than was the case in the first
period ; we find, for instance, as the mutation of o. 6, of d, et.ofH.im
(m). of uo. tie, of ou, 6%, and eu (cf. hdter, base, hi user, guete. bourne).
although many scribes, and more especially those of Middle and
Low German districts, have no special signs for the mutation of
*?, H, and o. Of special interest is the so-called " later (or weaker)
• Cf., for a hypothesis of two Umlauts ptrioden during the Old High
German time. F. Kauffmann, GeschicfUe der schwobisclux Mfmdart
(Strassburg, 1890). S. 152.
GERMAN LANGUAGE 781
782
GERMAN LANGUAGE
of the chancery gave rise to the mixed character of sounds and
forma which is still a feature of the literary language of Germany.
Thus the use of the monophthongs i, i. and si, instead of the old
diphthongs it, uo and ut, comes' from Middle Germany: the forms
of the words and the gender of the nouns follow Middle rather than
Upper German usage, whereas, on the other hand, the consonantal
system <J> to p{\ d to I) betrays in its main features its Upper
German (Bavarian-Austrian) origin.
The language of Luther no doub
style and vocabulary (cf. its influei
the Sturm und Drang), for in this res
afford him but scanty help. His
extent from his own native Middl
that, since the 14th century, Midd
stance, the writings of the Germ;
subsequent to Eckhart) had exercis
Germany, stood him in good steai
speaking, not the father of the m<
but he forms the most important
which began long before him, and <
long after him. To infer that Lu
conquest of Germany would not
immediately acceptable to the east
district (Thuringia and Silesia), and
in penetrating into Low Germany, a
lying to the east of the Saale and Elbe (Magdeburg. Hamburg).
One may say that about the middle of the loth century Luther's
High German was the language of the chanceries, about 1600 the
language of the pulpit (the last Bible in Low German was printed at
Goslar in 1621
Low Germany
stage crushed,
the " uncomm
It was also na
Catholic South
of the reformei
hand to Protc
political condit
German dialed
tion. South (
Laurentius All
although far <J
pronunciation,
Upper Germans.
In 1593 J. Helber, a Swiss schoolmaster and notary, spoke of three
separate dialects as being in use by the printing presses* 1 (1)
•MiUeUtutsck (the language of the printers in Leiptig, Erfurt, Nurem-
berg, Wurxburg. Frankfort, Mainz, Spires, Strassburg and Cologne ;
the 17th century the disparity between the vowels of the singular
and plural of the preterite of the strong verbs practically ceases;
under East Middle German influence the final t is restored to words
like Knabt, J wit, Pfaft, which in South German had been Knab, Ac ;
the mixed declension (Ekrt, Ehren; Sckmert, Sckmenen) was
established, and the plural in -*r was extended to some masculine
nouns (Waid, Wilier)-, 1 the use of the mutated sound has now
1 For literature bearing on the complicated question of the
Druckersprachen, readers are referred to the article " Neuhoch-
deutsche Schriftsprache," by W. Scheel, in Bethge's Ergebnisse . . .
ier germanistixken Wissensckafl (1903), pp. 47, 50 f. Cf. also K. von
Bahder, Grunilagen its nkd. Lautsy stems (1890), pp. 15 ff.
' A German Prtamtl mentions as an essential quality in a beautiful
woman: " die red dort her von Swabea."
• Cf. for a detailed discussion of the noun declension, K. Boiunga,
Dit Enswichdung ier mkd. Substautivflexion (Leipzig, 1890); and,
more particularly for the masculine and neuter nouns, two articles
by H. Molx, " Die Substantivflexion scit mhd. Zeit," in Paul and
Braunc's Beilr&re, xxvii. p. 309 ff. and xxxi. 277 ff. For the changes
in the gender of nouns, A. Polxin, GesxhUckUvoanid ier Substantia
*H0eiOuAtM (Hildcibeim, laoj).
GERMAN LITERATURE 783
GERMAN LITERATURE. Compared with other literatures,
that of the German-speaking peoples presents a strangely broken
and interrupted course; it falls into more or less isolated groups,
separated from each other by periods which in intellectual
darkness and ineptitude are virtually without a parallel in other
European lands. The explanation of this irregularity of develop-
ment is to be sought less in the chequered political history of
the German people—although this was often reason enough—
than in the strongly marked, one might almost say, provocative
character of the national mind as expressed in literature. The
Germans were not able, like their partially latinized English
cousins— or even their Scandinavian neighbours— to adapt
themselves to the various waves of literary influence which
emanated from Italy and France and spread with irresistible
power over all Europe; their literary history has been rather a
struggle for independent expression, a constant warring against
outside forces, even when the latter— like the influence of English
literature in the i8tb century and of Scandinavian at the close
of the 19th— were bailed as friendly and not hostile. It is a
peculiarity of German literature that in those ages when, owing
to its own poverty and impotence, it was reduced to borrowing
its ideas and its poetic forms from other lands, it sank to the
most servile imitation; while the first sign of returning health
has invariably been the repudiation of foreign influence and the
assertion of the right of genius to untrammelled expression.
Thus Germany's periods of literary efflorescence rarely coincide
with those of other nations, and great European movements,
like the Renaissance, passed over her without producing a single
great poet.
This chequered course, however, renders the grouping of Ger-
man literature and the task of the historian the easier. The first
and simplest classification is that afforded by the various stages
of linguistic development. In accordance with the three divisions
in the history of the High German language, there is an Old High
German, a Middle High German and a New High German or
Modern High German literary epoch. It is obvious, however,
that the last of these divisions covers too enormous a period of
literary history to be regarded as analogous to the first two.
The present survey is consequently divided into six main
sections:
I. The Old High German Period, including the literature of
the Old Saxon dialect, from the earliest times to the middle of
the ntb century.
II. The Middle High German Period, from the middle of the
nth to the middle of the 14th century.
III. The Transition Period, from the middle of the 14th century
to the Reformation in the i6lh century.
IV. The Period of Renaissance and Pseudo-classicism, from
the end of the 16th century to the middle of the 18th.
V. The Classical Period of Modern German literature, from
the middle of the 18th century to Goethe's death in 1832.
VI. The Period from Goethe's death to the present day.
I. The Old Hich German Period (<. 750-1050)
Of all the Germanic races, the tribes with which we have more
particularly to deal here were the latest to attain intellectual
maturity. The Goths had, centuries earlier, under their famous
bishop Ulfilas or Wulfila, possessed the Bible in their vernacular,
the northern races could point to their Edda, the Germanic
tribes in England to a rich and virile Old English poetry, before
a written German literature of any consequence existed at all.
At the same time, these continental tribes, in the epoch that Jay
between the Migrations of the 5th century and the age of Charles
the Great, were not without poetic literature of a kind, but it
was not committed to writing, or, at least, no record of such a
poetry has come down to us. Its existence is vouched for by
indirect historical evidence, and by the fact that the sagas, out
of which the German national epic was welded at a later date,
originated in the great upheaval of the 5th century. When the
vernacular literature began to emerge from an unwritten state
in the 8th century, it proved to be merely a weak reflection of
the ecclcsisstksi nuvtagk «A \Jfiut mmaMsfesA ■»&. >&a* x , «^
7*4
GERMAN LITERATURE [middle high cerman period
very few exceptions, Old High German literature remained.
Translations of the liturgy, of Tatian's Gospel Harmony (r. 835),
of fragments of sermons, form a large proportion of it. Occasion-
ally, as in the so-called M onset Fragments, and at the end of the
period, in the prose of Notker Labeo (d. 1022), this ecclesiastical
literature attains a surprising maturity of style and expression.
But it had no vitality of its own; it virtually sprang into
existance at the command of Charlemagne, whose policy with
regard to the use of the vernacular in place of Latin was liberal
and far-seeing; and it docilely obeyed the tastes of the rulers
that followed, becoming severely orthodox under Louis the Pious,
and consenting to immediate extinction when the Saxon emperors
withdrew their favour from it. Apart from a few shorter poetic
fragments of interest, such as the Merseburg Charms (Zauber-
spriche), an undoubted relic of pre-Christian times, the Wesson
brunn Prayer (c. 780), the Muspilli, an imaginative description
of the Day of Judgment, and the Ludwigslied (88i), which may
be regarded as the starting point for the German historical
ballad, the only High German poem of importance in this early
period was the Gospel Book (Liber eoangdiorum) of Otfrid of
Weissenburg (c. 800-870). Even this work is more interesting
as the earliest attempt to supersede alliteration in German
poetry by rhyme, than for such poetic life as the monk of Weissen-
burg was able to instil into his narrative. In fact, for the only
genuine poetry of this epoch we have to look, not to the High
German but to the Low German races. They alone seemed
able to give literary expression to the memories handed down
in oral tradition from the 5th century; to Saxon tradition we
owe the earliest extant fragment of a national saga, the Lay
of Hildebrand (Hildebr and sited, c. 800), and a Saxon poet was the
author of a vigorous alliterative version of the Gospel story, the
Heliand (e. 830), and also of part of the Old Testament (Genesis).
This alliterative epic— for epic it may be called— is the one
poem of this age in which the Christian tradition has been adapted
to German poetic needs. Of the existence of a lyric poetry we
only know by hearsay; and the drama had nowhere in Europe
yet emerged from its earliest purely liturgic condition. Such
as it was, the vernacular literature of the Old High German
period enjoyed but a brief existence, and in the 10th and nth
centuries darkness again closed over it. The dominant "German' '
literature in these centuries is in Latin; but that literature is
not without national interest, for it shows in what direction the
German mind was moving. The Lay of Waller (Waltharilicd,
c. 930), written in elegant hexameters by Ekkehard of St Gall,
the moralizing dramas of Hrosvitha (Roswitha) of Gandersheim,
the Ecbasis captivi (c. 940), earliest of all the Beast epics, and
the romantic adventures of Ruodlieb (c. 1030), form a literature
which, Latin although it is, foreshadows the future developments
of German poetry.
II. TUe Middle High German Period (1050-1350)
(a) Early Middle High German Poetry.— The beginnings of
Middle High German literature were hardly less tentative than
those of the preceding period. The Saxon emperors, with their
Latin and even Byzantine tastes, had made it extremely
difficult to take up the thread where Notker let it drop. Williram
of Ebersberg, the commentator of the Song of Songs (c. 1063),
did certainly profit by Notkcr's example, but he stands alone.
The Church had no helping hand to offer poetry, as in the more
liberal epoch of the great Charles; for, at the middle of the nth
century, when the linguistic change from Old to Middle High
German was taking place, a movement of religious asceticism,
originating in the Burgundian monastery of Cluny, spread across
Europe, and before long all the German peoples fell under its
influence. For a century there was no room for any literature
that did not place itself unreservedly at the service of the Church,
a service which meant the complete abnegation of the brighter
aide of life. Repellent in their asceticism are, for instance,
poems like Memento mori (c. 1050), Vom Glauben, a verse com-
mentary on the creed by a monk Hart man n (c. 1 1 so), and a poem
on " the remembrance of death " ( Von des lodes gehugtde) by
Hdnreicb voa Afelk (c. 1150); only rardy, as in & few narrative
poems on Old Testament subjects, are the poets of this time able
to forget for a time their lugubrious faith. In the Ezzolui
(c. 1060), a spirited lay by a monk of Bamberg on the life, miracles
and death of Christ, and in the Annolied (c. 1080), & poem ia
praise of the archbishop Anno of Cologne, we find, however,
some traces of a higher poetic imagination.
The transition from this rigid ecclesiastic spirit to a freer,
more imaginative literature is to be seen in the lyric poetry
inspired by the Virgin, in the legends of the saints which bulk
so largely in the poetry of the 12th century, and in the general
trend towards mysticism. Andreas, Pilatus, Aegidius, Albanius
are the heroes of monkish romances of that age, and the stories
of Sylvester and Crescentia form the most attractive parts of
the Kaiserchronik (c. 1130-1x50), a long, confused chronicle of
the world which contains many elements common to later Middle
High German poetry. The national sagas, of which the poet
of the Kaiserchronik had not been oblivious, soon began to assert
themselves in the popular literature. The wandering Spiellexle,
the lineal descendants of the jesters and minstrels of the dark
ages, who were now rapidly becoming a factor of importance ia
literature, were here the innovators; to them we owe the romance
of Konig Rother (c. 11 60), and the kindred stories of Orendd,
Oswald and Salomon und Markolf (Salman und Horolf). AD
these poems bear witness to a new element, which in these years
kindled the German imagination and helped to counteract the
austerity of the religious faith— the Crusades. With what
alacrity the Germans revelled in the wonderland of the East
is to be seen especially in the Alexanderlied (c. 1x30), and in
Henog Ernst (c. 1180), romances which point out the way to
another important development of German medieval literature,
the Court epic The latter type of romance was the immediate
product of the social conditions created by chivalry and, like
chivalry itself, was determined and influenced by its French
origin; so also was the version of the Chanson de Roland (Rolands-
lied, c. X135), which we owe to another priest, Konrad of Regens-
burg, who, with considerable probability, has been identified
with the author of the Kaiserchronik.
The Court epic was, however, more immediately ushered in
by Eilhart von Oberge, a native of the neighbourhood of HOdes-
heim who, in his Tristanl (c. 1170), chose that Arthurian type
of romance which from now on was especially cultivated by the
poets of the Court epic; and of equally early origin is a knightly
romance of Floris und Blanche flur, another of the favourite love
stories of the middle ages. In these years, too, the Beast epic,
which had been represented by the Latin Ecbasis caplhi, was
reintroduced into Germany by an Alsatian monk, Heinrich der
Glichezaere, who based his Reinharl Fucks (c. 1 180) on the French
Roman de Renart. Lastly, we have 10 consider the beginning
of the Minnesang, or lyric, which in the last decades of the
12th century burst out with extraordinary vigour in Austria
and South Germany. The origins are obscure, and it is still
debatable how much in the German Minnesang is indigenous
and national, how much due to French and Provencal influence;
for even in its earliest phases the Minnesang reveals correspond-
ences with the contemporary lyric of the south of France. The
freshness and originality of the early South German singers,
such as KQrenberg, Diet mar von Eist, the Burggraf of Rieten-
burg and Meinloh von Sevelingen, are not, however, to Le
questioned; in spite of foreign influence, their verses make the
impression of having been a spontaneous expression of German
lyric feeling in the 12th century. The Spruchdichtung, a iota
of poetry which in this period is represented by at least two
poets who call themselves Hcrger and " Der Spervogcl,'* was
less dependent on foreign models; the pointed and satirical
strophes of these poets were the forerunners of a vast literature
which did not reach its highest development until after literature
had passed from the hands of the noble-born knight to those of
the burgher of the towns.
(b) The Flourishing of Middle High German PoHry— Such
was the preparation for the extraordinarily brilliant, although
brief epoch of German medieval poetry, which corresponded
\\» Cat teiv>a «&. tat cVotaudjuafesk tmojerory Frederick L
MIDDLE HIGH GERMAN PERIOD] GERMAN LITERATURE
78s
Barbarossa, Henry VI. and Frederick II. These rulers, by their
ambitious political aspirations and achievements, filled the
German peoples with a sense of " world-mission/' as the leading
political power in medieval Europe. Docile pupils of French
chivalry, the Germans had no sooner learned their lesson than
they fbund themselves in the position of being able to dictate
to the world of chivalry. In the same way, the German poets,
who, in the 12th century, had been little better than clumsy
translators of French romances, were able, at the beginning
of the 13th, to substitute for French chansons de gtste epics
based on national sagas, to put a completely German imprint
on the French Arthurian romance, and to sing German songs
before which even the lyric of Provence paled. National epic,
Court epic and Minnesang — these three types of medieval
German literature, to which may be added as a subordinate
group didactic poetry comprise virtually all that has come
down to us in the Middle High German tongue. A Middle High
German prose hardly existed, and the drama, such as it was,
was still essentially Latin.
The first place among the National or Popular epics belongs
to the Nibdungenlied, which received its present form in Austria
about the turn of the 12th and 13th centuries. Combining,
as it does, elements from various cycles of sagas — the lower
Rhenish legend of Siegfried, the Burgundian saga of Gunther
and Hagen, the Gothic saga of Dietrich and Etzel— it stands out
as the most representative epic of German medieval life. And
in literary power, dramatic intensity and singleness of purpose
its eminence is no less unique. The vestiges of gradual growth —
of irreconcilable elements imperfectly welded together — may
not have been entirely effaced, but they in no way lessen the
impression of unity which the poem leaves behind it; whoever
the welder of the sagas may have been, he was clearly a poet
of lofty imagination and high epic gifts (see Nibeluncenlied).
Xess imposing as a whole, but in parts no less powerful in its
appeal to the modern mind, is the second of the German national
epics, Cudrun, which was written early in the 13th century.
This poem, as it has come down to us, is the work of an Austrian,
but the subject belongs to a cycle of sagas which have their
home on the shores of the North Sea. It seems almost a freak
of chance that Siegfried, the hero of the Rhineland, should occupy
so prominent a position in the Nibdungenlied, whereas Dietrich
von Bern (i.e. of Verona), the name under which Theodoric the
Great had been looked up to for centuries by the German people
as their national hero, should have left the stamp of his person-
ality on no single epic of the intrinsic worth of the Nibdungenlied.
He appears, however, more or less in the background of a number
of romances— Die Rabenschlacht, Didrichs Flucht. Alpharls Tod,
BUerolf und Didlicb, Laurin, &c— which make up what is
usually called the Heldcnbuch. It is tempting, indeed, to see
in this very unequal collection the basis for what, under more
favourable circumstances, might have developed into an epic
even more completely representative of the- German nation
than the Nibdungenlied.
While the influence of the romance of chivalry is to be traced
on all these popular epics, something of the manlier, more
primitive ideals that animated German national poetry passed
over to the second great group of German medieval poetry,
the Court epic. The poet who, following Eilhart von Oberge's
tentative beginnings, established the Court epic in Germany
was Heinrich von Veldeke, a native of the district of the lower
Rhine; his Eneit, written between 1x73 and 1186, is based on
a French original. Other poets of the time, such as Herbort
von FriUlar, the author of a Lid von Troye, followed Heinrich *s
example, and selected French models for German poems on
antique themes; while Albrecht von Halberstadt translated
about the year 1210 the Metamorphoses of Ovid into German
verse. With the three masters of the Court epic, Hartmann
von Aue, Wolfram von Eschenbach and Gottfried von Strass-
burg — all of them contemporaries — the Arthurian cycle became
the recognized theme of this type of romance, and the accepted
embodiment of the ideals of the knightly classes. Hartmann
was a Swabian, Wolfram a Bavarian, Gottfried presumably a
native of Strassburg. Hartmann, who in his Erec and Iwein,
Gregorius and Der arme Heinrich combined a tendency towards
religious asceticism with a desire to imbue the worldly life of
the knight with a moral and religious spirit, provided the Court
epic of the age with its best models; he had, of all the medieval
court poets, the most delicate sense for the formal beauty of
poetry, for language, verse and style. Wolfram and Gottfried,
on the other hand, represent two extremes of poetic tempera-
ment. Wolfram's Panhal is filled with mysticism and obscure
spiritual significance; its flashes of humour irradiate, although
they can hardly be said to illumine, the gloom; its hero is,
unconsciously, a symbol and allegory of much which to the
poet himself must have been mysterious and inexplicable; in
other words, Panival— and Wolfram's other writings, Willekalm
and Titurd, point in the same direction— is an instinctive or,
i use Schiller's word, a " naive " work of genius. Gottfried,
again, is hardly less gifted and original, but he is a poet of a
wholly different type. His Tristan is even more lucid than
Hartmann 's Iwein, his art is more objective; his delight in
it is that of the conscious artist who sees his work growing
under his hands. Gottfried's poem, in other words, is free
from the obtrusion of those subjective elements which are in
so high a degree characteristic of Panhal; in spite of the tragic
character of the story, Tristan is radiant and serene, and yet un-
contaminated by that tone of frivolity which the Renaissance
introduced into love stories of this kind.
Panhal and Tristan are the two poles of the German Court
epic, and the subsequent development of that epic stands under
the influence of the three poets, Hartmann, Wolfram and
Gottfried; according as the poets of the 13th century tend to
imitate one or other of these, they fall into three classes. To
the followers and imitators of Hartmann belong Ulrich von
Zatzikhoven, the author of a Lantdd (c. 1195); Wirnt von
Gravenberg, a Bavarian, whose Wigalois (c. 1205) shows con-
siderable imaginative power; the versatile Spiel mann, known as
" Der Strieker,"; and Heinrich von dem Turlin, author of an
unwieldy epic, Die Krone (" the crown of all ad venturcs,"c. 1 220).
The fascination of Wolfram's mysticism is to be seen in Der
jiingere Titurd of a Bavarian poet, Albrecht von Scharfenberg
(c. 1270), and in the still later Lohengrin of an unknown poet;
whereas Gottfried von Strassburg dominates the Flore und
Blanschejlur of Konrad Fleck (c. 1220) and the voluminous
romances of the two chief poets of the later 13th century, Rudolf
von Ems, who died in 1254, and Konrad von WGrzburg, who lived
till 1287. Of these, Konrad alone carried on worthily the tradi-
tions of the great age, and even his art, which excels within the
narrow limits of romances like Die Henemoere and Engdhard,
becomes diffuse and wearisome on the unlimited canvas of
Der Trojanerkrieg and Partonopicr und Mdiur.
The most conspicuous changes which came over the narrative
poetry of the 13th century were, on the one hand, a steady en-
croachment of realism on the matter and treatment of the epic,
and, on the other, a leaning to didacticism. The substitution
of the " history " of the chronicle for the confessedly imaginative
stories of the earlier poets is to be seen in the work of Rudolf von
Ems, and of a number of minor chroniclers like Ulrich von
Eschenbach, Berthold von Holle and Jans Enikcl; while for the
growth of realism we may look to the Pfqffe Amis, a collection
of comic anecdotes by " Der Strieker/ 1 the admirable peasant
romance Meier Hdmbreeht, written between 1236 and 1250 by
Wernher der Gartenaere in Bavaria, and to the adventures of -
Ulrich von Lichtenstein, as described in his Prauendienst (1255)
and Prauenbuch (1257).
More than any single poet of the Court epic, more even than
the poet of the Nibdungenlied, Walther von der Vogelweide
summed up in himself all that was best in the group of poetic
literature with which he was associated— the Minnesang. The
early Austrian singers already mentioned, poets like Heinrich
von Veldeke, who in his lyrics, as in his epic, introduced the French
conception of Minne, or like the manly Friedrich von Hausen,
and the Swiss imitator of Provencal measures, Rudolf von
Fenis appear only in th& tt$}& <& fawnaxsNav. "tMrx^ ^ss*.
7 86
GERMAN LITERATURE
(TRANSITION PERIOD
original poets, like Heinrich von Morungen and Walther's own
master, Reinmar von Hagenau, the author of harmonious but
monotonously elegiac verses, or among immediate contemporaries,
Hart man n von Auc and Wolfram von Eschenbach, whose few
lyric strophes are as deeply stamped with his individuality as bis
epics — seem only tributary to the full rich stream of Walther's
genius. There was not a form of the German Minnesang which
Walt her did not amplify and deepen; songs of courtly love
and lowly love, of religious faith and delight in nature, patriotic
songs and political Spriicke — in all he was a master. Of Walther's
life we are somewhat belter informed than in the case of his con-
temporaries: he was born about 1x70 and died about 1230;
his art he learned in Austria, whereupon he wandered through
South Germany, a welcome guest wherever he went, although
his vigorous championship of what he regarded as the national
cause in the political struggles of the day won him foes as well as
friends. For centuries he remained the accepted exemplar of
German lyric poetry; not merely the Minnesinger who followed
him, but also the Meistersinger of the 15th and 16th centuries
looked up to him as one of the founders and lawgivers of their art.
He was the most influential of all Germany's lyric poets, and
in the breadth, originality and purity of his inspiration one of
her greatest (see Walthe* von der Vogelweide).
The development of the German Minnesang after Walther's
death and under his influence is easily summed up. Contem-
poraries had been impressed by the dual character of Walther's
lyric; they distinguished a higher courtly lyric, and a lower
more outspoken form of song, free from the constraint of social
or literary conventions. The later Minnesang emphasized this
dualism. Amongst Walther's immediate contemporaries, high-
born poets, whose lives were passed at courts, naturally cultivated
the higher lyric; but the more gifted and original singers of the
time rejoiced in the freedom of Walther's poetry of niedere
Minne. It was, in fact, in accordance with the spirit of the age
that the latter should have been Walther's most valuable legacy
to his successors; and the greatest of these, Neidhart von
Reuental (c. nSo-c. 1250), certainly did not allow himself to
be hampered by aristocratic prejudices. Neidhart sought the
themes of his kdfische Dorjpoesic in the village, and, as the mood
happened to dictate, depicted the peasant with humorous banter
or biting satire. The lyric poets of the later 13th century were
either, like Burkart von Hohenfels, Ulrich von Winterstetten
and Gottfried von Neifen, echoes of Walther von der Vogel-
weide and of Neidhart, or their originality was confined to some
particular form of lyric poetry in which they excelled. Thus
the singer known as " Der Tannhauser " distinguished himself as
an imitator of the French pastourelle; Reinmar von Zwcter was
purely a Spruckdichter. More or less common to all is the con-
sciousness that their own ideas and surroundings were no longer
in harmony with the aristocratic world of chivalry, which the
poets of the previous generation had glorified. The solid
advantages, material prosperity and increasing comfort of life
in the German towns appealed to poets like Steinmar von
Klingcnau more than the unworldly ideals of self-effacing
knighthood which Ulrich von Lichtcnstein and Johann Hadlaub
of ZUrich clung to so tenaciously and extolled so warmly. On the
whole, the Spruchdichtcr came best out of this ordeal of changing
fashions; and the increasing interest in the moral and didactic
applications of literature favoured the development of this
form of verse. The confusion of didactic purpose with the
. lyric is common to all the later poetry, to that of the learned
Marner, of Boppe, Rumezland and Heinrich von Meissen,
who was known to later generations as " Frauenlob." The
Spruchdichtung, in fact, was one of the connecting links between
the Minnesang of the 13th and the lyric and satiric poetry
of the 15th and 16th centuries.
The disturbing and disintegrating element in the literature
of the 13th century was thus the substitution of a utilitarian
didacticism for the idealism of chivalry. In the early decades of
that century, poems like Der Winsbeke, by a Bavarian, and
Der welsche Cast, written in 1215-1216 by Thomasin von Zir-
claere (Zirckria), a native ofFriuli, still teach with uncompromis-
ing idealism the duties and virtues of the knightly life. But in the
Bcsckeidenkeit (c. 1215-1230) of a wandering singer, who called
himself Freidank, we find for the first lime an active antagonism
to the unworldly code of chivalry and an unmistakable reflection
of the changing social order, brought about by the rise of what
we should now call the middle class. Freidank is the spokesman
of the Burger, and in his terse, witty verses may be traced the
germs of German intellectual and literary development in the
coming centuries — even of the Reformation itself. From the
advent of Freidank onwards, the satiric and didactic poetry went
the way of the epic; what it gained in quantity it lost in quality
and concentration. The satires associated with the name of
Seifried Helbling, an Austrian who wrote in the last fifteen
years of the 13th century, and Der Rentier by Hugo von Trimberg,
written at the very end of the century, may be taken as character-
istic of the later period, where terseness and incisive wit have
given place to diffuse moralizing and allegory.
There is practically no Middle High German literature in
prose; such prose as has come down to us— the tracts of David
of Augsburg, the powerful sermons of Berthold von Regensburg
(d. z 272), Germany's greatest medieval preacher, and several legal
codes, as the Sochsenspiegel and Schwabenspiegel — only prove
that the Germans of the 13th century had not yet realized the
possibilities of prose as a medium of literary expression.
HI. The Transition Period (13 50-1600)
(a) The Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries.— As is the case
with all transitional periods of literary history, this epoch of
German literature may be considered under two aspects: 00
the one hand, we may follow in it the decadence and disintegra-
tion of the literature of the Middle High German period; on
the other, we may study the beginnings of modern forms of
poetry and the preparation of that spiritual revolution, which
meant hardly less to the Germanic peoples than the Renaissance
to the Latin races— the Protestant Reformation.
By the middle of the 14th century, knighthood with its
chivalric ideals was rapidly declining, and the conditions under
which medieval poetry had flourished were passing away.
The social change rendered the courtly epic of Arthur's Round
Table in great measure incomprehensible to the younger genera-
tion, and made it difficult for them to understand the spirit,
that actuated the heroes of the national epic; the tastes to which
the lyrics of the great Minnesingers had appealed were vitiated
by the more practical demands of the rising middle classes.
But the stories of chivalry still appealed as stories to the people,
although the old way of telling them was no longer appreciated
The feeling for beauty of form and expression was lost; the
craving for a moral purpose and didactic aim had to be satisfied
at the cost of artistic beauty; and sensational incident was
valued more highly than fine character-drawing or inspired
poetic thought. Signs of the decadence are to be seen in the
Karlmeinct of this period, stories from the youth of Charlemagne,
in a continuation of Parzival by two Alsatians, Claus Wisse
and Philipp Colin (c. 1335), in an Apottonius von Tyrus by
Heinrich von Neuenstadt (e. 131 5), and a Kdnigstockter ton
Frankreiek by Hans von Buhel (c. 1400). The story -of Siegfried
was retold in a rough ballad, Das Lied von hiirnen Seyfried, the
Hcldcnbuch was recast In Knitlelicrsxyr doggerel (1472), and even
the Arthurian epic was parodied. A no less marked symptom
of decadence is to be seen in a large body of allegorical poetry
analogous to the Roman de la rose in France; Heinzelein of
Constance, at the end of the 13th, and Hadamar von Laber and
Hermann von Sachsenheim, about the middle of the x 5th century,
were representatives of this movement. As time went on, prose
versions of the old stories became more general, and out of these
developed the Volksbilcker, such as Loher und Mailer, Die
Haimonskinder, Die schOne Magelone, Melusine, which formed
the favourite reading of the German people for centuries. As
the last monuments of the decadent narrative literature of the
middle ages, we may regard the Buck der Abenteuer of Ulrich
Fiiclrer, written at the end of the 15th century, and Der Weiss-
kdnii and Teuerdank by the emperor Maximilian I. (1450-1519),
TRANSITION PERIOD]
GERMAN LITERATURE
787
printed in the early years of the x6th. At the beginning of the
new epoch the Minnesang could still point to two masters able
to maintain the great traditions of the 13th century, Hugo von
Montforl (1337-14*3) and Oswald von Wolkenstein (1367-1445);
but as the lyric passed into the hands of the middle-dan poets
of the German towns, it was rapidly shorn of its essentially
lyric qualities; die Minne gave place to moral and religious
dogmatism, emphasis was laid on strict adherence to the rules
of composition, and the simple forms of the older lyric were
superseded by ingenious metrical distortions. Under the influence
of writers like Heinrich von Meissen (" Frauenlob,"c. 1250-1318)
and Heinrich von Milgcln in the 14th century, like Muskatblut
and Michael Beheim (1416-c. 1480) in the 15th, the Minnesang
thus passed over into the Metstergesang. In the later 15th and
in the 16th centuries all the south German towns possessed
flourishing Meistersinger schools in which the art of writing
verse was taught and practised according to complicated rules,
and it was the ambition of every gifted citizen to rise through
the various grades from Schiller to Meister and to distinguish
himself in the " singing contests " instituted by the schools.
Such are the decadent aspects of the once rich literature of
the Middle High German period in the 14th and 15th centuries.
Turning now to the more positive side of the literary movement,
we have to note a revival of a popular lyric poetry— the Volkslied
— which made the futility and artificiality of the Metstergesang
more apparent. Never before or since has Germany been able
to point to such a rich harvest of popular poetry as is to be seen
in the Volkslieder of these two centuries. Every form of popular
poetry Is to be found here — songs of love and war, hymns and
drinking-songs, songs of spring and winter, historical ballads,
as well as lyrics in which the old motives of the Minnesang
reappear stripped of all artificiality. More obvious ties with
the literature of the preceding age are to be seen in the develop-
ment of the Sckwank or comic anecdote. Collections of such
stories, which range from the practical jokes of Till Eulenspiegd
(1515), and the coarse witticisms of the Pfaffe vom Kalenberg
(end of 14th century) and Peter Leu (1550), to the religious and
didactic anecdotes of J. Pauli's Schimpf und Ernst (152a) or the
more literary RothoagenbUchiein (1555) of Jdrg Wickram and the
Wendunmut (1563 ff.) of H. W. Kirchhoff— these dominate in
large measure the literature of the 15th and 16th centuries;
they are the literary descendants of the medieval Pfaffe Amis,
Markolf and Rcinhart Fuchs. An important development of
this type of popular literature is to be seen in the Narrenschiff of
Sebastian Brant (1457-1521), where the humorous anecdote
became a vehicle of the bitterest satire; Brant's own contempt
for the vulgarity of the ignorant, and the deep, unsatisfied
craving of all strata of society for a wider intellectual horizon
and a more humane and dignified life, to which Brant gave
voice, make the Narrenschiff, which appeared in 1494, a landmark
on the way that led to the Reformation. Another form — the
Beast fable and Beast epic — which is but sparingly represented
in earlier times, appealed with peculiar force to the new genera-
tion. At the very close of the Middle High German period,
Ulrich Boner had revived the Aesopic fable in his Edelstein
(x349)t translations of Aesop in the following century added to
the popularity of the fable (?.».), and in the century of the Re-
formation it became, in the hands of Burkard Waldis (Esopus,
1548) and Erasmus Alberus {Buck von ier Tugend und Weisheit,
1550), a favourite instrument of satire and polemic. A still
more attractive form of the Beast fable was the epic of Reinke
dt Vos, which had been cultivated by Flemish poets in the 13th
and 14th centuries and has come down to us in a Low Saxon
translation, published at LUbeck in 1498. This, too, like Brant's
poem, is a powerful satire on human folly, and is also, like the
Narrenschiff, a harbinger of the coming Reformation.
A complete innovation was the drama (q.v.), which, as we have
seen, had practically no existence in Middle High German
times. As in all European literatures, it emerged slowly and
with difficulty from its original subservience to the church liturgy.
As time went on, the vernacular was substituted for the original
Latin, and with increasing demands lor pageantry, the scene
of the play was removed to the churchyard or the market-place;
thus the opportunity arose in the 14th and 15th centuries for
developing' the Weihnachtsspiel, Osterspid and Passionsspiel on
secular lines. The enlargement of the scope of the religious
play to include legends of the saints implied a further step in
the direction of a complete separation of the drama from ecclesi-
astical ceremony. The most interesting example of this encroach-
ment of the secular spirit is the Spiel von Fran Jut ten — Jutta
being the notorious Pope Joan — by an Alsatian, Dietrich
Schemberg, in 1480. Meanwhile, in the 15th century, a beginning
had been made of a drama entirely independent of the church.
The mimic representations — originally allegorical in character —
with which the people amused themselves at the great festivals
of the year, and more especially in spring, were interspersed
with dialogue, and performed on an improvised stage. This
was the beginning of the Fastnacklsspiel or Shrovetide-play,
the subject of which was a comic anecdote similar to those of
the many collections of Sckw&nke. Amongst the earliest culti-
vators of the Fastnachtsspid were Hans RoscnplUt (fl. e. 1460)
and Hans Folz (fl. c. 15x0), both of whom were associated with
Nuremberg.
(b) The Age of the Reformation. — Promising as were these
literary beginnings of the 15th century, the real significance
of the period in Germany's intellectual history is to be sought
outside literature, namely, in two forces which immediately
prepared the way for the Reformation — myst icism and humanism .
The former of these had been a more or Jess constant factor in
German religious thought throughout the middle ages, but
with Meister Eckhart (? 1 260-1327), 'the most powerful and
original of all the German mystics, with Heinrich Seuse or Suso
(e. 1300-1366), and Johannes Tauler (c. 1300-1361), it became
a clearly defined mental attitude towards religion; it was an
essentially personal interpretation of Christianity, and, as such,
was naturally conducive to the individual freedom which
Protestantism ultimately realized. It is thus not to be wondered
at that we should owe the early translations of the Bible into
German— one was printed at Strassburg in 1466 — to the mystics.
Johann Gciler von Kaisersberg (1445-1510), a pupil of the
humanists and a friend of Sebastian Brant, may be regarded
as a link between Eckhart and the earlier myst i cists and Luther.
Humanism was transplanted to German soil with the foundation
of the university of Prague in 1348, and it made even greater
strides than mysticism. Its immediate influence, however,
was restricted to the educated classes; the pre-Reformation
humanists despised the vernacular and wrote and thought
only in Latin. Thus although neither Johann Reuchlin of
Pforzheim (1455-1522), nor even the patriotic Alsatian, Jakob
Wimpfeling (or Wimpheling) (1450-1528)— not to mention the
great Dutch humanist Erasmus of Rot.erdam (1466-1536) —
has a place in the history of German literature, their battle for
liberalism in thought and scholarship against the narrow ortho-
doxy of the Church cleared the way for a healthy national
literature among the German-speaking peoples. The incisive
wit and irony of humanistic satire — we need only instance the
Epislolae obsevrorum virorum (15x5-1517) — prevented the
German satirists of the Reformation age from sinking entirely
into that coarse brutality to which they were only too prone.
To the influence. of the humanists we also owe many trans-
lations from the Latin and Italian dating from the 15th century.
Prominent among the writers who contributed to the group
of literature were Niklas von Wyl, chancellor of Wtirttembcrg,
and his immediate contemporary Albrecht von Eyb (1420-147 5).
Martin Luther (1483-1546), Germany's greatest man in this
age of intellectual new-birth, demands a larger share of attention
in a survey of literature than his religious and ecclesiastical
activity would in itself justify, if only because the literary activity
of the age cannot be regarded apart from him. From the
Volkslied and the popular Schwank to satire and drama, literature
turned exclusively round the Reformation which had been
inaugurated on the 31st of October 15x7 by Luther's publication
of the Theses against Indulgences in Wittenberg txv Va& \.Vm,
tacts, An dt» tkrttttche* Add tatottar KtitoaVffe <AJtftfMft>
788
GERMAN LITERATURE
(THE RENAISSANCE
Babylonica ccclesiae, and Von der Preikcil tints Christtnmenschtn
(1530), Luther laid down his principles of reform, and in the
following year resolutely refused to recant his heresies in a
dramatic scene before the Council of Worms. Luther's Bible
(1 522-1 534) had unique importance not merely for the religious
and intellectual welfare of the German people, but also for their
literature. It is in itself a literary monument, a German classic*
and the culmination and justification of that movement which
had supplanted the medieval knight by .the burgher and swept
away Middle High German poetry. Luther, well aware that his
translation of the Bible must be the keystone to his work, gave
himself endless pains to produce a thoroughly German work —
German both in language and in spirit. It was important that the
dialect into which the Bible was translated should be compre-
hensible over as wide an area as possible of the German-speaking
world, and for this reason he took all possible care in choosing
the vocabulary and forms of his Gemtindtutsch. The language
of the Saxon chancery thus became, thanks to Luther's initiative,
the basis of the modern High German literary language. As a
hymn- writer (Gtistliche Litdcr, 1 564) , Luther was equally mindful
of the importance of adapting himself to the popular tradition;
and his hymns form the starting-point for a vast development
of German religious poetry which did not reach its highest point
until the following century.
The most powerful and virile literature of this age was the
satire with which the losing side retaliated on the Protestant
leaders. Amongst Luther's henchmen, Philipp Melanchthon
(1497-1560),. the "praeccptor Germaniae," and Ulrich von
Hutten (1488-1523) were powerful allies in the cause, but their
intellectual sympathies were with the Latin humanists; and
with the exception of some vigorous German prose and still
more vigorous German verse by Hutten, both wrote in Latin.
The satirical dramas of Niklas Manuel, a Swiss writer and the
polemical fables of Erasmus Alberus (c. 1500- 1553), on the other
hand, were insignificant compared with the fierce assault on
Protestantism by the Alsatian monk, Thomas Murner (1475-
1537)- The most unscrupulous of all German satirists, Murner
shrank from no extremes of scurrility, his attacks on Luther
leaching their culmination in the gross personalities of Von dem
luihtrischtn Nan en (1522). It was not until the following
generation that the Protestant party could point to a satirist
who in genius and power was at all comparable to Murner,
namely, to Johann Fischart (c. 1550-c. 1591); but when Fisc hart's
Rabelaisian humour is placed by the side of his predecessor's
work, we see that, in spite of counter-reformations, the Protestant
cause stood in a very different position in Fischart 's day from that
which it had occupied fifty years before. Fischart took his stand
on the now firm union between humanism and Protestantism.
His chief work, the Ajftntktuerlick Nauptngthturiicht Gesckichl-
klillcrung (1575), a Germanization of the first book of Rabelais'
satire, is a witty and ingenious monstrosity, a satirical comment
on the life of the 16th century, not the virulent expression of
party strife. The. day of a personal and brutal type of satire
was clearly over, and the writers of the later 16th century reverted
more and more to the finer methods of the humanists. The
satire of Bartholomaeus Ringwaldt (1 530-1 599) and of Georg
Rollenhagcn (1542-1609), author of the Froschmtuscltr (1595)*
was more " literary " and less actual than even Fischart 's.
On the whole, the form of literature which succeeded best in
emancipating itself from the trammels of religious controversy
in the 16th century was the drama. Protestantism proved
favourable to its intellectual and literary development, and the
humanists, who had always prided themselves on their imita-
tions of Latin comedy, introduced into it a sense for form and
proportion. The Latin school comedy in Germany was founded
by J. Wimpf cling with his Slylpko (1470) and by J. Reuchlin
with bis witty adaptation of Matirc Patclin in his Htnno (1408).
In the x6th century the chief writers of Latin dramas were
Thomas Kirchmair or Naogeorgus (1511-1563), Caspar Brttlow
(1585-1627), and Nikodemus Frischlin (1547-1590), who also
wrote dramas in the vernacular. The work of these men bears
testimony in its form Mod its choice of subjects to the do**
relationship bet ween Latin and German drama in the 1 6 tb century.
One of the earliest focusses for a German drama inspired by the
Reformation was Switzerland. In Basel, Pamphilus Gengenbach
produced moralizing FaitnochlupieU in 151 5-1 516; Niklas
Manuel of Bern (1484-1530)— who has just been mentioned—
employed the same type of play as a vehicle of pungent satire
against the Mass and the sale of indulgences. But it was not
long before the German drama benefited by the humanistic
example: the Par obeli vam vorlorn Stokn by Burkard Waldis
(1527), the many dramas on the subject of Susanna — notably
those of Sixt Birck (1532) and Paul Rebhun (1535)— and Frischlin's
German plays are attempts to treat Biblical themes according
to classic methods. In another of the important literary centres
of the 16th century, however, in Nuremberg, the drama developed
on indigenous lines. Hans Sachs (1404-1576), the Nuremberg
cobbler and Meistersinger, the most productive writer of the age,
went his own way; a voracious reader and an unwearied story-
teller, he left behind him a vast literary legacy, embracing every
form of popular literature from Spruck and Schwa** to com-
plicated Meisttrgtsang and lengthy drama. He laid under
contribution the rich Renaissance literature with which the
humanistic translators had flooded Germany, and he became
himself an ardent champion of the " Wittembergisch Nachtigafl "
Luther. But in the progressive movement of the German drama
he played an even smaller role than his Swiss and Saxon con-
temporaries; for his tragedies and comedies are deficient in all
dramatic qualities; they are only stories in dialogue. In the
Fastnacktsspiek, where dramatic form is less essential than anec-
dotal point and brevity, be is to be seen at his best. Rich
as the z6th century was in promise, the conditions for
the development of a national drama were unfavourable. At
the close of the century the influence of the English drama
— brought to Germany by English actors — introduced the
deficient dramatic" and theatrical force into the humanistic
and " narrative " drama which has just been considered. This
is to be seen in the work of Jakob Ayrer (d. 1605) and Duke
Henry Julius of Brunswick (1564-16x3). But unfortunately
these beginnings had hardly made themselves felt when the full
current of the Renaissance was diverted across Germany, bringing
in its train the Senecan tragedy. Then came the Thirty Years'
War, which completely destroyed the social conditions indis-
pensable for the establishment of a theatre at once popular
and national
The novel was less successful than the drama in extricating
itself from satire and religious controversy. Fischart was
too dependent on foreign models and too erratic — at one time
adapting Rabelais, at another translating the old heroic romance
of Amadis de Gaula — to create a national form of German fiction
in the x6th century; the most important novelist was a much
less talented writer, the Alsatian Meistersinger and dramatist
Jorg Wickram (d. c. 1560), who has been already mentioned as
the author of a popular collection of anecdotes, the RUtmagtn-
bUchkin. His longer novels, Der Knabtnspugd (1554) and Da
Goldjaden (1557), are in form, and especially in the importance
they attach to psychological developments, the forerunners of
the movement to which we owe the best works of Germaa
fiction in the 18th century. But Wickram stands alone. So
inconsiderable, in fact, is the fiction of the Reformation age in
Germany that we have to regard the old VolhsbUchsr as its
equivalent; and it is significant that of all the prose writings
of this age, the book which affords the best insight into the
temper and spirit of the Reformation was just one- of these
crude VolksbUcher, namely, the famous story of the — »gj«™
Doctor Johann Faust, published at Frankfort in 1587.
IV. The Renaissance (1600-1740)
The 17th century in Germany presents a complete contrast
to its predecessor; the fact that it was the century of the Thirty
Years' War, which devastated the country, crippled the prosperity
of the towns, and threw back by many generations the social
development of the people, explains much, but it can hardly be
[ a*\n eaxkt&g tcs$an»A\&ata& \hfc tadlecjual anathy, the slavery
THE RENAISSANCE!
GERMAN LITERATURE
789
to foreign customs, and foreign ideas, which stunted the growth
»f the nation. The freedom of Lutheranism degenerated into
a paralyzing Lutheran orthodoxy which was as hostile to the
" Freihcil cinesChristenmenschen " as that Catholicism it had
superseded; the idealism of the humanists degenerated in the
same way into a dry, pedantic scholasticism which held the German
mind in fetters until, at the very close of the century, Leibnitz
set it free. Most disheartening of all, literature which in the 16th
century had been so full of promise and had conformed with such
aptitude to the new ideas, was in all its higher manifestations
blighted by the dead hand of pseudo-classicism. The unkempt
literature of the Reformation age admittedly stood in need of
guidauce and discipline, but the 17th century made the fatal
mistake of trying to impose the laws and rules of Romance
literatures on a people of a purely Germanic slock.
There were, however, some branches of German poetry which
escaped this foreign influence. The church hymn, continuing
the great Lutheran traditions, rose in the 17th century to extra-
ordinary richness both in quality and quantity. Paul Gcrhardt
(1607-1676), the greatest German hymn-writer, was only one
of many Lutheran pastors who in this age contributed to the
German hymnal. On the Catholic side, Angclus Silcsius, or
Joharm Schcfflcr (1624-1677) showed what a wealth of poetry
lay in the mystic speculations of Jakob Boehmc, the gifted
shoemaker of Gorlilz (1575-1624), and author of the famous
Aurora, oder hi or gemote im Aujgang (161 2); while Friedrich
von Spec ( 1 591-1 635), another leading Catholic poet of the
century, cultivated the pastoral allegory of the Renaissance.
The revival of mysticism associated with Boehmc gradually
lpread through the whole religious life of the 17th century,
Protestant as well as Catholic, and in the more specifically
Protestant form of pietism, it became, at the close of the period,
* force of moment in the literary revival. Besides the hymn,
the Volkslied, which amidst the struggles and confusion of the
great war bore witness to a steadily growing sense of patriotism,
lay outside the domain of the literary theorists and dictators,
ind developed in its own way. But all else — if we except certain
forms of fiction, which towards the end of the 17th century rose
into prominence — stood completely under the sway of the Latin
Renaissance.
The first focus of the movement was Heidelberg, which had
been a centre of humanistic learning in the sixteenth century.
Here, under the leadership of J. W. Zincgrcf (1 591-1635)1 a
number of scholarly writers carried into practice that interest
in the vernacular which had been shown a little earlier by the
German translator of Marot, Paul Schedc or Mclissus, librarian
in Heidelberg. The most important forerunner of Opitz was
G. R. Weckherlin (1584-1653), a native of Wurttcmbcrg who had
ipent the best part of his life in England; bis Oden und CesHnge
(1618-1619) ushered in the era of Renaissance poetry in Germany
vith a promise that was but indifferently fulfilled by his successors.
Of these the greatest, or at least the most influential, was Martin
Opitz (1 597-1639). He was a native of Silesia and, as a student in
Heidelberg, came into touch with Zincgref s circle; subsequently,
in the course of a visit to Holland, a more definite trend was given
to his ideas by the example of the Dutch poet and scholar,
Daniel Hcinsius. As a poet, Opitz experimented with every form
9f recognized Renaissance poetry from ode and epic to pastoral
romance and Senecan drama; but his poetry is for the most part
devoid of inspiration; and his extraordinary fame among his
:ontemporaries would be hard to understand, were it not that in
his Buck von der deutschen Poeterey (1624) he gave the German
Renaissance its theoretical textbook. In this tract, in which
Opitz virtually reproduced in German the accepted dogmas of
Renaissance theorists like Scaligcr and Ronsard, he not merely
justified his own mechanical verse-making, but also gave Germany
1 law-book which regulated her literature for a hundred years.
The work of Opitz as a reformer was furthered by another
institution of Latin origin, namely, literary societies modelled
»n the Accademia delta Crusca in Florence. These societies,
oi which the chief were the Frucktbringende Gescllsehajt or
Palmcnerden (founded 16x7), the Elbukwanenorden in Hamburg
and the GekrdnUr Blumenorden an der Pegnitz or GeseUuhaJt
der Pegnitxsckdfer in Nuremberg, were the centres of literary
activity during the unsettled years of the war. Although they
produced much that was trivial— such as the extraordinary
Nurnberger Trickier (1647-1653) by G. P. Harsddrffer (1607-
1658), a treatise which professed to turn out a fully equipped
German poet in the space of six hours— these societies also
did German letters an invaluable service by their attention to
the language, one of their chief objects having been to purify
the German language from foreign and un-German ingredients.
J. G. Schottelius (1612-1676), for instance, wrote his epoch-
making grammatical works with the avowed purpose of furthering
the objects of the Frucktbringende CtseUsckaJt. Meanwhile the
poetic centre of gravity in Germany had shifted from Heidelberg
to the extreme north-east, to Kdnigsberg, where a group of
academic poets gave practical expression to the Opitzian theory.
Chief among them was Simon Dach (1605-1659), a gentle, elegiac
writer on whom the Jaws of the Buck von der deutscken Poeterey
did not lie too heavily. He, like his more manly and vigorous
contemporary Paul Fleming (1609-1640), showed, one might say,
that it was possible to write good and sincere poetry notwith-
standing Opitz's mechanical rules.
In the previous century the most advanced form of literature
had been satire, and under the new. conditions the satiric vein
still proved most productive; but it was no longer the full-
blooded satire of the Reformation, or even the rich and luxuriant
satiric fancy of Fischart, which found expression in the 17th
century. Satire pure and simple was virtually only cultivated
by two Low German poets, J. Lauremberg (1500- 1658) and
J. Rachel (1618-1669), of whom at least the latter was accepted
by the Opitzian school; but the satiric spirit rose to higher
things in the powerful and scathing sermons of J. B. Schupp
(1610-1661), an outspoken Hamburg preacher, and in the scurril-
ous wit of the Viennese monk Abraham a Sancta Clara (1644*
1709), who had inherited some of his predecessor Murner's
intellectual gifts. Best of all are the epigrams of the most gifted
of all the Silesian group of writers, Friedrich von Logau (1604-
1655). Logau's three thousand epigrams ( Deutsche Sinngedickte,
1654) afford a key to the intellectual temper of the 17th century;
they are the epitome of their age. Here arc to be seen reflected
the vices of the time, its aping of French customs and its con-
tempt for what was national and German; Logau held up to
ridicule the vain bloodshed of the war in the interest of Chris-
tianity, and, although he praised Opitz, he was far from prostrat-
ing himself at the dictator's feet. Logau is an epigrammatist
of the first rank, and perhaps the most remarkable product of
the Renaissance movement in Germany.
Opitz found difficulty in providing Germany with a drama
according to the classic canon. He had not himself ventured
beyond translations of Sophocles and Seneca, and Johann Rist
(1607- 1 667) in Hamburg, one of the few contemporary dramatists,
had written plays more in the manner of Duke Heinrich Julius of
Brunswick than of Opitz. It was not until after the laltcr's
death that the chief dramatist of the Renaissance movement
came forward in the person of Andreas Gryphius (1616-1664).
Like Opitz, Gryphius also was a Silesian, and a poet of no mean
ability, as is to be seen from his lyric poetry; but his tragedies,
modelled on the stiff Senecan pattern, suffered from the lack of
a theatre, and from his ignorance of the existence of a more highly
developed drama in France, not to speak of England. As it was,
he was content with Dutch models. In the field of comedy,
where he was less hampered by theories of dramatic propriety,
he allowed himself to benefit by the freedom of the Dutch farce
and the comic effects of the English actors in Germany; in his
HorrtbUkribrifoxznd H err Peter Squentz— the latter an adaptation
of the comic scenes of the Midsummer Night's Dream— Grvphius
has produced the best German plays of the 17th century*
The German novel of the 17th century was, as has been
already indicated, less hampered by Renaissance laws than other
forms of literature, and although it was none the less at the
mercy of foreign influence, that influence was more varied
and maaiUAd ta fe* ctaitttai. Do* ^w>\*\*A.>**s»> \**&*
79°
GERMAN LITERATURE
(CLASSICAL PERIOD
translated early in the 17th century, the picaresque romance
had found its way to Germany at a still earlier date; while H. M.
Moscherosch (1601-1660) in his Cesickte Philanders von SUtewald
(1642-1643) made the Suefios of Quevedo the basis for vivid
pictures of the life of the time, interspersed with satire. The
best German novel of the 17th century, Der abcnteurliche Simpti-
eissimus (1669) by H. J.ChristofTcl von Griramclshausen(c 1625-
1676), is a picaresque novel, but one that owed little more than its
form to the Spaniards. It is in great measure the autobiography
of its author, and describes with uncompromising realism the
social disintegration and the horrors of the Thirty Years' War.
But this remarkable book stands alone; Grimmelshauscn's
other writings are but further contributions to the same theme,
and he left no disciples worthy of carrying on the tradition he
had created. Christian Weise (1642-170$), rector of the Zittau
gymnasium, wrote a few satirical novels, but his realism and satire
are too obviously didactic. He is seen to better advantage in his
dramas, of which he wrote more than fifty for performance by
his scholars.
The real successor of SimpHcissimus in Germany was the
English Robinson Crusoe, a novel which, on its appearance, was
immediately translated into German (1721); it called forth an
extraordinary flood of imitations, the so-called " Robinsonaden,"
the vogue of which is even still kept alive by Der schweizerische
Robinson of J. R. Wyss (181 a ft.). With the exception of J. G.
Schnabcl's Inset Fetsenburg (1731-1743), the literary value of
these imitations is slight. They represented, however, a healthier
and more natural development of fiction than the " galant "
romances which were introduced in the train of the Renaissance
movement, and cultivated by writers like Philipp von Zesen
(1610-1689), Duke Anton Ulrich of Brunswick (1633-1714),
A. H. Buchho!tz(i6o7-i67i), H. A. von Ziegler (1653- 1697)—
author of the famous Asiatische Bonise (:688)— and D. C. von
Lohenstein (1635-1683), whose Arminius (1689- 1690) is on the
whole the most promising novel of this group. The last men-
tioned writer and Christian Hofmann von Hofmannswaldau
(1617-1679) are sometimes regarded as the leaders of a " second
Silesian school," as opposed to the first school of Opitz. As the
cultivators of the bombastic and Euphuistic style of the Italians
Guarini and Marini, and of the Spanish writer Gongora, Lohen-
stein and Hofmannswaldau touched the lowest point to which
German poetry ever sank.
But this aberration of taste was happily of short duration.
Although socially the recovery of the German people from the
desolation of the war was slow and laborious, the intellectual
life of Germany was rapidly recuperating under the influence
of foreign thinkers. Samuel Pufendorf (163 2-1 694), Christian
Thomasius (1655-1728), Christian von Wolff (1679-1754) and,
above all, Gottfried WOhelm Leibnitz (1646-1 7 16), the first
of the great German philosophers, laid the foundations of that
system of rationalism which dominated Germany for the better
part of the 18th century; while German religious life was
strengthened and enriched by a revival of pietism, under mystic
thinkers like Philipp Jakob Spener (1635-1705), a revival
which also left its traces on religious poetry. Such hopeful signs
of convalescence could not but be accompanied by an improve-
ment in literary taste, and this is seen in the first instance in a
substitution for the bombast and conceits of Lohenstein and
Hofmannswaldau, of poetry on the stricter and soberer lines
laid down by Boileau. The so-called "court poets" who
opposed the second Silesian school, men like Rudolf von Canitz
(1654-1609), Johann von Besser (1654-1729) and Benjamin
Neukirch (1665-1729), were not inspired, but they had at least
a certain "correctness" of taste; and from their midst sprang
one gifted lyric genius, Johann Christian Glint her (1695-1723),
who wrote love-songs such as had not been heard in Germany
since the days of the Minnesang. The methods of Hofmanns-
waldau had obtained considerable vogue in Hamburg, where
the Italian opera kept the decadent Renaissance poetry alive.
Here, however, the incisive wit of Christian Wernigke's (1661-
i;js) epigrams was an effective antidote, and Barthold Heinrich
Brocket (1680- j 747), * werve of Hamburg, who hid been deejAy
impressed by the appreciation of nature in English poetry, gave
the artificialities of the Silesians their death-blow. But the
influence of English literature was not merely destructive ii
these years; in the translations and imitations of the Eoglah
Spectator, Taller and Guardian— the so-called moralische Wochtn-
schriften—h helped to regenerate literary taste, and to implant
healthy moral ideas in the German middle classes.
The chief representative of the literary movement inaugurated
by the Silesian " court poets " was Johann Christoph Gottscbed
(1700-1766), who between 1724 and 1740 succeeded in establish-
ing in Leipzig, the metropolis of German taste, literary reforms
modelled on the principles of French 17th-century classicism.
He reformed and purified the stage according to French ideas,
and provided it with a repertory of French origin; in ha
Krilische Dichtkunst (1 730) he laid down the principles according
to which good literature was to be produced and judged. As
Opitz had reformed German letters with the help of Ronsard.
so now Gottschcd took his standpoint on the principles of
Boileau as interpreted by contemporary French critics and
theorists. With Gottschcd, whose services in purifying the
German language have stood the test of time better than hb
literary or dramatic reforms, the period of German Renaissance
literature reaches its culmination and at the same time its dote.
The movement of the age advanced too rapidly for the Leipzig
dictator; in 1740 a new epoch opened in German poetry and at
was soon left hopelessly behind.
V. The Classical Period of Modern German Literature
(1740-1832)
(a) From the Swiss Controversy to ike " Sturm und Drawg."—
Between Opitz and Gottschcd German literature passed snores*
sively through the various stages characteristic of all Renaissance
literatures— from that represented by Trissino and the French
Pleiade, by way of the aberrations of Marini and the estSocuita,
to the art pottique of Boileau. And precisely as in France, the
next advance was achieved in a battle between the " ancients "
and the " moderns," the German " ancients " being represented
by Gottschcd, the " moderns " by the Swiss literary reformers,
J. J. Bodmer (1698-1783) and J. J. Breitinger (1 701-1776).
The latter in his Krilische Dichtkunst ( 1 739) maintained doctrina
which were in opposition to Gottschcd 's standpoint in his
treatise of the same name, and Bodmer supported his friend's
initiative; a pamphlet war ensued between Leipzig and Zurich,
with which in 1 740-1 741 the classical period of modern German
literature may be said to open. The Swiss, men of little origin-
ality, found their theories in the writings of Italian and English
critics; and from these they learned how literature might be
freed from the fetters of pseudo-classicism. Basing their argu-
ments on Milton's Paradise Last, which Bodmer had translated
into prose (1732), they demanded room for the play of genius
and inspiration, they insisted that the imagination should not
be hindered in its attempts to rise above the world of reason and
common sense. Their victory was due, not to the skill with
which they presented their arguments, but to the fact that
literature itself was in need of greater freedom. It was in fact
a triumph, not of personalities or of leaders, but of ideas. The
effects of the controversy are to be seen in a group of Leipzig
writers of Gottsched's own school, the Bremer Bcitr>r as they
were called after their literary organ. These men — C. F. Gellert
(1715-1769), the author of graceful fables and tales in verse,
G. W. Rabcner (1714-1771), the mild satirist of Saxon provinci-
ality, the dramatist J. Elias Schlegel (1710-1749), who in more
ways than one was Lessing's forerunner, and a number of minor
writers—did not set themselves up in active opposition to their
master, but they tacitly adopted many of the principles which
the Swiss had advocated. And in the Bremer Beitrdge there
appeared in 1748 the first instalment of an epic by F. G. Klopstock
(1724-1803), Der Messias, which was the best illustration of
that lawlessness against which Gottsched had protested. More
effectively than Bodmer's dry and uninspired theorizing. Klop-
stock's Messias, and in a still higher degree, his Odes, laid the
i UranAaXVona <ft Tonfaxu. {tannan. \Li«cttaatft iav *ha t8th centory.
CLASSICAL PERIOD]
GERMAN LITERATURE
791
His immediate followers, it is true, did not help to advance
matters; Bodmer and J. K. Lavater (1741-1801), whose
"physiognomic" investigations interested Goethe at a later
date, wrote dreary and now long forgotten epics on religious
themes. Klopstock's rhapsodic dramas, together with Macpher-
son's Ossian, which in the 'sixties awakened a widespread
enthusiasm throughout Germany, were responsible for the
so-called " bardic " movement; but the noisy rhapsodies of
the leaders of this movement, the " bards " H. W. von Gersten-
bcrg (1737-18*3), K. F. Kretschmann (1738-1809) and Michael
Denis (1720-1800), had little of the poetic inspiration of Klop-
stock's Odes.
The indirect influence of Klopstock as the first inspired poet
of modern Germany and as the realization of Bodmer's theories
can, however, hardly be over-estimated. Under Frederick the
Great, who, as the docile pupil of French culture, had little
sympathy for unregulated displays of feeling, neither Klopstock
nor his imitators were in favour in Berlin, but at the university
of Halle considerable interest was taken in the movement
inaugurated by Bodmer. Here, before Klopstock's name was
known at all, two young poets, J. I. Pyra (1715-1744) and S. G.
Lange (1711-1781), wrote Freundschaftliche Licdcr (1737), which
were direct forerunners of Klopstock's rhymclcss lyric poetry;
and although the later Prussian poets, J. W. L. Gleim (1719-
1803), J. P. Us (1720-1796) and J. N. Gotz (1721-1781), who
were associated with Halle, and K. W. Ramlcr (1725-1798) in
Berlin, cultivated mainly the Anacreontic and the Horatian
ode — artificial forms, which kept strictly within the classic
canon— yet Friedrich von Hagcdorn (1708-1754) in Hamburg
showed to what perfection even the Anacreontic and the lighter
9crs de soctiti could be brought. The Swiss physiologist Albrecht
von Haller (1708-1777) was the first German poet to give
expression to the beauty and sublimity of Alpine scenery (Die
A I pen, 1734), and a Prussian officer, Ewald Christian von Kleist
(1715-1759), author of Der Friihling (1749). wrote the most
inspired nature-poetry of this period. Klopstock's supreme
importance lay, however, in the fact that he was a forerunner of
the movement of Sturm und Drang. But before turning to that
movement we must consider two writers who, strictly speaking,
also belong to the age under consideration— Lcssing and Wieland.
As Klopstock had been the first of modern Germany's inspired
poets, so Gotthold Ephraim Lcssing (1 729-1 781) was the first
critic who brought credit to the German name throughout
Europe. He was the most liberal-minded exponent of 18th-
century rationalism. Like his predecessor Gottschcd, whom he
vanquished more effectually than Bodmer had done, he had
unwavering faith in the classic canon, but " classic " meant
for him, as for his contemporary, J. J. Winckclmann (1717-1768),
Greek art and literature, and not the products of French pseudo-
dassicism, which it had been Gottsched's object to foist on
Germany. He went, indeed, still further, and asserted that
Shakespeare, with all his irregularities, was a more faithful
observer of the spirit of Aristotle's laws, and consequently a
greater poet, than were the French classic writers. He looked
to England and not to France for the regeneration of the German
theatre, and his own dramas were pioneer-work in this direction.
Miss Sara Sampson (1755) is a bUrgcrliche Tragddie on the lines
of Lillo's Merchant of London, Minna von Bar n lid m (1767), a
comedy in the spirit of Farquhar; in Emilia Calotii (1772).
again with English models in view, he remoulded the "tragedy
of common life " in a form acceptable to the Sturm und Drang;
and finally in Nathan der Weise (1779) he won acceptance for
iambic blank verse as the medium of the higher drama. His
two most promising disciples — J. F. von Croncgk (1731-1758)
and J. W. von Brawe (1738-1758)— unfortunately died young,
and C. F. Wcisse (1726-1804) was not gifted enough to advance
the drama in its literary aspects. Lessing's name is associated
with Winckelmann's in Laohoon (1766), a treatise in which he
set about defining the boundaries between painting, sculpture
and poetry, and with those of the Jewish philosopher, Moses
Mendelssohn (1729-1786) and the Berlin bookseller C. F. Nicolai
(97JJ-1S1S) in tbefMrnousli/era/uroru/f. Hert Leasing identified
himself with the best critical principles of the rationalistic move-
ment—principles which, in the later years of his life, he employed
in a fierce onslaught on Lutheran orthodoxy and intolerance.
To the widening and deepening of the German imagination
C. M. Wieland (1733-18x3) also contributed, but in a different
way. Although no enemy of pseudo-classicism, he broke with
the stiff dogmatism of Gottschcd and his friends, and tempered
the pietism of Klopstock by introducing the Germans to the
lighter poetry of the south of Europe. With the exception of his
fairy epic Obcron (1780), Wieland's work has fallen into neglect;
he did, however, excellent service to the development of German
prose fiction with his psychological novel, Agatkon (1766-1767),
which may be regarded as a forerunner of Goethe's Wilhclm
Meister, and with his humorous satire Die Abderiten (1774).
Wieland had a considerable following, both among poets and
prose writers; he was particularly looked up to in Austria,
towards the end of the x8th century, where the literary movement
advanced more slowly than in the north. Here Aloys Blumauer
(*755-«789) *nd J. B. von Alxinger (1755-1707) wrote their
travesties and epics under his influence. In Saxony, M. A. von
Thtlmmel (1738-1817) showed his adherence to Wieland's
school in his comic epic in prose, WUhdmine (1764), and in the
general tone of his prose writings; on the other hand, K. A.
Kortum (1 745-1824), author of the most popular comic epic of
the time, Die Jobsiade (1784), was but little influenced by Wieland.
The German novel owed much to the example of Agalkon,
but the groundwork and form were borrowed from English
models; Gellert had begun by imitating Richardson in bis
Schwcdischt GrUfin (1 747-1 748), and he was followed by J. T.
Hermes (1738-1821), by Wieland's friend Sophie von Laroche
(1730-1807), by A. von Knigge (1752-1796) and J. K. A. Mus&us
(1735-1787), the last mentioned being, however, best known
as the author of a collection of Volhstnlirchen (1782-1786).
Meanwhile a rationalism, less materialistic and strict than that
of Wolff, was spreading rapidly through educated middle-class
society in Germany. Men like Knigge, Moses Mendelssohn,
J. G. Zimmerraann (1728-1795), T. G. von Hippel (1 741-1 796),
Christian Garve (1742-1798), J. J. Engel (1741-1802), as well
as the educational theorists J. B. Basedow (1723-1790) and
J. H. Pestalozzi (1 746-1827), wrote books and essays on "popular
philosophy " which were as eagerly read as the moraliscke
Wochensehriftcn of the preceding epoch; and with this group
of writers must also be associated the most brilliant of German
18th-century satirists, G. C. Lichtcnberg (1742-1709).
Such was the milieu from which sprang the most advanced
pioneer of the classical epoch of modern German literature,
J. G. Herder (1 744-1803). The transition from the popular
philosophers of the Aufhl&rung to Herder was due in the first
instance to the influence of Rousseau; and in Germany itself
that transition is represented by men like Thomas Abbt (1738-
1766) and J. G. Hamann (1 730-1 788). The revolutionary
nature of Herder's thought lay in that writer's antipathy to
hard and fast systems, to laws imposed upon genius; he grasped,
as no thinker before him, the idea of historical evolution. By
regarding the human race as the product of a slow evolution from
primitive conditions, he revolutionized the methods and stand-
point of historical science and awakened an interest — for which,
of course, Rousseau had prepared the way — in the early history
of mankind. He himself collected and published the Volksliedcr
of all nations (1 778-1 779), and drew attention to those elements
in German life and art which were, in the best and most precious
sense, national — elements which his predecessors had despised
as inconsistent with classic formulae and systems. Herder is
thus not merely the forerunner, but the actual founder of the
literary movement known as Sturm und Drang. New ground
was broken in a similar way by a group of poets, who show the
results of Klopstock's influence on the new literary movement:
the Gottingen " Bund " or " Ham," a number of young students
who met together in 1772, and for several years published their
poetry in the Cdttinger Musenalmanach. With the exception
of the two brothers, Ch. su StoAbext (yi«$-v&\\\ %&A¥.\~t»>
792
GERMAN LITERATURE
(CLASSICAL PEJUOO
in the " Bund/' the members of this coterie were drawn from
the peasant class of the lower bourgeoisie; J. H. Voss (1751—
x8*6), the leader of the " Bund," was a typical North German
peasant, and his idyll, Luise (1784), gives a realistic picture of
German provincial life. L. H. C. Holly (1 748-1 776) and J. M.
Miller (1750-1814), again, excelled in simple lyrics in the tone
of the Volkslied. Closely associated with the Gdttingen group
were M. Gaudius (1 740-181 5), the Wandsbecker Bote — as he was
called after the journal he edited — an even more unassuming
and homely representative of the German peasant in literature
than Voss, and G. A. Burger (1 748-1 794) who contributed to
the Cdttinger Musenalmanach ballads, such as the famous Lenore
(1774), of the very first rank. These ballads were the best products
of the Gdttingen school, and, together with Goethe's Strassburg
and Frankfort songs, represent the highest point touched by
the lyric and ballad poetry of the period.
But the Gdttingen " Bund " stood somewhat aside from the
main movement of literary development in Germany; it was
only a phase of Sturm und Drang, and quieter, less turbulent
than that on which Goethe had set the stamp of his personality.
Johann Wolfgang Goethe (1740-183 2) had, as a student in
Leipzig (1 765-1 768), written lyrics in the Anacreontic vein and
dramas in alexandrines. But in Strassburg, where he went
to continue his studies in 1 770-1 771, he made the personal
acquaintance of Herder, who won his interest for the new literary
movement. Herder imbued him with his own ideas of the
importance of primitive history and Gothic architecture and
inspired him with a pride in German nationality; Herder
convinced him that there was more genuine poetry in a simple
Volkslied than in all the ingenuity of the German imitators
of Horace or Anacreon; above all, he awakened his enthusiasm
for Shakespeare. The pamphlet Von deutscher Art und Kunsl
(i773)> to which, besides Goethe and Herder, the historian
Justus Mttser (1 720-1794) also contributed, may be regarded
as the manifesto of the Sturm und Drang. The effect on Goethe
of the new ideas was instantaneous; they seemed at once to
get his genius free, and from 1 771 to 1775 he was extraordinarily
fertile in poetic ideas and creations. His Gdts von Berlichingen
(1 77 1-1 773), the first drama of the Sturm und Drang, was followed
within a year by the first novel of the movement, Wertkers
Leiden (1774); he dashed off Clavigo and Stella in a few weeks
in 1774 And 1775, and wrote a large number of Sings pide,
dramatic satires and fragments— including Faust in its earliest
form (the so-called Urfausl)— not to mention love-songs which
at last fulfilled the promise of Klopstock. Goethe's lyrics were
no less epoch-making than his first drama and novel, for they
put an end to the artificiality which for centuries had fettered
German lyric expression. In all forms of literature he set the
fashion to his time; the Shakespearian restlessness of Gdtz von
Berlichingen found enthusiastic imitators in J. M. R. Lenz
(1751-1792), whose Anmerkungen fibers Theater (1774) formulated
theoretically the laws, or defiance of laws, of the new drama, in
F. M. von Klinger (1753-1831), J. A. Leisewitz (x752-i8o6),H.L.
Wagner (x 747^x7 79) and Friedrich Muller, better known as
Maler Muller (1740-1825). The dramatic literature of the Sturm
und Drang was its most characteristic product— indeed, the
very name of the movement was borrowed from a play by
Klinger; it was inspired, as Gdtz von Berlichingen had been, by the
desire to present upon the stage figures of Shakespearian grandeur
impelled and tortured by gigantic passions, all considerations of
plot, construction and form being regarded as subordinate to
the development of character. The fiction of the Sturm und
Drang, again, was in its earlier stages dominated by Wertkers
Leiden, as may be seen in the novels of F. H. Jacobi (1743-1819)
and J. M. Miller, who has been already mentioned. Later, in the
bands of J. J. W. Heinse (1740-1803), author of Ardinghello
(1787), Klinger, K. Ph. Morita (1757-1793)1 whose Anion Reiser
(1785) clearly foreshadows Wilhelm Meister, it reflected not
merely the sentimentalism, but also the philosophic and artistic
ideas of the period.
With the production oi Die Riuber (1781) by Johann Friedrich
Schiller (i7S9-iSos), the drama 0/ the Sturm und Droit ^AmA
upon a new development. Although hardly less turbulent it
spirit than the work of Klinger and Leisewitz, Schiller's tragedy
was more skilfully adapted to the exigencies of the theatre; hk
succeeding dramas, Fieseo and KabaU und Lithe, were ahi
admirable stage-plays, and in Don Carlos (1787) he abandoned
prose for the iambic blank verse which Lessing had made accept-
able in Nathan der Weise. The " practical " character of tar
new drama is also to be seen in the work of Schiller's contem-
porary, O. von Gcmmingen (1755-1836), the imitator of Diderot,
in the excellent domestic dramas of the actors F. L. Schrtdr
(1744-1816) and A. W. Iffland (1750-1814)1 »nd even in the
popular medieval plays, the so-called Ritterdramen of wbkfc
Gdtz von Berlichingen was the model. Germany owes to the
Sturm und Drang her national theatre; permanent theatres
were established in these years at Hamburg, Mannheim, Gothi.
and even at Vienna, which, as may be seen from the dramas ot
C. H. von AyrenhofT (1 733-1819), had hardly then advanced
beyond Gottsched's ideal of a national literature. The Hofborg-
thcater of Vienna, the greatest of all the German stages, vu
virtually founded in 1776.
(©) German Classical Literature. — The energy of the Stvm
und Drang, which was essentially iconoclastic in its methods,
soon exhausted itself. For Goethe this phase in his development
came to an end with his departure for Weimar in X775> *hflc
after writing Don Carlos (1787), Schiller turned from poetry
to the study of history and philosophy. These subjects occupied
his attention almost exclusively for several years, and not unit!
the very close of the century did he, under the stimulus of Goethe's
friendship, return to the drama. The first ten years of Goethe's
life in Weimar were comparatively unproductive; he had led
the Sturm und Drang behind him; its developments, for which
he himself had been primarily responsible, were distasteful to
him; and he bad not yet formed a new creed. Under the
influence of the Weimar court, where classic or even pseudo-
classic tastes prevailed, he was gradually finding his way to 1
form of literary art which should reconcile the humanistic ideals
of the 1 8th century with the poetic models of ancient Greece.
But he did not arrive at clearness in his ideas until after his
sojourn in Italy (1 786-1 788), an episode of the first importance
for his mental development. Italy was, in the first instance, a
revelation to Goethe of the antique; he had gone to Italy to
find realized what Winckclmann had taught, and here he con-
ceived that ideal of a classic literature, which for the neat twenty
years dominated German literature and made Weimar its
metropolis. In Italy he gave Iphigenie auf Tauris (1787) its
final form, he completed Egmont (1788) — like the exactly con-
temporary Don Carlos of Schiller, a kind of bridge from Slum
und Drang to classicism— and all but finished Torquaio Tarn
(1700). Wilhdm MeistersLehrjahre (1795-1706) bears testimony
to the clear and decisive views which he had acquired on all
questions of art and of the practical conduct of life.
Long before Wilhelm Meister appeared, however, Genua
thought and literature had arrived at that stability and self-
confidence which are the most essential elements in a great
literary period. In the year of Lessing's death, 1781 , Immanud
Kant (1724-1804), the great philosopher, had published hu
Kritik der reinen Vernunft, and this, together with the two later
treatises, Kritik der prakiischen Vernunft (1788) and Krilik da
Urleilskraft (1700), placed the Germans in the front rank of
thinking nations. Under the influence of Kant, Schiller turned
from the study of history to that of philosophy and more especi-
ally aesthetics. His philosophic lyrics, his treatises on Annua
und Wtirdc, on the Asthetische Erziehung des llenschen (1795),
and Vber naive und sentimentalische Dichlung (1795) show, 00
the philosophic and the critical side, the movement of the century
from the irresponsible subjectivity of Sturm und Drang to the
calm idealism of classic attainment. In the same way, German
historical writing had in these years, under the leadership of
men like Justus Moser, Thomas Abbt, I. Iselin, F. C. ScUomct,
Schiller himself and, greatest of all, Johannes von Muller (1751-
iocj^V tdNfextsitd. Item, disconivected, unsystematic dirooicaaj
CLASSICAL PERIOD)
GERMAN LITERATURE
793
A. Forster (1754-1704), who had accompanied Cook round ihe
world, and Alexander vonHumboldl (1769-1859), gave Germany
models of dear and lucid descriptive writing. In practical
politics and economics, when once the unbalanced vagaries of
undiluted Rousseauism had fallen into discredit, Germany pro-
duced much wise and temperate thinking which prevented the
spread of the French Revolution to Germany, and provided
a practical basis on which the social and political fabric could
be built, up anew, after the Revolution had made the old regime
impossible in Europe. Men like Wilhelm von Humboldt (1767-
183s) and the philosopher J. G. Fichte (1762-1814) were, in
two widely different spheres, representative of this type of
intellectual eminence.
Meanwhile, in 1794* that friendship between Goethe and
Schiller had begun, which lasted, unbroken, until the younger
pott's death in 1805. These years mark the summit of Goethe
and Schiller's classicism, and the great epoch of Weimar's history
as a literary focus. Schiller's treatises had provided a theoretical
basis; his new journal, Die Horen,. might be called the literary
organ of the movement—although in this respect the subsequent
llusenalmanach, in which the two poets published their magnifi-
cent ballad poetry, had more value. Goethe, as director of the
ducal theatre, could to a great extent control dramatic production
in Germany. Under his encouragement, Schiller turned from
philosophy to poetry and wrote the splendid series of classic
dramas beginning with the trilogy of WaUenslein and closing
with Wilhelm Tell and the fragment of Demetrius; while to
Goethe we owe, above all, the epic of Hermann und Dorothea.
Less important were the latter's severely classical plays Die
naiurliche To<ht<r and Pandora; but it must not be forgotten
that it was chiefly owing to Schiller's stimulus that in those
years Goethe brought the first part of Fan j/(iSoS) to a conclusion.
Although acknowledged leaders of German letters, Goethe
and Schiller had considerable opposition to contend with. The
Sturm und Drang had by no means exhausted itself, and the
representatives of the once dominant rationalistic movement
were particularly arrogant and overbearing. The literature
associated with both Sturm und Drang and rationalism was at
this period palpably decadent; no comparison could be made
between the magnificent achievements of Goethe and Schiller,
or even of Herder and Wicland with the " family " dramas of
Inland, still less with the extraordinarily popular plays of A. von
Kotzcbue (1761- 18 19), or with those bustling medieval Killer-
dramen, which were especially cultivated in south Germany.
There is a wide gap between Moriiz's Anton Reiser or the philo-
sophic novels which Klingcr wrote in his later years, and Goethe's
M enter, nor can the once so fervently admired novels of Jean
Paul Richter (1763-1825) lake a very high place. Neither the
fantastic humour nor the penetrating thoughts with which
Richter's books are strewn make up for their lack of artistic form
and interest; they arc essentially products of Sturm und Drang.
Lastly, in the province of lyric and epic poetry, it is impossible
to regard poets like the gentle F.von Mattliisson (1761-1S31),
or the less inspired G. L. Koscgartcn (1758-1818) and C. A.
Tiedge (1 752-1841), as worthily seconding the masterpieces
of Goethe and Schiller. Thus when we speak of the greatness
of Germany's classical period, we think mainly of the work of
ber two chief poets; the distance that separated them from
their immediate contemporaries was enormous. Moreover, at
the very close of the 18th century a new literary movement
arose in admitted opposition to the classicism of Weimar, and
to this movement, which first took definite form in the Romantic
school, the sympathies of the younger generation turned. Just
as in the previous generation the Sturm und Drang had been
obliged to make way for a return to classic and impersonal
principles of literary composition, so now the classicism of Goethe
and Schiller, which had produced masterpieces like Wallenstcin
and Hermann und Dorothea, had to yield to a revival of individual-
ism and subjectivity, which, in the form of Romanticism, pro-
foundly influenced the literature of the whole 19th century.
{() The Romantic Movement.— Tht first Romantic school,
however, was founded, not as a protest against the classicism of
Weimar, with which its leaders were in essential sympathy,
but against the shallow, utilitarian rationalism of Berlin.
Ludwig Tieck (1773-1853), a leading member of the school,
was in reality a belated StUrmer und Dr&nger, who in his early
years had chafed under the unimaginative tastes of the Prussian
capital, and sought for a positive faith to put in their place.
Friedrich Hdlderlin (1 770-1843), one of the most gifted poets of
this age, demonstrates no less clearly than Tieck the essential
affinity between Sturm und Drang and Romanticism; he, too,
forms a bridge from the one individualistic movement to the
other. The theoretic basis of Romanticism was, however,
established by the two brothers, August Wilhelm and Friedrich
Schlegel (1767-1845 and 1772-1829), who, accepting, in great
measure, Schiller's aesthetic conclusions, adapted them to the
needs of their own more subjective attitude towards literature.
While Schiller, like Lessing before him, insisted on the critic's
right to sit in judgment according to a definite code of principles,
these Romantic critics maintained that the first duty of criticism
was to understand and appreciate; the right of genius to follow
its natural bent was sacred. The Henetuergiessungen eines
kunsUiebenden Klosterbrudcrs by Ticck's school-friend W. H.
Wackenroder (1773-1798) contained the Romantic art-theory,
while the hymns and fragmentary novels of Friedrich von
Hardenberg (known as Novalis, 177 2-1801), and the dramas
and fairy tales of Tieck, were the characteristic products of
Romantic literature. The universal sympathies of the movement
were exemplified by the many admirable translations — greatest
of all, Schlegcl's Shakespeare (1797-1810)— which were produced
under its auspices. Romanticism was .essentially conciliatory in
its tendencies, that is to say, it aimed at a reconciliation of poetry
with other provinces of social and intellectual life; the hard and
fast boundaries which the older critics had set up as to what
poetry might and might not do, were put aside, and the domain
of Literature was regarded as co-extensive with life itself; paint-
ing and music, philosophy and ethics, were all accepted as con*
stitucnt elements of or aids to Romantic poetry. Fichte, and to
a much greater extent, F. W. J. von Schclling (1775-1854)
were the exponents of the Romantic doctrine in philosophy,
while the theologian F. £. D. Schleicrmacher (1 768-1834)
demonstrated how vital the revival of individualism was for
religious thought.
The Romantic school, whose chief members were the brothers
Schlegel, Tieck, Wackenroder and Novalis, was virtually founded
in 1708, when the Schlegels began to publish their journal the
Athenaeum; but the actual existence of the school was of very
short duration. Wackenroder and Novalis died young, and by
the year 1804 the other members were widely separated. Two
years later, however, another phase of Romanticism became
associated with the town of Heidelberg. The leaders of this
second or younger Romantic school were K. Brentano (177S-
1S42), L. A. von Arnim (1781-1831) and J. J. von Gorrcs (1776-
1848), their organ, corresponding to the Athenaeum, was the
Zeitung Jilr Einsiedler, or TrVst-Einsamkeit, and their most
characteristic production the collection of Volkslicder, published
under the title Dcs Knaben Wundcrhom (1805-1808). Compared
with the earlier school the Heidelberg writers were more practical
and realistic, more faithful to nature and the commonplace life
of everyday. They, too, were interested in the German past
and in the middle ages, but they put aside the idealizing glasses
of their predecessors and kept to historic truth; they wrote
historical novels, not stories of an imaginary medieval world
as Novalis had done, and when they collected Volkslicder and
Volksbiidur, they refrained from decking out the simple tradition
with musical effects, or from heightening the poetic situation
by " Romantic irony*" Their immediate influence on German
intellectual life was consequently greater; they stimulated
and deepened the interest of the German people in their own
past; and we owe to them the foundations of the study of
German philology and medieval literature, both the brothers
Jakob and Wilhelm Grimm (1785-1863 and 1786-1859) having
been in touch with this circle in their early days. Again, the
Heidelberg poets stra&gjiaeiued toft a&Auaal *xA ^s»*2c. nsysfe*
79+
GERMAN LITERATURE
(MODERN
of their people; they prepared the way for the rising against
Napoleon, which culminated in the year 1813, and produced
that outburst of patriotic song, associated with £. M. Arndt
(1769-1860), K. Th. Kbrncr (1791-1813) and M. von Schenken-
dorf (1783-1817).
The subsequent history of Romanticism stands in dose
relation to the Heidelberg school, and when, about 1809, the
latter broke up, and Arnim and Brentano settled in Berlin,
the Romantic movement followed two clearly marked lines of
development, one north German, the other associated, with*
Wflrttemberg. The Prussian capital, hotbed of rationalism
as it was, had, from the first, been intimately associated with
Romanticism; the first school had virtually been founded
thcre.and north Germans, like Hcinrich von KJeist (1777-1811)
and Zacharias Werner (1768-1823) had done more for the develop-
ment of the Romantic drama than had the members of either
Romantic school. These men, and more especially Klcist,
Prussia's greatest dramatic poet, showed how the capricious
Romantic ideas could be brought into harmony with the classic
tradition established by Schiller, how they could be rendered
serviceable to the national theatre. At the same time, Berlin
was not a favourable soil for the development of Romantic
ideas, and the circle of poets which gathered round Arnim and
Brentano there, either themselves demonstrated the decadence
of these ideas, or their work contained elements which in sub-
sequent years hastened the downfall of the movement. Friedrich
de la Mottc Fouqu* (1777-1843), for instance, shows how easy
it was for the medieval tastes of the Romanticists to degenerate
into mediocre novels and plays, hardly richer in genuine poetry
than were the productions of the later Sturm und Drang; and
E. T. A. Hoffmann (1776-1822), powerful genius though he
was, cultivated with preference in his stories, a morbid super-
naturalism, which wasonly a decadent form of the early Romantic
delight in the world of fairies and spirits. The lyric was less
sensitive to baleful influences, but even here the north German
Romantic circle could only point to one lyric poet of the first
rank, J. von Eichcndorfl (1788-1857); while in the poetry of
A. von Chamisso (1781-1838) the volatile Romantic spirituality
is too often wanting. Others again, like Friedrich Ruckert
(1783- 1 866), sought the inspiration which Romanticism was no
longer able to give, in the East; still another group, of which
Wilhelm MUllcr (1794-1827) is the chief representative, followed
Byron's example and awakened German sympathy for the
oppressed Greeks and Poles.
Apart from Eichcndorfl, the vital lyric poetry of the third
and last phase of Romanticism must be looked for in the Swabian
school, which gathered round Uhland. Ludwig Uhland (17S7-
1862) was himself a disciple of the Heidelberg poets, and, in his
lyrics and especially in his ballads, he succeeded in grafting the
lyricism of the Romantic school on to the traditions of German
ballad poetry which had been handed down from Btirgcr, Schiller
and Goethe. But, as was the case with so many other disciples
of the Heidelberg Romanticists, Uhland's interest in the German
past was the serious interest of the scholar rather than the purely
poetic interest of the earlier Romantic poets. The merit of the
Swabian circle, the chief members of which were J. Kerner
(1786-1862), G.Schwab (1792-1850), W.Waiblinger (1804-1 830),
W. Hauff (1802-1827) and, most gifted of all, E. Mdrike (1804-
1875) was that these writers preserved the Romantic traditions
from the disintegrating influences to which their north German
contemporaries were exposed. They introduced few new notes
into lyric poetry, but they maintained the best traditions intact,
and when, a generation later, the anti-Romantic movement
of " Young Germany " had run its coarse, it was to Wurttembcrg
Germany looked for a revival of the old Romantic ideas.
Meanwhile, in the background of all these phases of Romantic
evolution, through which Germany passed between 1708 and
1832, stands the majestic and imposing figure of Goethe.
Personally he had in the early stages of the movement been
opposed to that reversion to subjectivity and lawlessness which
the first Romantic school seemed lo him to represent; to the end
of his life be regarded himself as a "classic/' not a" romantic"
poet. But, on the other hand, he was too liberal-minded a
thinker and critic to be oblivious to the fruitful influence of the
new movement. Almost without exception he judged the young
poets of the new century fairly, and treated them sympathetically
and kindly; he was keenly alive to the new — and for the most
part " unclassical " — development of literature in England,
France and Italy; and his own published work, above all, the
first part of Faust (1808), Die WahlverutandlschaJICH (i8oq),
Dichtung und Wahrheil (1811-1814, a final volume in 1833),
Weslostlicher Divan (1819), Wilhctm Mcislers Wanderjaht
(1821-1829) and the second part of Faust (published in 1832
after the poet's death), stood in no antagonism to the Romantic
ideas of their time. One might rather say that Goethe was the
bond between the two fundamental literary movements of the
German classical age; that his work achieved that reconciliatioi
of " classic " and " romantic " which, rightly regarded, was the
supreme aim of the Romantic school itself.
VI. German Literature since Goethe (1832-1906)
(a) Young Germany. — With Goethe's death a great age in
German poetry came to a close. Long before 183 2 Romanticism
had, as we have seen, begun to lose ground, and the July revela-
tion of 1830, the effects of which were almost as keenly fch in
Germany as in France, gave the movement its death-blow.
Meanwhile the march of ideas in Germany itself had not been
favourable to Romanticism. Schclling had given place to G.
W. F. Hegel (1770-1831), now the dominant force in German
philosophy, and the Hegelian metaphysics proved as unfruitful
an influence on literature as that of Fichte and Schclling had beta
fruitful. The transference of Romantic ideas to the domain
of practical religion and politics had proved reactionary in its
effects; Romanticism became the cloak for a kind of Nto»
Catholicism, and Romantic politics, as enunciated by men like
F. von Gcnt2 (1764-1832) and Adam Miillcr (1770-1839), served
as an apology for the Metternich regime in Austria. Only at
the universities— in Gottingen, Heidelberg and Berlin— did
the movement continue, in the best sense, to be productive;
German philology, German historical science and German
jurisprudence benefited by Romantic ideas, long after Romantic
poetry had fallen into decay. The day of Romanticism «as
clearly over; but a return to the classic and humanitarian spirit
of the iSth century was impossible. The social condition of
Europe had been profoundly altered by the French Revolution;
the rise of industrialism had created new economic problems,
the march of science had overturned old prejudices. And in a
still higher degree were the ideas which lay behind the social
upheaval of the July revolution incompatible with a reversion
in Germany to the conditions of Weimar classicism. There was,
moreover, no disguising the fact that Goethe himself did not
stand high with the younger generation of German writers
who came into power after his death. »
" Young Germany " did not form a school in the sense in which
the word was used by the early Romanticists; the bond of union
was rather the consequence of political persecution. In December
i835the German " Bund " issued a decree suppressing the writing*
of the " literary school " known as " Young Germany," and
mentioned by name Hcinrich Heine, Karl Gutzkow, Ludolf
Wicnbarg, Theodor Mundt and Hcinrich Laube. Of these men,
Heine (1 707-1856) was by far the most famous. He had made
his reputation in 1826 and 1827 with Die Hartreist and Det
Buck der Licder t both of which books show how deeply be was
immersed in the Romantic traditions. But Heine felt perhaps
more acutely than any other man of his lime bow the ground
was slipping away from beneath his feet; he -repudiated the
Romantic movement and hailed the July revolution as the first
stage in the " liberation of humanity "; while ultimately be
sought in France the freedom and intellectual stimulus whki
Germany withheld from him. Heine suffered from having been
born in an age of transition; he was unable to realize in a whole-
hearted way all that was good in the new movement, which he
had embraced so warmly; his optimism was counteracted by
\ doAjfoU us Vo <QfaetaKi, «Stat *W % \&*. tad wot been better in thai
MODERN]
old Romantic Germany of his childhood for which, to the last,
he retained so warm an affection. Personal disappointments
and unhappiness added to the bitterness of Heine's nature,
and the supremely gifted lyric poet and the hardly less gifted
satirist were overshadowed by the cynic from whose biting wit
nothing was safe.
Heine's contemporary and— although he was not mentioned
in the decree against the school— fellow-fighter, Ludwig Borne
(1786-1837), was a more characteristic representative of the
" Young German " point of view; for he was free from Romantic
prejudices. Borne gave vent to his enthusiasm for France in
eloquent Bricje aus Paris (1830-1833), which form a landmark
of importance in the development of German prose style. With
Karl Gutzkow (1811-1878), who was considerably younger
than cither Heine or Borne, the more positive aspects of the
" Young German " movement begin to be apparent. He, too,
had become a man of letters under the influence of the July
revolution, and with an early novel, Wally, die Zweificrin (1835),
which was then regarded as atheistic and immoral, he fought in
the battle for the new ideas. His best literary work, however,
was the comedies with which he enriched the German stage of
the forties, and novels like Die Rilter vom Geiste (1850-1851),
and Der Zaubercr von Rom (1858-1861), which have to be con-
sidered in connexion with the later development of German
fiction. Heinrich Laube (1806-18S4), who, as the author of
lengthy social novels, and ReisenovtUcn in the style of Heine's
Reisebilder, was one of the leaders of the new movement, is
now only remembered as Germany's greatest theatre-director.
Laube's connexion (1850-1867) with the Burgt heater of Vienna
forms one of the most brilliant periods in the history of the
modern stage. Heine and Borne, Gutzkow and Laube— these
were the leading spirits of " Young Germany " ; in their train
followed a host of lesser men, who to the present generation arc
hardly even names. In the domain of scholarship and learning
the " Young German " movement was associated with the
supremacy of Hegelian ism, the leading spirits being D. F. Strauss
(1808-1874), author of the Leben Jesu (1835), the historians
G. G. Gervinus (1805-1871) and W. Menzel (1798-1873)1 and the
philosopher L. A. Feucrbach (1804-1872), who, although a
disciple of Hegel, ultimately helped to destroy the lattcr's
influence.
Outside the immediate circle of "Young Germany," other
tentative efforts were made to provide a substitute for the
discredited literature of Romanticism. The historical novel, for
instance, which Romanticists like Arnim had cultivated, fell at
an early date under the influence of Sir Walter Scott; Wilhelm
HaufI, Heinrich Zschokkc (1771-1848) and K. Spindlcr (1796-
1855) were the most prominent amidst the many imitators of
the Scottish novelist. The drama, again, which since Kleist
and Werner had been without definite principles, was, partly
under Austrian influence, finding its way back to a condition of
stability. In Germany proper, the men into whose hands it
fell were, on the one hand, undisciplined geniuses such as C. D.
Grabbe (1801-1836), or, on the other, poets with too little
theatrical blood in their veins like K.L. I mmcrmann (1706-1840),
or with too much, like E. von Raupach (1784-1852), K. von
Holtei (1798-1880) and Adolf Milliner (1774-1829)— the last
named being the chief representative of the so-called Sckicksals-
tragddie. In those yeait the Germans were more seriously
interested in their opera, which, under C. M. Weber, H. A.
Marschner, A. LorUing and O. Nicolai, remained faithful to the
Romantic spirit. In Austria, however, the drama followed
lines of its own; here, at the very beginning of the century,
H. J. von Collin (1771-1811) attempted in Regulus and other
works to substitute for the lifeless pseudo-classic tragedy of
Ayrenhoff the classic style of Schiller. His attempt is the more
interesting, as the long development that had taken place in
Germany between Gottsched and Schiller was virtually un-
represented in Austrian literature. M. von Collin (1770-1824),
a younger brother of H. J. von Collin, did a similar service for
the Romantic drama. Franz Grillparzer (1791-1872), Austria's
greatest poet, begin in Jbe %choo\ of Alullner with a " fale
GERMAN LITERATURE
79S
drama," but soon won an independent place for himself; more
successfully than any other dramatist of the century, he carried
out that task which Kleist bad first seriously faced, the reconcilia-
tion of the classicism of Goethe and Schiller with the Romantic
and modern spirit of the 19th century. ' It is from this point of
view that works like Das goldcne Vliess (1820), Kdnig Ottckars
ClUck und Ende (1825), Der Traum, ein Leben (1834) and Des
M ceres und der Liebe Wcllen (1831) must be regarded. As far
as the poetic drama was concerned, Grillparzer stood alone,
for £. F. J. von Mttnch-Bellinghausen ( 1806-187 1), his most
promising contemporary, once so popular under the pseudonym
of Fricdrich Halm, soon fell back into the trivial sentimentality
of the later Romanticists. In other forms of dramatic literature
Austria could point to many distinguished writers, notably the
comedy-writer, £. von Bauernfeld (1802-1890), while a host
of playwrights, chief of whom were F. Raimund (1790-1836)
and J. Ncstroy (1801-1862), cultivated the popular Viennese
farce and fairy-play. Thus, in spite of Mcttcrnich's censorship
of the drama, the Viennese theatre was, in the first half of the
19th century, in closer touch with literature than that of any
other German centre.
The transitional character of the age is best illustrated by two
eminent writers whom outward circumstances rather than any
similarity of character and aim have classed together. These
were K. L. Immcrmann, who has been already mentioned, and
A. von Platen-Hallermund (1796-1835). Immermann's dramas
were of little practical value to the theatre, but one at least,
Merlin (183 2), is a dramatic poem of greai beauty. In his novels,
however, Die Epigone* (1836) and Miinchhauscn (1838-1839),
Immermann was the spokesman of his time. He looked back-
wards rather than forwards; he saw himself as the belated
follower of a great literary age rather than as the pioneer of a
new one. The bankruptcy of Romanticism and the poetically
arid era of " Young Germany " left him little confidence in the
future. Platen, on the other hand, went his own way; he, too,
was the antagonist both of Romanticism and " Young Germany,"
and with Immermann himself he came into sharp conflict.
But in his poetry he showed himself indifferent to the strife of
contending literary schools. He began as an imitator of the
German oriental poets — the only Romanticists with whom he
had any personal sympathy — and with his matchless S one Me
aus Venedig (1825) he stands out as a master in the art of verse*
writing and as the least subjective of all German lyric* poets.
In the imitation of Romance metres he sought a refuge from the
extravagances and excesses of the Romantic decadence.
Meanwhile the political side of the " Young German " move-
ment, which the German Bund aimed at stamping out, gained
rapidly in importance under the influence of the unsettled
political conditions between the revolutions of 1830 and 1848.
The early 'forties were in German literature marked by an
extraordinary outburst of political poetry, which may be aptly
compared with the national and patriotic lyric evoked by the
year 1813. The principles which triumphed in France at the
revolution of 1848 were, to a great extent, fought out by the
German singers of 1841 and 1842. Begun by mediocre talents
like N. Becker (1800-1845) and R. £. Prutz (1 816-1872), the
movement found a vigorous champion in Georg Hcrwegh (1817-
1875), who in his turn succeeded in winning Ferdinand Frciligrath
(18 10-1876) for the revolutionary cause. Others joined in the
cry for freedom — F. Dingclstedt (1814-1881), A. H. Hoffmann
von Fallersleben (1 708-1874), and a number of Austrians, who
bad even more reason for rebellion and discontent than the
north Germans. But the best Austrian political poetry, the
S patter gdnge eines Wiener Poden, 1831, by " Anastasius Griin "
(Graf A. A. von Auerspcrg, 1 806-1876), belonged to a decade
earlier. The political lyric culminated in and ended with the
year 1848; the revolutionists of the 'forties were, if not appeased,
at least silenced by the revolution which in their eyes had
effected so little. If Freiligrath be excepted, the chief lyric
poets of this epoch stood aside from the revolutionary movement;
even £. Geibel (181 5-1884), the representative poet of the
succeeding agfew* «dty vmvm^i YBfcw«fiuifck\»ofcfcv*B&a^
796
GERMAN LITERATURE
(MODES*
movement, and his best work is of a purely lyric character.
M. von Strachwitz's (1822-1847) promising talent did not flourish
in the political atmosphere; Annette von Droste-HUlshoff
(1797-1848), and the Austrian, Nikola us Lenau (1802-1850),
both stand far removed from the world of politics; they are
imbued with that pessimistic resignation which is, more or
less, characteristic of all German literature between 1850 and
1870.
(b) Mid-Century Literature.— When once the revolution of
1848 was over, a spirit of tranquillity came over German letters;
but it was due rather to the absence of confidence in the future
than to any hopefulness or real content. The literature of the
middle of the century was not wanting in achievement, but
there was nothing buoyant or youthful about it ; most significant
of all, the generation between 1848 and 1880 was cither oblivious
or indifferent to the good work and to the new and germinating
ideas which it produced. Hegel, who held the earlier half of the
19th century in his ban, was still all-powerful in the universities,
but his power was on the wane in literature and public life.
The so-called " Hegelian Left " had advanced so far as to have
become incompatible with the original Hegelian ism; the new
social and economic theories did not fit into the scheme of
Hegelian collectivism; the interest in natural science— fostered
by the popular books of J. Moleschott (1822-1893), Karl Vogt
(1817-1895) and Ludwig Bilchner (1824-1899) — created a
healthy antidote to the Hegelian metaphysics. In literature and
art, on which Hcgcl, as we have seen, had exerted so blight-
ing an influence, his place was taken by the chief exponent
of philosophic pessimism, Arthur Schopenhauer (178S-1860).
Schopenhauer's antagonism to Hcgclianism was of old standing,
for his chief work, Die Welt als Willc uud Vorstctlnitg, had
appeared as far back as 1819; but the century was more than
half over before the movement of ideas had, as it were, caught
up with him, before pessimism became a dominant force in
intellectual life.
The literature produced between 1850 and 1870 was pre-
eminently one of prose fiction. The beginnings which the
" Young German " school had made to a type of novel dealing
with social problems— the best example is Gutzkow's Ritter
*om Geisle — developed rapidly in this succeeding epoch.
Fried rich Spiclhagcn (born 1829) followed immediately in
Gutzkow's footsteps, and in a scries of romances from Problcma-
tische Naturcn (i860) to Slurmfiut (1S76), discussed in a militant
spirit that recalls Laube and Gutzkow the social problems
which agitated German life in these decades. Gustav Frcytag
(1816-1895), although an older man, freed himself more success-
fully from the " Young German " tradition; his romance of
German commercialism, Soil ttnd Haben (1855), is the master-
piece of mid-century fiction of this class. Less successful was
Frey tag's subsequent attempt to transfer his method to the
milieu of German academic life in Die verlorcne Handsehrijt
(1864). As was perhaps only natural in an age of social and
political interests, the historical novel occupies a subordinate
place. The influence of Scott, which in the earlier period had
been strong, produced only one writer, Wilhelm Haring (" Willi-
bald Alexis," 1 798-1871), who was more than a mere imitator
of the Scottish master. In the series of six novels, from Der
Roland von Berlin to Dorolhe, which Alexis published between
1840 and 1856, he gave Germany, and more particularly Prussia,
a historical fiction which might not unworthily be compared
with the Waverley Novels. But Alexis had no successor, and the
historical novel soon made way for a type of fiction in which
the accurate reproduction of remote conditions was held of
more account than poetic inspiration or artistic power. Such
are the " antiquarian " novels of ancient Egyptian life by
Georg Ebcrs (1837-1898), and those from primitive German
history by Felix Dahn (bom 1834). The vogue of historical
fiction was also transferred to some extent , as in English literat ure,
to novels of American life and adventure, of which the chief
German cultivators were K. A. Postl, who wrote under the
pseudonym of Charles SeaisfieJd (1 793-1864) and Friedrich
GcrstMcker (1816-1872).
Of greater importance was the fiction which owed its inspira-
tion to the Romantic traditions that survived the " Young
German " age. To this group belongs the novel of peasant and
provincial life, of which Immermann had given an excellent
example in Der OberhoJ, a story included in the arabesque of
Miinchhausen. A Swiss pastor, Albrecht Bitzius, better knovn
by his pseudonym "Jeremias Gotlhelf" (1797-1854), was,
however, the real founder of this class of romance; and his
simple, unvarnished and naively didactic stories of the Swia
peasant were followed not long afterwards by the more famous
Scltwarzwalder Dorfgeschiekten (1843-1854) of Berthold Auer-
bach (1812-1882). Auerbach is not by any means- so naive
and realistic as Gotlhelf, nor is his work free from tendencies
and ideas which recall " Young German " rationalism rather
than the unsophisticated life of the Black Forest; but the
SchwarvwUlder Dorfgcschichltn exerted a decisive influence;
they were the forerunners of a large body of peasant literature
which described with affectionate sympathy and with a liberal
admixture of dialect, south German village life. With this
group of writers may also be associated the German Bohemian,
A. Stiftcr (1805-1868), who has called up unforgettable pictures
and impressions of the life and scenery of his home.
Meanwhile, the Low German peoples also benefited by the
revival of an interest in dialect and peasant life; it is to the
credit of Fritz Reuter (1810-1874) that he brought honour
to the Plattdcutsch of the north, the dialects of which had
played a fitful, but by no means negligible role in the earlier
history of German letters. His Mecklenburg novels, especially
U I de Franzes Hi id (i860), U I mine Feslungslid (1863) and Ut
mine Slromlid (1862-1864), are a faithful reflection of Mecklen-
burg life and temperament, and hold their place beside the best
German fiction of the period. What Reuter did for Plattdcutsrb
prose, his contemporary, Klaus Groth (1810-1809). the author
olQuickborn (1852), did for its verse. Weowe, however, the best
German prose fiction of these years to two writers, whose affinity
with the older Romanticists was closer. The north German,
Theodor Storm (181 7-1888) is the author of a series of short
stories of delicate, lyric inspiration, steeped in that elegiac
Romanticism which harmonized so well with mid-century
pessimism in Germany. Gottfried Keller (1 810-1890), on the
other hand, a native of Zurich, was a modern Romanticist of
a robust cr type; his magnificent autobiographical novel. Da
grUne Heinrich (1854-1855), might be described as the last in
the great line of Romantic fiction that had begun with Wilhdu
Meister, and the short stories, Die Leute von Scldwyta (1856-
1874) and Ziiricher Novcllcn (1878) are masterpieces of the
first rank.
In the dramatic literature of these decades, at least as it was
reflected in the repertories of the German theatres, there was
little promise. French influence was, in general, predominant;
French translations formed the mainstay of the theatre-directors,
while successful German play wrights, such as R. Benedix (1811-
1873) and Charlotte Birch-Pfeiffer (1800-1868), have little claim
to consideration in a literary survey. Custav Freytag's
admirable comedy, Die Journalisten (1852), was one of the
rare exceptions. But the German drama of this epoch b not
to be judged solely by the theatres. At the middle of the century
Germany could point to two writers who, each in his way, con*
tributed very materially to the development of the modem
drama. These were Friedrich Hcbbel (1813-1863) and Otto
Ludwig (1813-1865). Both of these men, as a later generation
discovered, were the pioneers of that dramatic literature which
at the close of the century accepted the canons of realism and
aimed at superseding outward effects by psychological conflicts
and problems of social life. Hcbbel, especially, must be regarded
as the most original and revolutionary German dramatist of
the 19th century. Unlike his contemporary Grillparzer, whose
aim had been to reconcile the " classic " and the ** romantic "
drama with the help of Spanish models, Hebbel laid the founds*
tions of a psychological and social drama, of which the most
modern interpreter has been Henrik Ibsen. Hebbel's fint
\ \x%ie&y, Jv&Uh, *Wft*xt& ^ \Vi»»Vtih Tsaaaja^vk»e^ Ho«4a
MODERN!
GERMAN LITERATURE
797
und Marianne, Agnes Bernauer, Cyges und sein Ring, and the
trilogy of Die Nibdungen between 1850 and 186 a.
In this period of somewhat confused literary striving, there
is, however, one body of writers who might be grouped together
as a school, although the designation must be regarded rather
as an outward accident of union than as implying conformity
of aims. This is the group which Maximilian II. of Bavaria
gathered round him in Munich between 1853 and i860, A
leading spirit of the group was Emanuel Ceibel, who, as we have
seen, set a model to the German lyric in this age; F. von Bodcn-
stedt (181 0-189?), the popular author of Mina Sckaffy; and
J. V. von Scheffel (1826-1886), who, in his verse-romance, Der
Trompeter von Sickingen (1854), broke a lance for a type of
literature which had been cultivated somewhat earlier, but
with no very conspicuous success, by men like O. von Redwita
(1873-1891) and G. Kinkel (1815-1882). The romance was,
in fact, one of the favourite vehicles of poetic expression of the
Munich school, its most successful exponents being J. Wolff
(b. 18J4) and R. Baumbach (1840-1005); while others,
such as H Lingg (1820-1005) and R. Hamerling (1830-1880)
devoted themselves to the more ambitious epic. The general
tone of the literary movement was pessimistic, the hopelessness
of the spiritual outlook being most deeply engrained in the
verse of H. Lorm (pseudonym for Heinrich Landesmann, 182 1-
1002) and H. Lcuthold (1827-1879). On the whole, the most
important member of the Munich group is Paul Heyse (b. 1830),
who, as a writer of " NoveUen " or short stories, may be classed
with Storm and Keller. An essentially Latin genius, Heyse
excels in stories of Italian life, where his lightness of touch
and sense of form are shown to best advantage; but he has also
written several long novels. Of these, Kinder der Wdt (1873)
and, in a lesser degree, Itn Paradiese (1875), sum up the spirit
and tendency of their time, just as, in earlier decades, Die filter
vom Ceiste, Problematiscke Naturen and Soil und Haben were
characteristic of the periods which produced them.
(c) German Literature after 1870.— In the years immediately
following the Franco-German War, the prevailing conditions
were unfavourable to literary production in Germany, and the
re-establishment of the empire left comparatively little trace
on the national literature. All minds were for a time engrossed
by the Kulturkampf, by the financial difficulties— the so-called
GrUnderlum—^x to unscrupulous speculation, and, finally,
by the rapid rise of social democracy as a political force. The
intellectual basis of the latter movement was laid by Ferdinand
Lassalle (1825-1864) and Karl Marx (1818-1883), author of
Das Kapital (vol. i, 1 867). But even had such disturbing elements
been wanting, the general tone of German intellectual life at
that time was not buoyant enough to inspire a vigorous literary
revival. The influence of Hegel was stiD strong, and the " his-
torical " method, as enunciated in Der atte und der neue Glaube
(1872) by the Hegelian D. F. Strauss, was generally accepted
at the German universities. To many the compromise which
H. Lotze (181 7-1 881) had attempted to establish between
science and metaphysics, came as a relief from the Hegelian
tradition, but in literature and art the dominant force was still,
as before the war, the philosophy of Schopenhauer. In his
Philosophic des Unbeumssten (1869), E. von Hartmann (1842-
1906) endeavoured to bring pessimism into harmony with ideal*
ism. In lyric poetry, the dull monotony was broken by the
excitement of the war, and the singers of the revolution of 1848
were among the first to welcome the triumph and unification
of Germany. At the same time, men of the older generation,
like Herwegh, Freiligrath and Geibel could ill conceal a certain
disappointment with the new regime; the united. Germany,
of 187 1 was not what they had dreamed of in their youth, when
all hopes were set on the Frankfort parliament.
The novel continued to be what it was before 1870, the most
vigorous form of German literature, but the novelists who were
popular in the early 'seventies were all older men. Laube,
Gutzkow and Auerbach were stui writing; Fritz Reuter was
a universal favourite; while among the writers of short stories,
Storm, who, between 1877 and 1888, put the crown to bis work
with his CkroniknoveUen, and Paul Heyse were the acknowledged
masters. It was not until at least a decade later that the genius
of Gottfried Keller was generally recognized. The historical
novel seemed, in those days, beyond hope of revival. Gustav
Freytag, it is true, had made the attempt in Die Aknen (1872-
1881), a number of independent historical romances linked
together to form an ambitious prose epic; but there was more of
the spirit of Ebers and Dahn in Freytag's work than of the
spacious art of Scott, or of Scott's disciple, Willibald Alexis.
The drama of the 'seventies was in an even less hopeful condition
than during the preceding period. The classical iambic tragedy
was cultivated by the Munich school, by A. Wilbrandt (b. 1837),
A. Lindner (1831-1888), H. Kruse (181 5-1002), by the Austrian
F. Nissel (1831-1893), and A. Fitger (b. 1840); but it was
characteristic of the time that Halm was popular, while Hebbel
and Grillparzer were neglected, it might even be said ignored.
The most gifted German dramatist belonging exclusively to
the decade between 1870 and 1880 was an Austrian, Ludwig
Anzcngruber (1830-1889), whose Pf arret von Kirchfeid (1870)
recalled the controversies of the Kulturkampf. This was Anzen-
gruber's first drama, and it was followed by a series of power*
ful plays dealing with the life of the Austrian peasant; Anzcn-
gruber was, indeed, one of the ablest exponents of that village
life, which had attracted so many gifted writers since the days
of Gotthelf and Auerbach. But the really popular dramatists
of this epoch were cither writers who, like Benedix in the older
generation, cultivated the bourgeoise comedy — A. L'Arronge
(b. 1838), G. von Moser (1825-1003), F. von Schdnthan (b. 1849)
and O. Blumenthal (b. 1852) — or playwrights, of whom P.
Lindau (b. 1839) may hs regarded as representative, who
imitated French models. The only sign of progress in the
dramatic history of this period was the marked improvement
of the German stagey an improvement due, on the one hand, to
the artistic reforms introduced by the duke of Meiningen in the
Court theatre at Meiningen, and, on the other hand, to the ideals
of a national theatre realized at Bayreuth by Richard Wagner
(1813-1883). The greatest composer of the later 19th century
is also one of Germany's leading dramatists; and the first
performance of the trilogy Der Ring der Nibdungen at Bayreuth
in the summer of 1876 may be said to have inaugurated the
latest epoch in the history of the German drama.
The last fifteen or twenty years of the 19th century were
distinguished in Germany by a remarkable literary activity.
Among the younger generation, which was growing up as citizens
of the united German empire, a more hopeful and optimistic
spirit prevailed. The influence of Schopenhauer was on the wane,
and at the universities Hegelianism had lost its former hold.
The sponsor of the new philosophic movement was Kant, the
master of 18th-century "enlightenment," and under the in-
fluence of the " neo-Kantian " movement, not merely German
school philosophy, but theology also, was imbued with a healthier
spirit. L. von Ranke (1795-1886) was still the dominant force
in German historical science, and between 1881 and 1888 nine
volumes appeared of his last great work, Weltgesckkkte. Other
historians of the period were H. von Sybel (1817-1895) and H.
von Trcitschke (1834- 1896), the latter a vigorous and inspiring
spokesman of the new political conditions; while J. Burckhardt
(1818-1897), author of the masterly Kullur der Renaissance in
Italien (i860) and the friend of Nietzsche, exerted an influence
on German thought which was not confined to academic circles.
Literary criticism perhaps benefited most of all by the dethrone-
ment of Hegel and the more objective attitude towards Schopen-
hauer; it seemed as if in this epoch the Germans first formed
definite ideas — and ideas which were acceptable and accepted
outside Germany— as to the rank and merits of their great poets.
A marked change came over the nation's attitude towards Goethe,
a poet to whom, as we have seen, neither the era of Hegel nor
that of Schopenhauer had been favourable; Schiller was regarded
with less national prejudice, and— most important of all— amends
were made by the new generation for the earlier neglect of
KJetst, Grillparzer, Hebbel and Keller.
The thinker and natt *ta tumA. racs^ta&s -stt&*&K^fc.v$»*&»
798
GERMAN LITERATURE
(MOOCH*
of this period— who dealt the Hegelian metaphysics its death-
blow as far as its wider influence was concerned— was Fricdrich
Nietxsche (i 844-1000). Nietzsche had begun as a disciple of
Schopenhauer and a friend of Wagner, and he ultimately became
the champion of an individualistic and optimistic philosophy
which formed the sharpest possible contrast to mid-century
pessimism. The individual, not the race, the Herrenmensch^
not the slave, self-assertion, not self-denying renunciation —
these are some of the ideas round which this new optimistic
ethics turns. Nietzsche looked forward to the human race
emerging from an effete culture, burdened and clogged by tradi-
tion, and re-establishing itself on a basis that is in harmony
with man's primitive instincts. Like Schopenhauer before him,
Nietzsche was a stylist of the 6rst rank, and his literary master-
piece, Also sprack Zaraikustra (1883-1891), is to be regarded as
the most important imaginative work of its epoch.
Nietzschean individualism was only one of many factors
which contributed to the new literary development. The
realistic movement, as it had manifested itself in France under
Flaubert, the Concourls, Zola and Maupassant, in Russia under
Dostoievsky and Tolstoi, and in Norway under Ibsen and
Bjttrnson, was, for a time, the dominant force in Germany, and
the younger generation of critics hailed it with . undisguised
satisfaction; most characteristic and significant of all, the centre
of this revival was Berlin, which, since it had become the imperial
capital, was rapidly establishing its claim to be also the literary
metropolis. It was the best testimony to the vitality of the
movement that it rarely descended to slavish imitation of the
realistic masterpieces of other literatures; realism in Germany
was, in fact, only an episode of the 'eighties, a stimulating
influence rather than an accepted principle or dogma. And its
suggestive character is to be seen not merely in the writings of
the young Stiirmer und Dr&nger of this time, but also in those
of the older generation who, in temperament, were naturally
more inclined to the ideals of a past age.
Of the novelists of the latter class, A. Wil brand t, who has
already been mentioned as a dramatist, has shown, since about
1890, a remarkable power of adapting himself, if not to the style
and artistic methods of the younger school, at least to the
ideas by which it was agitated; F. Spielhagen's attitude towards
the realistic movement has been invariably sympathetic, while
a still older writer, Theodor Fontane (1810-1808), wrote between
1880 and 1808 a series of works in which the finer elements of
French realism were grafted on the German novel. To the older
school belong Wilheim Jensen (b. 1837), and that fine humorist,
Wilheim Raabe (b. 1831), with whom may be associated as other
humorists of this period, H Seidel (1842- 1006) and W. Busch
(1832-1908). Some of the most interesting examples of recent
German fiction come, however, from Austria and Switzerland.
The two most eminent Austrian authors, Marie von Ebncr-
Eschenbach (b. 1830), and Ferdinand von Saar (1833*1006),
both excel as writers of Novellen or short stories— the latter
especially being an exponent of that pessimism which is Austria's
peculiar heritage from the previous generation of her poets.
Austrians too, are Peter Rosegger (b. 1843), who has won
popularity with his novels of peasant life, K. E. Franzos (1848-
1904) and L. von Sacher-Masoch (183 5- 1895). German prose
fiction is, in Switzerland, represented by two writers of the first
rank: one of these, Gottfried Keller, has already been mentioned;
the other, Konrad Ferdinand Meyer (1825-1898), turned to
literature or, at least, made his reputation, comparatively late
in life. Although, like Keller, a writer of virile, original verse,
Meyer is best known as a novelist; he, too, was a master of the
short story. His themes are drawn by preference from the epoch
of the Renaissance, and his method is characterized by an
objectivity of standpoint and a purity of style exceptional in
German writers.
The realistic novels of the period were written by H. Conradi
(1862-1890), Max Kretzer (b. 1854). M. G. Conrad (b. 1846), H.
Heiborg (b. 1840), K. Bleibtreu (b. 1859), K. Albert! (pseudonym
for KoDnd Sittenfeld, b. 1862) and Hermann Sudcrmann
/b. 1857). A wMut of stability was, however, as has been already
indicated, characteristic of the realistic movement in Germany;
the idealistic trend of the German mind proved itself ill-adapted
to the uncompromising realism of the French school, and the
German realists, whether in fiction or in drama, ultimately
sought to escape from the logical consequences of their theories.
Even Sudcrmann, whose Frau Sorge (1887), Der Kalsenxteg
(1889), and the brilliant, if somewhat sensational romance,
Es war (1804), arc among the best novels of this period, has
never been a consistent realist. It is consequently not surprising
to find that, before long, German fiction returned to psychological
and emotional problems, to the poetical or symbolical presenta-
tion of life, which was more in harmony with the German tempera-
ment than was the robuster realism of Flaubert or Zola. This
trend is noticeable in the work of Gustav Frenssen (b. 1863),
whose novel J dm Uht (1901) was extraordinarily popular;
it is also to be seen in the studies of child life and educational
problems which have proved so attractive to the younger
writers of the present day, such as Hermann Hesse (b. 1877),
Emil Strauss (b. 1866), Rudolf Huch (b. 1862) and Friedrich
Huch (b. 1873). One might say, indeed, that at the beginning
of the 20th century the traditional form of German fiction, the
Bildungsroman, had come into its ancient rights again. Mention
ought also to be made of J. J. David (1850-1907), E. von
Kcyserling (b. 1858), W. Hcgcler (b. 1870), G. von Ompteda
(b. 1863), J. Wasserrnann (b. 1873), Heinrich Mann (b. 1871)
and Thomas Mann (b. 1875). Buddcnbrooks (1902) by the
last mentioned is one of the outstanding novels of the period.
Some of the best fiction of the most recent period is the work of
women, the most distinguished being Helene Bdhlau (b, 1859),
Gabriele Reuter (b. 1859), Clara Viebig (C. Cohn-Vkbig,
b. i860) and Ricarda Huch (b. 1864). Whether the latest
movement in German poetry and fiction, which, under the catch-
word Heintatkunst, has favoured the province rather than the
city, the dialect in preference to the language of the educated
classes, will prove a permanent gain, it is still too soon to say,
but the movement is at least a protest against the decadent
tendencies of naturalism.
At no period of German letters were literature and the theatre
in closer touch than at the end of the 19th and the beginning of
the 20th centuries; more than at any previous time has the
theatre become the arena in which the literary battles of the day
are fought out. The general improvement in the artistic,
technical and economic conditions of the German stage have
already been indicated; but it was not until 1889 that the effects
of these improvements became apparent in dramatic literature.
Before that date, it is true, Ernst von Wildenbnich (1845-1009)
had attempted to revive the historical tragedy, but the purely
literary qualities of his work were handicapped by a too effusive
patriotism and a Schillenan pathos; nor did the talent of
Richard Voss (b. 1851) prove strong enough to effect any lasting
reform. In October 1889, however, Gerhart Hauptmann's
play, Vor Sonnenaufgang, was produced on the then recently
founded Freie Btikne in Berlin; and a month later, Die Ekrt
by Hermann Sudermann met with a more enthusiastic reception
in Berlin than had fallen to the lot of any German play for more
than a generation.
Hauptmann (b. 1862), the most original of contemporary
German writers, stands, more or less, alone. His early plays,
the most powerful of which is Die Weber (1892), were writ tea
under the influence either of an uncompromising realism, or of
that modified form of realism introduced from Scandinavia;
but in HanneUs Himmelfahrl (1893) he combined realism with
the poetic mysticism of a child's dream, in Florian Gcyar (1895)
he adapted the methods of realism to an historical subject, and
in the year 1896 be, to all appearance, abandoned realism to
write an allegorical dramatic poem, Die versunkene Cteeke.
Hauptmann's subsequent work has oscillated between the
extremes marked out by these works— from the frank naturalism
of Fuhrmann Henschei (1898) and Rose Berndt (1003), to the
fantastic mysticism of Der arme Heinrich (1902) and Und Fippe
Uiall (1906).
Tta Qxuavic takta oX Hermann Sudcrmann has developed
modern] GERMAN LITERATURE
on more even lines; the success of Die Ehre was due in the firsl
instance to the ability which Sudermann had shown in adapting
the ideas of his time and the new methods of dramatic presenta-
tion to the traditional German biirierliches Drama. This is thi
characteristic of the majority of the many plays which followed
of which H timet (1893), DasGlUckim Winkrl(iSq6) and Eslebt
das Lebenl (1002) may be mentioned as typical. With less
success Sudermann attempted in Johannes (1808) a tragedy on
lines suggested by Hebbel. A keen observer, a writer of brilliant
and suggestive ideas, Sudermann is, above all, the practical
playwright; but it is unfortunate that the theatrical element
in his work too often overshadows its literary qualities.
Since 1889, the drama has occupied the foreground of interest
in Germany. The permanent repertory of the German theatre
has not, it is true, been much enriched, but it Is at least to the
credit of contemporary German playwrights that they are un-
willing to rest content with their successes and are constantly
experimenting with new forms. Besides Hauptmann and
Sudermann, the most talented dramatists of the day are Max
Halbe (b. 1865), O. E. Hartleben (1864-1005), G. Hirschfcld
(b. 1873), E. Rosmer (pseudonym for Elsa Bernstein, b. 1866),
Ludwig Fulda (b. 1862), Max Dreyer (b. 1862), Otto Ernst
(pseudonym for O. E. Schmidt, b. 1862) and Frank Wedekind
(b. 1864). In Austria, notwithstanding the preponderant influ-
ence of Berlin, the drama has retained its national character-
istics, and writers like Arthur Schnitzler (b. 1862), Hermann
Bahr (b. 1863), Hugo von Hofmannsthal (b. 1874) and R.
Beer-Hofmann (b. 1866) have introduced symbolistic elements
and peculiarly Austrian problems, which are foreign to the
theatre of north Germany.
The German lyric of recent years shows a remarkable variety
of new tones and pregnant poetic ideas; it has, as is natural,
been more influenced by the optimism of Nietzsche — himself a
lyric poet of considerable gifts — than has either novel or drama.
Del lev von Lilicncron (1844-1009) was one of the first to break
with the traditions of the lyric as handed down from the
Romantic epoch and cultivated with such facility by the Munich
poets. An anthology of specifically modern lyrics, Modern*
DUhiercharaktere (1885) by W. Arent (b. 1864), may be regarded
as the manifesto of the movement in lyric poetry corresponding
to the period of realism in fiction and the drama. Representative
poets of this movement are Richard Dehuiel (b. 1863), K.
Henckell (b. 1864). J. H. Mackay (b. 1864 at Greenock), G.
Falke (b. 1853), F. Avenarius (b. 1856), F. Even (b. 1871), F.
Dormann (b. 1870) and K. Busse(b. 1872). A later development
of the lyric — a return to mysticism and symbolism — is to be
seen in the poetry of Hofmannsthal, already mentioned as a
dramatist, and especially in Stefan George (b. 1868). Epic
poetry, although little in harmony with the spirit of a realistic
age, has not been altogether neglected. Heinrich Hart (1855-
1906), one of the leading critics of the most advanced school,
is also the author of an ambitious Lied der Menschheil (vols. 1-3,
1888-1896) ; more conservative, on the other hand, is Robespierre
(1894), an epic in the style of Hamerling by an Austrian, Marie
dclle Grazie (b. 1864). Attention may also be drawn to the
popularity which, for a few years, the so-called OberbreUl or
cabaret enjoyed, a popularity which has left its mark on the
latest developments of the lyric. Associated with this movement
are 0. J. Bierbaum (1865-1910), whose lyrics, collected in Dcr
Irrgarten der Liebe (loot), have been extraordinarily popular,
E. von Wolzogcn (b. 1855) and the dramatist F. Wedekind,
who has been already mentioned.
Whether or not the work that has been produced in such
rich measure since the year 1889 — or however much of it— -is to
be regarded as a permanent addition to the storehouse of German
national literature, there can be no question of the serious
artistic earnestness of the writers; the conditions for the produc-
tion of literature in the German empire in the early years of the
20th century were eminently healthy, and herein lies the best
promise for the future.
Bibliography.— (a) General Histories. Anthologies, Ac: A.
Koberstetn. Grundriss der Geuhickte der deutscheu NationaUUeraiur
(18*7; Jth ed. by K. Bartxh, 5 vol*., 1872-1874; 6th ed., vol. i., LAUraiurt \A<)Oi).
799
8oo
GERMAN REED— GERMAN S.-W. AFRICA
GERMAN REED ENTERTAINMENT. The dramatic and
musical entertainment which for many years was known in
London by the title of " German Reed " was a form of theatrical
enterprise deserving of commemoration in connexion with those
who made it successful. Mr Thomas German Reed (born in
Bristol in 1817, died 1888) married in 1844 Miss Pkiscilla
Houton (1818-1895), and in 1855 they started their entertain-
ment at the " Gallery of Illustration/' in Waterloo Place, London.
From i860 to 1877 they were assisted by John Orlando Parky
(1810-1870), an accomplished pianoforte player, mimic, parodist
and humorous singer; and the latter created a new type of
musical and dramatic monologue which became very popular.
His tradition was carried on after 1870 by Mr Corney Grain
(1844-1895), who, as a clever, refined, and yet highly humorous
society entertainer (originally a barrister), was one of the best-
known figures of his day. After the retirement of the elder
German Reeds, their son, Alfred German Reed (1846-1895),
himself a capital actor, carried on the business in partnership
with Corney Grain. The " German Reed Entertainment " —
which was always patronized by a large class of people, many of
whom objected on principle to going or taking their children
to a regular theatre or a music hall — retained its vogue for
forty years at Waterloo Place and at the St George's Hall,
Regent Street. But the death of Mr Corney Grain almost
simultaneously with Mr Alfred German Reed, in 1895, together
with the changed public attitude towards the regular theatre,
ended its career.
GERMAN SILVER or Nickel Silver, an alloy of copper,
nickel and zinc, prepared cither by melting the copper and nickel
together in a crucible, and adding piece by piece the previously
heated zinc, or by heating the finely divided metals under a layer
of charcoal. To destroy its crystalline structure and so render
it fit for working, it is heated to dull redness, and then allowed
to cool. German silver is harder than silver; it resembles that
metal in colour, but is of a greyer tinge. Exposed to the air it
tarnishes slightly yellow, and with vinegar affords a crust of
rerdigris. At m bright red heat it melts, losing its sine by oxida-
tion unless protected from the atmosphere. At a heat above duB
redness it becomes exceedingly brittle. German silver in various
modifications of composition is much used in the arts. Alloys,
of which about 50% is copper and the residue zinc and nickel
in about equal proportions take a fine polish, and arc used as
imitation silver for knives and forks. With a somewhat higher
proportion of copper an alloy is formed suitable for rolling and
for wire. In Chinese while silver or pock/oug (paktong) the
amount of copper is smaller, about 40%, with about $2% of
nickel, 25 of zinc, and 2 or 3 of iron. German silver for casting
contains 2 or 3% of lead, which like iron increases the whiteness
of the alloy. German silver, having a high specific resistance
and a low temperature coefficient, has been used for electrical
resistance coils, and these qualities arc possessed in a still greater
degree in mangonin, which contains manganese in place of zinc,
its composition being 84% of copper, 12 of manganese and 4 of
nickel. The addition of a trace of tungsten to German silver,
as in platinoid, also largely increases the resistance.
GERMAN SOUTH-WEST AFRICA. This German possession
is bounded W. by the Atlantic, N. by Angola, S. by the Cape
province, E. by Bechuanaland and Rhodesia, and is the only
German dependency in Africa suited to white colonization. It
has an area of about 322,450 sq. m., and a population of Bantu
Negroes and Hottentots estimated in 1003 at 200,000.' The
European inhabitants, in addition to the military, numbered
7 1 10 in 1907, of whom the majority were German.
Area and Boundaries.— The boundary separating the German
protectorate from the Portuguese possessions of Angola is the lower
Kunene, from its mouth in 17* 18' S., 11° 40' E. to the limit of
navigability from the sea, thence in a direct line, corresponding
roughly to the lat. of 17° 20' S., to the river Okavango. which h
follows eastwards until the stream turns abruptly south (towards
Lake Ngami) From this point a strip of German territory 300 n.
long and about 50 m. broad, projects eastward until it reaches the
Zambezi a little above the Victoria Falls. On the south thw narrow
strip of land (known as the Caprivi enclave) is separated from
southern Rhodesia by the Kwando or Chobe river. On the east the
frontier between British and German territory is in its northern hall
the 21st degree of E. longitude, in its southern half the 20th degree.
This frontier is drawn through desert country. The southern frontier
is the Orange river from its mouth to the 20° E. The coast -line
between the Kunene and Orange rivers is not wholly German, lust
north of the tropic of Capricorn is the British enclave of VValnsh Bay
(q.v.). The northern part of the protectorate is known as Ovanv
poland. the central portion as Damara (or Hcrcro) land ; the southern
regions as Great Namaqualand. These names arc derived from
those of the dominant native races inhabiting the country.
Physical Features.— The coast-line is generally low and little
broken by bays or promontories. In its entire length of about
800 m. it has no good natural harbour, and its bays — Angra Pequens.
otherwise Liidcntx Bay, Sierra Bay, Sandwich Harbour— are in
danger of being filled with sand by the strong, cold, northerly coast
current. Swakopmund 4s an artificial harbour at the mouth of the
river Swakop. The small islands which stud the coast north and
south of Angra Pea u en a belong to Great Britain. The coast-line
is bordered by a heft of sand-dunes and desert, which, about 35 m.
wide in the south, narrows towards the north. This coast belt is
flanked by a mountain range, which attains its highest elevation in
Mount Omatako (8972 ft.), in about 21 ' 15' S., 16* 40' E. N.E. of
Omatako is thcOmboroko range, otherwise known as the Waterberg.
South of Omboroko, occupying the centre of the country, the ranee
attains its highest average altitude. The following massifs with their
highest points may be distinguished: Gans (7C64 ft.). Nu-uibeb
(7480 ft), Onvati (7201 ft). Awas (6088 ft.). Romas (5331 ft.) and
Ganab (4002 ft.). In the S.E. are the Kara* mountains, which attain
an elevation of 6570 ft. The mountains for the main part form the
escarpment of the great Kalahari plateau, which, gentry risiaf
from the interior towards the west, slopes again towards the south
and north from the point of its highest elevation. The Kalahari
plateau changes the undulating character it has in the west to a
perfect plain in the far east, where the watered and habitable
country merges into the sterile Kalahari desert. In the northern
half of the country the central plateau contains much rich grass-land,
while in the north-eastern region the Omaheke desert has all the
characteristics of the Kalahari.
There are no rivers of importance wholly within German South-
West Africa. The Kunene (q.v.) has but a small portion of the
southern bank in the colony , and similarly only part of the northern
1 As the result of wars with the natives, the population greatly
decreased. The number of adult (native) males in the colony at the
beginning of ioo8 was officially estimated at 19,900.8 ngareindkatiaf
a lovaV vaputaxtaa en. \\wVt tom* \>nmv vonfana,
GERMAN SOUTH-WEST AFRICA
801
bank of the Orange river fa.v.) is in German territory. Several
streams run south into the Orange; of those the chief is the Great
Fish river, which has a course of nearly 500 m. Both the Kunene
and the Orange carry water all the year round, but arc not navigable.
Neither is the Great Fish river, which, however, is rarely dry. The
Okavango, which comes from the north and runs towards Ngami
(q.v.), is perennial, but like the Kunene and Orange, belongs only
partly to the h; " " icr
slopes of the coa go.
They cross the od
has a hydrogn in
seasons of grca me
breaks through ?nt
channels south- ich
is cut by 17" E or
Okipoko, which he
lake when full S.
From its S.E. < wo
branches, know po.
These streams ry,
joining the Ok; ive
as a rule plent) an,
though some n vy
thunderstorm s aid
current half a wig
absorbed by tt an
do the streams an.
But in the san . . i 00 "
by digging. Of rivers running direct to the Atlantic the Little Fish
river enters the sea at Angra Fcquena and the Kuisip in WaJfish Bay.
The Swakop rises in the hills near the Waterbcrg, and north of it is
the Omaruru, which carries water for the greater part of the year.
Hot springs are numerous, and it is remarkablethat those of Windhoek
flow more copiously during the dry than the rainy season. There
are also many cold springs, and wells which contain water all the year.
Geology. — Gneiss and schist, with intrusive granites and porphyries,
overlain to a great extent by sand and latcritic deposits, occupy the
coast belt, coast mountains and the plateau of Damaraland. In the
Huib and Han-ami plateaus of Great Namaqualand the crystalline
rocks arc overlain by sandstones, slates, quartzitcs and jasper rocks,
and these in turn by dolomites. They are probably equivalent to
the Transvaal and Pretoria series (see Transvaal : Geology). The
next oldest rocks are of recent geological date. The Kalahari Kalk,
which extends over large areas to the south-east of Ovampoland,
may be of Miocene age, but it has not yielded fossils. Extensive
tracts of alluvium occur in the basin of the Ovampo, while the dunes
and sand-tracts of the Kalahari occupy the eastern regions.
Climate. —On the coast the mean temperature is low, and there is
little rainfall. Moisture is supplied by dense fogs, which rise almost
daily. South-west winds prevail. Inland the climate is temperate
rather than tropical, with bracing, clear atmosphere. There are
considerable differences of temperature between day and night, and
two well-marked seasons, one cold and dry from May to September,
the other hot and rainy from October to April. In winter ice
frequently forms during the night on open water on the plateau,
• • • ' ^" * ' * " ' * ,ut 20 in.
an in the
irt of the
with the
: with the
rantaceae,
wonderful
and dis-
ermanent
ost solely
here, the
fds being
\ffae, Ac.
tentricosa,
valleys is
ter. The
Kunene,
ast plain,
is scarce,
pringbok,
locepkalus
kals with
le spring-
/ often be
irtlcsand
Inhabitants.— Among the natives of German South-West
Africa three classes may be distinguished. In the first class are
the Namaqua (Hottentots) and Bushmen. The Namaqua
probably came from the south, while the Bushmen may be
looked upon as an indigenous race. The Hottentots, the purest
existing types of that race, are divided into numerous tribes,
independent of one another, such as the Witbois, Swartzbois,
Bondelzwarts. The* Bushmen are found scattered over the
eastern* parts of the country (see Hottentots and Bushmen).
The second class consists of the mountain Damara (Hau-Khoin),
a race of doubtful affinities, probably of Bantu-Negro origin,
but speaking the Hottentot language. The third class belongs
to the Bantu-Negro stock, and came from the north-east, ei-
pelling and enslaving the mountain Damara, and settling in
various parts of the country under different names. The most
prominent arc the Herero, thorough nomads and cattle-breeders;
while the Ovampo (Ovambo or Ambo), in the northern part of
the protectorate, are agriculturists. The Herero (q.v.) are also
known by the Hottentot name Damara, and by this name their
country is generally called. The Bastaards, who live in Namaqua-
land, are a small tribe originating from a mingling of Cape Boers
with Hottentots. They are Christians, and able to read and
write* The other natives are spirit-worshippers, save for the
comparatively few converts of the Protestant missions established
in the country. Of white races represented the chief are Germans
and Boers. In the S.E Boer settlers form the bulk of the white
population. There are also numbers of British colonists in this
region— emigrants from the Cape. The immigration of Germans
is encouraged by subsidies and in other ways.
Towns.— The chief port is Swakopmund, built on the northern
bank of the Swakop river (the southern bank belonging to the
British territory of Walfish Bay). The harbour is partially protected
by a breakwater. There arc also settlements at Ludcritz Bay (white
pop. 1909, over 1000) and at Sandwich Harbour. Swakopmund u
connected by a narrow gauge railway with Windhoek, the ad-
ministrative capital of the colony, situated in a hilly district 180 m.
due cast of the port, but 237 m. by the railway. Karibib is the only
place of consequence on the line. Otyimbingue is a government
station 70 m. W.N. W. of Windhoek, and Tsumcb a mining centre
240 m, N.N.E. of the same place. Olukonda is a government post
in Ovampoland. In the S.E. corner of the colony, 30 m. N. of the
Orange river, is the town of Warmbad. Kcctmanshoop, 100 m. N.
of Warmbad and 180 m. E. of Ludcritz Bay, is the centre of a small
lissionary
/indhoek.
towns at
1 Bethany
naralaiuL
Ite of the
rnasty of
northern
rarcity of
I pursuits,
or cattle.
hundred
been im-
not suit
listemper.
common
are doing
d, though
Near the
1-growing
ndcrsson.
bout half
and vitJ-
try. The
■c the sea,
ie surface
i. In the
ing. The
i exports,
chiefly of
rm, hides
xtilcs and
£l68,«60,
see below,
figures for
1. About
? country
802
GERMAN SOUTH-WEST AFRICA
above, was begi
cost nearly £70
i Otavi
rrve the <
908. It starts
1 being at Crootlontein, 40
1 this Tine is 5213 ft. a
long, was built from
>f the standard South
lopted in view of the
railway systems at Kimberlcy.
Lmanshoop line runs S.E. to
lade between the chief centres
sett districts, wells have been
:parating Windhoek from the
cut. In 1903 the colony was
vith Europe and Cape Colony
ing their terminus at Swakop-
nd telegraphic service,
unication between Hamburg
Ludcriu Bay. Regular com-
»n Cape Town and the ports
• administration is an imperial
Governor, responsible to the colonial office in Berlin, who b assisted
y a council consisting of chiefs of departments. The country is
divided into various administrative districts. In each of these there
is a Betirksamtmann, with his staff of officials and police force. In
each district is a law court, to whose jurisdiction not alone the whites,
but also the Bastaards are subject. As in all German colonics,
there is a court of appeal at the residence of the governor. # The
government maintains schools at the chief towns, but education is
principally in the hands of missionaries. The armed force consists
of regular troops from Germany and a militia formed of Bastaards.
The local revenue for some years before 1903 was about £1 30,000
per annum, the expenditure about £400,000, the difference Detween
local receipts and expenditure being made good by imperial subsidies.
In 1008 local revenue had risen to £250,000, but the imperial authori-
ties incurred an expenditure of over £2,000,000, largely for military
purposes. On articles of export, such as feathers and hides, 5% ad
valorem duty has to be paid; on cattle and horses an export tax per
head. There is a 10% ad valorem duty on all imports, no difference
being made between German and foreign goods. The sale of
spirituous liquors is subject to a licence.
History. — The coast of south-west Africa was discovered by
Bartholomew Diaz in 1487, whilst endeavouring to find his way
to the Indies. He anchored in a bay which by reason of its
smallness he named Angra Pequena. Portugal, however, took
no steps to acquire possession of this inhospitable region, which
remained almost unvisitcd by Europeans until the early years
of the 19th century. At this time the country was devastated
by a Hottentot chief known as Afrikander, who had fled thither
with a band of outlaws after murdering his master, a Boer
farmer by whom he had been ill-treated, in 1706. In 1805 some
missionaries (of German nationality) went into Namaqualand
in the service of the London Missionary Society, which society
subsequently transferred its missions in this region to the Rhenish
mission, which had had agents in the country since about 1840.
Tbe chief station of the missionaries was at a Hottentot settle-
ment renamed Bethany (1820), a place 125 m. £. by Angra
Pequena. The missionaries had the satisfaction of stopping
Afrikander's career of bloodshed. He became a convert, a great
friend of the mission, and took the name of Christian. The
proximity of Great Namaqualand to Cape Colony led to visits
from British and Dutch farmers and hunters, a few of whom
settled in the country, which thus became in some sense a
dependency of the Cape.
In 1867 the islands along the coast north and south of Angra
Pequena, on which were valuable guano deposits, were annexed
to Great Britain. At this time a small trade between the natives
and the outside world was developed at Angra Pequena, the
merchants engaged in it being British and German. The political
influence of the Cape spread meantime northward to the land of
the Hereto (Damara). The Hereto had been subjugated by
Jonker Afrikander, a son of Christian Afrikander, who followed
the early footsteps of his sire and had renounced Christianity,
but in 1865 they had recovered their independence. The
Rhenish missionaries appealed (1868) to the British government
for protection, and asked for the annexation of the country.
This request, although supported by tbe Prussian, government,
was refused. In 1876, however, a special commissioner (W.
Coates Palgrave) was sent by the Cape government " to the tribes
north of the Orange river." The commissioner concluded treaties
with the Namaqua and Damara which fixed the limits of the
territories of the two races and placed the whole country now
forming German South- West Africa within the sphere of British
influence. In tbe central part of Damaraland an area of some
35,000 sq. m. was marked out as a British reservation. The
instrument by which this arrangement was made was knows
as the treaty of Okahandya. Neither it nor the treaty relating
to Great Namaqualand was ratified by the British government,
but at the request of Sir Battle Frere, then high commissioner
for South Africa, Walfish Bay (the best harbour along tbe coast)
was in 1878 annexed to Great Britain.
In 1880 fighting between the Namaqua, who were led by
Jan Afrikander, son of Jonker and grandson of Christian
Afrikander, and the Damara broke out afresh, and was
not ended until the establishment of European rule. In
1883 F. A. E. LUdcrilz (1834- 1886), a Bremen merchant,
with the approval of Prince Bismarck, established a
trading station at Angra Pequena. This step led to the annexa-
tion of the whole country to Germany (see Atkica, § 5)
with the exception of Walfish Bay and the islands actually
British territory. On the establishment of German rule Jonker
Afrikander's old headquarters were made the seat of administra-
tion and renamed Windhoek. The Hottentots, under a chieftain
named Hendrik Witboi, offered a determined opposition to tbe
Germans, but after a protracted war peace was concluded in 1894
and Hendrik became the ally of the Germans. Thereafter,
notwithstanding various local risings, the country enjoyed a
measure of prosperity, although, largely owing to economic
conditions, its development was very slow.
In October 1003 the Bondelzwarts, who occupy the district
immediately north of the Orange river, rose in revolt. This act
was the beginning of a struggle between the Germans
and the natives which lasted over four years, and cost
Germany the lives of some 5000 soldiers and settlers,
and entailed an expenditure of £15,000,000. Abuses committed
by white traders, the brutal methods of certain officials and the
occupation of tribal lands were among the causes of the war,
but impatience of white rule was believed to be the chief reason
for the revolt of the Hereto, the most formidable of the opponents
of the Germans. The Hereto had accepted the German pro-
tectorate by treaty — without fully comprehending that to which
they had agreed. To crush the Bondelzwarts, an object attained
by January 1004, the governor, Colonel Theodor Leutwein, had
denuded Damaraland of troops, and advantage was taken of this
fact by the Herero to begin a long-planned and well-prepared
revolt. On the 12th of January 1004 most of the German
farmers in Damaraland were attacked, and settlers and their
families murdered and the farms devastated. Reinforcements
were sent from Germany, and in June General von Troth*
arrived and took command of the troops. On the x tth of August
von Trotha attacked the Herero in their stronghold, the Water-
berg, about 200 m. N. of Windhoek, and inflicted upon them
a severe defeat. The main body of the enemy escaped, however,
from the encircling columns of tbe Germans, and thereafter
the Herero, who were under the leadership of Samuel Maherero,
maintained a guerrilla warfare, rendering the whole countryside
unsafe. The Germans found pursuit almost hopeless, being
crippled by the lack of water and the absence of means of trans-
port. To add to their troubles a Herero bastard named Morenga,
with a following of Hottentots, had, in July, recommenced
hostilities in the south. On the and of October 1904 von Trotha,
exasperated at his want of success in crushing the enemy, issued
a proclamation in which he said: " Within the German frontier
every Herero with or without a rifle, with or without cattle,
will be shot. I will not take over any more women and children.
But I will either drive them back to your people or have then
fired on." In a later order von Trotha instructed his soldiers
not to fire into, but to fire over the heads of the women and
children, and Prince Billow ordered the general to repeal the
GERMAN SOUTH-WEST AFRICA
803
whole proclamation. Whenever they had the chance, however,
the Germans hunted down the Hcrero, and thousands perished
in the Omaheke desert, across which numbers succeeded in
passing to British territory near Ngami.
On the day following the issue of von Trotha's proclamation
to the Herero, \.c. on the 3rd of October 1904, Hendrik Witboi
sent a formal declaration of war to the Germans. Hendrik had
helped to suppress the Bondelxwarts rising, and had received a
German decoration for his services, and his hostility is said to
have been kindled by the supersession of Colonel Leutwein, for
whom he entertained a great admiration. The Witbois were
joined by other Hottentot tribes, and their first act was to
murder some sixty German settlers in the Gibeon district. Both
British and Boer farmers were spared — the Hottentots in this
matter following the example of the Herero. In November,
considerable reinforcements having come from Germany, the
Witbois were attacked, and Hendrik's headquarters, Reitmoqt,
captured. Another defeat was inflicted on Hendrik in January
1005, but, lacking ammunition and water, the Germans could not
follow up their victory. As in Damaraland, the warfare in
Namaqualand now assumed a guerrilla character, and the Germans
found it almost impossible to meet their elusive enemy, whilesmall
detachments were often surprised and sometimes annihilated.
In May 1005 von Trot ha tried the effect on the Hottentots of
another of his proclamations. He invited them to surrender,
adding that in the contrary event all rebels would be exterminated.
A price was at the same time put on the heads of Hendrik Witboi
and other chiefs. This proclamation was unheeded by the
Hottentots, who were in fact continuing the war with rifles and
ammunition seized from the Germans, and replenishing their
stock with cattle taken from the same source. In the north,
howevea, Samuel Maherero had fled to British territory,
and the resistance of the Herero was beginning to collapse.
Concentration camps were established in which some thousands
of Herero women and children were cared for. Meanwhile, the
administration of von Trotha, who had assumed the governorship
as well as the command of the troops, was severely criticized by
the civilian population, and the non-success of the operations
against the Hottentots provoked strong military criticism.
In August 1005 Colonel (afterwards General) Leutwein, who
had returned to Germany, 'formally resigned the governorship
of the protectorate, and Herr von Lindequist, late German
consul-general at Cape Town, was nominated as his successor.
Von Trotha, who had publicly criticized Prince Billow's order
to repeal the Herero proclamation, was superseded. He had
In the summer of 1005 instituted a series of "drives" against
the Witbois, with no particular results. Hendrik always evaded
the columns and frequently attacked them in the rear.
In November 1005 von Lindequist arrived at Windhoek.
Ths new governor issued a general amnesty to the Herero, and
set aside two large reserves for those who surrendered. His
conciliatory policy was in the end successful, and the Ovampo,
who threatened to give trouble, were kept in hand. The task
of pacifying Damaraland was continued throughout 1006, and
by the close of that year about 16,000 Herero had been established
in the reserves. Some 3000 had sought refuge in British territory,
while the number who had perished may be estimated at between
20,000 and 30,000.
In Namaqualand von Lindequist found an enemy still unbroken.
On the 3rd of November, however, Hendrik Witboi died, aged
seventy-five, and his son and successor Samuel Isaac
**• Witboi shortly afterwards surrendered, and the
hostility of the tribe ceased. Morenga now became
the chief of the rebel Hottentots, and " drives " against
him were organized. Early in May 1006 an encounter between
Morenga and a German column was fought dose to the British
frontier of the Bechuanaland protectorate. Morenga fled, was
pursued across the frontier, and wounded, but escaped. On
the 1 6th of May he was found hiding by British patrols and
interned. Other Hottentot chiefs continued the conflict, greatly
aided by the immense difficulty the Germans had in transporting
supplies; to remedy whkh delect the building of a railway
from Lttdcrilz Bay to Kubub was begun early In 1006. A camel
transport corps was also organized, and Boer auxiliaries engaged.
Throughout the later half of 1006 the Hottentots maintained
the. struggle, the Karas mountains forming a stronghold from
which their dislodgment was extremely difficult. Many of their
leaders and numbers of the tribesmen had a considerable strain
of white (chiefly Dutch) blood and were fairly educated men,
with a knowledge not only of native, but European ways; facts
which helped to make them formidable opponents. Gradually
the resistance of the Hottentots was overcome, and In December
1006 the Bondelzwarts again surrendered. Other tribes continued
the fight for months longer, but by March 1007 it was found
possible to reduce the troops in the protectorate to about 5000
men. At the height of the campaign the Germans had 19,000
men in the field.
In August 1007 renewed alarm was created by the escape of
Morenga from British territory. The Cape government, regarding
the chief as a political refugee, had refused to extradite him and
he had been assigned a residence near Upington. This place he
left early in August and, eluding the frontier guards, re-entered
German territory. In September, however, he was again on
the British side of the border. Meantime a force of the Cape
Mounted Police under Major F. A. H. Eliot t had been organized
to effect his arrest. Summoned to surrender, Morenga fled into
the Kalahari Desert. Eliott's force of sixty men pursued him
through a waterless country, covering 80 m. in 24 hours. When
overtaken (September sxst), Morenga, with ten followers, was
holding a kopje and fired on the advancing troops. After a
sharp engagement the chief and five of his men were killed, the
British casualties being one killed and one wounded. The death
of Morenga removed a serious obstacle to the complete pacifica-
tion of the protectorate. Military operations continued, however,
during 1908. Herr von Lindequist, being recalled to Berlin to
become under-secretary in the colonial office, was succeeded as
governor (May 1007) by Herr von Schuckmann. In 1908 steps
were taken to establish German authority in the Caprivi enclave,
which up to that time had been neglected by the colonial
authorities.
The discovery of diamonds in the LQderitz Bay district In
July 1008 caused a rush of treasure-seekers. The diamonds
were found mostly on the surface in a sandy soil and
were of small size. The stones resemble Brazilian °*»»'wy
diamonds. By the end of the year the total yield was ^ M „^
over 39,000 carats. One of the difficulties encountered
in developing the field was the great scarcity of fresh water.
During 1009 various companies were formed to exploit the
diamondiferous area. The first considerable packet of diamonds
from the colony reached Germany in April 1909. The output for
the year was valued at over £x ,000,000.
804
GERMANTOWN— GERMANY
The
Si.
Tu Ohavango Riser (1861) and Notes of Travel (1875). See also
Jir I. E. Alexander, An Expedition of Discovery into Ike Interior of
Africa (London, 1838). Reports on the German colonies are pub-
lished by the British foreign office. The Kriegskarte von Deutsch-
SUdwestafriha (Berlin, 1904), in nine sheets on a scale of 1 : 800,000,
will be found usef uL (F. R. C.)
GERMANTOWN, a residential district and former suburb,
now the Twenty-second Ward, of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania,
U.S.A., on Wissahickon Creek, in the N. part of the city. It is
served by the Pennsylvania and the Philadelphia & Reading
railways. There are many old colonial bouses and handsome
modern residences along Main Street (the old Germantown
Road or Avenue). Prominent among the historic houses is
Cliveden, or the " Chew House,' 1 built about 1761 by Benjamin
Chew (1722-1810), who was chief-justice of Pennsylvania in
1774-1777 and was imprisoned as a Loyalist in 1777, and whose
home during the battle of Germantown (see below) was occupied
by British troops. The well-preserved Morris House (1772) was
the headquarters of General Howe at the close of the battle,
and in 1793, when Germantown, owing to the yellow fever in
Philadelphia, was the temporary capital of the United States,
it was occupied by President Washington. Three doors above
stood until 1004 the Ash mead House, used for a time by Count
Nicholas Lewis Zinzendorf and his daughters for their Moravian
school, which was removed to Bethlehem. In the same street,
opposite Indian Queen Lane, is the old Wister Mansion, built
as a country-seat in 1744 and occupied by British officers during
the War of Independence, In another old house (now Nos.
5275-5277), John Fanning Watson (1770-1860), the annalist of
Philadelphia, did most of his literary work. Just outside the
ward limits, in what has since become a part of Fairmont Park,
is the house in which David Rittenhouse, the astronomer, was
born; it stands on Monoshore Creek or Paper Mill Run, in what
was long called Rozborough (now the 21st ward of Philadelphia).
In this vicinity the first paper mill in America was erected in
1690 by a company of which William Rittenhouse, David's
great-grandfather, was the leading member. The King of Prussia
Inn, built about 1740, and the Mermaid Hotel, as old or older,
are interesting survivals of the inns and taverns of old German-
town. The Germantown Academy was built in 1760, and after
the battle of Germantown was used by the British as a hospital.
In Germantown are also a Friends' (orthodox) school, a Friends'
free library, and the Germantown branch of the Philadelphia
public library. The first school in Germantown was established
about 1 70X, and for the first eighteen years was under the master-
ship of Francis Daniel Past orius ( 1 65 1-1 7 1 9) , the leader in foundi ng
the town, who lived in a house that stood on the site of the present
First Methodist Episcopal church, High Street and Main Street.
He compiled a primer which was the first school book produced
in the state; with three others he drafted and signed in 1688
what seems to have been the first public protest made in America
against slavery; and he is celebrated in Whittier's Pennsylvania
Pilgrim. Later the same school passed to Christopher Dock
(d. 1771), who in 1770 published an essay on teaching (written
in 1750), which is said to have been the first book on pedagogy
published in America. The first Bible printed in America in
any European language was published in Germantown in 1743
by Christopher Sauer (d. 1758), a preacher of the German
Baptist Brethren, who in 1739 established Germantown 's first
newspaper, The High German Pennsylvania Historian, or Collec-
tion of Important News from Ike Kingdom of Nature and of the
Chunk. His grandsons are said to have cast about 1772 the
first American printing type. The Friends were the first sect to
erect a meeting-house of theirown (about 1693). TheMennonites
built a log meeting-house in 1709, and their present stone church
was built in 1770. The town hall of Germantown was used as
a hospital during the last three years of the Civil War. In Market
Square a soldiers' monument was erected in 1883. The Site and
Relic Society of Germantown maintains a museum of relics.
Many of the early settlers were linen weavers, and Germantown
still manufactures textiles, knit goods and yams. '
Germantown was founded in October 1683 by thirteen families
6vm Crefeld, Germany, under the leadership of Francis Daniel
Pastorius. The township, as originally laid out, contained
four distinct villages known as Germantown, Creshcim, Sotnmer-
housen and Crefield. Cresheim was later known as Mouat
Airy, and Sommerhousen and Crefield became known as Chestnut
Hill. The borough of Germantown was incorporated in 1684.
For many years it was a straggling village extending about 2 av
along Main Street Its growth was more rapid from the middle
of the 1 8th century. In 1789 a motion for the permanent
location of the national capital at Germantown was carried
in the Senate, and the same measure passed the House, amended
only with respect to the temporary government of the ceded
district; but the Senate killed the bill by voting to postpone
further consideration of it until the next session. Germantown
was annexed to Philadelphia in 1834.
Battle of Germantown. — This famous encounter in the American
War of Independence was fought on the 4th of October 1777.
After the battle of Brandywine (q.v.) and the occupation of
Philadelphia, the British force commanded by Sir W. Hove
encamped at Germantown, where Washington determined
to attack them. The Americans advanced by two roads, General
Sullivan leading the column on the right and General Greene
that on the left. Washington himself accompanied Sullivan;
with whom were Stirling (an officer who claimed to be earl of
that name) and Anthony Wayne. The right at first met with
success, driving the British advanced troops back on the tnaia
body near the Chew House. Colonel Musgravc, of the 40th Foot,
threw a portion of his regiment into this house, and General
Agnew came up with his command. The Americans under
Stirling attempted to dislodge Musgrave, thus losing time and
alarming part of Sullivan's advance who had pushed farther
forward in the fog. General Greene on the left was even less
fortunate. Meeting with unexpected opposition at the first
point of attack his troops were thrown into confusion and
compelled to retreat One of his brigades extended itself to
the right wing, and by opening fire on the Chew House caused
Wayne to retreat, and presently both of the American columns
retired rapidly in the direction of their camp, The surprise
had failed, with the loss to Washington's army of 673 men as
against 500 on the side of the British. The British General
Agnew and the American General Nash were both mortally
wounded. In December Washington went into winter quarters
at Valley Forge, 40 m. west of Philadelphia. The British wintered
in and around the city.
See N. H. Keyser, " Old Historic Germantown," in the Proceeding
and Addresses of the Pennsylvania-German Society (Lancaster-
1906) ; S. W. Pennypacker, The Settlement of Germantown, Pennsyl-
vania, and the Beginning of German Emigration to North Amertci
(Philadelphia, 1899), and S. F. Hotchkin, Ancient and Modern
Germantown, Mount Airy and Chestnut Hill (Philadelphia* 1889).
GERMANY (Ger. Deutsckland), or, more properly, TbeGexmax
Empire (Deutsche* Reich), a country of central Europe. The
territories occupied by peoples of distinctively Teutonic race
and language are commonly designated as German, and in this
sense may be taken to include, besides Germany proper (tht
subject of the present article), the German-speaking sections of
Austria, Switzerland and Holland. But Germany, or the
German empire, as it is now understood, was fanned in 1871
by virtue of treaties between the North German Confederatioa
and the South German states, and by the. acquisition, in the
peace of Frankfort (May 10, 1871), of Alsace-Lorraine, and
embraces all the countries of the former German Confederation,
with the exception of Austria, Luxemburg, Limburg and Liech-
tenstein. The sole addition to the empire proper since that
date is the island of Heligoland, ceded by Great Britain in 1890,
but Germany has acquired extensive colonies in Africa and the
Pacific (see below, Colonies).
The German empire extends from 47 16' to 55° 53' N., and
from 5 52' to 23 52' E. The eastern provinces project so far
that the extent of German territory is much greater from south-
west to north-east than in any other direction. Tilsit is 815 m.
from Metz, whereas Hadersleben, in Schleswig, is only 540 m.
from the Lake of Constance. The actual difference in time
V taVwctb &fe essSucxn. %xA 'roguan^ntej* 1 ^nsj? and 8 1
geographyi GERMANY 805
but the empire observes but one time— x hour E. of Greenwich.
The empire is bounded on the S.E. and S. by Austria and Switzer-
land (for 1650 m.)» on the S.W. by France (242 m.), on the W.
by Luxemburg, Belgium and Holland (together 558 m.). The
length of German coast on the North Sea or German Ocean is
293 m., and on the Baltic 927 m., the intervening land boundary
on the north of Schleswig being only 47 m. The eastern boundary
is with Russia 843 m. The total length of the frontiers is thus
4569 m. The area, including rivers and lakes but not the haffs
or lagoons on the Baltic coast, is 208,830 sq. m., and the popula-
tion (1905) 60,641,278. In respect of its area, the German
empire occupied in 1009 the third place among European
countries, and in point of population the second, coming in point
of area immediately after Russia and Austria-Hungary, and
in population next to Russia.
Political Divisions. — The empire U composed of the following
twenty-six states and divisions: the kingdoms of Prussia,
Bavaria, Saxony and WUrttemberg; the grand-duchies of
Baden, Hesse, Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Mecklenburg-Strclitz,
Oldenburg and Saxc- Weimar; the duchies of Anhalt, Brunswick,
Saxe-Altenburg, Saxe-Coburg-Gptha and Saxe-Meiningen; the
principalities of Lippe-Detmold, Reuss-Greiz, Reuss-Schleiz,
Schaumburg-Lippe, Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, Schwarzburg-
Sondcrshausen and Waldcck-Pyrmont; the free towns of
Bremen, Hamburg and Ltibeck, and the imperial territory of
Alsace-Lorraine.
Besides these political divisions there are certain parts of
Germany which, not conterminous with political boundaries,
retain appellations derived either from former tribal settlements
or from divisions of the old Holy Roman Empire. These are
Franconia (Franken), which embraces the districts of Bamberg,
Schwcinfurt and Wurzburg on the upper Mam; Swabia (Schwa-
ben), in which is included WQrttemberg, parts of Bavaria and
Baden and Hohenzollern; the Palatinate (Pfalz), embracing;
Bavaria west of the Rhine and the contiguous portion of Baden;
Rhineland, applied to Rhenish Prussia, Nassau, Hesse-Darmstadt
and parts of Bavaria and Baden; Vogtland, 1 the mountainous
country lying in the south-west corner of the kingdom of Saxony;
Lusatia (Lausitz), the eastern portion of the kingdom of Saxony
and the adjacent portion of Prussia watered by the upper Spree;
Thuringia (ThUringen), the country lying south of the Hare
Mountains and including the Saxon duchies; East Friesland
(Ost Friesland), the country lying between the lower course of
the Weser and the Ems, and Westphalia (Westfalen), the fertile
plain lying north and west of the Harz Mountains and extending
to the North Sea and the Dutch frontier.
Coast and Islands. — The length of the coast-line is considerably
less than the third part of the whole frontier. The coasts are
shallow, and deficient in natural ports, except on the east of
Schlcswig-Holstein, where wide bays encroach upon the land,
giving access to the largest vessels, so that the great naval
harbour could be constructed at Kiel. With the exception of
those on the east coast of Schlcswig-Holstein, all the important
trading ports of Germany are river ports, such as Eraden,Bremen,
Hamburg, Lfibeck, Stettin, Danzig, Kdnigsberg, McmeL A
great difference, however, is to be remarked between the coasts
of the North Sea and those of the Baltic On the former, where
the sea has broken up the ranges of dunes formed in bygone
times, and divided them into separate islands, the mainland
has to be protected by massive dikes, while the Frisian Islands
are being gradually washed away by the waters. On the coast of
East Friesland there are now only seven of these islands, of
which Norderney is best known, while of the North Frisian
Islands, on the western coast of Schleswig, Sylt is the most
considerable. Besides the ordinary waste of the shores, there
have been extensive inundations by the sea within the historic
period, the gulf of the Dollart having been so caused in the year
1276. Sands surround the whole coast of the North Sea to such
an extent that the entrance to the ports is not practicable
without the aid of pilots. Heligoland is a rocky island, but it
*£*. the territory once under the jurisdiction of an imperial Vogt
or aavKVut (see Advocatb).
8o8
GERMANY
(POPULATKMI
one proceeds to the east the greater are the contrasts of summer and
winter. While the average summer warmth of Germany is 6o° to
62°, the January temperature falls as low as 26° to 28° in West
Prussia, Posen and Silesia, and 22° to 26* in East Prussia and upper
Silesia. The navigation of the rivers is regularly interrupted by
frost. Similarly the upper basin of the Danube, or the Bavarian
plain, has a rather inclement climate in winter, the average for
January being 25° to 26°.
As regards rainfall, Germany belongs to those regions where
precipitation takes place at all seasons, but chieHy in the form of
summer rains. In respect to the quantity of rain the empire takes
a middle position between the humidity of north-western Europe
and the aridity of the east. There are considerable differences
between particular places. The rainfall is greatest in the Bavarian
tableland and the hilly regions of western Germany. For the Eifcl,
Sauerland, Harz, Thuringian Forest, Rhon, Vogclsberg, Spessart,
the Black Forest, the Vo&gcs, &c, the annual average may be stated
at 34 in. or more, while in the lower terraces of south-western
Germany, as in the Erzgebirgc and the Sudctk range, it is estimated
at 30 to 32 in. only. The same average obtains also on the humid
north-west coast of Germany as far as Bremen and Hamburg. In
the remaining parts of western Germany, on the shores of farther
Pomerania, and in East Prussia, it amounts to upwards of 24 in.
In western Germany there is a district famous for the scarcity of
rain and for producing the best kind of wine: in the valley of the
Rhine below Strassburg, in the Palatinate, and also in the valley
of the Main, no more than from 16 to 20 in. fall. Mecklenburg,
Brandenburg and Lusatia, Saxony and the plateau of Thuringia,
West Prussia, Posen and lower Silesia are also to be classed among
the more arid regions of Germany, the annual rainfall being 16 to
20 in. Thunderstorms are most frequent in July, and vary between
fifteen and twenty-five in the central districts, descending in the
eastern provinces of Prussia to ten annually.
Flora. — The flora of Germany comprises 3413 species of phanero-
gamic and 4306 cryptogamic plants. The country forms a section
of the central European zone, and its flora is largely under the
influence of the Baltic and Alpine elements, which to a great degree
here coalesce. All plants peculiar to the temperate zone abound.
Wheat, rye, barley and oats are cultivated everywhere, but spelt
only in the south and buckwheat in the north and north-west.
Maize only ripens in the south. Potatoes grow in every part of the
country, those of the sandy plains in the north being of excellent
Juality. All the commoner sorts of fruit—apples, pears, cherries.
:c— grow everywhere, but the more delicate kinds, such as figs,
apricots and peaches, arc confined to the warmer districts. The vine
flourishes as far as the 51° N., but only yields good wine in the
districts of the Rhine and Danube. Flax is grown in the north,
and hemp more particularly in the central districts. Rape can be
produced everywhere when the soil permits. Tobacco is cultivated
on the upper Rhine and in the ,,
valley of the Oder. The Area
northern plain, especially in
the province of Saxony, pro-
duces beet (for sugar), and hops
are largely grown in Bavaria,
Wurttcmberg. Alsace, Baden
and the Prussian province of
Posen.
Speaking generally, northern
Germany is not nearly so well
StofMfa. wooded as central
ron * a ' a nd southern Ger-
many, where indeed most of the
lower mountains arc covered
with timber, as is indicated by
the frequent use of the termina-
tion wald affixed to the names
of the mountain ranges (as
Schwarzwald. Thuringerwald.
Ac). The " Seenplattcn " are
lei
co
tic
is
A
of
oa
lai
El
m<
th
ab
pines and larches, but contain
also silver firs, beeches and
oaks. Chestnuts and walnuts
appear on the' terraces of the
Rhine valley and in Swabia
and Franconia. The whole
north-west of Germany is desti-
tute of wood, bat to compensate for this the people have amps*
supplies of fuel in the extensive stretches of turf.
bauna. — The number of wild animals in Germany it not very \
'rand 4
Foxes, martens, weasels, badgers and otters are to be foun
where; bears are found in the Alps, wolves are rare, but they km
their way sometimes from French territory to the western province*
or from Poland to Prussia and Posen. Among the rodents tka
hamster and the field-mouse are a scourge to agriculture. Of gasst
there are the roe, stag, boar and hare; the Tallow deer and tht
wild rabbit are less common. The elk is to be found in the forest!
of East Prussia. The feathered tribes are everywhere abundant a
the fields, woods and marshes. Wild geese and ducks, grouse,
partridges, snipe, woodcock, quails, widgeons and teal are ptemifst
all over the country, and in recent years preserves have been lajfdh;
stocked with pheasants. The length of time that birds of passant
remain in Germany differs considerably with the different specks.
The stork is seen for about 170 days, the house-swallow 160, tat
snow-goose 260, the snipe 220. In northern Germany these birds,
arrive from twenty to thirty days later than in the south.
The waters of Germany abound with fish ; but the genera ass
species are few. The carp and salmon tribes are the moat abundant;
after them rank the pike, the eel. the shad, the roach, the pert*
and the lamprey. The Oder and some of the tributaries of the Elbe
abound in craynsh. and in the stagnant la ices of East Prussia leeches
are bred. In addition to frogs. Germany has few varieties rf
Amphibia. Of serpents there are only two poisonous loads, tht
common viper and the adder {KreuzotUr).
Population.— Vnu\ comparatively recent times do
of the population of Germany was precise enough to be of ajqr
value. At the beginning of the 19th century the country was
divided into some hundred states, but there was no central- _
agency for instituting an exact census on a uniform pita. Tht
formation of the German Confederation in 181 5 effected bat
little change in this respect, and it was left to the different SUM
to arrange in what manner the census should be taken. On tbj
foundation, however, of the German customs union, ox ZoQvcram,
between certain German states, the necessity for
statistics became apparent and care was taken to
trustworthy tables Researches show the population of thj
German empire, as at present constituted, to have beet: ,
(1816) 24,833.30°; O855) 3*.» 13.644; w^ (1871) 41.058,702. ■
The following table shows the population and area of each
of the states included in the empire for the years 1871, 1875,
1000 and 1005: —
and Population of the German States.
I£|l
POPULATION!
GERMANY
809
The population of the empire has thus increased, since- 1871, by
19,582.486 or 476%. The increase of population during 1895-
I900 was greatest in Hamburg, Bremen, Lubeck. Saxony, Prussia
and Baden, and least in Mccklenburg-Strelits and Waldeck. Of the
total population in 1900, 54*3% was urban (i.e. living in towns of
2000 inhabitants and above), leaving 457 % to beclassiBcd as rural.
On the 1st of December 1905. of the total population 29,884,681
is noticeable that the
• relative increase than
ive years increased by
The greater increase
diminished emigration
rho are mostly males.
Germany, being at the
te same year the total
61.300 were, stillborn
, respectively, of 3%
t»est in Bavaria (about
iaxony, Mecklenburg*
in the Rhine Province
. , ._ . . . Divorce is steadily on
the increase, being in 1904. 1 1 i per 16,000 marriages, as against
8-1, 8« 1, 9 3 and io-i for the four preceding years. The average
deaths for the years 1001-1005 amounted to 1,227,903; the rate was
thus 20-2 per thousand inhabitants, but the death-rate has materially
decreased, the total number of deaths in 1907 standing at 1.178,349:
the births for the same year were 2.060,974. In connexion with
suicides, it is interesting to observe that the highest rates prevail
in some of the smaller and more prosperous states of the empire—-
for example, in Saxe-Weimar, Saxc-Coburg-Gotha and Saxc-
Altenburg (on a three years' average of figures), while the Roman
Catholic country Bavaria, and the impoverished Prussian province
of Posen show the most favourable statistics. For Prussia the rate
is 20. and for Saxony it is as high as 31 per 100,000 inhabitants.
The large cities, notably Berlin, Hamburg. Breslau and Dresden,
show, however, relatively the largest proportion.
In 1900 the German-speaking population of the empire amounted
to 51,883.131. Of the inhabitants speaking other languages there
were: Polish, 3.086489: French (mostly in Lorraine), 211.679;
Masurian, 142.049; Danish, 141.061; Lithuanian, 106,305;
Cassubian. 100.213; Wcndish, 93,032 ; Dutch. 80.361, Italian.
65.961; Moravian. 64.382; Czech, 43,016: Friuan, 20.677;
English. 20,217; Walloon, it. 841. In 1905 there were resident
within the empire 1,028.560 subjects of foreign states, as compared
with 778.698 in 1900. Of these 17.293 were subjects of Great Britain
and Ireland. 17.184 of the United States of America ami 20.584 of
France. The bulk of the other foreigners residing in the country
belonged to countries lying contiguous, such as Austria, which
claimed nearly the half. Russia and Italy.
Languages.— The German-speaking nations in their various
branches and dialects, if we include the Dutch and the Walloons,
extend in a compact maw along the chores of the Baltic and of the
North Sea. from Mcmel in the cast to a point between Gravclines
and Calais near the Straits of Dover. On this northern line the
Germans come in contact with the Danes who inhabit the northern
parts of Sc hies wig within the limits of the German empire. A line
from Flensburg south-westward to loldclund and thence north-
westward to Hoyer will nearly give the boundary between the two
idioms. 1 The German-French frontier traverses Belgium from west
to east, touching the towns of St Omer. Court rai and Maastricht.
Near Eupen. south of Aix-la-Chapcllc, it turns southward, and near
Arlon south-east as far as the crest of the Vosges mountains, which
it follows up to Bcifort. traversing there the watershed of the Rhine
and the Doubs. In the Swiss territory the line of demarcation
passes through Bicnne, Fribourg, Saanen, Lcuk and Monte Rosa.
In the south the Germans come into contact with Rhneto-Romans
and Italians, the former inhabiting the valley of the Vorder-Rhein
and the Engadine, while the latter have sett lea on the southern slopes
of the Alps, and are continually advancing up the valley of the
Adige. Carimhia and Styria arc inhabited by German people, except
the valley of the Drave towards Klagenfurt. Their eastern neigh-
bours there are first the Magyars, then the northern Slavs and the
Poles. The whole eastern frontier is very much broken, and cannot
be described in a few words. Besides detached German colonics in
Hungary proper, there is a considerable and compact German (Saxon)
population in Transylvania. The fiver March is the frontier north
of the Danube from Pressburg as far as Brunn, to the north of which
the German regions begin near Oltnutz, the interior of Bohemia and
Moravia being occupied by Czechs and Moravians. In these countries
the Slav language has been steadily superseding the German. In
the Prussian provinces of Silesia and Posen the eastern parts are
mixed territories, the German language progressing very slowly
among the Poles. In Bromberr and Thorn, in the valley of the
Vistula, German is prevalent, in West Prussia some Darts of the
interior, and in East Prussia a small region along the Russian frontier,
are occupied by Poles (Cassubians in West Prussia. Masurians in
' The question, much disputed between Germans and Danes, is
exhaustively treated by P. Lauridscn in F. de Jeascn'sLa Question
de SUsvrig (Copenhagen, 1906), pp. 1 14 et acq.
it
Other European
Countries . . . 2,300,000
America. . . . 13,000,000
Asia ...... 100,000
Africa .... 600,000
Australia. . . . 150,000
East Prussia). The* total number of German-speaking people,
within the boundaries wherein they constitute the compact mast
of the population, may be estimated, if the Dutch and Walloons be
included, at 65 millions.
The geographical limits of the German language thus do not quite
coincide with the German frontiers. The empire contains about
1 millions of persons who do not make use of German in everyday
'c, not counting the resident foreigners.
Apart from the foreigners above mentioned. German subjects
speaking a tongue other than German are found only in Prussia,
Saxony and Alsace-Lorraine. The following table shows roughly'
the distribution of German-speaking 'people in the world outside
the German empire: —
Austria-Hungary . 12.000.000
Netherlands (Dutch) 5,200.000
Belgium (Walloon) . 4,000.000
Luxemburg . . . 200,000
Switzerland . .. . 2,300,000
France . . 500.000
According to the census of the 1st of December 1900 there were
51,634.757 persons speaking commonly one language and 248.374
speaking two languages. In the kingdom of Saxony, according to
the census of 1900, there were 48,000 Wends, mostly in Lusatia.
With respect to Alsace-Lorraine, detailed estimates (but no census)
gave the number of French in the territory of Lorraine at about
170,000, and in that of Alsace at about 46,000.
The Poles have increased very much, owing to a greater surplus of
births than in the case of the German people in the eastern provinces
of Prussia, to immigration from Russia, and to the Polomzatlon of
many Germans through clerical and other influences (see History).
The Poles are in the majority in upper Silesia (Government district
of Oppcln, 55%) and the province of Posen (60%). They are
numerous in West Prussia (34%) and East Prussia (14 %}.
The Wends arc decreasing in number, as are also the Lithuanians
on the eastern border of East Prussia, Czechs arc only found in
Silesia on the confines of Bohemia.
Russians flocked toGcrmanyi in thousands after the Russo-Japanese
War and the insurrections in Russia, and the figures given for 1900
had been doubled in 1907. Males preponderate among the various
nationalities, with the except ion of the British, the larger proportion of
whom are females cither in domestic service or engaged in tuition.
Chtef Towns — According to the results of the census of the 1st
of December 1905 there were within the empire 41 towns with
populations exceeding 100,000, viz. : —
8io
GERMANY
(AGRICULTURE
Density of Population.— In respect of density of population,
Germany with (1900) 2699 and (1905) 290*4 inhabitants to the
square mile is exceeded in Europe only by Belgium, Holland and
England. Apart from the free cities, Hamburg, Bremen and
Luocck, the kingdom of Saxony is the most, and Mecklenburg-
Strelitz the least, closely peopled state of the empire. The most
thinly
the m<
of aco
twoth
has to
valley
of the
In son
Elbe a
the en
a dens
define)
there j
Thurii
in upp
and \\
in the
Leipzig as far as the Saalc, on the northern slopes of the Harz and
around Bielefeld in Westphalia. In all these the density exceeds foreign leaves.
400 inhabitants to the square mile, and in the case of Saxony rises
to 750. The third division of Germany comprises the basin of the
Danube and Franconia, where around Nuremberg, Bamberg and
Wurzburg the population is thickly clustered. The fourth division
embraces the valleys of the upper Rhine and Ncckar and the district
of Dusseldorf on the lower Rhine. In this last the proportion ex*
cceds 1200 inhabitants to the square mile.
Emigration. — There have been great oscillations in the actual
emigration by sea. It first exceeded 100,000 soon after the Franco-
German War (1872, 126,000), and this occurred again in the years
1880 to 1892. Germany lost during these thirteen years more than
1,700,000 inhabitants by emigration. The total number of those
who sailed for the United States from 1820 to 1900 may be estimated
At more than 4,500,000. The number of German emigrants to
Brazil between 1870 and 1900 was about 52.000. The greater
number of the more recent emigrants was from the agricultural
provinces of northern Germany — West Prussia, Rosen, Pomcrania,
Mecklenburg, Schleswig-Holstein and Hanover, and sometimes the
emigration reached 1% of the total population of these provinces.
(Beta vulgaris) is largely grown in some districts for tbeproductioa of
sugar, which has greatly increased of recent years. There are t«o
centres of the beet sugar production: Magdeburg for the districts
Prussian Saxony, Hanover, Brunswick, Anhalt and Thurintu,
and Frankfort-on-Odcr at the centre of the group Silesia, Branden-
burg and Pomcrania. Flax and hemp are cultivated, though not s»
much as formerly, for manufacture into linen and canvas, and also
rape seed for the production of oil. The home supply of the former
no longer suffices for the native demand. The cultivation of hops
is in a very thriving condition in the southern state* of Germany.
The soil occupu seres—
a larger area tha r about
48,000 acres. 1 n 1005,
and of this over Badrt
and Alsace-Lon UMimed
in the country k
Tobacco form culture
in many district: s abost
35.000 acres, of 1, 30%
in Prussia, and fn the
north the plant enburf
and East and W „ 1 some-
what diminished, owing to the extensive tobacco manufacturinf
industries of Bremen and Hamburg, which import almost exclusively
'-reign leaves.
Ulm. Nuremberg, Quedlinburg, Erfurt, Strassburg and Cohen
c famed for their vegetables and garden seeds. Berlin is noted for
In subsequent years the emigration of native Germans greatly
decreased and, in '905. amounted only to 28,075. But to this
number must be added 284,787 foreigners who in that year were
shipped from German ports (notably Hamburg and Bremen) to
distant parts. Of the above given numbers of purely German
emigrants 26,007 sailed for the United States of America; 243 to
Canada; 333 to Brazil; 674 to the Argentine Republic; 7 to other
parts of America; 57 to Africa; and 84 to Australia.
Agriculture. — Despite the enormous development of industries
and commerce, agriculture and cattle-rearing still represent
in Germany a considerable portion of its economic wealth.
Almost two-thirds of the soil is occupied by arable land, pastures
and meadows, and of the whole area, in igoo, 91 % was classed
as productive. Of the total area 47-67% was occupied by land
under tillage, 089% by gardens, 11-02% by meadow-land,
501 % by pastures, and 025% by vineyards. The largest estates
are found in the Prussian provinces of Pomcrania, Posen and
Saxony, and in East and West Prussia, while in the Prussian Rhine
province, in Baden and Wiirttembcrg small farms are the rule.
The same kinds of cereal crops arc cultivated in all parts of the
empire, but in the south and west wheat is predominant, and in the
north and cast rye, oats and barley. To these in some districts arc
added spelt, buckwheat, millet, rice- wheat, lesser spelt and maize.
In general the soilis remarkably well cultivated. The three years'
rotation formerly in use, where autumn and spring-sown grain and
fallow succeeded each other, has now been abandoned, except in
some districts, where the system has been modified and improved.
In south Germany the so-called Fruchtwechscl is practised, the fields
being sown with grain crops every second year, and with pease or
beans, grasses, potatoes, turnips, &c, in the intermediate years.
In north Germany the mixed Koppdwirthschaft is the rule, by which
system, after several years of grain crops, the ground is for two or
three seasons in pasture.
Taking the average of the six years 1900-1905, the crop of wheat
amounted to 3.550.033 tons (metric), rye to 9,296,616 tons, barley
to 3,102,883 tons, and oats to 7.160.883 tons. But, in spite of this
considerable yield in cereals, Germany cannot cover her home
consumption, and imported on the average of the six years 1900-
1905 about 4) million tons of cereals to supply the deficiency.
The potato is largely cultivated, not merely for food, but for dis-
tillation into spirits. This manufacture is prosecuted especially in
eastern Germany. The number of distilleries throughout the
German empire was, in 1905-1906, 08,405. The common beet
acid than those of the Rhine. The total amount produced is
Germany is estimated at 1000 million gallons, of a value ot £4,000/100;
Alsace-Lorraine turning out 400 millions; Baden, 175; Bavaria.
Wurttemberg and Hesse together, 300; while the remainder, which
though small in quantity is in quality the best, is produced by
Prussia.
The cultivation of grazing lands in Germany has been greatly
improved in recent times and is in a highly prosperous conditioa.
The provinces of Schleswig-Holstein, Pomcrania, Hanover .. ^^
(especially the marsh-lands near the sea) and the grand- ^^ ^^
duchy of Mecklcnburg-Schwcrin are particularly^ remarkable
in this respect. The best meadow-lands of Bavaria are in the
province of Franconia and in the outer range of the Alps, and those
of Saxony in the Erzgcbirge. Wurttemberg, Hesse and Thuringia
also yield cattle of excellent quality. These large cattle-reannf
centres not only supply the home markets but export live stock in
considerable quantities to England and France. Butter is also
largely exported to England from the North Sea districts and from
Schleswig-Holstein and Mecklenburg. The breeding of horses has
attained a great perfection. The main centre is in bast and West
Prussia, then follow the marsh districts on the Elbe and Weser, some
parts of Westphalia, Oldenburg, Lippe, Saxony and upper Sue»ia,
lower Bavaria and Alsace-Lorraine. Of the stud farms Trakehnca
in East Prussia and Graditz in the Prussian province of Saxony enjoy
a European reputation. The aggregate number of sheep has shows
a considerable falling off. and the rearing of them is mostly carried
1900,
1 rule,
y and
ratios
istcra
teland
■edby
Jnited
1005
argest
ia, oa
speci-
fy, as
takes
sped-
ustry.
beiag
MANUFACTURES!
GERMANY
811
t of coal to the west
m the coal-fields to
tish coal cannot yet
Besides this, from
lally from Bohemia.
i a fuel; the area of
). m., of which 2000
tin groups': those of
und and Dusseldorf
and those of upper
increased of recent
for 1905, amounted
ic actual production
Iso allows a yearly
riaand Scandinavia,
uringia and An halt,
t-work is found at
irtmund. Lippstadt
salt abounds most
' principal Bavarian
ng and Rosenheim,
natc have also salt-
in 1905 to 6.209.000
he production has
i million cwta>
he world has the
ides within recent
? development of
es of manufactured
ufacturcs may be
1, Alsace-Lorraine,
iron manufacture,
ly is predominant
1 and Westphalia
gcly produced in
tcmberg, woollens
ce, silk in Rhenish
ass and porcelain
Saxony; tobacco
Prussian province
and Nuremberg,
tin and Aschaffen-
Production of Coal and Lignite
Year.
Coal.
Lignite.
Quantities.
Value.
Hands
Quantities.
Value.
Hands.
Mill. Tons.
Mill. Mies.
Mill. Tons.
Mill. Mks.
1671
29-4
2184
8-5
26a
1881
48-7
5*9-5
186.000
12-8
381
25.600
1891
73-7
283.000
205
$1
35.7oo
1899
ioi«6
7896
379000
34*
44700
1900
109*3
966- 1
414.000
40-5
985
50.900
1905
121-2
10499
400.000
5*3
122-2
52.800
ry than of its other
ling position in the
L-stphalia .
r Silesia, *■■
uduction """•"J r »
tons, more than the
thalia. Huge blase
t of rolled iron and
e greatest advance
» produced at or
arks, and Bochum;
supplied by Krupp
rt of steel (railway)
e increase,
en trod in Solingen,
Germany stands
ichines and engines,
extensive establish-
limited to the large
serious competitor
he German railways
Russia, as well as
rom German works
cally independent,
lion of the largest
Before 1871 the production of cotton fabrics in France
exceeded that in Germany, but as the cotton manufacture
is pursued largely in Alsace, the balance is now __
against the former country. In 1905 there \??* -
were about 9.000.000 spindle* in Germany. The f**
export of the goods manufactured amounted in •**«■«»
this year to an estimated value of £19.600.000. Cotton
spinning and weaving are not confined to one district, but
are prosecuted in upper Alsace (MQIhausen, Gcbweiler,
Colmar). in Saxony (Zwickau, Chcmnitx, Annabcnj), in
Silesia (Breslau. Licgnicz). in the Rhine province (Dussel-
dorf. Mtinster. Cologne), in Erfurt and Hanover, in
WUrttembcre (Rcutlingcn. Cannstatt). in Baden. Bavaria
(Augsburg, Bamberg, Bayrcuth) and in the Palatinate.
8l2
GERMANY
fOOMMEltCE
Although Germany produces wool, flax and hemp, the home pro-
duction of these materials is not sufficient to meet tlic demand of
manufactures, and large quantities of them have to be imported.
In 1895 almost a million persons (half of them women) were employed
in this branch of industry, and in 1897 the value of the cloth, buckskin
and flannel manufacture was estimated at £18,000,000. The chief
seats of this manufacture are the Rhenish districts of Aix-la-Chapclle,
Durcn, Eupcn and Lcnncp, Brandenburg, Saxony, Silesia and lower
Lusatia, the chief centres in this group being Berlin, Cottbus, Stern-
berg. Sagan and Sommcrfcld.
The manufacture of woollen and half-woollen dress materials
centres mainly in Saxony, Silesia, the Rhine province and in Alsace.
Furniture covers, table covers and plush are made in Elbcrfeld and
Chemnitz, in Westphalia and the Rhine province (notably in Elber-
feld and Barmen); shawls in Berlin and the Bavarian Vogtland.
carpets in Berlin, Barmen and Silesia. In the town of Schmicdcherg
in the last district, as also in Cottbus (Lusatia). oriental patterns are
successfully imitated. The chief scats of the stocking manufacture
arc Chemnitz and Zwickau in Saxony, and Apolda in Thuringia.
The export of woollen goods from Germany in 1905 amounted to
a value of £13.000.000.
Although linen was formerly one of her most important articles of
manufacture, Ccrmany is now left far behind in this industry by
Great Britain, France and Austria-Hungary This branch of textile
manufacture has its principal centres in Silesia, Westphalia, Saxony
and Wurttcmbcrg, while Hirschbcrg in Silesia, Bielefeld in Westphalia
and Zittau in Saxony arc noted for the excellence of their productions.
The goods manufactured, now no longer, as formerly, coarse in tex-
ture, vie with the finer and more delicate fabrics of Belfast. In the
textile industry for flax and hemp there were, in 1905, 276,000 fine
spindles, 22,300 hand-looms and 17,600 power-looms in operation,
and, in 1903. linen and jute materials were exported of an estimated
value of over £2,000,000. The jute manufacture, the principal
centres of which arc Berlin, Bonn, Brunswick and Hamburg, has of
late attained considerable dimensions.
Raw silk can scarcely be reckoned among the products of the
empire, and the annual demand has thus to be provided for by
importation. The main centre of the silk industry is Crcfcld and its
neighbourhood; then come Elberfcld and Barmen, Aix-ta-Chapellc,
as well as Berlin, Bielefeld, Chemnitz, Stuttgart and the district
around Miilhauscn in Alsace.
The manufacture of paper is prosecuted almost everywhere in the
empire. There were 1020 mills in operation in 1895. and the exports
_ in 1905 amounted to more than £3.700,000 sterling, as
W r ' against imports of a value of over £700.000. The manu-
facture is carried on to the largest extent in the Rhine province, in
Saxony and in Silesia. Wall papers are produced chiefly in Rhtru^h
Prussia, Berlin and Hamburg; the finer sorts of letter-paper in
Berlin, Leipzig and Nuremberg: and printing-paper (especially for
books) in Leipzig. Berlin and Frankfort-on-Nfain.
The chief scat of the leather industry is Hesse-Darmstadt, in
which Mainz and Worms produce excellent material. In Prussia
i ihmt- ^rge f aclorics are ' n operation in the Rhine province, in
Leaiotr* Westphalia and Silesia (Bricg). Boot and shoe manu-
factures are earned on everywhere: but the best goods are produced
by Mainz and Pirmasens. Gloves for export are extensively made in
Wurttcmbcrg, and Offenbach and Aschaffcnburg are renowned for
fancy leather wares, such as purses, satchels and the like.
Berlin and Mainz arc celebrated for the manufacture of furniture;
Bavaria for toys; the Black Forest for clocks; Nuremberg for
pencils; Berlin and Frankfort-on-Main for various perfumes; and
Cologne for the famous eau-de-Cologne
The beetroot sugar manufacture is very considerable. It centres
mainly in the Prussian province of Saxony, where Magdeburg is the
-^ chief market for the whole of Germany, in An halt, Bruns-
s *V r ' wick and Silesia. The number of factories was, in 1905,
376. and the amount of raw sugar and molasses produced amounted
to 2,643.531 metric tons, and of refined sugar 1,711,063 tons.
Beer is produced throughout the whole of Germany. The pro-
duction is relatively greatest in Bavaria. The Braustcucrgebiet
-^ (beer excise district) embraces all the states forming the
a * wr ' Zollvcrcin, with the exception of Bavaria, WQrttcmbcrg,
Baden and Alsace-Lorraine, in which countries the excise duties are
separately collected. The total number of breweries in the beer
excise district was, in 1905-1906, 5995, which produced 1017 million
gallons; in Bavaria nearly 6000 breweries with 392 million gallons;
in Baden over 700 breweries with 68 million gallons; in Wurttem-
berg over 5000 breweries with 87 million gallons; and in Alsace-
Lorraine 95 breweries with about 29 million Rations. The amount
brewed per head of the population amounted, in 1905, roughly to
160 imperial pints in the excise district; to 450 in Bavaria; 280 in
Wurttemberg; 260 in Baden; and 122 in Alsace-Lorraine. It may
be remarked that the beer brewed in Bavaria is generally of darker
colour than that produced in other states, and extra strong brews
are exported largely into the beer excise district and abroad
Commerce.-— Tht rapid development of German trade dates
from the Zolkerein (customs union), under the special rules
and regulations of which it i$ administered. The ZoUvwdu
emanates from a convention originally entered into, in 1828,
between Prussia and Hesse, which, subsequently joined by the
Bavarian customs-league, by the kingdom of Saxony and the
Thuringian states, came into operation, as regards the countries
concerned, on the 1st of January 1834- With progressive
territorial extensions during the ensuing fitly years, and embrac-
ing the grand-duchy of Luxemburg, it had in 1871, when the
German empire was founded, an area of about 209,281 sq. ul,
with a population of 40,678,000. The last important addition
was in October 1888, when Hamburg and Bremen were in-
corporated. Included within it, besides the grand-duchy of
Luxemburg, are the Austrian communes of Jungholz and
Mittelberg; while, outside, lie the little free-port territories
of Hamburg, Cuxhaven, Brcmcrhavcn and Geestcmttnde,
Heligoland, and small portions of the districts of Constance
and Waldshut, lying on the Baden Swiss frontier. Down to
1879 Germany was, in general, a free-trade country. In this
year, however, a rigid protective system- was introduced by the
Zolllanfgesctx, since modified by the commercial treaties betweea
Ccrmany and Austria-Hungary, Italy, Switzerland and Belgium,
of the 1st of February 1892, and by a customs tariff law of the
25th of December 1902. The foreign commercial relations
of Germany were again altered by the general and conventional
customs tariff, which came into force on the 1st of March 1906.
The Zolliarifgcsclz of the 15th of July 1879, while restricting
the former free import, imposed considerable duties. Exempt
from duty were now only refuse, raw products, scientific instru-
ments, ships and literary and artistic objects; forty-four articles
— notably beer, vinegar, sugar, herrings, cocoa, salt, fish oils,
ether, alum and soda—were unaffected by the change, while
duties were henceforth levied upon a large number of articles
which had previously been admitted duty free, such as pig iron,
machines and locomotives, grain, building timber, tallow, horses,
cattle and sheep; and, again, the tariff law further increased
the duties leviable upon numerous other articles. Export duties
were abolished in 1865 and transit dues in 1861. The law under
which Great Britain enjoyed the " most favoured nation treat-
ment " expired on the 31st of December 1005, but its provisions
were continued by the Bundesrat until further notice. The
average value of each article is fixed annually in Germany under
the direction of the Imperial Statistical Office, by a commission
of experts, who receive information from chambers of commerce
and other sources. There arc separate valuations for imports
and exports. The price fixed is that of the goods at the moment
of crossing the frontier For imports the price does not include
customs duties, cost of transport, insurance, warehousing, &c,
incurred after the frontier is passed. For exports, the price
includes all charges within the territory, but drawbacks and
bounties arc not taken into account. The quantities are deter-
mined according to obligatory declarations, and, for imports,
the fiscal authorities may actually weigh the goods. For
packages an official tax is deducted. The countries whence
goods are imported and the ultimate destination of exports are
registered. The import dues amounted in the year 1006, the
first year of the revised tariff, to about £311639,000, or about
10s. $d. per head of population.
Statistics relating to the foreign trade of the Empire arc necessarily
confined to comparatively- recent times. The quantities of such
imported articles as arc liable to duty have, indeed, been knows
for many years; and in 1872 official tables were compiled showing
the value both of imports and of exports. But when the results
of these tables proved the importation to be very much greater
than the exportation, the conviction arose that the valuation of the
exports was erroneous and below the reality. I n 1872 the value of -the
imports was placed at £173400,000 and that of the exports at
£124,700,000. In 1905 the figures were — imports, £371.000,000,
and exports, £292,000,000, including precious metals.
Table A following shows the classification of goods adopted
before t he tariff revision of 1 906. From 1 907 a new classification
has been adopted, and the change thus Introduced is so great
that it is impossible to make any comparisons between the
statistics of years subsequent to and preceding the year 1906.
Table B shows imports and exports for 1907 and 1908 according
, Xo \J» new das&i&AUan adopted.
COMMERCE) GERMANY
Table A.— Classes of Imports and Exports, J 90s.
813
Table B.— Classes of Imports and Exports, 1907 and 1908.
1 Provisional figures only.
* Excluding vegetable and animal textile materials.
• Excluding vegetable textile materials.
4 Provisional figures only.
8i4
GERMANY
Croups of Articles.
Imports.
Exports.
Groups of Ankles.
Imports.
Exports.
Value in £1000.
Value in £1000.
Value in £1000.
Value in £1000.
1907.
1908. 1
1907-
1908. 1
1907.
1908.1
1907.
190s. 1
Nickel wares . . .
Copper and copper wares
Raw copper (including
copper coin, brass,
tombac, &c.) . . .
Copper wares . .
Instruments of precision
Machinery, vehicles . .
Machinery ....
o 25
13.803
"•Hi
813
7.093
4,090
15.088
i4.»9*
896
885
5489
3.451
86
7.998
2,204
5.794
4.877
33."7
19.041
65
8470
2,014
6456
4.982
34.653
20,684
Electro-technical products
Vehicles and vessels .
Firearms, clocks, musical
instruments, toys .
Clocks and watches . .
Musical instruments . .
Toy*
Total . . .
4 I"
2.562
1.732
M82
223
39
I.587
1424
I.I34
170
35
8^7
5«849
1.29&
3.176
3.949
9.107
4JM>
7.5°5
1,210
*.7*>
3*273
442.663
429.636
349.1 14
336447
1
Provisional figures only.
The following table shows the commercial intercourse in imports and exports, exclusive of bullion and coin, between Germany
and the chief countries of the world in 1905, 1906 and 1907.
Imports,
1905-
1906.
1907.
Percentage
Percentage
Percentage
Country.
Value
of
Value
of
Value
of
in
Germany's
in
Germany's
tn
Germany's
£1000.
Total
Imports.
£1000.
Total
Imports.
£1000.
Total
Imports.
Belgium
13.439
5.986
3-8
14315
6,302
3'6
14.586
3*4
Denmark
1*7
1-6
6,050
1*4
France .
19.772
5-6
21,306
54
22,302
52
United Kingdom .
35.320
IOI
40.531
11, 851
10-3
48,014
11-2
Italy .
Netherlands .
10,350
3
3
14.030
1 1.187
11
12.077
3
11.864
3
Austria- Hungary
36.974
10-6
39.814
IO-I
39.939
7.365
93
Rumania
13-6
5.774
52.528
i*5
1-7
Russia .
134
54.447
8.457
IJ-7
Sweden .
5.887
8.980
17
7.359
1-9
1
Switzerland .
2-6
10,659
2-9
10,366
6.878
it
Spain
5.742
1-6
7.410
1-9
British South Africa
1.769
0.5
1.766
0.4
*%
0*
Dominion of Canada
481
0*1
463
0*1
©•I
New Zealand .
75
••
87
..
94
••
British West Africa
2,562
13.657
0-7
2,731
15.842
07
3.601
6-8
British India .
3-9
4
20,016
4-7
Dutch Indies .
5.848
1-7
7,002
18,302
1-8
9.199
2!
Argentine Republic
18,150
52
47
21.756
51
Brazil .
&
2-4
9.246
M
9AJ6
2-2
Chile
1*9
7.131
7.074
1-6
United States
48.770
13*9
60,787
15*4
64.864
151
Commonwealth of Australia
7.690
2*2
8,619
2*2
11.209
2-6
Exports.
RAILWAYS)
GERMANY
815
The commerce of Germany shows an upward tendency, which
progresses pari passu with its greatly increased production. The
export of ships from the United Kingdom to the empire decreased
during two years. 1903 (£305.682) and 1904 (£365,063), almost to a
vanishing point, German yards being able to cope with the demands
made upon them for the supply of vessels of all classes, including
mercantile vessels and ships of war. In 1905 and subsequent years,
however, the degree of employment in German yards increased to
such an extent, principally owing to the placing of the Admiralty
contracts with private builders, that the more urgent orders for
mercantile vessels were placed abroad.
The following tables give the value of trade between the United
Kingdom and Germany in 1900 and 1905:—
Staple Imports into the United Kingdom
from Germany.
Sugar
Glass and manufactures
Eggs
Cottons and varn .
Woollens and yarn
Iron and steel and manufactures
Machinery
Paper
Musical instruments
Toys
Zinc and manufactures
Wood and manufactures
Chemicals
1900.
t
9.164.573
1.078.648
1,017,119
992.244
1,312,671
1,012,376
411.178
523.544
660,777
644.690
461,023
1470.839
513.200
1905.
£
10,488,085
1,108,117
764.966
M76.385
i.9»4475
379479
735.536
528,946
676.391
714,628
673,602
1,109.584
735.830
Principal Articles exported by
Great Britain to Germany.
Cottons and yarn
Woollens and yarn
Alpaca, &c, yarn .
Wool . . .
Ironwork
Herrings
Machinery
Coals, cinders
New ships
1900.
£
3^43.917
3.743.842
1,022,259
742.632
2.937.055
1.651,441
2.040,797
4.267.172
1,592.865
1905.
£
4.941.917
3.795.591
1.325.519
1.691.035
1. 500414
3.042.483
2.102,835
3406.535
1.377.081
Navigation. — The seamen of Frisia are among the best in the
world, and the shipping of Bremen and Hamburg had won a
respected name long before a German mercantile marine,
properly so called, was heard of. Many Hamburg vessels sailed
under charter of English and other houses in foreign, especially
Chinese, waters. Since 1868 all German ships have carried a
common flag— black, white, red; but formerly Oldenburg,
Hanover, Bremen, Hamburg, Lttbeck, Mecklenburg and Prussia
had each its own flag, and Schleswig-Holstein vessels sailed
under the Danish flag. The German mercantile fleet occupies,
in respect of the number of vessels, the fourth place — after
Great Britain, the United States of America and Norway;
but in respect of tonnage it stands third— after Great Britain
and the United States only.
The following table shows its distribution on the 1st of January
of the two years 1905 and 1908 : —
The chief ports are Hamburg, Stettin, Bremen, Kiel, Labecfc,
Flensburg, Bremerhaven. Danzig (Neufahrwasser), GcestemOnde
and Emdcn; and the number and tonnage of vessels of foreign
nationality entering and clearing the ports of the empire, as compared
with national shipping, were in 1906: —
Number
Number
Foreign Ships.
entered
in Cargo.
Tonnage.
cleared
in Cargo.
Tonnage.
Danish . .
5917
1.589.346
5059
1,219.388
British . . .
5327
4891
2l8f
5.129.017
321 1
2,552,268
Swedish . . .
Dutch . . .
1.164,431
458401
817.483
3317
1973
747.656
316.562
Norwegian . .
1565
720
347.811
Russian .
720
250.564
439
143.983
The ports of Hamburg and Bremen, which are the chief outlets for
emigration to the United States of America, carry on a vast com-
mercial trade with all the chief countries of the world, and are the
main gates of maritime intercourse between the United Kingdom
and Germany.
The inland navigation is served by nearly 25,000 river, canal and
coasting vessels, of a tonnage of about 4,000,000.
Railways.— The period of railway construction was inaugurated
in Germany by the opening of the line (4 m. in length) from
Nuremberg to Ftirth in 1835, followed by the main line (71 m.)
between Leipzig and Dresden, opened throughout in 1839.
The development of the railway system was slow and was not
conceived on any uniform plan. The want of a central govern-
ment operated injuriously, for it often happened that intricate
negotiations and solemn treaties between several sovereign
states were required before a line co%ld be constructed; and,
moreover, the course it was to take was often determined less
by the general exigencies of commerce than by many trifling
interests or desires of neighbouring states. TTie state which
was most self-seeking in its railway politics was Hanover, which
separated the eastern and western parts of the kingdom of
Prussia. The difficulties arising to Prussia from this source
were experienced in a still greater degree by the seaports of
Bremen and Hamburg, which were severely hampered by the
particularism displayed by Hanover.
The making of railways was from the outset regarded by
some German states as exclusively a function of the government.
The South German states, for example, have only possessed state
railways. In Prussia numerous private companies, in the first
instance, constructed their systems, and the state contented
itself for the most part with laying lines in such districts only
as were not likely to attract private capital.
The development of the German railway system falls con-
veniently into four periods. The first, down in 1840, embraces
the beginnings of railway enterprise. The next, down to 1848,
shows the linking-up of various existing lines and the establish-
ment of inter-connexion between the chief towns. The third,
down to 1 881, shows the gradual establishment of state control
in Prussia, and the formation of direct trunk lines. The
fourth begins from 1881 with the purchase of practically all
the railways in Prussia by the government, and the introduce
tion of a uniform system of interworking between the various
state systems. The purchase of the railways
by the Prussian government was on the whole
equably carried out, but there were several
hard cases in the expropriation of some of
the smaller private lines.
The majority of the German railways are
now owned by the state governments. Out of
34,470 m. of railway completed and open for
traffic in 1906, only 2579 m. were the property
of private undertakings, and of these about
150 were worked by the state. The bulk of the
railways are of the normal 4 ft. 8} in. gauge.
Narrow-gauge (2$ ft.) lines— or light railways
— extended over 1218 m. in 1003, and of these
In 1905, 2136 vessels of 283,171 tons, and in 1908, 2218 vessels of I 537 m. were worked by the state.
284.081 tons, belonged to Prussian ports, and the number of sailors [ The board responsible for the imperial control over the
of the mercantile marine was 60,61* in 1905 and 71.853 m 1008. | wholc ra y Wfty 8y$lem ia Germany * *** fct^mtx******
Bahic Ports.
North Sea Ports.
Total Shipping.
Number.
Tonnage.
Number.
Tonnage.
Number.
Tonnage.
1905—
Sailing vessels
Steamers . .
386
486
19.067
236.509
2181
1171
559436
L537.563
2567
1657
578,503
1.774.072
Totals
1908—
Sailing vessels .
Steamers . .
Totals.
872
255.576
3352
2.096,999
42*4
2.352.575
394
521
17472
274.952
2255
1401
516.180
1.98 1. 831
9649
1922
533.652
2.256.783
915
292424
3656
2498,011
4571
2.790435
8i6
GERMANY
icoNsrrnmosi
in Berlin, the administration of the various state systems residing,
In Prussia, in the ministry of public works; in Bavaria in the
ministry of the royal house and of the exterior; in Wurttemberg
in the ministry of the exterior; in Saxony in the ministry of
the interior; in Baden and Hesse-Darmstadt in commissions of
the ministry of finance; and in Alsace-Lorraine in the imperial
ministry of railways.
The management of the Prussian railway system is committed
to the charge of twenty " directions," into which the whole network
of lines is divided, being those of Allona, Berlin, Breslau, Brombcrg,
Danzig, Elbcrfeld, Erfurt, Essen a.d. Ruhr, Frankfort-on-Main,
Halle a.d. Saalc, Hanover. Casscl, Kattowitz, Cologne, Konigsbcrg,
Magdeburg, Munster, Posen, Saarbrucken and Stettin. The entire
length of the system was in 1006 20,835 m., giving an average of about
050 m. to each " direction. The smallest mileage controlled by a
( ' direction " is Berlin, with 380 m., and the greatest, Konigsbcrg,
with 1200 m.
The Bavarian system embraces 4642 m., and is controlled and
managed, apart from the " general direction " in Munich, by ten
traffic boards, in Augsburg. Bamberg, Ingolstadt, Kempten, Munich,
Nuremberg, Regensburg, Rosenheim, Wcidcn and WUrzburg.
The system of the kingdom of Saxony has a length of 1616 m., and
is controlled by the general direction in Dresden.
The length of the WUrttembcrg system is 1 141 m., and is managed
conveyed" by the German railways, yielding £68.085,000 sterling,
and the number of passengers carried was 957,684,000, yielding
£29.500,000.
The passenger ports of Germany affording oversea communications
to distant lands are mainly those of Bremen (Brcmerhavcn) and
Hamburg (Cuxhaven) both of which arc situate on the North Sea.
From them great steamship lines, notably the North German Lloyd,
the Hamburg-American, the Hamburg South American and the
German East African steamship companies, maintain express mail
and other services with North and South America, Australia, the
Cape of Good Hope and the Far East. London and other English
ports, French, Italian and Levant coast towns are also served by
passenger steamboat sailings from the two great North Sea ports.
The Baltic ports, such as Lubcck, Stettin, Danzig (Neufahrwasser)
and KOnigsbcrg, principally provide communication with the coast
towns of the adjacent countries, Russia and Sweden.
Waterways. — In Germany the waterways arc almost solely
in the possession of the state. Of ship canals the chief is the
Kaiser Wilhelm canal (1 887-1 895), 61 m. long, connecting the
North Sea and the Baltic; it was made with a breadth at
bottom of 72 ft. and at the surface of 213 ft., and with a depth
of 29 ft. 6 in., but in 1008 work was begun for doubling the bottom
width and increasing the depth to 36 ft. In respect of internal
navigation, the principal of the greater undertakings are the
Dortmund-Ems and the Elbe-Trave canals. The former, con-
structed in 1S92-1899, has a length of 150 m. and a mean depth
of 8 ft. The latter, constructed 1895-1000, has a length of 43 m.
and a mean depth of about 7} ft. A project was sanctioned in
1905 for a canal, adapted for vessels up to 600 tons, from the
Rhine to the Weser at Hanover, utilizing a portion of the Dort-
mund-Ems canal; for a channel accommodating vessels of similar
list between Berlin and Stettin; for improving the waterway
between the Oder Mad the Vistula, so as to tender it capable
of accommodating vessels of 400 tons; and for the canati ratios
of the upper Oder.
On the whole, Germany cannot be said to be rich in canals. la
South Germany the Ludwigs canal was, until the annexation of
Alsace-Lorraine, the only one of importance. It was constructed by
King Louis 1. of Bavaria in order to unite the German Ocean and tat
Black Sea, and extends from the Main at Bamberg to KeJheim oa
the Danube. Alsace-Lorraine had canals for connecting the Rhine
with the Rhone and the Marnc, a branch serving the collieries of the
Saar valley. The North German plain has, in the east, a canal
by which Russian grain is conveyed to Kfriigsberg. joining the
Pregel to the Memcl, and the upper Silcsian coalfield is in com>
munication with the Oder by means of the Klodnitz canaL The
greatest number of canals is found around Berlin; they serve to
join the Spree to the Oder and Elbe, and include the Teltow caul
opened in 1906. The canals in Germany (including ship canals
through lakes) have a total length of about 2600 m. Navigable
and canalized rivers, to which belong the great water-systems of
the Rhine, Elbe and Oder, have a total length of about 6000 m.
Roads. — The construction of good highways has been vefl
attended to in Germany only since the Napoleonic wars. The
separation of the empire into small states was favourable to
road-making, inasmuch as it was principally the smaller govern-
ments that expended large sums for their network of roads.
Hanover and Thuringia have long been distinguished for the
excellence of their roads, but some districts suffer even still
from the want of good highways. The introduction of railways
for a time diverted attention from road-making, but this neglect
has of late been to some extent remedied. In Prussia the districts
(Kreisc) have undertaken the charge of the construction of the
roads; but they receive a subsidy from the public funds of the
several provinces. Turnpikes were abolished in Prussia in 1874
and in Saxony in 1885. The total length of the public roads is
estimated at 80,000 m.
Posts and Telegraphs.— With the exception of Bavaria and
Wurttemberg, which have administrations of their own, all the
German states belong to the imperial postal district ( Reich-
post gc bid). Since 1874 the postal and telegraphic departments
have been combined. Both branches of administration have
undergone a surprising development, especially since the reduc-
tion of the postal rales. Germany, including Bavaria and
Wurttemberg, constitutes with Austria-Hungary a special postal
union (Dcutsch-Osterrcichischer Postverband), besides forming
part of the international postal union. There are no statistics
of posts and telegraphs before 1867, for it was only when the
North German union was formed that the lesser states resigned
their right of carrying mails in favour of the central authority.
Formerly the prince of Thurn-and-Taxis was post master-general
of Germany, but only some of the central states belonged to his
postal territory. The seat of management was Franklort-on-
Main.
The following table shows the growth in the number of post
offices for the whole empire: —
Year.
Post Offices.
Men employed.
1872
7.518
1880
9,460
1890
2f952
36.388
128,687
1899
306.045
261.965
319.026
1904
38.658
40.083
1907
In 1872 there were 2359 telegraph offices; in 1880, 9980; in 1800,
17,200; and in 1907, 37.309. There were 188 places provided with
telephone service in 1888, and 13,175 in 1899. The postal receipts
amounted for the whole empire in 1907 to £33.789,460, and the ex-
penditure to £31,096,944, thus showing a surplus of £2,692*516.
Constitution— The constitution of the German empire is, in
all essentials, that of the North German Confederation, which
came into force on the 7th of June 1867. Under this the pre-
sidency (Pracsidiutn) of the confederation was vested in the
king of Prussia and his heirs. As a result of the Franco-German
war of 1870 the South German states joined the confederation;
on the Qth of December 1870 the diet of the confederation
accepted the treaties and gave to the new confederation the
name of German Empire (Deutsche Rekh), and on the 18th of
January \&\\ the king of Prussia was proclaimed German
CONSTITUTIONJ
GERMANY
817
emperor {Deittscker Kaiser) at Versailles. This was a change of
style, not of functions and powers. The title is " German em-
peror," not " emperor of Germany," being intended to show
that the Kaiser is but primus inter pares in a confederation of
territorial sovereigns; his authority as territorial sovereign
(Laiideshcrr) extends over Prussia, not over Germany.
The imperial dignity is hereditary in the line of Hohenzoltern,
and follows the law of primogeniture. The emperor exercises
the imperial power in the name of the confederated states. In
his office he is assisted by a federal council (Bundcsrat), which
represents the governments of the individual states of Germany.
The members of this council, 58 in number, are appointed for
each session by the governments of the individual states. The
legislative functions of the empire are vested in the emperor, the
Bundesrat, and the Reichstag or imperial Diet. The members
of the latter, 397 in number, are elected for a space of five years
by universal suffrage. Vote is by ballot, and one member is
elected by (approximately) every 150,000 inhabitants.
As regards its legislative functions, the empire has supreme
and independent control in matters relating to military affairs
and the navy, to the imperial finances, to German commerce,
to posts and telegraphs, and also to railways, in so far as these
affect the common defence of the country. Bavaria and Wurltem-
berg, however, have preserved their own postal and telegraphic
administration. The legislative power of the empire also takes
precedence of that of the separate states in the regulation of
matters affecting freedom of migration (Frcizegigkcil), domicile,
settlement and the rights of German subjects generally, as well
as in all that relates to banking, patents, protection of intellectual
property, navigation of rivers and canals, civil and criminal
legislation, judicial procedure, sanitary police, and control of
the press and of associations.
The executive power is in the emperor's hands. He represents
the empire internationally, and can declare war if defensive,
and make peace as well as enter into treaties with other nations;
he also appoints and receives ambassadors. For declaring
offensive war the consent of the federal council must be obtained.
The separate states have the privilege of sending ambassadors
to the other courts; but all consuls abroad' are officials of the
empire and are named by the emperor.
Both the Bundcsrat and the Reichstag meet in annual sessions
convoked by the emperor who has the right of proroguing and
dissolving the Diet; but the prorogation must not exceed 60
days, and in case of dissolution new elections must be ordered
within 60 days, and the new session opened within 00 days. All
laws for the regulation of the empire must, in order to pass,
receive the votes of an absolute majority of the federal council
and the Reichstag.
ndesrat by four com-
I are nominated by the
are nominated by the
»ch session; while the
rrsal suffrage and ballot
II ho has completed his
le suffrage in the state
>ldicrs and those in the
are serving under the
cr tutelage, bankrupts
been deprived of civil
Every German citizen
has resided for a vcar
tion in any part of the
cases above, excluded
he ballot is ensured by
iril 1903. The voting-
« placed in an envelope
for the purpose in the >
polling room, and. thus enclosed, be handed by him to the presiding
officer. An absolute majority of votes decides the election. 11
(as in the case of several candidates) an absolute majority over all
the others has not been declared, a test election (Sttckwahl) takes
place between the two candidates who have received the greatest
number of votes. In case of an equal number of votes being cast
for both candidates, the decision is by lot.
The subjoined table gives the names of the various states com-
posing the empire and the number of votes which the separate states
XI. 14
have In the federal council. Each state may appoint as many
members to the federal council as it has votes. The table also gives
the number of the deputies in the Reichstag.
States of the Empire.
Kingdom of Prussia
„ Bavaria
„ Saxony
„ Wurttembcrg .
Grand duchy of Baden .
Hesse ...
„ Mccklcnburg-Schwcrin
„ Saxe-Wcimar
„ Mecklcnburg-Strclitz
„ Oldenburg .
Duchy of Brunswick
„ Saxc-Mciningen .
„ Saxc-Altcnburg .
„ Saxc-Coburg-Gotha .
„ Anhalt ....
Principality of Schwarzburg-Sondcrs-
hauscn
„ Schwarzburg-Rudol-
stadt
Wakleck . .
„ Rcuss-Grciz
„ Rcuss-Schlciz
„ Schaumburg-Lippc
„ Lippc .
Free town of LUbeck
„ Bremen .
„ Hamburg.
Imperial territory of Alsace-Lorraine
Total
No. of
Members in
Bundesrat.
"I
No. of /
Members in
Reichstag.
2 *l
48
*3
17
14
9
6
3
l
3
3
2
I
2
3
15
397
The Reichstag must meet at least once in each year. Since
November 1906 its members have been paid (see Payment of
Members).
The following table shows its composition after the elections of
1903 and 1907:—
All the German slates have separate representative assemblies,
except Alsace-Lorraine and the twogrand-duchicsof Mecklenburg.
The six larger states have adopted the two-chamber system, but
in the composition of the houses great differences are found.
The lesser states also have chambers of representatives numbering
from 12 members (in Reuss-Greiz) to 48 members (in Brunswick),
and in most states the different classes, as well as the cities and
the rural districts} are separately represented. The free towns
have legislative assemblies, numbering from 1 20 to 200 members.
Imperial measures, after passing the Bundesrat and the
Reichstag, must obtain the sanction of tiie emperor in order to
become law, and must be countersigned, when promulgated, by
tne chancellor of the empire (Rcichskanzlcr). All members of the
federal council are entitled to be present at the deliberations of
the Reichstag. The Bundcsrat, acting under the direction of
the chancellor of the empire, is also a supreme administrative
and consultative board, and as such it has nine standing com-
mittees, viz.: for army and fortresses; for naval purposes;
for tariffs, excise and taxes; for trade and commerce; for
railways, posts and telegraphs; for civil and criminal law; for
financial accounts; for foreign affairs; and for Alsace-Lorraine.
Each committee includes representatives of at least four states
of the empire.
On.
8t8
GERMANY
[LOCAL GOVERNMENT
For the several branches of administration a considerable
number of imperial offices have been gradually created. All
of them, however, either are under the immediate authority
of the chancellor of the empire, or are separately managed under
bis responsibility. The most important
are the chancery office, the foreign office
and the general post and telegraph office.
But the heads of these do not form a cabinet.
The Chancellor of the Empire (Reich skanzltr).
—The Prussian plenipotentiary to the Bundesrat
is the president of that assembly; he is ap-
pointed by the emperor, and bears the title
Reichskanzlcr. This head official can be repre-
sented by any other member of the Bundesrat
named in a document of substitution.- The
Reichskanzlcr is the sole responsible official,
and conducts all the affairs of the empire, with
the exception of such as are of a purely military
character, and is the intermediary between the
emperor, the Bundesrat and the Reichstag. AH
imperial rescripts require the counter-signature
of the chancellor before attaining validity. All
measures passed by the Reichstag require the
sanction of the majority of the Bundesrat, and
only become binding on being proclaimed on
behalf of the empire by the chancellor, which,
publication takes place through the Reichs-
gesctzblatt (the official organ of the chancellor).
Government Offices. — The following imperial
offices are directly responsible to the chancellor and stand under his
control : —
^ i. The foreign office, which is divided into three departments:
fi.) the political and diplomatic; (ii.) the political and commercial;
(hi.) the legal. The chief of the foreign office is a secretary of state,
taking his instructions immediately from the chancellor.
2. The colonial office (under the direction of a secretary of state)
b divided into (i.) a civil department; (ii.) a military department;
(iii.) a disciplinary court.
3. The ministry of the interior or home office (under the conduct
of a secretary of state). This office is divided into four departments,
dealing with (i.) the business of the Bundesrat, the Reichstag, the
elections, citizenship, passports, the press, and military and naval
matters, so far as the last concern the civil authorities; (ii.) purely
social matters, such as old age pensions, accident insurance, migra-
tion, settlement, poor law administration, &c; (iii.) sanitary
matters, patents, canals, steamship lines, weights and measures;
and (iv.) commercial and economic relations — such as agriculture,
industry, commercial treaties and statistics.
4. The imperial admiralty (Reichsmarineamt), which is the chief
board for the administration of the imperial navy, its maintenance
and development. ... •
5. The imperial ministry of justice (Reiensjusiisamt), presided over
by a secretary of state. This office, not to be confused with the
Rcichsgericht (supreme legal tribunal of the empire) in Leipzig, deals
principally with the drafting of legal measures to be submitted to
the Reichstag.
6. The imperial treasury (Reichsschat:ami), or exchequer, is the
head financial office of the <
state, its function* are prin
of the national debt and il
in the United Kingdom arc
7. The imperial railway
official of which has the till
the management of the rai
as they fall under the cont
of laws passed for their ha
the safety of passengers conveyed.
8. The imperial post office iReichspostamt), under a secretary of
state, controls the post and telegraph administration of the empire
(with the exception of Bavaria and Wurtiemberg), as also those in
the colonics and dependencies. •
9. The imperial office for the administration of the imperial
railways in Alsace-Lorraine, the chief of which is the Prussian
minister of public works.
10. The office of the accountant-general of the empire (Rechnungs-
kof), which controls and supervises the expenditure of the sums voted
by the legislative bodies, and revises the accounts of the imperial
bank (Reicksbank}.
it. The administration of the imperial invalid fund, i.e. of the
fund set apart in 1871 for the benefit of soldiers invalided in the war
of 1870-71; and
12. The imperial bank (Reichsbank), supervised by a committee of
four under the presidency of the imperial chancellor, who is a fifth
and permanent member of such committee.
The heads of the various departments 01 state do not form, as in
England, the nucleus of a cabinet. In so far as they are secretaries
of state, they are directly responsible to the chancellor, who repre-
sents all the offices in his person, andv as has been said, is the mediua
of communication between the 'emperor and the Bundesrat sad
Reichstag.
Colonies, — The following table, gives some particulars of the
dependencies of the empire:—
Except Kiao-chow, which is controlled by the admiralty, the
dependencies of the empire arc under the direction of the colonial
office. This office, created in 1907, replaced the colonial department
of the foreign office which previously had had charge of colonial
affairs. The value of the trade of the colonics with Germany ia
1906 was: imports into Germany, £1 ,028,000; exports from
Germany, £2,236,000. For 1907 the total revenue from the colonics
was £849,000; the expenditure of the empire on the colonies in
the same year being £4,362,000. (See the articles on the various
colonies.)
Local Government. — In tHe details of its organization local
self-government differs considerably in the various states of the
German empire. The general principle on which it is based,
however, is that whidr'has received its most complete expression
in the Prussian system: government by experts, checked ty
lay criticism and the power of the purse, and effective control
by the central authorities. In Prussia at least the medieval
system of local self-government had succumbed completely lo
the centralizing policy of the monarchy, and when it was revived
it was at the will and for the purposes of the central authorities,
as subsidiary to the bureaucratic system. This fact determined
its general characteristics. In England the powers of the local
authorities are defined by act of parliament, and within the
limits of these powers they have a free hand. In Germany general
powers are granted bylaw, subject to the approval of the central
authorities, with the result that it is the government departments
that determine what the local elected authorities may do, and
that the latter regard themselves as commissioned to carry out,
not so much the will of the locality by which they are elected,
as that of the central government. This attitude is, indeed,
inevitable from the double relation in which they stand. A
Bar germeister, once elected, becomes a member of the bureaucracy
and is responsible to the central administration; even the head-
man of a village commune is, within the narrow limits of his
functions, a government official. Moreover, under the careful
classification of affairs into local and central, many things which
in England are regarded as local (e.g. education, sanitary admini-
stration, police) are regarded as falling under the sphere of the
central government, which either administers (hem directly
or by means of territorial delegations consisting either of
individuals or of groups of individuals. These may be purely
official (e.g. the Prussian Regierung) t a mixture of officials and
of elected non-official members approved by the government
(e.g. the Bczirksausxkuss), or may consist wholly of authorities
elected for another purpose, but made to act as the agents of the
central departments (e.g. the Krcisausschuss). That this system
works without friction is due to the German habit of discipline;
that it is, on the whole, singularly effective b a result of the
LOCAL GOVERNMENT]
GERMANY
819
peculiarly enlightened and progressive views of the German
bureaucracy. 1
The unit of the German system of local government is the
commune (Gcmcinde, or more strictly Ortsgcmcindc) . These are
divided into rural communes (Landgcmeindcn) and urban com-
munes (Sladtgemcindcn), the powers and functions of which,
though differing widely, arc based upon the same general
principle of representative local self-goverriment. The higher
organs of local government, so far as these are representative,
are based on the principle of a group or union of communes
(Gctneindevcrband). Thus, in Prussia, the representative
assembly of the Circle (Krcistag) is composed of delegates of
the rural communes, as well as of the large landowners and the
towns, while the members of the provincial diet (Proviuzial-
landtag) are chosen by the Krci stage and by such towns as form
separate Kreise.
In Prussia the classes of administrative areas arc as follows:
(1) the province, (2) the government district (Rcgicrungsbairk),
(3) the rural circle {Landkrcis) and urban circle (Stadtkreis),
(4) the official district (Amtsbairk), (5) the town commune
(Stadtgcmcindc) and rural commune (Land gcmcinde). Of these
areas the provinces, circles and communes are for the purposes
both of the central administration and of local self-government,
and the bodies by which they are governed are corporations.
The Rcgicrungsbczirkc and Amlsbairkc, on the other hand, are
for the purposes of the central administration only and are not
incorporated. The Prussian system is explained in greater
detail in the article Prussia (q.v). Here it must suffice to
indicate briefly the general features of local government in the
other German states, as compared with that in Prussia. The
province, which usually covers the area of a formerly independent
state (e.g. Hanover) is peculiar to Prussia. The Rcgicrungsbczirk,
however, is common to the larger states under various names,
Rcgicrungsbczirk in Bavaria, Krcishauplmannschajt in Saxony,
JCrminWurttembcrg. Common to all is the president ( Regicrungs-
president, Krcishauplmann in Saxony), an official who, with a
committee of advisers, is responsible for the oversight of the
administration of the circles and communes within his jurisdic-
tion. Whereas in Prussia, however, the Rcgicrung is purely
official, with no representative clement, the Rcgicrungsbairk
in Bavaria has a representative body, the Landrat, consisting of
delegates of the district assemblies, the towns, large landowners,
clergy and — in certain cases — the universities; the president
is assisted by a committee (Landratsaussckuss) of six members
elected by the Landrat. In Saxony the Krciskauplmann is
Assisted by a committee (Kriisausschuss).
Below the Rcgicrungsbairk is the Krcis, or Circle, in Prussia,
Baden and Hesse, which corresponds to the Dislrikt in Bavaria,
the Obcramt in WUrttcmberg* and the Amtskauptmannsckaft in
Saxony. The representative assembly of the Circle (Krcistag,
Distriklsrat in Bavaria, Atntsversamtnlung in Wurtlemberg,
Bczirksvcrsammlung in Saxony) is elected by the communes, and
is presided over by an official, either elected or, as in the case
of the Prussian Landrat, nominated from a list submitted by
the assembly. So far as their administrative and legislative
functions are concerned the German Krcistagc have been compared
to the English county councils or the Hungarian comitatus.
Their decisions, however, are subject to the approval of their
official chiefs. To assist the executive a small committee
(Krcisaussckuss, Distriktsaussckuss, &c.) is elected subject to
official approval. The official district (Amtsbairk), a subdivision
of the circle for certain administrative purposes (notably police),
is peculiar to Prussia.
Rural Communes. — As stated above, the lowest administrative
area is the commune, whether urban or rural. The laws as to the
constitution an<J powers of the rural communes vary much in the
different states. ^ In general the commune is a body corporate, its
assembly consisting either (in small villages) of the whole body of the
qualified inhabitants (Gemeindeversammlung ), or of a representative
1 See the comparative study in Percy Ashley's Local and Central
Government (London, 1906).
* The Kreis in Wurttcmberg correspond* to the Regiemngsbetirk
clstwheie.
ug) elected by them (in communes where
Qualified inhabitants). At its head is an
Dorjvorsleher, &c), with a small body of
He is a government official responsible,
of the commune. Where there are large
>nstitutc communes of themselves. For
communes may combine, such combina-
ttembcrg Burgermeistereien, in the Rhine
n general the communes are of slight
nd is held by small peasant proprietors,
rity; where there arc large ground land-
them absolutely.
n of the towns (Stddteverfassung) varies
states than that of the rural communes.
Stein' sche Stddteverfassung (the system
Stein in 1808), which, to differentiate
us, is called the Magistratsrerfassung (or
he municipal communes enjoy a greater
than do the rural. In the magisterial
and cities, the members of the Magistral,
(also called Stadtrat, Gemeinderat), are
ve assembly of the citizens (Stadherord-
iclr own body.
iny which come under the influence of
istitution of the towns and that of the
cd BUrgermeistereiperfassung) is identical,
e communal executive body arc, in the
i communal assembly, elected to office
body of municipal electors,
wns is regulated in the main by municipal
rgely based upon Stein's reform of 1808.
lomy severally enjoyed by the towns and
s (see Commune), aimed at welding the
been divided into classes and gilds, into
iving them all an active share in the ad-
1, while reserving to the central authorities
■ol.
is in all the old Prussian provinces (with
nd Vorpommem or Hither Pomcrania)
jf Stein, modified by subsequent laws—
I 1856 — which gave the state a greater
the powers of the Magistral In Vor-
hus in the towns of Grcifswald, Stralsund
, the old civic constitutions remain un-
issian provinces, Frankfort-on-Main re-
constitution in 1867 and the towns of
The province of Hanover retains its
\, and Hesse-Nassau, with the exception
ived a special corporate system in 1897.
Bavaria, Wurttcmberg and Saxony are
of Stein, but with a wider sphere of self-
burg there is no uniform system. In
Coburg and Ncustadt have separate and
jtions. In almost all the other states
he free cities of Lubcck, Hamburg and
es, form a separate class. Their con-
he articles on them.
" constitution prevails, the members of
tecutive council (also called variously
&c), are as a rule elected by the repre-
bu rgesscs (Stadtverordnetenversammlu ng ;
A usichuss, Kollegium der Btirgervorsteker,
agistrat consists of the chief burgomaster
itadtsckuUheiss, and in the large cities
d burgomaster or assessor, and in large
ind unpaid town councillors (Ratsherren,
nanner, Magistratsrdte), together with
rlected for specific purposes {e.g. Baurat,
xccutive body the Staatverordneten, who
306V of citizens and unpaid, exercise a
fit being necessary to any measures of
«c involving any considerable outlay,
three to six years; the members of the
x, nine or twelve years, sometimes even
s the burgomasters must be jurists, and
nder the control of the Magistral, except
mxs they are under a separate state de-
poned above (BUrgermeistereiverfassung)
vince, the Bavarian Palatinate, Hesse,
deck and the principalities of Reuss and
mbcrg, Baden and Hesse-Nassau the
:ween the two; both the town and rural
BUr germeister or Sckultheiss, as the case
for administrative purposes, the citizens
a a representative Gemeindeaussckuss
ature Act— Gericklsvcrfassungsgesett—
regular litigious" jurisdiction of the
820
GERMANY
(JUSTICE
courts of law was rendered uniform throughout the empire, and
the courts are now every whercalike in character and composition ;
and with the exception of the Reichsgericht (supreme court of. the
empire), immediately subject to the government of the state
in which they exercise jurisdiction, and not to the imperial
government. The courts, from the lowest to the highest, are
Amtsgerkhl, Landgcrichl, Oberlandesgerichl and Rcichsgerichl.
There are, further, VerwallungsgerklUe (administrative courts)
for the adjustment of disputes between the various organs
of local government, and other special courts, such as military;
consular and arbitration courts (Schkdsgerkhl). In addition
to litigious business the courts also deal with non-litigious
matters, such as the registration of titles to land, guardianship
and the drawing up and custody of testamentary dispositions,
all which are almost entirely within the province of the Antts-
gerkhte. There arc uniform codes of criminal law (Strajgesclz-
buch), commercial law and civil law (Bitrgerlkhes Gcsctzbuch), the
last of which came into force on the ist of
January 1000. The criminal code, based
on that of Prussia anterior to 1870, was
gradually adopted by all the other states
and was generally in force by 1872. It
has, however, been frequently emended
and supplemented.
The lowest courts of first instance arc
the Amtsgerkhte, each presided over by a
single judge, and with jurisdiction in petty
criminal and civil cases, up to 300 marks
(£iO. Thcv are also competent to deal
courts are, as a rule, public. Only in exceptional circumstances are
cases heard in camera.
Military offences come before the military court and serious
offences before the Kriegsgericht. The court-martial is. in every
case, composed of the commander of the district as president, At 4
four officers, assisted by a judge-advocate (Krkgsgerkhisral), *k>
conducts the case and swears the judges and witnesses. In the
most serious class of cases, three officers and two judge-advocates
are the judges. The prisoner is defended by an officer, whom he
may himself appoint, and can be acquitted by a simple majority,
but only be condemned by a two-thirds majority. There are alio
Kaufmanns- and Gewerbegerkhte (commercial and industrial courts^,
composed of persons belonging to the classes of employers and
employees, under the presidency of a judge of the court. Their
aim is the effecting of a reconciliation between the parties. From
the decision of these courts an appeal lies to the Landgcrichl where
the amount of the object in dispute exceeds 100 marks (£5).
The following table shows the number of criminal cases tried
before the courts of first instance, with the number and sex of con-
victed persons, and the number of the latter per 1 0,000 erf the civil
population over twelve years of age: —
Year.
Cases tried.
Persons convicted.
Total.
Convictions
per 10.000
Inhabitants.
Amtsgerkhl.
Landgerkht.
Males.
Females.
1900
1901
1902
1903
1904
M43.687
1.205.558
1,221,080
1,251,662
1.287,686
94.241
101.471
104.434
105,241
105457
396.975
4 '9.592
431.257
424.813
435.191
72.844
77.718
81,072
80,540
81,785
469.819
497.3io
512.329
505.353
516.976
119:5
1250
J27-3
"3-4
1242
has suffered damage owing to the negligence of the advocate, the
latter can be made responsible. In every district of the Oberlandes-
gerkht, the Ruhlsantodue are formed into an Anwailkammcr (chamber
of advocates), and the council of each chamber, sitting as a
court of honour, deals with and determines matters affecting the
honour of the profession. An appeal lies from this to a second
court of honour, consisting of the president, three judges of the
Rekhsgericht and of three lawyers admitted to practice before that
court.
Criminal prosecutions are conducted in the name of the crown by
the Staolsanwalle (state attorneys), who form a separate branch of the
judicial system, and initiate public prosecutions or reject evidence as
being insufficient to procure conviction. The proceedings in the
Of those convicted in 1904, 225,326 had been previously convicted.
>assed by the North German Confederation
1870, and subsequently amended by an
tlh of March 1894, laid down rules for the
; in all the states composing the empire,
Bavaria and Alsace-Lorraine. According
1, the public relief of the poor is committed
inions (Qrtsarmcnverbandc) and provincial
bdnde), the former corresponding, generally,
the latter to a far wider area, a circle or a
m of eighteen years, who has continuously
union for the space of two years, there
But any destitute German subject must
al union in which he happens to be at the
elicf being defrayed by the local or provin-
c has his domicile. The wife and children
ile in the place where the husband or father
one of the chief duties of the organs of local
moneys for the purpose are mainly derived
(poor rates per se being but rarely directly
1 and voluntary contributions. In some
nmunes certain dues (such as the dog tax in
and particularly dues payable In respect of
ind police court fines, are assigned to the poor-
large towns the Elbcrfeld system of unpaid
e interworking of public and private charity
rial laws which introduced the compulsory
imblcr workers within the empire, and gave
atcd by sickness, accident and old age. an
iary assistance, have greatly reduced paupcr-
tcc.— On June 15, 1883, the Reichstag, as
cy announced by the emperor William I.
he throne in 1881, passed an act making
cness, accident, and incapacity compulsory
ustrial pursuits.- By further laws, in 1885
lion was extended to certain other classes
ystem was further modified by acts passed
nder this system every person insured has a
1 case of sickness, accident, or incapacity,
ath his widow and children receive an
t sickness is provided for under these laws
y already existing, i.e. the sick benefit societies
tpulsory registration, which involves a notin-
any change of address (even temporary), of
determine the domicile in any given case.
INSURANCE: RELIGION)
GERMANY
821
lished for workmen engag
partly by new machinery deviied to meet the new obligation im-
posed. The tick-funds {Krankenkasscn) are thus of seven kinds:
(1) free assistance funds (Freie Hilfskassen), either registered under
the law of 1876, as modified in 1884 (Eingesckriebene Hilfskassen),
or established under the law of the separate states (landesreckUicke
Hilfskassen) ; (2) Belriebs- or Fabrikkrankenkassen, funds established
by individual factory-owners; (3) Baukranhenhasse, a fund cstab-
"" ' * " " 1 [on the construction (Ban) of particular
engineering works (canal-digging, &c), by individual contractors;
(4) gild sick funds (Innungskranienkassen), established by the gilds
tor the workmen and apprentices of their members; (5) miners'
sick fund (Knappsckaflskasse) ; (6) local sick fund (Ortskrankenkasse).
established by the commune for particular crafts or classes of
workmen; (7) Cemeindekrankentersicherung, i.e. insurance of
members of the commune as such, in the event of their not subscribing
to any of the other funds. Of these, 3, 3, 6 and 7 were created
under the above-mentioned laws.
The number of such funds amounted in 1903 to 23,271, and
included 10,224,297 workmen. The Ortskrankenkassen, with
4*975,322 members, had the greatest, and the Baukrankenkassen,
with 16,459, the smallest number of members. The Ortskranken-
kassen, which endeavour to include workmen of a like trade, have
to a great extent, especially in Saxony, fallen under the control of
the Social Democrats. The appointment of permanent doctors
(Kassendrzte) at a fixed salary has given rise to much difference
between the medical profession and this local sick fund; and the
insistence on " freedom of choice " in doctors, which has been made
by the members and threatens to militate against the interest of the
profession, has been met on the part of the medical body by the
appointment of a commission to investigate cases of undue influence
in the selection.
According to the statistics furnished in the VierUljahreshefle tur
Statistik des detUschen Rtiches for 1905, the receipts amounted to
upwards of £10,000,000 for 1903, and the expenditure to somewhat
less than this sum. Administrative changes were credited with
nearly £600,000, and the invested funds totalled £0,000,000. The
workmen contribute at the rate of two-thirds and the employers at
the rate of one-third ; the sum payable in respect of each worker
varying from 1 J-3% of the earnings in the " communal sick fund "
to at most iJ-4% in the others.
2. Insurance against old age and invalidity comprehends all
persons who have entered upon their 17th year, and who belong to
one of the following classes of wage-earners: artisans, apprentices,
domestic servants, dressmakers, charwomen, laundresses, seam-
stresses, housekeepers, foremen, engineers, journeymen, clerks and
apprentices in shops (excepting assistants and apprentices inchemists'
•hops), schoolmasters, schoolmistresses, teachers and governesses,
provided the earnings do not exceed £100 per annum. The insured
are arranged in five classes, according to the amount of their
yearly earnings: viz. £17, 10s.; £27, 10s.; £47, 10s.; £57, 10s.;
and £100. The contributions, affixed to a pension book " in
stamps, are payable each week, and amount, in English money, to
1*450., 2*34a., 2-82d., 3*3od. and 4'23d. Of the contribution one
half is paid by the employer and the other by the employee, whose
duty it is to see that the amount has been properly entered in the
pension book. The pensions, in case of invalidity, amount (including
a state subsidy of £2, 10s. for each) respectively to £8, 8s.;
£11. 59-; £'3. los-; £<5t 15s-: and £18. The old-age pensions
(beginning at 70 years) amount to £5, 10s.; £7; £8, los.; £10;
and£ii, 109. The old-age and invalid insurance is carried out by
thirty-one large territorial offices, to which must be added nine
special unions. The income of the forty establishments was, in
1903, £8,500,000 (including £1.700,000 imperial subsidy). The
capital collected was upwards of £$0,000,000.
It may be added that employees in mercantile and trading houses,
who have not exceeded the age of 40 years and whose income is
below £150, are allowed voluntarily to share in the benefits of this
insurance.
3. Accident Insurance (Unfallversicherung). — The insurance of
workmen and the lesser officials against the risks of accident is
effected not through the state or the commune, but through associa-
tions formed ad hoc. These associations are composed of members
following the same or allied occupations (e.g. foresters, seamen,
smiths, &c.)i and hence are called " professional associations
(Berufsgenossensekaften). They arc empowered, subject to the
limits set by the law, to regulate their own business by means of a
general meeting and ql elected committees. The greater number
of these associations cover a very wide field, generally the whole
empire; in such cases they are empowered to divide tneir spheres
into sections, and to establish agents in different centres to inquire
into cases of accident, and to see to the carrying out of the rules
prescribed by the association for the avoidance of accidents. Those
associations, of Which the area of operations extends beyond any
single state, are subordinate to the control of the imperial insurance
bureau (Reieksversicherungsami) at Berlin; those that arc confined
to a single state (as generally in the case of foresters and husband-
men) are under the control of the state insurance bureau (Landcs-
verricherungsamt).
So far as their earnings do not exceed £150 per an num. the following
1 are under the legal obligation to insure : labourers in mines,
quarries,dockyards,wharves,manufactoricsand breweries; bricklayers
and navvies; post-office, railway, and naval and military servants and
officials; carters, raftsmen and canal hands; cellarmen, warehouse*
men; stevedores; and agricultural labourers. Each of these groups
forms an association, which within a certain district embraces all the
industries with which it is connected. The funds for covering the
compensation payable in respect of accidents are raised by payments
based, in agriculture, on the taxable capital, and in other trades and
industries on the earnings of the insured. Compensation in respect
of injury or death is not paid if the accident was brought about
through the culpable negligence or other delict of the insured. In
case of injury, involving incapacity for more than thirteen weeks
(for the earlier period the Krankenkasscn- provide), the weekly sum
payable during complete or permanent incapacity is fixed at the
ratio of two-thirds of the earnings during the year preceding the
accident, and in case of partial disablement, at such a proportion
of the earnings as corresponds to the loss through disablement.
In certain circumstances {e.g. need for paid nursing) the sum may be
increased to the full rate of the previous earnings. In case of death,
as a consequence of injury, the following payments are made: (l)
a sum of at least £2, 10s. to defray the expenses of interment;
(2) a monthly allowance of one-fifth of the annual earnings as above
to the widow and each child up to the age of 15.
Life Insurance. — There were forty-six companies in 1900 for the
insurance of life. The number of persons insured was 1446,219
at the end of that year, the insurances amounting to roughly
£320,000,000. Besides these are sixty-one companies — of which
forty-six are comprised in the above life insurance companies-
paying subsidies in case of death or of military service, endowments.
&c. Some of these companies are industrial. The transactions of
all these companies included in 1900 over 4,179,000 persons, and the
amount of insurances effected was £80,000,000.
Religion. — So far as the empire as a whole is concerned there
is no state religion, each state being left free to maintain its own
establishment. Thus while the emperor, as king of Prussia, is
summus episcopus of Lhe Prussian Evangelical Church, as em-
peror he enjoys no such ecclesiastical headship. In the several
states the relations of church and state differ fundamentally
according as these states are Protestant or Catholic. In the
latter these relations are regulated either by concordats between
the governments and the Holy See, or by bulls of circumscription
issued by the pope after negotiation. The effects of concordats
and bulls alike arc tempered by the exercise by the civil
power of certain traditional reserved rights, e.g. the placetum
rcgium, recurs us ab abusu, nominatio regia, and that of vetoing
the nomination of personae minus gratae. In the Protestant
states the ecclesiastical authority remains purely territorial,
and the sovereign remains effective head of the established
church. During the 19th century, however, a large measure of
ecclesiastical self-government (by means of general synods, &c.)
was introduced, pari passu with the growth of constitutional
government in the state; and in effect, though the theoretical
supremacy of the sovereign survives in the church as in the state,
he cannot exercise it save through the general synod, which is
the state parliament for ecclesiastical purposes/ Where a
sovereign rules over a state containing a large proportion of
both Catholics and Protestants, which is usually the case, both
systems coexist. Thus in Prussia the relations of the Roman
Catholic community to the Protestant state are regulated by
arrangement between the Prussian government and Rome;
while in Bavaria the king, though a Catholic, is legally summus
episcopus of the Evangelical Church.
According to the religious census of 1900 there were in the German
empire 35,231,104 Evangelical Protestants, 20,327,913 Roman
Catholics, 6472 Greek Orthodox, 203,678 Christians belonging to
Quakers, German Catholics, Old Catholics, &c. The table on follow-
ing page shows the distribution of the population according to
religious beliefs as furnished by the census of 1900.
Almost two-thirds of the population belong to the Evangelical
Church, and rather more than a third to the Church of Rome; the
actual figures (based on the census of 1900) being (%) Evan-
gelical Protestants, 62*5; Roman Catholics, 36*1; Dissenters and
others, '043, and Jews, i-o. The Protestants have not increased
proportionately in number since 1800, while the Roman Catholics
•how a small relative increase. Three states in Germany have a
decidedly predominant Roman Catholic population, viz. Alsace-
Lorraine, Bavaria and Baden; and in four states the Protestant
element prevails, but with from 24 to 34% of Roman Catholics:
viz. Prussia, Wurttcmbcrg, Hesse and Oldenburg. In Saxony and
822 GERMANY ieducatkjh
ne-half of the lawyers and the members of the corpora*
tuld be mentioned, as a curious fact, that the numbers
sh persuasion in the kingdom of Saxony increased
[•3 per thousand) in 1871 to 12,416 (5 per thousand)
.—In point of educational culture Germany ranks
; all the civilized great nations of the world (see
Germany). Education is general and compulsory
the empire, and all the states composing it have, with
fications, adopted the Prussian system providing
blishment of elementary schools— Volkssdndex— in
and village. The school age is from six to fourteen,
can be compelled to send their children to a Voiks-
s, to the satisfaction of the. authorities, they are
equate instruction in some other recognised school
number of primary schools was 60,584 in 1006-
*»t 166,597; pupils, 0,737,263— an average of about
uU to every 900 inhabitants. The annual expendi-
er £26.000,000, of which sum £7,500,000 was pro-
ate subvention. There were also in Germany it
ar 643 private schools, giving instruction similar to
elementary schools, with 41,000 pupils. A food
he progress of education is obtained from the diminish-
of illiterate army recruits, as shown by the following
EDUCATION]
GERMANY
823
Years.
Number of
Recruits.
Unable to Read or Write.
Total.
Per 1000
Recruits.
1 875-1876
1880-I 88 1
1 885-I 886
1 890-189 1
I 895-1896
I 898-1 899
1900-1901
139.855
151. 180
152,933
I93.3J8
250,287
252,382
253.000
33"
2406
1657
1035
374
173
»3i
237
15-9
io«8
54
1-5
07
o-45
Of the above 131 illiterates in 1900-1901, 114 were in East and
West Prussia, Posen and Silesia.
Universities and Higher Technical Schools. — Germany owes
its large number of universities, and its widely diffused higher
education to its former subdivision into many separate states.
Only a few of the universities date their existence from the
19th century; the majority of them are very much older. Each
of the larger provinces, except Posen, has at least one university,
the entire number being 21. All have four faculties except
MUnster, which has no faculty of medicine. As regards theology,
Bonn, Breslau and Tubingen have both a Protestant and a
Catholic faculty; Freiburg, Munich, MOnster and Wurzburg
are exclusively Catholic; and all the rest are Protestant.
The following table gives the names of the 21 universities, the dates
of their respective foundations, the number of their professors and
other teachers for the winter- half-year 1908-1909, and of the students
attending their lectures during the winter half-year of 1 907-1908;
addition to 424 commercial schools of a lesser degree, 100 schools for
textile manufactures and numerous schools for special metal in-
dustries, wood-working, ceramic industries, naval architecture and
engineering and navigation. For military science there are the
academies of war {Knegsohademien) in Berlin and Munich, a naval
academy in Kiel; and various cadet and non-commissionca officers*
schools. '
Libraries. — Mental culture and a general diffusion of knowledge
are extensively promoted by means of numerous public libraries
established in the capital, the university towns and other places.
The most celebrated public libraries are those of Berlin (1,000,000
volumes and 30,000 MSS.); Munich (1,000,000 volumes, 40,000
MSS.); Heidelberg (563,000 volumes, 8000 MSS.); Gottingea
(503,000 volumes, 6000 MSS.); Strassburg (760,000 volumes) 1
Dresden (500,000 volumes, 6000 MSS.); Hamburg (municipal
library, 600,000 volumes, 5000 MSS.); Stuttgart (400,000 volumes,
3500 MSS.) ; Leipzig (university library, 500,000 volumes, 5000MSS.) j
Wurzburg (350,000 volumes); Tubingen (340,000 volumes) ; Rostock
(318,000 volumes); Breslau (university library, 300,060 volumes,
7000 MSS.); Frciburg-im-Breisgau (250,000 volumes); Bonn
(265,000 volumes); and Kdnigsbere (230,000 volumes, 1100 MSS.).
There are also famous libraries at Gotha, Wolfenbuttel and Cellc.
Learned Societies. — There are numerous societies and unions,
some of an exclusively scientific character and others designed for
the popular diffusion of useful knowledge. Foremost among German
academies is the Academy of Sciences \Akademie der Wissenschaften)
in Berlin, founded in 1700 on Leibnitz's great plan and opened ro
171 1. After undergoing various vicissitudes, it was reorganized by
Frederick the Great on the French model and received its present
constitution in 1812. It has four sections: physical, mathematical,
philosophical and historical. The members are (1) ordinary (50 in
number, each receiving a yearly dotation of £30), and (2) extra-
ordinary, consisting of honorary and correspondinjg (foreign) members.
It has published since 181 1 a selection of treatises furnished by its
most eminent men.
2486 women.
uoservaiones. — liiese nave in recent years been considerably
augmented. There are 19 leading observatories in the empire, viz,
at Bamberg, Berlin (2), Bonn, Bothkamp in Schleswig, Breslau,
Dusscldorf, Gotha, Gottingcn, Hamburg, Heidelberg, Jena, Kiel,
Kdnigsberg, Leipzig, Munich, Potsdam, Strassburg and Wilhclms-
haven.
Book Trade. — This branch of industry,- from the important
position it has gradually acquired since the time of the Reformation^
is to be regarded as at once a cause and a result of the mental culture
of Germany. Leipzig, Berlin and Stuttgart are the chief centres of
the trade. The number of booksellers in Germany was not less than
10,000 in 1907, among whom were approximately 6000 publishers.
The following figures will show the recent progress of German
literary production, in so far as published works are concerned:
1600 1618 1650 1700 1750 1800 1840 1884 1902
791 1293 725 951 1219 3335 6904 15,607 26,902
I Newspapers. — While in England a few important newspapers
have an immense circulation, the newspaoers of Gcmawj *ss. was&w
mote numerous,, \>\x\ ou \}fcfe ^\wO» wcosccmA ^ \a*w5t.\>ass&a&> >&&*
824 GERMANY jarmy
Some laree cities, notably Berlin, Cologne. Hamburg, Dresden. Voluntarily enlisted in the army and navy,
on or before attaining service age . 57.739
Assigned as recruits to the navy . . . 10,374
Put back, &c 684,193
7t> '* 51
Available as army recruits, fit . . * . . . 4»S»55?
Of these, (a) Assigned to the active army for two or three
years' service with the colours 212,661
(b) Assigned to the Ersatz-Reserve of the 1 f go 8-7
army and navy >untraim&< , Jinfl
(0 Assigned to the 1st levy of Landsturm J [ "*"»*
425.557
Thus only half the men on whom the government has tn
effective hold go to the colours in the end. Moreover few of the
men " put back, &c," who figure on both sides of the account for
any one year, and seem to average 660,000, arc really " put back."
They are in the main those who have failed or fail to present them-
selves, and whose names are retained on the liability lists against
the day of their return. Many of these have emigrated.
By the constitution of the 16th of April 1871 every German
is liable to service and no substitution is allowed. Liability
begins at the age of seventeen, and actual service, as a rule,
from the age of twenty. The men serve in the active army and
army reserve for seven years, of which two years (three in the
case of cavalry and horse artillery recruits) are spent with the
colours. During his four or five years in the reserve, the soldier
is called out for training with his corps twice, for a maximum
of eight weeks (in practice usually for six). After quitting the
reserve the soldier is drafted into the first ban of the Landwth
for five years more, in which (except in the cavalry, which is
not called out in peace time) he undergoes two trainings of from
eight to fourteen days. Thence he passes into the second ban
and remains in it until he has completed his thirty-ninth year — U.
from six to seven years more, the whole period of army and Land-
wchr service being thus nineteen years. Finally, all soldiers are
passed into the Landsturm, in the first ban of which they remain
until the completion of their forty-fifth year. The second ban
consists of untrained men between the ages of thirty-nine and
forty-five. Young men who reach a certain standard of educa-
tion, however, arc only obliged to serve for one year in the active
army. They arc called One- Year Volunteers (Einjdkrii-Frei-
willigen), defray their own expenses and arc the chief source of
. ,. - , / ,, n . .. . . „ . T «« supply of reserve and Landwehr officers. That proportion of
to the re orms in the Prussian army that followed Jena. The ™ J contingents which is dismissed untrained £es either
'nation m arms "itself was the product of the French Revolu- ErsaU-Reserve or to the 1st ban of the LandXunn (the
tionary and Napoleonic wars but it was in Pruss,a that was Landweh it wiU be obscrvcd conUins on , men who havT
seen the systematizat.on and the economy and effective ^ w{ ; h ^ colours) ^ £rsatz ^ excIusivel «,
* PP "*Ta S l ITT^ ^ / i C 'It?? young men, who would in war time be drafted to the regimental
period had demonstrated ^^™ <« ■""? Aemy; Con- » fa . h what trajni dnunM S^ ^
scription; French Revolutionary Wars, &c) It was ^ ■ Some men of the Ersatt
iTo?tne^^ ^'r.£^ 6i»
Germany of later days, and the same system wa. extended th ^ f ^
by degrees over all the other states of the new ^empire But volunteers S ft. 9* in. A much ^eater proportion of
these very successes contained in themselves the germ of new * * were accepted as "fit » than of those
trouble »• Increased prosperity, a shl greater increase in popuk- ^"^ the towns . Volun P tary cnlistmcnts * mcn wbo
tion and the social a*d economic disturbances incidental to the * b non-commissioned officers were most frequent
conversion of an agricultural into a: ^<^"^™: ccs ^.^ monarch but ^ Bcrlin
muruty led to the practical 'buriouint oi the P™^ <* ^ ^ cnlistmcnts fcU J Ur Aon « lbe
universal service. More men came before the rccruiUng ttum ^ T o[ non ^ m ^ oned 0& ^ n ^ uW ^ ior lhe i€Klil0T ^
officer than there was money to train; and in 1895 ^period h respective districts Above aU, in Alsace,
of service with the colours was reduced from three to two * one -eighth only of the required numbers were obtained,
ycars-a step since followed by other military powers, he idea Peaa and tf ar strcnglhs.-GcrZnn military policy is revised
being that with the same peace effective and financial grants CV cry five years; thus a law of April 1005 fixes the strength and
half as many men again could be passed through the ranks as establishments to be attained on March 31, 1910, the necessary
before auRmcntations, &c, being carried out gradually in the intervening
* . . . . years. The peace strength for the latter date was fixed at 5°5* 8 39
In 1907 the recruiting statistics were as" follows: mc n (not including officers, non-commissioned officers and one-year
Number of young men attaining service age (including volunteers), forming —
those who had voluntarily enlisted before their time) . 556.77* 633 battalions infantry.
Men belonging to previous years who had been put back 5* o squadrons cavalry.
for re-examination. &c, still borne on the lists . . 657,753 574 batteries field and horse artillery.
— — 40 battalions foot artillery.
1,214,525 29 battalions pioneers.
Deduct— Physically unfit, &c .... 35,802 12 battalions communication troops.
Struck oB 860 23 train battalions, &c
army) GERMANY
The additidn of about 25,000 officers and 85,000 non-commissioned
officers, one-year men, &c, brings the peace footing of the German
army in 1910 to a total of about 615,000 of all ranks.
As for war, the total fighting strength of the German nation
(including the navy) has been placed at as high a figure as 1 1,000,000,
Of these 7,000,000 have received little or no training, owing to medical
unfitness, residence abroad, failure to appear, surplus of annual
contingents, &c, as already explained, ana not more than 3,000,000
of these would be available in war. The real military resources of
Germany, untrained and trained, are thus about 7,000,000, of whom
4,000,000 have at one time or another done a continuous period of
service with the colours. 1 This is of course for a war of defence A
outranct. For an offensive war, only the active army, the reserve,
the Ersatz and the 1st levy of the Landwehr would be really available.
A rough calculation of the number of these who go to form or to
reinforce the field armies and the mobilized garrisons may be given :
825
Cadres of officers and non-commissioned officers
From 7 a annual contingents of recruits (*.*.
active army and reserve) ....
From 5 contingents of Landwehr (1st ban)
From 7 classes of Ersatz reserve called to the
depots, able-bodied men ....
One-year volunteers recalled to the colours or
serving as reserve and Landwehr officers
1,200,000
600,000
400,000
100.000
2,400,000
These again would divide into a first line army of 1.350,000 and a
second of 1,050,000. It is calculated that the field army would
consist, in the third week of a great war, of 633 battalions, 410
squadrons and 574 batteries, with technical, departmental and
medical troops (say 630,000 bayonets. 60,000 sabres and 3444 guns,
or 750,000 men), and that these could be reinforced in three or four
weeks by 350 fresh battalions. Behind these forces there would
shortly become available for secondary operations about 460 bat-
talions of the 1st ban Landwehr, and 200 squadro
batteries of the reserve and Landwehr. In addi
leave behind depot troops to form the nucleus on v
Landwehr and the Landsturm would eventually t
total number of units of the three arms in all brand
approximately at 2200 battalions, 780 squadrons t
Command and Organization. — By the articles ol
the whole of the land forces of the empire form 1
war and peace under the orders of the emperor,
the chief states arc entitled to nominate the lower
and the king of Bavaria has reserved to himself th<
of superintending the general administration of th
army corps; but all appointments are made subject to the emperor's
approval. The emperor is empowered to erect fortresses in any part
of the empire. It is the almost invariable practice of the kings of
Prussia to command their forces in person, and the army commands,
too, are generally held by leaders of royal or princely rank. The
natural corollary to this is the assignment of special advisory duties
to a responsible chief of staff. The officers arc recruited cither
from the Cadet Corps at Berlin or from amongst those men, of
sufficient social standing, who join the ranks .is " avantageurs "
with a view to obtaining commissions. Reserve and Landwehr
officers are drawn from among officers and selected non-commissioned
officers retired from the active army, and one-year volunteers who
have passed a special examination. All candidates, from whatever
source they come, are subject to approval or rejection by their
brother officers before being definitively commissioned. Promotion
in the German army is excessively slow, the senior subalterns having
eighteen to twenty years' commissioned service and the senior
captains sometimes thirty. The number of officers on the active list
Is about 25,000. The under-officers number about 84,000.
The German army is organized in twenty-three army corps,
stationed and recruited in the various provinces and ttatesas follows:
Guard, Berlin (general recruiting); I. Kdnigsberg (East Prussia);
II. Stettin (Pomcrania); 111. Berlin (Brandenburg) ; IV. Magdeburg
(Prussian Saxony); V. Posen (Poland and part of Silesiaj; VI.
Breslau (Silesia); VII. Munster (Westphalia); VIII. Coblenz
(Rhinelano) ; IX. Altona (Hanse Towns and Schleswig-Holstein) ;
X. Hanover (Hanover); XI. Cassel (Hesse-Cassel); XII. Dresden
(Saxony); XIII. Stuttgart (Wurttemberg) ; XIV. Karlsruhe
(Baden); XV. Strassburg (Alsace) ; XVI. Nletz (Lorraine); XVII.
Danzig (West Prussia); A VIII. Frankfurt -am-Main (Hesse Darm-
stadt, Main country); XIX. Leipzig (Saxony); 1. Bavarian Corps,
Munich; II. Bavarian Corps. Wurzburg; III. Bavarian Corps,
Nuremberg. The formation of a XX. army corps out of the extra
division ofthe XIV. corps at Colmar in Alsace, with the addition of
two regiments from Westphalia and drafts of the XV. and XVI.
corps, was announced in 1908 as the final step of the programme for
the period 1906-1910. The normal composition of an army corps
on war is (a) staff, (b) 2 infantry divisions, each of 2 brigades (4
1 Actually between 1883 and 1908 over five million recruits
passed through the drill sergeant's hands, as well as perhaps 210,000
one-year volunteers.
of field artillery (comprising
howitzers, 72 pieces in all),
« of pioneers, a bridge train
m troops, 1 battalion rifles,
:ion columns, train (supply)
ues and field hospitals, &c.,
of heavy field howitzers or
le remainder of the cavalry
y corps in peace goes in war
in corps have an increased
cavalry division, and the I.
. - Several corps possess an
ilion regiments, out these,
radually absorbed into new
rveral army corps, cavalry
ed in two or more " armies,
ed for purposes of superior
ions."
its of cuirassiers, dragoons*
the regiments having four
opers are armed with lance,
e substitution of a short rifle
time the highest permanent
ents or eight squadrons, but
three brigades, with horse
s, mostly of three battalions
1 the eight Guard regiments
learmy. Certain regiments
addition thtre are eighteen
te battalion has always four
jo strong. The armament
izine rifle and bayonet (see
consists in peace of 94 regi-
oups (AbUtlungen), each of
Id gun in use is the qukk-
U Equipments).
and fortress warfare, and to
army. It consists of forty
resembling 4-gun batteries
the number of sixteen in
c with the cavalry divisions,
itional small groups of two
the infantry, and a certain
908.
, not concerned with field
s. On the other hand, the
the field army, with duties
>mpanies RE. in the British
Great Britain by the Royal
the title "communication
ph and airship and balloon
1 the duties of supply and
eh army corps.
in horses is approximately
ars in the artillery and nine
: autumn of each year, they
mts. The latter are bought
1, and sent to the 25 remount
they are sent to the various
Most of the cavalry and
russia proper. The Polish
i semi-eastern type. Hanover
of horses. Bavaria, Saxony
h horses for their own armies
ten thousand four hundred
ht by the army authorities
ibout £51 for held artillery
; horses, and £46 for riding
, according to a comparative
>ns by the British war office
ind £44,000,000 per annum
[42,000,000 and £51,000,000
espective of the brigade of
lina and of special reinforce-
lerrero war, consisted of the
sans and 1470 natives; the
170 natives; S.W. African
y consisting of 606 officers
"hey were formed from about
two or three being voted each
of mounted orderlies, at a
tic to ask openly for more
ined in real cavalry work,
ts for disciplinary purpose*
826
GERMANY
." strategic railway stations " which were constructed about the
same time. Thus, the creation of a new series of forts extending
from Thionville (Diedcnhofcn) to Met* and thence south-eastward
was coupled with the construction of twelve strategic railway
stations between Cologne and the Belgian frontier, and later — the
so-called " fundamental plan " of operations against France having
apparently undergone modification in consequence of changes in the
foreign relations of the German government — an immense strategic
railway station was undertaken at Saarburg, on the right rear of
Thionville and well away from the French frontier, and many im-
portant new works both of fortification and of railway construction
were begun in Upper Alsace, between Cblmar and Basel.
The coast defences include, besides the great naval ports
of Wilhelmshavcn on the North Sea and Kiel on the Baltic,
Danzig, Pillau, Mcmel, Friedricbsort, Cuxhaven, GeestemUnde and
Swinemdnde. (C F. A.)
Navy.— The German navy is of recent origin.' In 1848 the
German people urged the construction of a fleet. Money was
collected, and a few men-of-war were fitted out; but these
were subsequently sold, the German Bundestag (federal council)
not being in sympathy with the aspirations of the nation. Prussia
however, began laying the foundations of a small navy. To
meet the difficulty arising from the want of good harbours in
the Baltic, a small extent of territory near Jade Bay was bought
from Oldenburg in 1854, for the purpose of establishing a war-port
there. Its construction was completed at enormous expense,
and it was opened for ships by the emperor in June 1869 under
the name of Wilhelroshaven. In 1864 Prussia, in annexing
Holstcin, obtained possession of the excellent port of Kiel,
which has since been strongly fortified. From the time of the
formation of the North German Confederation the navy has
belonged to the common federal interest. Since xst October
1867 all its ships have carried the same flag, of the national
colours— black, white, red, with the Prussian eagle and the iron
cross.
From 1848 to 1868 the increase of the navy was slow. In
1851 it consisted, of 51 vessels, including 36 small gunboats
of 2 guns each. In 1868 it consisted of 45 steamers (including
2 ironclads) and 44 sailing vessels, but during the various wars
of the period 1848-1871, only a few minor actions were fought
at sea, and for many years after the French War the development
of the navy did not keep pace with that of the empire's com-
mercial interests beyond the seas, or compete seriously with
the naval power of possible rivals. But towards the end of the
xoth century Germany started on a new naval policy, by which
her fleet was largely and rapidly increased. Details of this
development will be found in the article Navy (see also History
below, ad fin.). It will be sufficient here to give the statistics
relating to the beginning of the year 1909, reference being made
only to ships effective at that date and to ships authorized in
the construction programme ot 1907;
(NAVY
, approaching completion.
'4 non-effective),
approaching completion,
t approaching completion.
\ approaching completion.
.tration was transferred
liralty (RtichsmartiuamC).
ary of state The chief
from the administration
Is the movements of the
aintenance of the arsenals
1 all matters immediately
rince of the secretary of
iltic (Kiel) and North Sea
itegically linked by the
ws the Schlcswig-Holstcin
lerburg have also, been
t by the obligatory service
ucn as sailors, fishermen
elect for naval service in
sttmated that the total
1 to 80,000. The active
ers (including engineers,
'•officers and men, total
aore than 100,000 officers
(P. A. A.)
ted every year by the
from which considerable
were created after the
idemnity was invested
tese investments served
ind amounted originally
the interest, but part
hese pensions, and the
[15,100,000, and in 1004
out £5,200,000, serves
of fortresses; while
hots — or " war treasure
is stored in coined gold
ndau. In addition to
which France bought
>3,ooo,ooo, in order to
Y, are also the property
lerable public discussion
1 the reorganization of
y possible here to deal
aat time, since further
e already foreshadowed,
at the imperial budget
reliance on the revenue
resources— customs and
telegraph receipts, and
m the Alsace-Lorraine
tat, fox the purpose of
required by the imperial
Las according to popula-
pected that these would
mphatically by the early
tin! part of the financial
ad been intended that,
;ular assignments {Cher-
states, in relief of their
pe out the contribution;
were considerably less.
1887 and 1902, but the
the Vbcrweisunge* con*
kg as follows (in millions
gen.
Excess.
*4
150
FINANCE]
GERMANY
827
These figures show how natural it was to desire to relieve the
States by increasing the direct imperial revenue.
Meanwhile, in spite of the " matricular contributions," the
calls on imperial finance had steadily increased, and up to 1908
were continually met to a large extent by loans, involving a
continual growth of the imperial debt, which in 1007 amounted
to 3643 millions of marks. The imperial budget, like that of
most European nations, is divided into two portions, the ordinary
and the extraordinary; and the increase under both heads
(especially for army and navy) became a recurrent factor. A
typical situation is represented by the main figures for 1905 and
1906 (in millions of marks):
Expenditure.
Revenue.
Raised by
Loan.
Ordinary.
Extra-
ordinary.
1905
1900
2002
2157
193
235
2055
2118
258
The same process went on in 1907 and 1908, and it was
necessarily recognized that the method of balancing the imperial
budget by a regular increase of debt could not be satisfactory
in a country where the general increase of
wealth and taxable capacity had meanwhile
been conspicuous. And though the main
proposals made by the government for new
taxation, including new direct taxes, resulted
in a parliamentary deadlock in 1909, and led
to Prince von Billow's resignation as chancellor,
it was already evident that some important
reorganization of the imperial financial system
was inevitable.
Currency. — The German empire adopted a gold
currency by the law of the 4th of December
1 87 1. Subsequently the old local coinages
(Landesmunten) began to be called in and re-
placed by new gold and silver coins. The old gold
coins, amounting to £4,550,000. had been called in
as early as 1873; and the old silver coins have
since been successively put out of circulation, so
that none actually remains as legal tender but the
thaler (3s.). The currency reform was at first
facilitated by the French in<
of which was paid in gold,
the London gold prices ran
declined. The average rate
I870 was 60 |d., in Januiry
49d. It rose in January 18;
September 1878 it was 5ofd
of fine gold and fine sjlvcr in
to 17-79 in '876, 1 to 17-18
he h<
bank) ranks far above
of the Prussian Bank
id management of the
office is in Berlin, and
art of the empire. It
shares of £150 each.
Bank is privileged to
he extent of is. 3d. in
ainder in bills at short
is first payable to the
tferred to the reserve
and of the remainder
Icrs and three-quarters
profits do not reach
the reserve. Private
less outside the state
ie notes, except under
hey agree that their
hdrawn at one year's
fidition has not been
! agreed to accept as
chsbank after this has
;imcs they are not to
ite of the Reichsbank,
a lower rate than the
ondition of the note-
term of years:
Liabilities.
Year.
Banks.
Capital.
Reserve.
Notes in
Circulation.
Total, including
other Liabilities.
1900
1901
1902
1903
1904
8
I
6
6
219,672
231,672
216,000
216,000
216.000
48.329
54,901
56,684
©o.itr
64.385
1.313.855
1.345.436
1.373.482
1.394.336
1. 433.421
2,237,017
2.360,453
2,353.951
2,365.256
2,378,845
Assets.
Year.
Banks.
Coin and
Bullion.
Notes of State
and other Banks.
Bills.
Total.
1900
1901
1902
1903
1904
8
7
6
6
6
899.630
990,262
1,052491
973,953
996.601
51.931
60,770
54.389
54.231
66,372
1,036,961
990.950
901,408
984.604
947.358
2,239,564
2460,355
2.354,253
2.356,5"
2.379.234
career;
prices
> 1866-
low as
and in
wights
t was 1
quence
to 39-
:oinage
odifica-
lark (1
rrown),
Besides
of the heavy fall in silver,
By the currency law of the
system was established and
tions, now in force as then
shilling) — the tenth part of
of which last 139I are struc
these ten-mark pieces, there are Doppcl kronen (double crowns),
about equivalent in value to an English sovereign (the average rate
of exchange being 20 marks 40 pfennige per £1 sterling), and,
formerly, half-crowns (halbc Kronen ^5 marks) in gold were also
issued. But they have been withdrawn from circulation. Silver coins
are 5, 2 and 1 mark pieces, equivalent to 5, 2 and I shillings respec-
tively, and 50 pfennige pieces = 6d. Nickel coins arc 10 and 5
pfennige pieces, and there are bronze coins of 2 and 1 pfennige.
The system is decimal ; thus 100 pfennige =» I mark, 1000 pfennige —
the gold krone (or crown), and id. English amounts roughly to 8
The total turnover of the Imperial Bank was, in the first year of its
foundation, 1} milliards pounds sterling: and, in 1899, 90 milliards.
Eighty-five per cent of its bank-notes have been, on the average,
covered by metal reserve.
The total value of silver coins is not to exceed 10 marks, and that
of copper and nickel 2} marks per head of the population. While
the coinage of silver, nickel and copper is reserved to the state,
the coinage of gold pieces can be undertaken by the state for the
account of private individuals on payment of a fixed charge. The
coinage takes place in the six mints belonging to the various states —
thus Berlin (Prussia), Munich (Bavaria), Dresden (in the Muldener-
hOtte near Freiberg, Saxony), Stuttgart (Wurttcmberg), Karlsruhe
(Baden) and Hamburg (for the state of Hamburg). Of the thalers,
the Vereinsthaler, coined until 1867 in Austria, was by ordinance of
the Bundcsrat declared illegal tender since the 1st of January 1903.
No one can be compelled to accept more than 20 marks in silver or
more than 1 mark in nickel and copper coin ; but, on the other hand,
the Imperial Bank accepts imperial silver coin in payment to any
amount.
The total value of thalers, which, with the exception of the
Vereinsthaler, are legal tender, was estimated in 1894 at about
£20.000,000.
pfennige.
Banking. — A new banking la , „ _._
empire on the 14th of March 1875. Before that date there existed
Banling. — A new banking law was promulgated for the whole
thirly-two banks with the privilege of issuing notes, and on the 31st
of December 1872, £67,100.000 in all was in circulation, £25.100,000
of that sum being uncovered. The banking law was designed to
reduce this circulation of notes; £19,250,000 was fixed as an aggre-
gate maximum of uncovered notes of the banks. The private banks
wore at the same time obliged to erect branch offices in Berlin or
Frankfort-on-Main for the payment of their notes. In consequence
of this regulation numerous banks resigned the privilege of issuing
notes, ana at present there arc in Germany but the following private
note banks issuing private notes, viz. the Bavarian, the Saxon,
the WQrttemberg, the Baden and the Brunswick, in addition to the
Konvrrsalions-Lexiko* (1902 seqq.); Brockhaus', Koiiversatibns-
Lexikon (1900 seqq.); J. Kurschncr, Stoats- Hof- und Kommuntd-
handbuch des Reiches und dtr Einzdstaalcn (Leipzig, 1900) ; P. Hage*
Crundriss dtr deuiscken Stoats- und Reehtskunde (Stuttgart, 1906),
and for statistical matter chiefly the following: CentralblaU Mr
das dtutsthe Reich. Herausftgeben im Reicksamt dtr Intum (Berlin,
1900) ; Die dtutschs Armet und dk fatscrtfefce IforiM <$ta&h<\afe*\\
828 GERMANY (archaeology
Traces of Neolithic settlements have been found chiefly in the
neighbourhood of Worms, in the Main district and in Thuringi*.
These dwellings are usually holes in the ground, and presumably
had thatched roofs. Our knowledge of the later Neolithic age,
as of the succeeding periods, is largely gained from the remains of
lake-dwellings, represented in Germany chiefly by Bavarian
finds. The lake-dwellings in Mecklenburg, Pomcrania and East
Prussia are of a different type, and it is not certain that they date
back to the Stone age. Typical Neolithic cemeteries are found at
Hinkelstein, Alzey and other places in the neighbourhood of
Worms. In these graves the skeletons lie flat, while in other
cemeteries, as at Flomborn in Rhine- Hesscn, and near Hcilbronn,
they are in a huddled position (hence the name Hockergr&ba).
Necklaces and bracelets of Mediterranean shells point to a con-
siderable amount of commerce. Other objects found in the
graves are small flint knives, stone axes, flint and lumps of pyrites
for obtaining fire, and, in the women's graves, hand-mills for
grinding corn. The earthenware vessels usually have rounded
bottoms. The earliest ornamentation consists of finger-imprints.
Later we find two periods of zigzag designs in south Germany
with an intermediate stage of spirals and wavy lines, while in
north and east Germany the so-called string-ornamentation
predominates. Towards the end of the period the inhabitants of
north Germany erect megalithic graves, and in Hanover especially
the passage-graves.
Bronze Age (in south Germany from c. 2000-1000 B.C.). — In
the later Stone age we note the occasional use of copper, and then
the gradual appearance of bronze. The bronze civilization of the
Aegean seems to have had direct influence along the basins of
the Danube and Elbe, while the culture of the western parts of
central Germany was transmitted through Italy and France.
No doubt the pre-eminence of the north, and especially of Den-
mark, at this period, was due to the amber trade, causing southern
influence to penetrate up the basin of the Elbe to Jutland. The
earlier period is characterized by the practice of inhumation in
barrows made of days, stones or sand, according to the district.
Bronze is cast, whereas at a later time it shows signs of the
hammer. From the finds in Bavarian graves it appears that the
chief weapons were the dagger and the long pointed PaJslab
(palstave), while a short dagger fixed like an axe on a long shaft
is characteristic of the North. The women wore two bronze
pins, a bracelet on each arm, amber ornaments and a necklace of
bronze tubes in spirals. One or two vases are found in each
barrow, ornamented with finger-imprints, " string " decoration,
&c. The later period is characterized by the practice of crema-
tion, though the remains arc still placed in barrows. Swords
make their appearance. The women wear more and more
massive ornaments. The vases are highly polished and of
elegant form, with zigzag decoration.
Hall st all Period (in Germany 8th-sth century B.C.).— The
Hallstatt stage of culture, named after the famous cemetery in
upper Austria, is marked by the introduction of iron (see
Hallstatt). In Germany its centre is Bavaria, Baden and
Wurttcmbcrg, with the Thuringian forest as the northern
boundary. In Brandenburg, Lusatia, Silesia, Poscn and Saxony,
] where there was no strong Bronze age tradition, Hallstatt in-
fluence is very noticeable. In west Prussia the urns with human
< faces deserve notice. The dead are cither buried in barrows
or cremated, the latter especially in north and cast Germany.
i In Bavaria both practices are resorted to, as at Hallstatt. The
1 pottery develops beautiful form and colour. Fibulae, often of
1 the " kettle-drum " form, take the place of the Bronze agr pin.
1 La Tene Period Uth-ist century B.C.).— Down to this time there
' is very little evidence concerning the racial affinities of the popula-
< lion. When our records first begin the western and southern
portions of Germany seem to have been inhabited by Celtic
1 peoples (sec below " Ethnography "). La Tene, in Switzerland, has
1 given its name to the period, of which the earlier part corresponds
i to the time of Celtic supremacy. It is interesting to note how
i the Celts absorb Roman and still more Greek culture, even
c imitating foreign coins, and pass on their new arts to their
*fi _ . rm— TeuVBMC niaifrfrgmsA W. va, inttft ol the strong foreign influence
ETHNOGRAPHY)
GERMANY
829
the Celtic civilization can in some sort be termed national.
Later it has a less rich development, betraying the political
decay of the race. Its centres in Germany are the southern
districts as far as Thuringia, and the valleys of the Main and Saar.
The ornamentation is of the conventionalized plant type: gold
is freely used, and enamel, of a kind different from the Roman
enamel used later in Germany, is applied to weapons and orna-
ments. Chariots are used in war, and fortified towns arc built,
though we must still suppose the houses to have consisted of a
wooden framework coated with clay. In these districts La Tene
influence is contemporary with the use of tumuli, but in the
(non-Celtic) coast districts it must besought in urn-cemeteries.
Roman' Period (from the 1st century a.d.). — The period suc-
ceeding to La Tene ought rather to be called Romano-Germanic,
the relation of the Teutonic races to the Roman civilization
being much the same as that of the Celts to classical culture in
the preceding period. The Rhine lands were of course the centre
of Roman civilization, with Roman roads, fortresses, stone and
tiled houses and marble temples. By this time the Teutonic
peoples had probably acquired the art of writing, though the
origin of their national (Runic) alphabet is still disputed. The
graves of the period contain urns of earthenware or glass,
cremation being the prevalent practice, and the objects found
include one or more coins in accordance with Roman usage.
Period of Notional Migrations (a.d. 300-500). — The grave-finds
do not bear out the picture of a period of ceaseless war painted
by the Roman historians. On the contrary, weapons are seldom
found, at any rate in graves, the objects in which bear witness
to a life of extraordinary luxury. Magnificent drinking-vessels,
beautifully ornamented dice and draughtsmen, masses of gay
beads, are among the commonest grave-finds. A peculiarity
of the period is the development of decoration inspired by
animal forms, but becoming more and more tortuous and fan-
tastic. Only those eastern parts of Germany which were now
occupied by Slavonic peoples remained uninfluenced by this rich
civilization.
The Merovingian Period (a.d. 500-800) sees the completion
of the work of converting the German tribes to Christianity.
Reikengrdber, containing objects of value; but otherwise like
modern cemeteries, with the dead buried in rows (Reiften), are
found over all the Teutonic part of Germany, but some tribes,
notably the Alamanni, seem still to have buried their dead in
barrows. Among the Franks and Burgundians we find mono-
lithic sarcophagi in imitation of the Romans, and in other
districts sarcophagi were constructed out of several blocks of
stone — the so-called Plaltcngraber. The weapons are the s pallia,
or double-bladed German sword, the sax (a short sword, or
long knife, semis pathium), the knife, shield, and the favourite
German axe, though this latter is not found in Bavaria. The
ornaments are beads, earrings, brooches, rings, bracelets, &c,
thickly studded with precious stones.
Authorities.— S. Muller, Urgeschichte Enrobes (1905), and
Tierornamentik (1881); O. Montclius, " Chronologic dcr Bronze-
zeit in N. Deutschla
pologie, vols. xxv. an<
(1892), and Der dil
Kupferzeit in Europe
(1890); J. Naue, B\
Ostpreussische Alter ti
und Pfahlbaulen (18
Holstein (1886); A.
(1887): I. Undset. £1
L. Lindensehmit, He
1889); and W. Rid;
articles by the above
(Berlin); Archiv ffo
wick); Wesldeutsche
okonomischen Ge sells
Altertumskunde (Bcr!
fur A nlhrobologie, &c
and Zeitschrift fur de\
Ethnography and Early History
Our direct knowledge of Germany begins with the appoint-
ment of Julius Caesar as governor of Gaul in 50 B.C. Long
before that time there is evidence of German communication
IlfCMH
pmlgmt W
with southern civilization, as the antiquities prove, and occa-
sional travellers from the Mediterranean had made their way into
those regions (e.g. Pytheas, towards the end of the 4th
century), but hardly any records of their journeys sur-
vive. The first Teutonic peoples whom the Romans are
said to have encountered are the Cimbri and Tcutoni,
probably from Denmark, who invaded Illyria, Gaul and Italy
towards the end of the 2nd century B.C. When Caesar arrived
in Gaul the westernmost part pf what is now Germany was in
the possession of Gaulish tribes. The Rhine practically formed
the boundary between Gauls and Germans, though one Gaulish
tribe, the Menapii, is said to have been living beyond the Rhine
at its mouth, and shortly before the arrival of Caesar an invading
force of Germans had seized and settled down in what is now
Alsace, 72 B.C. At this time the Gauls were being pressed by
the Germans along the whole frontier, and several of Caesar's
campaigns were occupied with operations, either against the
Germans, or against Gaulish tribes set in motion by the Germans.
Among these we may mention the campaign of his first year of
office, 58 B.C., against the German king Ariovistus, who led the
movement in Alsace, and that of 55 B.C. in which he expelled
the U si petes and Tcncteri who had crossed the lower Rhine.
During the period of Caesar's government he succeeded in
annexing the whole of Gaul as far as the Rhine. (For the cam-
paigns see Caesar, Julius.)
After peace had been established in Italy by Augustus,
attempts were made to extend the Roman frontier beyond the
Rhine. The Roman prince Nero Claudius Drusus (q.v.)
in the year 12 B.C. annexed what is now the kingdom
of the Netherlands, and constructed a canal (Fossa
Drusiana) between the Rhine and the lake Flevo
(Lacus Flcvus), which partly corresponded to the
Zuyder Zee, though the topography of the district has greatly
altered. He also penetrated into regions beyond and crossed
the Weser, receiving the submission of the Bructeri, Chatti and
Cherusci. After Drusus' death in 9 B.C., while on his return from
an expedition which reached the Elbe, the German command
was twice undertaken by Tiberius, who in a.d. 5 received the
submission of all the tribes in this quarter, including the Chauci
and the Langobardi. A Roman garrison was left in the conquered
districts between the Rhine and the Elbe, but the reduction was
not thoroughly completed. About the same time the Roman
fleet voyaged along the northern coast apparently as far as the
north of Jutland, and received the nominal submission of several
tribes in that region, including the Cimbri and the Charades.
In a.d. 9 Quintilius Varus, the successor of Tiberius, was surprised
in the Saltus Teutobergensis between the Lippe and the Weser
by a force raised by Arminius, a chief of the Cherusci, and his
army consisting of three legions was annihilated. Germanicus
Caesar, during his tenure of the command of the Roman armies
on the Rhine, made repeated attempts to recover the Roman
position in northern Germany and exact vengeance for the death
of Varus, but without real success, and after his recall the Rhine
formed for the greater part of its course the boundary of the
Empire. A standing army was kept up on the Rhine, divided
into two commands, upper and lower Germany, the head-
quarters of the former being at Mainz, those of the latter at
Vetera, near Xanten. A number of important towns grew up,
among which we may mention Trier (Augusta Trevirorum),
Cologne (Colonia Agrippincnsis), Bonn (Bonna),Worms(Borbeto-
magus), Spires (Noviomagus), Strassburg (Argentoratum) and
Augsburg (Augusta Vindelicorum).
At a later date, however, probably under the Flavian emperors,
the frontier of upper Germany was advanced somewhat beyond
the Rhine, and a fortification, the Pfahlgraben, constructed to
protect it. It led from Hdnningen on the Rhine, about half-way
between Bonn and Coblenz, to Mittenberg above Aschaffenburg
on the Main, thence southwards to Lorch in Wlirttemberg,
whence it turned east to the junction of the Altmilhl with the
Danube at Kelheim.
During the wars of Drusus, Tiberius and Germanicus the
Romans had ample opportunity of getting to know the tribal
830
GERMANY
[EARLY HISTORY
Th0lr
geography of Germany, especially the western part, and though
most of our authorities lived at a somewhat later period, it is
probable that they derived their information very largely from
records of that time. It will be convenient, therefore, to give an
account of the tribal geographyof Germany in thetimeof Augustus,
as our knowledge of the subject is much more complete for his
reign than for several centuries later.
Of the Gaulish tribes west of the Rhine, the most important
was the Treveri, inhabiting the basin of the Moselle, from whom
the city of Trier (Tr6 vcs)deri ves its name. The Rauraci
Oerman P r0Da ^ly occupied the south of Alsace. To the south
tribe*. of the Treveri lay the Mediomatrici, and to the west
of them lay the important tribe of the Scquani, who
had called in Ariovistus. The Treveri claimed to be of German
origin, and the same claim was made by a number of tribes in
Belgium, the most powerful of which were the Nervii. The
meaning of this claim is not quite clear, as there is some obscurity
concerning the origin of the name Gcrmani. It appears to be a
Gaulish term, and there is no evidence that it was ever used by
the Germans themselves. According to Tacitus it was first
applied to the Tungri, whereas Caesar records that four Bclgic
tribes, namely, the Condrusi, Eburones, Cacraesi and Paemani,
were collectively known as Gcrmani. There is no doubt that
these tribes were all linguistically Celtic, and it is now the
prevailing opinion that they were not of German origin ethno-
logically, but that the ground for their claim was that they bad
come from over the Rhine (cf. Caesar, De BcUo Gallico ii. 4).
It would therefore seem that the name Gerraani originally
denoted certain Celtic tribes to the east of the Rhine, and that
it was then transferred to the Teutonic tribes which subsequently
occupied the same territory.
There is little doubt that during the last century before the
Christian era the Celtic peoples had been pushed considerably
farther west by the Teutonic peoples, a process which
was still going on in Caesar's time, when we hear of
the overthrow of the Menapii, the last Gaulish tribe
beyond the Rhine. In the south the same process can be
observed. The Boii were expelled from their territories inBohemia
by the Marcomanni in the time of Augustus, and the Helvetii
are also recorded to have occupied formerly lands east of the
Rhine, in what is now Baden and Wiirttemberg. Caesar also
mentions a Gaulish tribe named Volcae Tcctosages as living
in Germany in his time. The Volcae Arecomici in the south of
France and the Tectosages of Galatia were in all probability
offshoots of this people. The name of the tribe was adopted
in the Teutonic languages as a generic term for all Celtic and
Italian peoples (O.H.G. Walha, A.S. Wealas), from which it is
probably to be inferred that they were the Celtic people with
whom the Teutonic races had the closest association in early
times. It has been thought that they inhabited the basin of
the Weser, and a number of place-names in this district are
supposed to be of Celtic origin. Farther to the south and west
Ptolemy mentions a number of place-names which are certainly
Celtic, e.g. Mediolanion, Aregclia, Lougidounon, Lokoriton,
Segodounon. There is therefore great probability that a large
part of western Germany east of the Rhine had formerly been
occupied by Celtic peoples. In the east a Gaulish people named
Cotini are mentioned, apparently in the upper basin of the Oder,
and Tacitus speaks of a tribe in the same neighbourhood, the
Osi, who he says spoke the Pannonian language. It is probable,
therefore, that in other directions also the Germans had consider-
ably advanced their frontier southwards at a comparatively
recent period.
Coming now to the Germans proper, the basin of the Rhine
between Strassburg and Mains was inhabited by the Tribocci,
TrOn Nemctes and Vangiones, farther down by the Mattiaci
latb* about Wiesbaden, and the Ubii in the neighbourhood
wntaat f Cologne; beyond them were the Sugambri, and
—**' in the Rhine delta the Batavi and other smaller
tribes. All these tribes remained in subjection to the Romans.
Beyond them were the Tencteri, probably about the basin of
the Loan, and the Usipetes about the basin of the Ruhr. The
basin of the Lippe and the upper basin of the Ems were inhabited
by the Bructeri, and in the same neighbourhood were the Amp&i-
varii, who derive their name from the latter river. East of
them lay the Chasuarii, presumably in the basin of the Hasc.
The upper basin of the Weser was inhabited by the Chatti, whose
capital was Mattium, supposed to be Maden on the Eder. To
the north-west of them were situated the Marsi, apparently
between the Diemel and the Lippe, while the central part of the
basin of the Weser was inhabited by the Cherusci, who seem to
have extended considerably eastward. The lower part of ihe
river-basin was inhabited by the Angrivarii. The coast lands
north of the mouth of the Rhine were occupied by the Cannine-
fates, beyond them by the Frisii as far as the mouth of the Ems,
thence onward to the mouth of the Elbe by the Chauci. As to
the affinities of all these various tribes wc have little definite
information, but it is worth noting that the Batavi in Holland
are said to have been a branch of the Chatti, from whom they had
separated owing to a scditio domestica. The basin of the Elbe
was inhabited by Suebic tribes, the chief of which were the
Marcomanni, who seem to have been settled on the Saale during
the latter part of the 1st century B.C., but moved into Bohemia
before the beginning of the Christian era, where they at once
became a formidable power under their king Maroboduus.
The Quadi were settled somewhat farther cast about the source
of the Elbe. The Hermunduri in the basin of the Saale were in
alliance with the Romans and occupied northern Bavaria with
their consent. The Semnones apparently dwelt below the
junction of the Saale and Elbe. The Langobardi (see Lombards)
possessed the land between the territory of the Semnones and
the mouth of the river. Their name is supposed to be preserved
in Bardengau, south of Hamburg. From later evidence it is
likely that another division of the Sucbi inhabited western
Holstein. The province of Schleswig (perhaps only the west
coast) and the islands adjacent were inhabited by the Saxons,
while the east coast, at least in later times, was occupied by the
Angli. The coast of Mecklenburg was probably inhabited by
the Varini (the later Warni). The eastern part of Germany
was much less known to the Romans, information being particu-
larly deficient as to the populations of the coast districts, though
it seems probable that the Rugii inhabited the eastern part of
Pomerania, where a trace of them is preserved in the name
Rtigenwalde. The lower part of the basin of the Oder was
probably occupied by the Burgundioncs, and the upper part by
a number of tribes collectively known as Lugii who seem to
correspond to the Vandals of later times, though the early
Roman writers apparently used the word Vandilii in a wider
sense, embracing all the tribes of eastern Germany. Among the
Lugii we may probably include the Silingae, who afterwards
appear among the Vandals in Spain, and whose name is preserved
in Slavonic form in that of the province Silesia. The Goths
(Gotoncs) apparently inhabited the basin of the Vistula about
the middle of its course, but the lower part of the basin was
inhabited by non-Teutonic peoples, among whom we may
mention the Galindi, probably Prussians, and the Acstii, either
Prussian or Esthonian, in the coastlands at the mouth of the
river, who are known especially in connexion with the amber
trade. To the cast of the Vistula were the Slavonic tribes
(Veneti), and amongst them, perhaps rather to the north, a
Finnish population(Fcnni), which disappeared in later times.
In the time of Augustus by far the most powerful ruler in
Germany was Maroboduus, king of the Marcomanni. His
supremacy extended over all the Suebic tribes (except r^mrrfc
perhaps the Hermunduri), and most of the peoples wan
of eastern Germany, including apparently the Lugii •*'*•
and Goths. But in tbcyear a.d. i 7 he became involved < * r "** -fc
in an unsuccessful campaign against Arminius, prince of the
Cherusci, in which the Semnones and Langobardi revolted
against him, and two years later he was deprived of his throne
by a certain Catualda. The latter, however, was soon expelled
by Vibilius,king of the Hermunduri.and his power was transferred
to Vannius, who belonged to the Quadi. About the same time
Arminius met his death while trying to make himself king of the
EARLY HISTORY]
GERMANY
831
Cherusci. In the year 28 the Frisians revolted from the Romans,
and though they submitted again in the year 47, Claudius
immediately afterwards recalled the Roman troops to the left
bank of the Rhine. In the year 50 Vannius, king of the Suebi,
was driven from the throne by Vibilius, king of the Hcrmunduri,
and his nephews Vangio and Sido obtained his kingdom. In
the year 58 the Chatti suffered a serious disaster in a campaign
against the Hermunduri. They seem , however, to have recovered
very soon, and at the end of the 1st century had apparently
extended their power at the expense of the Cherusci. During
the latter part of the 1st century the Chauci seem to have been
enlarging their territories: as early as the year 47 we find them
raiding the Roman lands on the lower Rhine, and in 58 they
expelled the Ampsivarii, who after several vain attempts to
acquire new possessions were annihilated by the neighbouring
tribes. During the last years of the 1st century the Angrivarii
are found moving westwards, probably under pressure from the
Chauci, and the power of the Bructeri was almost destroyed by
their attack. In 69 the Roman territory on the lower Rhine
was disturbed by the serious revolt of Claudius Civilis, a prince
of the Batavi who had served in the Roman army. He was
joined by the Bructeri and other neighbouring tribes, but being
defeated by Petilius Cerealis (afterwards consular legate in
Britain) at Vetera and in other engagements gave up the struggle
and arranged a capitulation in a.d. 70. By the end of the 1st
century the Chauci and Chatti seem to have become by far
the most powerful tribes in western Germany, though the former
are seldom mentioned after this time.
After the time of Tacitus our information regarding German
affairs becomes extremely meagre. The next important con-
flict with the Romans was the Marcomannic War (166-180), in
which all the Suebic tribes together with the Vandals (apparently
the ancient Lugii) and the Sarmatian Iazyges seem to have
taken part. Peace was made by the emperor Coramodus in
a.d. 180 on payment of large sums of money.
About the beginning of the 3rd century we find a forward
movement in south-west Germany among a group of tribes
Tb*Ai*' ^ nown collectively as Alamanni (q.v.) who came in
msmah . conflict with the emperor Caracalla in the year 213.
th* Gotbg About the same time the Goths also made their first
JJfJJ? appearance in the south-east and soon became the
most formidable antagonists of Rome. In the year
251 they defeated and slew the emperor Decius, and in the
reign of Gallienus their fleets setting out from the north of the
Black Sea worked great havoc on the coast of the Aegean (see
Goths). It is not to be supposed, however, that they had quitted
their own lands on the Vistula by this time. In this connexion
we hear also of the Heruli (q.v.), who some twenty years later,
about 289, make their appearance in the western seas. In 286
we hear for the first time of maritime raids by the Saxons in
the same quarter. About the middle of the 3rd century the
name Franks {q.v.) makes its first appearance, apparently a
new collective term for the tribes of north-west Germany from
the Chatti to the mouth of the Rhine.
In the 4th century the chief powers in western Germany were
the Franks and the Alamanni, both of whom were in constant
conflict with the Romans. The former were pressed
in their rear by the Saxons, who at some time before
the middle of the 4th century appear to have invaded
and conquered a considerable part of north-west
Germany. About the same time great national movements
seem to have been taking place farther east. The Burgundians
made their appearance in the west shortly before the end of the
3rd century, settling in the basin of the Main, and it is probable
that some portions of the north Suebic peoples, perhaps the
ancient Scmnoncs, had already moved westward. By the middle
of the 4th century the Goths had become the dominant power
in eastern Germany, and their King Hermanaric held a supremacy
which seems to have stretched from the Black Sea to Holstein.
At his death, however, the supremacy of eastern Germany
passed to the Huns, an invading people from the east, whose
arrival seems to have produced a complete displacement of
Arriral
ofth*
population in this region. With regard to the course of events
in eastern Germany we have no knowledge, but during the 5th
century several of the peoples previously settled there appear
to have made their way into the lands south of the Carpathians
and Riesengebirge, amongst whom (besides the Goths) may
be especially mentioned the Rugii and the Gepides, the latter
perhaps originally a branch of the Got hs. According to tradition
the Vandals had been driven into Pannonia by the Goths in
the time of Constantine. We do not know how far northward
the Hunnish power reached in the time of Attila, but the in-
vasion of this nation was soon followed by a great westward
movement of the Slavs.
In the west the Alamanni and the descendants of the Marco-
manni, now called Baiouarii (Bavarians), had broken through
the frontiers of the Roman provinces of Vindelicia n*Bmr>
and Noricum at the beginning of the 5th century, gmadtmam
while the Vandals together with some of the Suebi «**«*•*
and the non-Teutonic Alani from the east crossed '**•*•
the Rhine and invaded Gaul in 406. About 435-440 the Bur-
gundians were overthrown by Attila, and their king Guntha-
carius (Gundahar) killed. The remains of the nation shortly
afterwards settled in GauL About the same time the Franks
overran and occupied the modern Belgium, and in the course of
the next half-century their dominions were enormously extended
towards the south (see Franks). After the death of Attila in
453 the power of the Huns soon collapsed, but the political
divisions of Germany in the ensuing period are far from clear.
In the 6th century the predominant peoples arc the Franks,
Frisians, Saxons, Alamanni, Bavarians, Langobardi, Heruli
and Warni. By the beginning of this century the 7^,
Saxons seem to have penetrated almost, if not quite, Pnaks
to the Rhine .in the Netherlands. Farther south, mmdotfn
however, the old land of the Chatti was included in to '*•<**
the kingdom of Clo vis. Northern Bavaria was occupied c * ata **"
by the Franks, whose king Clovis subdued the Alamanni in
495. To the east of the Franks between the Hare, the Elbe and
the Saale lay the kingdom of the Thuringi, the origin of whom
is not clear. The Heruli also had a powerful kingdom, probably
in the basin of the Elbe, and to the east of them were the Lango-
bardi. The Warni apparently now dwelt in the regions about
the mouth of the Elbe, while the whole coast from the mouth
of the Weser to the west Scheldt, was in the hands of the Frisians.
By this time al) the country east of the lower Elbe seems to
have been Slavonic In the north, perhaps in the province of
Schleswig, we hear now for the first time of the Danes. Theodoric,
king of the Ostrogoths, endeavoured to form a confederacy
with the Thuringi, Heruli and Warni against Clovis in order
to protect the Visigoths in the early years of the 6th century,
but very shortly afterwards the king of the Heruli was slain
by the Langobardi and their existence as an independent power
came to an end. In 531 the Thuringian kingdom was destroyed
by the Frank ish king Theodoric, son of Clovis, with whom the
Saxons were in alliance.
During the 6th and 7th centuries the Saxons were intermit-
tently under Frankish supremacy, but their conquest was not
complete until the time of Charlemagne* Shortly ?*,
after the middle of the 6th century the Franks were Saxon
threatened with a new invasion by the Avars. In J£?J£?
567-568 the Langobardi, who by this time had moved "^
into the Danube basin, invaded Italy and were followed by those
of the Saxons who had settled in Thuringia. Their lands were
given by the Frankish king Sigeberht to the north Suebi and
other tribes who had come cither from the Elbe basin or possibly
from the Netherlands. About the same time Sigeberht was
defeated by the Avars, and though the latter soon withdrew
from the Frankish frontiers, their course was followed by a
movement of the Slavs, who occupied the basin of the Elster
and penetrated to that of the Main.
By the end of the 6th century the whole basin of the Elbe
except the Saxon territory near the mouth had probably become
Slavonic. To the east of the Saale were the Sorbs (Sorabi), and
beyond them the Dalemind and Siusli. To the east of the
«3+
GERMANY
(HISTOKY
appear in Franconia, Bavaria, Swabia and Lorraine. These
dukes acquired large tracts of land of which they gave grants
on conditions of military service to persons on whom they could
rely; while many independent landowners sought their protection
On terms of vassalage. The same process took place in the case
of great numbers of freemen of a lower class, who put themselves
at the service of their more powerful neighbours in return for
protection. In this manner the feudal tenure of land began to
prevail in almost all parts of Germany, and the elaborate social
system which became known as feudalism was gradually built
up. The dukes became virtually independent, and when Louis
the Child died in 911, the royal authority existed in name
only.
While Louis the Child lived the German dukes were virtually
kings in their duchies, and their natural tendency was to make
^j ban gl themselves absolute rulers. But, threatened as they
were by the Magyars, with the Slavs and Northmen
always ready to take advantage of their weakness, they could
not afford to do without a central government. Accordingly
the nobles assembled at Forchhcim, and by the advice of Otto
the Illustrious, duke of Saxony, Conrad of Franconia was chosen
German king. The dukes of Bavaria, Swabia and Lorraine were
displeased at this election, probably because Conrad was likely
to prove considerably more powerful than they wished. Rather
than acknowledge him, the duke of Lotharingia, or Lorraine,
transferred his allegiance to Charles the Simple of France; and
it was in vain that Conrad protested and despatched armies into
Lorraine. With the help of the French king the duke maintained
his ground, and for the lime his country was lost to Germany.
Bavaria and Swabia yielded, but, mainly through the fault of
the king himself, their submission was of brief duration. The
rise of the dukes had been watched with extreme jealousy by
the leading prelates. They saw that the independence they had
hitherto enjoyed would be much more imperilled by powerful
local governors than by a sovereign who necessarily regarded it
as part of his duty to protect the church. Hence they had done
everything they could to prevent the dukes from extending their
authority, and as the government was carried on during the reign
of Louis the Child mainly by Hatto I., archbishop of Mainz, they
had been able to throw considerable obstacles in the way of their
rivals. They had now induced Conrad to quarrel with both
Swabia and Bavaria, and also with Henry, duke of Saxony, son
of the duke to whom he chiefly owed his crown. In these contests
the German king met with indifferent success, but the struggle
with Saxony was not very serious, and when dying in December
919 Conrad recommended the Franconian nobles to offer the
crown to Henry, the only man who could cope with the anarchy
by which he had himself been baffled.
The nobles of Franconia acted upon the advice of their king,
and the Saxons were very willing that their duke should rise
to still higher honours. Henry 1., called" the Fowler,"
PowZr. * wn0 was cnoscn German king in May 919, was one of
the best of German kings, and was a born statesman
and warrior. His ambition was of the noblest order, for he sank
his personal interests in the cause of his country, and he knew
exactly when to attain his objects by force, and when by con-
cession and moderation. Almost immediately he overcame
the opposition of the dukes of Swabia arM Bavaria; some time
later, taking advantage of the troubled state of France, he
accepted the homage of the duke of Lorraine, which for many
centuries afterwards remained a part of the German kingdom.
Having established internal order, Henry was able to turn
to matters of more pressing moment. In the first year of his
reign the Magyars, who had continued to scourge
*55?L Germany during the reign of Conrad, broke into
M*&Mr%, Saxony and plundered the land almost without hind-
rance. In 924 they returned, and this time by good
fortune one of their greatest princes fell into the hands of the
Germans. Henry restored him to his countrymen on condition
that they made a truce for nine years; and be promised to pay
yearly tribute during this period. The barbarians accepted bis
terms, and laJthlully kept their word in regard to Henry's own
lands, although Bavaria, Swabia and Franconia they occasionally
invaded as before. The king made admirable use of the oppor-
tunity he had secured, confining bis efforts, however, to Saxony
and Thuringia, the only parts of Germany over which be hs4
any control.
In the southern and western German lands towns and fortified
places had long existed; but in the north, where Roman influence
had only been feeble, and where even the Franks
had not exercised much authority until the time of j^yj
Charlemagne, the people still lived as in ancient limes, ffamp
either on solitary farms or in exposed villages. Henry
saw that, while this state of things lasted, the population could
never be safe, and began the construction of fortresses and walled
towns. Of every group of nine men one was compelled to devote
himself to this work, while the remaining eight cultivated- his
fields and allowed a third of their produce to be stored against
times of trouble. The necessities of military discipline were
also a subject of attention. Hitherto the Germans had fought
mainly on foot, and, as the Magyars came on horseback, the
nation was placed at an immense disadvantage. A powerful
force of cavalry was now raised, while at the same time the
infantry were drilled in new and more effective modes of fighting.
Although these preparations were carried on directly under
Henry's supervision, only in Saxony and Thuringia the neigh-
bouring dukes were stimulated to follow bis example. When he
was ready he used his new troops, before turning them against
their chief enemy, the Magyars, to punish refractory Slavonic
tribes; and he brought under temporary subjection nearly
all the Slavs between the Elbe and the Oder. He proceeded
also against the Bohemians, whose duke was compelled to do
homage.
The truce with the Magyars was not renewed, whereupon in
933 a body of invaders crossed, as in former years, the frontier
of Thuringia. Henry prudently wailed until dearth
of provisions forced the enemy to divide into two 5?, M
bands. He then swept down upon the weaker force, j*2m7
annihilated it, and rapidly advanced against the
remaining portion of the army. The second battle was more
severe than the first, but not less decisive. The Magyars, unable
to cope with a disciplined army, were cut down in great numbers,
and those who survived rode in terror from the field. The exact
scenes of these conflicts are not known, although the date of the
second encounter was the 15th of March 933; but few more
important battles have ever been fought. The power of tht
Magyars was not indeed destroyed, but it was crippled, and the
way was prepared for the effective liberation of Germany from
an intolerable plague. While the Magyars had been troubling
Germany on the east and south, the Danes had been irritating
her on the north. Charlemagne had established a march between
the Eider and the Schlei; but in course of lime the Danes had
not only seized this territory, but had driven the German popula-
tion beyond the Elbe. The Saxons had been slowly reconquering
the lost ground, and now Henry, advancing with his victorious
army into Jutland, forced Gorm r the Danish king, to become
his vassal and regained the land between the Eider and the
Schlei. But Henry's work concerned the duchy of Saxony
rather than the kingdom of Germany. He concentrated all his
energies on the government and defence of northern and eastern
Germany, leaving the southern and western districts to profit
by his example, while his policy of refraining from interference
in the affairs of the other duchies tended to diminish the ill-feeling
which existed between the various German tribes and to bring
peace to the country as a whole. It is in these directions that
the reign of Henry the Fowler marks a stage in the history of
Germany.
When this great king died in July 936 every land inhabited
by a German population formed part of the German kingdom,
and none of the duchies were at war cither with him or among
themselves. Along the northern and eastern frontier were tribu-
tary races, and the country was for the time rid of ao enemy
which, for nearly a generation, had kept it in perpetual fear. Great
as were these results, perhaps Henry did even greater service
HISTORY)
GERMANY
«33
Ottoth*
Ort»u
in beginning the growth of towns throughout north Germany.
Not content with merely making them places of defence, he
decreed that ihey should be centres for the administra-
TA V tion of justice, and that in them should be held all public
JJiut festivities and ceremonies; he also instituted markets,
and encouraged traders to lake advantage of the oppor-
tunities provided for them. A strong check was thus imposed
upon the tendency of freemen to become the vassals of great lords.
This movement had become so powerful .by the troubles of the
epoch that, had no other current of influence set in, the entire class
of freemen must soon have disappeared. As they now knew that
they could find protection without looking to a superior, they
had less temptation to give up their independence, and many
of them seltled in the towns where they could be safe and free.
Besides maintaining a manly spirit in the population, the towns
rapidly added to their importance by the stimulus they gave
to all kinds of industry and trade. *
Before his death Henry obtained the promise of the nobles
at a national assembly, or diet, at Erfurt to recognize his son
Otto as his successor, and the promise was kept, Otto
being chosen German king in July 936. Otto I. the
Great began his reign under the most favourable
circumstances. He was twenty-four years of age, and at the
coronation festival, which was held at Aix-la-Chapcllc, the dukes
performed for the. first time the nominally menial offices known
as the arch-offices of the German kingdom. But these peaceful
relations soon came to an end. Reversing his father's policy,
Otto resolved that the dukes should act in the strictest sense
as his vassals, or lose their dignities. Atthetimeof his coronation
Germany was virtually a federal state; he wished to transform
it into a firm and compact monarchy. This policy speedily led to
a formidable rebellion, headed by Thankmar, the king's half-
brother, a fierce warrior, who fancied that he had a prior claim
to the crown, and who secured a number of followers in Saxony.
He was joined by Eberhard, duke of Franconia, and it was only
by the aid of the duke of Swabia, whom the duke of Franconia
had offended, that the rising was put down. This happened in
938, and in 939 a second rebellion, led by Otto's brother Henry,
was supported by the duke of Franconia and by Giselbert, duke
of Lorraine. Otto again triumphed, and derived immense ad-
vantages from his success. The duchy of Franconia he kept
in his own hands, and in 944 he granted Lorraine to Conrad
the Red, an energetic and honourable count, whom he still
further attached to himself by giving him his daughter for his
wife. Bavaria, on the death of its duke in 947, was placed under
his brother Henry, who, having been pardoned, had become
a loyal subject. The duchy of Swabia was also brought into
Otto's family by the marriage of his son Ludolf with Duke
Hermann's daughter, and by these means Otto made himself
master of the kingdom. For the time, feudalism in truth meant
that lands and offices'were held on condition of service; the king
was the genuine ruler, not only of freemen, but of the highest
vassals in the nation.
In the midst of these internal troubles Otto was attacked
by the French king, Louis IV., who sought to regain Lorraine.
However, the German king was soon able to turn his
'wkb arms against his new enemy; he marched into France
Pnacm and made peace with Louis in 942. Otto's subsequent
flfZ!!* interventions in the affairs of France were mainly
directed towards making peace between Louis and his
powerful and rebellious vassal, Hugh the Great, duke of the
Franks, both of whom were married to sisters of the German
king. Much more important than Otto's doings in France were
his wars with his northern and eastern neighbours. The duke of
Bohemia, after a long struggle, was brought to submission in
950. Among the Slavs between the Elbe and the Oder the king
was represented by Margrave Gero, a warrior well fitted for the
rough work he had to do, loyal to his sovereign, but capable
of any treachery towards his enemies, who conquered much of
the country north of Bohemia between the Oder and the upper
and middle Elbe. Margrave Billung, who looked after the
Abotrites on the lower Elbe, was less fortunate, mainly because
Otto't
of the neighbourhood of the Danes, who, after the death of King
Henry, often attacked the hated Germans, but some progress
was rhade in bringing this district under German influence.
Otto, having profound faith in the power of the church to
reconcile conquered peoples to his rule, provided for the benefit
of the Danes the bishoprics of Schleswig, Ripen and Aarhus;
and among those which he established for the Slavs were the
important bishoprics of Brandenburg and Havelberg. In his
later years he set up the archbishopric of Magdeburg, which
took in the sees of Meissen, Zeitz and Merseburg.
Having seemed peace in Germany and begun the real conquest
of the border races, Otto was by far the greatest sovereign
in Europe; and, had he refused to go beyond the A
limits within which he had hitherto acted, it is probable JKj,
that he would have established a united monarchy.
But a decision to which he soon came deprived posterity of the
results which might have sprung from the policy of his earlier
years. About 951 Adelaide, widow of Lothair, son of Hugh,
king of Italy, having refused to marry the son of Bcrengar,
margrave of Ivrea, was cast into prison and cruelly treated. She
appealed to Otto; other reasons called him in the same direction,
and in 951 he crossed the Alps and descended into Lombardy.
He displaced Bcrengar, and was so fascinated by Queen Adelaide
that within a few weeks he was married to her at Pavia. But
Otto's son, Ludolf, who had received a promise of the German
crown, saw his rights threatened by this marriage. He went
to an old enemy of his father, Frederick, archbishop of Mainz,
and the two plotted together against the king, who, hearing of
their proceedings, returned to Germany in 952, leaving Duke
Conrad of Lorraine as his representative in Italy. Otto, who
did not suspect how deep were the designs of the conspirators,
paid a visit to Mainz, where he was seized and was com-
pelled to take certain solemn pledges which, after his escape, he
repudiated.
War broke out in 953, and the struggle was the most serious
in which he had been engaged. In Lorraine, of which duchy
Otto made his brother Bruno, archbishop of Cologne,
administrator, his cause was triumphant; but every- wsr f
where else dark clouds gathered over his head. Conrad
the Red hurried from Italy and joined the rebels; in Swabia,
in Bavaria, in Franconia and even in Saxony, the native land
of the king, many sided with them. It is extremely remarkable
that this movement acquired so quickly such force and volume.
The explanation, according to some historians, is that the
people looked forward with alarm to the union of Germany with
Italy. There were still traditions of the hardships inflicted upon
the common folk by the expeditions of Charlemagne, and it h
supposed that they anticipated similar evils in the event of his
empire being restored. Whether or not this be the true explana-
tion, the power of Otto was shaken to its foundations. At last
he was saved by the presence of an immense external peril. The
Magyars were as usual stimulated to action by the disunion o|
their enemies; and Conrad and Ludolf made the blunder of
inviting their help, a proceeding which disgusted the Germans,
many of whom fell away from their side and rallied to the
head and protector of the nation. In a very short time Conrad
and the archbishop of Mainz submitted, and although Ludolf
held out a little longer he soon asked for pardon. Lorraine
was given to Bruno; but Conrad, its former duke, although
thus punished, was not disgraced, for Otto needed his services
in the war with the Magyars. The great battle against -.. -
these foes was fought on the xoth of August 955
MMgyMtMf
on the Lechfeld near Augsburg. After a fierce and
obstinate fight, in which Conrad and many other nobles fetf,
the Germans were victorious; the Magyars were even moti
thoroughly scourged than in the battles in which Otto's father
had given them their first real check. The deliverance of Ger-
many was complete, and from this time, notwithstanding
certain wild raids towards the east, the Magyars began to settle
in the land they still occupy, and to adapt themselves to the
conditions of civilized life.
Entreated by Pope John Xll. x ftfca t&tttal v Va^m* v^&wfc.
8 3 6
GERMANY
(HISTORY
Berengar, Otto went a second time to Italy, in 06 1; and on
this occasion he received from the pope at Rome the imperial
crown. In 966 he was again in Italy, where he rc-
ow * mained six years, exercising to the full his imperial
MMvon r '8 nls > n regard to the papacy, but occupied mainly
in an attempt to make himself master of the southern,
as well as of the northern half of the peninsula.
By far the most important act of Otto's eventful life was
his assumption of the Lombard and the imperial crowns. His
Ceo *• successors steadily followed his example, and the
jmo/ * sovereign crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle claimed as his
Ocrmsny right coronation by the pope in Rome. Thus grew
2**/* # up the Holy Roman Empire, that strange stale which,
****** directly descending through the empire of Charlemagne
from the empire of the Caesars, contained so many elements
foreign to ancient life. We are here concerned with it only as
it a fleeted Germany. Germany itself never until our own day
became an empire. It is true that at last the Holy Roman
Empire was in reality confined to Germany; but in theory it
was something quite different. Like France, Germany was a
kingdom, but it differed from France in this, that its king was
also king in Italy and Roman emperor. As the latter title made
him nominally the secular lord of the world, it might have
been expected to excite the pride of his German subjects; and
doubtless, after a time, they did learn to think highly of them-
selves as the imperial race. But the evidence tends to show
that at first at least they had no wish for this honour, and would
have preferred their ruler to devote himself entirely to his own
people.
There are signs that during Otto's reign they began to have
a distinct consciousness of national life, their use of the word
" deulsch " to indicate the whole people being one of these
symptoms. Their common sufferings, struggles and triumphs,
however, account far more readily for this feeling than the
supposition that they were elated by their king undertaking
obligations which took him for years together away from his
native land. So solemn were the associations of the imperial
title that, after acquiring it, Otto probably looked for more
intimate obedience from his subjects. They were willing enough
to admit the abstract claims of the Empire; but in the world of
feudalism there was a multitude of established customs and
rights which rudely conflicted with these claims, and in action,
remote and abstract considerations gave way before concrete
and present realities. Instead of strengthening the allegiance
of the Germans towards their sovereign, the imperial title was
the means of steadily undermining it. To the connexion of their
kingdom with the Empire they owe the fact that for centuries
they were the most divided of European nations, and that they
have only recently begun to create a genuinely united state.
France was made up of a number of loosely connected lands,
each with its own lord, when Germany, under Otto, was to a
large extent moved by a single will, well organized and strong.
But the attention of the French kings was concentrated on their
immediate interests, and in course of time they brought their
unruly vassals to order. The German kings, as emperors, had
duties which often took them away for long periods from Germany.
This alone would have shaken their authority, for, during their
absence, the great vassals seized rights which were afterwards
difficult to recover. But the emperors were not merely absent,
they had to engage in struggles in which they exhausted the
energies necessary to enforce obedience at home; and, in order
to obtain help, they were sometimes glad to concede advantages
to which, under other conditions, they would have tenaciously
clung. Moreover, the greatest of all their struggles was with
the papacy; so that a power outside their kingdom, but exercis-
ing immense influence within it, was in the end always prepared
to weaken them by exciting dissension among their people.
Thus the imperial crown was the most fatal gift that could have
been offered to the German kings; apparently giving them
all things, it deprived them of nearly everything. And in doing
1 his it inflicted on many generations incalculable and needless
suffering.
By the policy of his later years Otto did much to prepare
the way for the process of disintegration which he rendered
inevitable by restoring the Empire. With the kingdom
divided into five great duchies, the sovereign could
always have maintained at least so much unity asHcnry
the Fowler secured; and, as the experience of Otto
himself showed, there would have been chances of much greater
centralization. Yet he threw away this advantage. Lorraine
was divided into two duchies, Upper Lorraine and Lower Lorraine.
In each duchy of the kingdom he appointed a count palatine,
whose duty was to maintain the royal rights; and after Margrave
Gero died in 065 his territory was divided into three marches,
and placed under margraves, each with the same powers as Gero.
Otto gave up the practice of retaining the duchies either in his
own hands or in those of relatives. Even Saxony, his native
duchy and the chief source of his strength, was given to M argrave
fiillung, whose family kept it for many years. To combat the
power of the princes, Otto, especially after he became emperor
and looked upon himself as the protector of the church, immensely
increased the importance of the prelates. They received great
gifts of land, were endowed with jurisdiction in criminal as well
as civil cases, and obtained several other valuable sovereign
rights. The emperor's idea was that, as. church lands and
offices could not be hereditary, their holders would necessarily
favour the crown. But he forgot that the church had a head
outside Germany, and that the passion for the rights of an order
may be not less intense than that for the rights of a family.
While the Empire was at peace with the popes the prelates did
strongly uphold it, and their influence was unquestionably,
on the whole, higher than that of rude secular nobles. But
with the Empire and the Papacy in conflict, they could not but
abide, as a rule, by the authority which had the most sacred
claims to their loyalty. From all these circumstances it curiously
happened that the sovereign who did more than almost any other
to raise the royal power, was also the sovereign who, more than
any other, wrought its decay.
Otto II. had been crowned German king at Aix-la-Chapelle
and emperor at Rome during his father's lifetime. Becoming
sole ruler in May 973, his troubles began in Lorraine, otttn.
but were more serious in Bavaria, which was now a
very important duchy. Its duke, Henry, the brother of Otto I.,
had died in 955 and had been succeeded by a young son, Henry,
whose turbulent career subsequently induced the Bavarian
historian Avcnlinus to describe him as rixosus, or the Quarrel-
some. In 973 Burchard II., duke of Swabia, died, and the new
emperor refused to give this duchy to Henry, further irritating
this duke by bestowing it upon his enemy, Otto, a grandson
of the emperor Otto I. Having collected allies Henry rebelled,
and in 976 the emperor himself marched against him and drove
him into Bohemia. Bavaria was taken from him and given to
Otto of Swabia, but it was deprived of some of its importance.
The southern part, Carinlhia, which had hitherto been a march
district, was separated from it and made into a duchy, and the
church in Bavaria was made dependent upon the king and not
upon the duke. Having arrived at this settlement Otto marched
against the Bohemians, but while he was away from Germany
war was begun against him by Henry, the new duke of Carinlhia,
who, forgetting the benefits he had just received, rose to avenge
the wrongs of his friend, the deposed duke Henry of Bavaria.
The emperor made peace with the Bohemians and quickly put
down the rising. Henry of Bavaria was handed over to the
keeping of the bishop of Utrecht and Carinlhia received another
duke.
In his anxiety to obtain possession of southern Italy, Otto I.
had secured as a wife for his son and successor Theophano,
daughter of the East Roman emperor, Romanus
II., the ruler of much of southern Italy. Otto II., &£!!*
having all his father's ambition with much of his
strength and haughtiness, longed to get away from Germany
and to claim these remoter districts. But he was detained for
some time owing to the sudden invasion of Lower Lorraine by
Loth air, king of France, in 978. So stealthily did the invader
HISTORY)
GERMANY
837
advance that the emperor had only just time to escape from
Aix-la-Chapelle before the town was seized and plundered.
As quickly as possible Otto placed himself at the head of
a great army and marched to Paris, but he was compelled
to retreat without taking the city, and in 980 peace was
made.
At last, after an expedition against the Poles, Otto was able
to fulfil the wish of his heart; he went to Italy in 980 and never
returned to Germany. His claims to southern Italy
22£ were vehemently opposed, and in July 082 he suffered
a disastrous defeat at the hands of the East Roman
emperor's subjects and their Saracen allies. The news of this
crushing blow cast a gloom over Germany, which was again
suffering from the attacks of her unruly neighbours. The Saxons
were able to cope with the Danes and the German boundary
was pushed forward in the south-east; but the Slavs fought
with such courage and success that during the reigns of the
emperors Otto II. and Otto III. much of the work effected by
the margraves Hermann Billung and Gero was undone, and
nearly two centuries passed before they were driven back to
the position which they had perforce occupied under Otto the
Great. Such were the first-fruits of the assumption of the
imperial crown.
About six months before his death in Rome, in December
983, Otto held a diet at Verona which was attended by many
ot ^ m of the German princes, who recognized his infant
son Otto as his successor. Otto was then taken to
Germany, and after his father's death he was crowned at
Aix-la-Chapelle on Christmas Day 983. Henry of Bavaria
was released from his confinement and became his guardian;
but as this restless prince showed an inclination to secure the
crown for himself, the young king was taken from him and placed
in the care of his mother Theophano. Henry, however, gained
a good deal of support both within and without Germany and
caused much anxiety to Otto's friends, but in 985 peace was made
and he was restored to Bavaria. While Theophano acted as
regent, the chief functions of government were discharged by
Willigis, archbishop of Mainz (d. 101 1), a vigorous prelate who
had risen from a humble rank to the highest position in the
German Church. He was aided by the princes, each of whom
claimed a voice in the administration, and, during the lifetime of
Theophano at least, a stubborn and sometimes a successful
resistance was offered to the attacks of the Slavs. But under
the prevalent conditions a vigorous rule was impossible, and
during Otto's minority the royal authority was greatly weakened.
In Saxony the people were quickly forgetting their hereditary
connexion with the successors of Henry the Fowler; in Bavaria,
after the death of Duke Henry in 095, the nobles, heedless of the
royal power, returned to the ancient German custom and chose
Henry's son Henry as their ruler.
In 995 Otto III. was declared to have reached his majority.
He had been so carefully trained in all the learning of the time
that he was called the " wonder of the world," and a
JJZ i^r r certain fascination still belongs to his imaginative and
of Otto. fantastic nature. Imbued by his mother with the
extravagant ideas of the East Roman emperors he
introduced into his court an amount of splendour and ceremonial
hitherto unknown in western Europe. The heir of the western
emperors and the grandson of an eastern emperor, he spent most
of his time in Rome, and fancied he could unite the world under
his rule. In this vague design he was encouraged by Gerbert, the
greatest scholar of the day, whom, as Silvester II., he raised to
the papal throne. Meanwhile Germany was suffering severely
from internal disorders and from the inroads of her rude
neighbours; and when in the year 1000 Otto visited his northern
kingdom there were hopes that he would smite these enemies
with the vigour of his predecessors. But these hopes were
disappointed; on the contrary, Otto seems to have released
Bolcslaus, duke of the Poles, from his vague allegiance to the
German kings, and he founded an archbishopric at Gnesen,
thus freeing the Polish sees from the authority of the archbishop
of Magdeburg.
When Otto III. died in January 1002 there remained no
representative of the elder branch of the imperial family, and
several candidates came forward for the vacant throne.
Among these candidates was Henry of Bavaria, son mry
of Duke Henry the Quarrelsome and a great-grandson of Henry
the Fowler, and at Mainz in June 1002 this prince was chosen
German king as Henry II. Having been recognized as king by
the Saxons, the Thuringians and the nobles of Lorraine, the new
king was able to turn his attention to the affairs of government,
but on the whole his reign was an unfortunate one for Germany.
For ten years civil war raged in Lorraine; in Saxony much blood
was shed in petty quarrels; and Henry made expeditions against
his turbulent vassals in Flanders and Friesland. He also interfered
in the affairs of Burgundy, but the acquisition of this kingdom
was the work of his successor, Conrad II. During nearly the
whole of this reign the Germans were fighting the Poles. Boleslaui
of Poland, who was now a very powerful sovereign, having
conquered Lusatia and Silesia, brought Bohemia also under his
rule and was soon at variance with the German king. Anxious
to regain these lands Henry allied himself with some Slavonic
tribes, promising not to interfere with the exercise of their
heathen religion, while Boleslaus found supporters among the
discontented German nobles. The honours of the ensuing war
were with Henry, and when peace was made in 1006 Boleslaus
gave up Bohemia, but the struggle was soon renewed and neither
side had gained any serious advantage when peace was again
made in 1013. A third Polish war broke out in 1015. Henry
led his troops in person and obtained assistance from the Russians
and the Hungarians; peace was concluded in 1018, the Elbe
remaining the north-east boundary of Germany. Henry made
three journeys to Italy, being crowned king of the Lombards
at Pavia in 1004 and emperor at Rome ten years later. Before
the latter event, in order to assert his right of sovereignty over
Rome, he called himself king of the Romans, a designation which
henceforth was borne by his successors until they received the
higher title from the pope. Hitherto a sovereign crowned at
Aix-la-Chapcllc had been " king of the West Franks," or " king
of the Franks and Saxons." Henry was generous to the church,
to which he looked for support, but he maintained the royal
authority over the clergy. Although generally unsuccessful he
strove hard for peace, and during this reign the principle of
inheritance was virtually established with regard to German
fiefs.
After Henry's death the nobles met at Kamba, near Oppen-
hcim, and in September 1024 elected Conrad, a Franconian
count, to the vacant throne. Although favoured by _ . „
the German clergy the new king, Conrad II., had to
face some opposition; this, however, quickly vanished and he re-
ceived the homage of the nobles in the various duchies and seemed
to have no reason to dread internal enemies. Nevertheless,
he had soon to battle with a conspiracy headed by his stepson,
Ernest II., duke of Swabia. This was caused primarily by
Conrad's avowed desire to acquire the kingdom of Burgundy, but
other reasons for dissatisfaction existed, and the revolting duke
found it easy to gather around him the scattered forces of dis-
content. However, the king was quite able to deal with the
rising, which, indeed, never attained serious proportions, although
Ernest gave continual trouble until his death in 1030. With
regard to the German duchies Conrad followed the policy of
Otto the Great. He wished to control, not to abolish them.
In 1026, when Duke Henry of Bavaria died, he obtained the
duchy for his son Henry, afterwards the emperor Henry III.;
later, despite the opposition of the nobles, he invested the same
prince with Swabia, where the ducal family had died out.
Franconia was in the hands of Conrad himself; thus Saxony,
Thuringia, Carinthia and Lorraine were the only duchies not
completely dependent upon the king.
When Conrad ascended the throne the safety of Germany
was endangered from three different points. On the north was
Denmark ruled by Canute the Great; on the east was the wide
Polish state whose ruler, Boleslaus, had just taken the title of
king; and on the south-east was Hungary, which under its king,
8 3 8
GERMANY
[HISTORY
St Stephen, was rapidly becoming an organized and formidable
power. Peace was maintained with Canute, and in 1035 a treaty
Th0 was concluded and the land between the Eider and
oefrft- the Schlei was ceded to Denmark. In 1030 Conrad
•*"i*g waged a short war against Hungary, but here also
cMatrfc*. ne was b|jg e< j t assent to a cession of territory.
In Poland he was more fortunate. After the death of Boleslaus
in 1025 the Poles plunged into a civil war, and Conrad was able
to turn this to his own advantage. In 103 1 he recovered Lusatia
and other districts, and in 1033 the Polish duke of Mesislaus
did homage to him at Merseburg. His authority was recognized
by the Bohemians, and two expeditions taught the Slavonic
tribes between the Elbe and the Oder to respect his power.
In Italy, whither he journeyed in 1026 and 1036, Conrad
was not welcomed. Although as emperor and as king of the
Lombards he was the lawful sovereign of that country,
to/. the Germans were still regarded as intruders and could
only maintain their rights by force. The event which
threw the greatest lustre upon this reign was the acquisition of
the kingdom of Burgundy, or Aries, which was bequeathed to
Conrad by its king, Rudolph III., the uncle of his wife, Gisela.
Rudolph died in 1032, and in 1033 Conrad was crowned king
at Petcrlingcn, being at once recognized by the German-speaking
population. For about two years his rival, Odo, count of
Champagne, who was supported by the Romance-speaking
inhabitants, kept up the struggle against him, but eventually
all opposition was overcome and the possession of Burgundy
was assured to the German king.
This reign is important in the history of Germany because
it marks the beginning of the great imperial age, but it has other
Tht features of interest. In dealing with the revolt of
aobiea Ernest of Swabia Conrad was aided by the reluctance
mad tk0 f th e vassals of the great lords to follow them against
taadm the king. This reluctance was due largely to the
increasing independence of this class of landholders, who were
beginning to learn that the sovereign, and not their immediate
lord, was the protector of their liberties; the independence
in its turn arose from the growth of the principle of heredity.
In Germany Conrad did not definitely decree that fiefs should
pass from father to son, but he encouraged and took advantage
of the tendency in this direction, a tendency which was, obviously,
a serious blow at the power of the great lords over their vassals.
In 1037 he issued from Milan his famous edict for the kingdom
of Italy which decreed that upon the death of a landholder his
fief should descend to his son, or grandson, and that no fiefholder
should be deprived of his fief without the judgment of his peers.
In another direction Conrad's policy was to free himself as king
from dependence upon the church. He sought to regain lands
granted to the church by his predecessors; prelates were cm-
ployed on public business much less frequently than heretofore.
He kept a firm hand over the church, but his rule was purely
secular; he took little or no interest in ecclesiastical affairs.
During this reign the centre and basis of the imperial power in
Germany was moved southwards. Saxony, the home of the
Ottos, became less prominent in German politics, while Bavaria
and the south were gradually gaining in importance.
Henry III., who had been crowned German king and also
king of Burgundy during his father's lifetime, took possession
HtmryllL °' nis &*** mnc " tance without the slightest sign of
opposition in June 1039. He was without the im-
pulsiveness which marred Conrad's great qualities, but he had
the same decisive judgment, wide ambition and irresistible
will as his father. During the late king's concluding years a
certain Bretislaus, who had served Conrad with distinction
in Lusatia, became duke of Bohemia and made war upon the
disunited Poles, easily bringing them into subjection. Thus
Germany was again threatened with the establishment of a great
and independent Slavonic state upon her eastern frontier. To
combat this danger Henry invaded Bohemia, and after two
reverses compelled Bretislaus to appear before him as a suppliant
at Regensburg. The German king treated his foe generously
Mud was rewarded by receiving to the end of his reign the service
of a loyal vassal; he also gained the goodwill of the Poles by
helping to bring about the return of their duke, Casimir I., who
willingly did homage for his land. The king of Denmark, too,
acknowledged Henry as his feudal lord. Moreover, by several
campaigns in Hungary the German king brought that country
into the position of a fief of the German crown. This war was
occasioned by the violence of the Hungarian usurper, Aba Samuel,
and formed Henry's principal occupation from 1041 to 1045.
In Germany itself Henry acquired, during the first ten years
of his rule, an authority which had been unknown since the days
of Otto the Great. Early in his reign he had made a
determined enemy of Godfrey the Bearded, duke of *»•'*'•
upper Lorraine, who, in 1044, conspired against him
and who found powerful allies in Henry I., king of
France, in the counts of Flanders and Holland, and in certain
Burgundian nobles. However, Godfrey and his friends were
easily worsted, and when the dispossessed duke again tried the
fortune of war he found that the German king had detached
Henry of France from his side and was also in alliance with the
English king, Edward the Confessor. While thus maintaining
his authority in the north-east corner of the country by alliances
and expeditions, Henry was strong enough to put the laws in
motion against the most powerful princes and to force them to
keep the public peace. Under his severe but beneficent rule,
Germany enjoyed a period of internal quiet such as she had
probably never experienced before, but even Henry could not
permanently divert from its course the main political tendency
of the age, the desire of the great feudal lords for independence.
Cowed, but unpacified and discontented, the princes awaited
their opportunity, while the king played into their hands by
allowing the southern duchies, Swabia, Bavaria and
Carinthia, to pass from under his own immediate JJJJ
control. His position was becoming gradually weaker
when in 1051 he invaded Hungary, where a reaction against
German influence was taking place. After a second campaign
in 1052 the Hungarian king, Andrew, was compelled to make
peace and to own himself the vassal of the German king. Mean-
while Saxony and Bavaria were permeated by the spirit of unrest,
and Henry returned from Hungary just in time to frustrate
a widespread conspiracy against him in southern Germany.
Encouraged by the support of the German rebels, Andrew of
Hungary repudiated the treaty of peace and the German
supremacy in that country came to a sudden end. Among the
causes which undermined Henry's strength was the fact that the
mediate nobles, who had stood loyally by his father, Conrad,
were not his friends; probably his wars made serious demands
upon them, and his strict administration of justice, especially
his insistence upon the maintenance of the public peace, was
displeasing to them.
At the beginning of Henry's reign the church all over Europe
was in a deplorable condition. Simony was universally practised
and the morality of the clergy was very low. The
Papacy, too, had sunk to a degraded condition and its JJrfrL
authority was annihilated, not only by the character ,u mi t
of successive popes, but by the fact that there were at
the same time three claimants for the papal throne. Henry, a
man of deep, sincere and even rigorous piety, regarded these
evils with sorrow; he associated himself definitely with the
movement for reform which proceeded from Cluny, and
commanded his prelates to put an end to simony and other
abuses. Then moving farther in the same direction he resolved
to strike at the root of the evil by the exercise of his imperial
authority. In 1046 he entered Italy at the head of an army
which secured for him greater respect than had been given to
any German ruler since Charlemagne, and at Sutri and in Rome
be deposed the three rival popes. He then raised to the papal
see Suidger, bishop of Bamberg, who, as Pope Clement II ,
crowned him emperor; after Clement three other German popes
— Damasus II., Leo IX. and Victor II. — owed their elevation to
Henry. Under these popes a new era began for the church, and
in thus reforming the Papacy Henry III. fulfilled what was
regarded as the noblest duty of his frnperial office, but he also
HISTORY]
GERMANY
839
sharpened a weapon whose keen edge was first tried against
his son.
The last years of Henry III. form a turning-point in German
history. Great kings and emperors came after him, but none
of them possessed the direct, absolute authority which he
freely wielded; even in the case of the strongest the forms of
feudalism more and more interposed themselves between the
monarch and the nation, and at last the royal authority virtually
disappeared. During this reign the towns entered upon an age
of prosperity, and the Rhine and the Weser became great
avenues of trade.
When Henry died in October 1056 the decline of the royal
authority was accelerated by the fact that his successor was a
rt9 child. Henry IV., who had been crowned king in
mi—rtiy 1054, was at first in charge of his mother, the empress
oiHtary Agnes, whose weak and inefficient rule was closely
/v * watched by Anno, archbishop of Cologne. In 1062,
however, Anno and other prominent prelates and laymen,
perhaps jealous of the influence exercised at court by Henry,
bishop of Augsburg (d. 1063), managed by a clever trick to.
get possession of the king's person. Deserted by her friends
Agnes retired, and forthwith Anno began to rule the state.
But soon he was compelled to share his duties with Adalbert,
archbishop of Bremen, and a year or two later Adalbert became
virtually the ruler of Germany, leaving Anno to attend to affairs
in Italy. Adalbert's rule was very successful. Compelling
King Solomon to own Henry's supremacy he restored the
influence of Germany in Hungary; in internal affairs he re-
strained the turbulence of the princes, but he made many
enemies, especially in Saxony, and in 1066 Henry, who had
just been declared of age, was compelled to dismiss him. The
ambitious prelate, however, had gained great influence over
Henry, who had grown up under the most diverse influences.
The young king was generous and was endowed with considerable
intellectual gifts; but passing as he did from Anno's gloomy
palace at Cologne to Adalbert's residence in Bremen, where he
was petted and flattered, he became wayward and wilful.
Henry IV. assumed the duties of government soon after the
fall of Adalbert and quickly made enemies of many of the chief
princes, including Otto of Nordheim, the powerful
llf0O ''i dukc °* Bavaria, Rudolph, duke of Swabia, and
£Z° Berthold of Zahringen, duke of Carinthia. In Saxony,
where, like his father, he frequently held his court,
he excited intense hostility by a series of injudicious proceedings.
While the three Ottos were pursuing the shadow of imperial
greatness in Italy, much of the crown land in this duchy had been
seized by the nobles and was now held by their descendants.
Henry IV. insisted on the restoration of these estates and en-
croached upon the rights of the peasants. Moreover, he built
a number of forts which the people thought were intended for
prisons; he filled the land with riotous and overbearing Swabians;
he kept in prison Magnus, the heir to the duchy; and is said
to. have spoken of the Saxons in a tone of great contempt. All
classes were thus combined against him, and when he ordered
his forces to assemble for a campaign against the Poles the
Saxons refused to join the host. In 1073 the universal discontent
found expression in a great assembly at Wormesleben, in which
the leading part was taken by Otto of Nordheim, by Werner,
archbishop of Magdeburg, and by Burkhard II., bishop of
Halbcrstadt. Under Otto's leadership the Thuringians joined
the rising, which soon spread far and wide. Henry was surprised
by a band of rebels in his fortress at the Harzburg; he fled to
Hersfeld and appealed to the princes for support, but he could
not compel them to aid him and they would grant him nothing.
After tedious negotiations he was obliged to yield to the demands
of his enemies, and peace was made at Gerstungen in 1074.
Zealously carrying out the conditions of the peace, the peasants
not only battered down the detested forts, they even destroyed
the chapel at the Harzburg and committed other acts of desecra-
tion. These proceedings alarmed the princes, both spiritual and
secular, and Henry, who had gained support from the cities
of the Rhineland, was able to advance with a formidable army
H»miy*a
into Saxony in 1075. He gained a decisive victory, rebuilt the
forts and completely restored the authority of the crown.
In 1073, -while Germany was in this confused state, Hildebrand
had become pope as Gregory VII., and in 1075 he issued his
famous decree against the marriage of the clergy and ^
against their investiture by laymen. To the latter "*
decree it was impossible for any sovereign to submit, yil
and in Germany there were stronger reasons than
elsewhere for resistance. A large part of the land of the country
was held by the clergy, and most of it had been granted to them
because it was supposed that they would be the king's moat
efficient helpers. Were the feudal tie broken, the crown must
soon vanish, and the constitution of medieval society undergo
a radical change. Henry, who hitherto bad treated the new
pope with excessive respect, now announced his intention of
going to Rome and assuming the imperial title. The pope,
to whom the Saxons had been encouraged to complain, responded
by sending back certain of Henry's messengers, with the command
that the king should do penance for the crimes of which his
subjects accused him. Enraged by this unexpected arrogance,
Henry summoned a synod of German bishops to Worms in
January 1076, and Hildebrand was declared deposed. The
papal answer was a bull excommunicating the German king,
dethroning him and liberating his subjects from their oath of
allegiance.
Never before had a pope ventured to take so bold a step.
It was within the memory even of young men that a German
king had dismissed three popes, and had raised in
turn four of his own prelates to the Roman see. And
now a pope attempted to drag from his throne the
successor of this very sovereign. The effect of the
bull was tremendous; no other was ever followed by ""™*
equally important results. The princes had long been chafing
under the royal power; they had shaken even so stern an
autocrat as Henry III., and the authority of Henry IV. was
already visibly weakened. At this important stage in their
contest with the crown a mighty ally suddenly offered himself*
and with indecent eagerness they hastened to associate themselves
with him. Their vassals and subjects, appalled by the invisible
powers wielded by the head of the church, supported them in
their rebellion. The Saxons again rose in arms and Otto of
Nordheim succeeded in uniting the North and South German
supporters of the pope. Henry had looked for no such result
as this; he did not understand the influences which lay beneath
the surface and was horrified by his unexpected isolation. At
a diet in Tribur he humbled himself before the princes, but in
vain. They turned from him and decided that the pope should
be asked to judge Henry; that if, within a year, the sentence
of excommunication were not removed, the king should lose his
crown; and that in the meantime he should live in retirement.
Next came the strange scene at Canossa which burned itself
into the memory of Europe. For three days the representative
of the Caesars entreated to be admitted into the pope's
presence. No other mode of escape than complete
subjection to Gregory had suggested itself, or was
perhaps possible; but it did not save him. Although the pope
forgave him, the German princes, resolved not to miss the chance
which fortune had given them, met in March 1077, and deposed
him, electing Rudolph, duke of Swabia, as his successor. But
Henry's bitter humiliations transformed his character; they
brought out all his latent capacities of manliness.
The war of investitures that followed was the opening of the
tremendous struggle between the Empire and the Papacy,
which is the central fact of medieval history and ftn
which, after two centuries of conflict, ended in the
exhaustion of both powers. Its details belong more
to the history of Italy than to that of Germany,
where it took Hie form of a fight between two rival kings, but
in Germany its effects were more deeply felt. The nation now
plucked bitter fruit from the seed planted by Otto the Great
in assuming the imperial crown and by a long line of kings and
emperors in lavishing wddfcj v"««* "*S«^ ^ *3wbs^. \^^».
840
GERMANY
[HISTORY
ambition of the spiritual and the secular princes the pope had
an immensely powerful engine of offence against the emperor,
and without the slightest scruple this was turned to the best
advantage.
When this struggle began it may be said in general that Henry
was supported by the cities and the lower classes, while Rudolph
Heavy iv. relied upon the princes and the opponents of a united
madu>0 Germany; or, to make another division, Henry's
■»"• strength lay in the duchies of Franconia and Bavaria,
****** Rudolph's in Swabia and Saxony. In the Rhineland
and in southern Germany the cities had been steadily growing
in wealth amd power, and they could not fail to realize that
they had more to fear from the princes than from the crown.
Hence when Henry returned to Germany in 1078 Worms,
Spires and many other places opened their gates to him and
contributed freely to his cause; nevertheless his troops were
beaten in three encounters and Pope Gregory thundered anew
against him in March 1080. However, the fortune of war soon
turned, and in October 1080 Rudolph of Swabia was defeated
and slain. Henry then carried the war into Italy; in 1084
he was crowned emperor in Rome by Wibert, archbishop of
Ravenna, whom, as Clement III., he had set up as an anti-pope,
and in 1085 Gregory died an exile from Rome. Meanwhile
in Germany Henry's opponents had chosen Hermann, count of
Luxemburg, king in succession to Rudolph of Swabia. Hermann,
however, was not very successful, and when Henry returned
to Germany in 1084 he found that his most doughty opponent,
Otto of Nordheim, was dead, and that the anti-king had few
friends outside Saxony. This duchy was soon reduced to
obedience and was treated with consideration, and when the
third ami-king, Egbert, margrave of Meissen, was murdered in
1000 there would have been peace if Germany had followed
her own impulses.
In the Papacy, however, Henry had an implacable foe; and
again and again when he seemed on the point of a complete
triumph the smouldering embers of revolt were kindled
«»?<£• oncc morc * nl ° ^ SLTne - * n * ta * v n k aon » Conrad, was
Papscy. stirred up against him and in 1093 was crowned king
at Monza; then ten years later, when Germany was
more peaceful than it had been for years and when the emperor's
authority was generally acknowledged, his second son, Henry,
afterwards the emperor Henry V., was induced to head a danger*
ous rebellion. The Saxons and the Thuringians were soon in
arms, and they were joined by those warlike spirits of Germany
to whom an age of peace brought no glory and an age of pro-
sperity brought no gain. After some desultory fighting Henry IV.
was taken prisoner and compelled to abdicate; he had, however,
escaped and had renewed the contest when he died in August
1 106.
During this reign the first crusade took place, and the German
king suffered severely from the pious zeal which it expressed
and intensified. The movement was not in the end
favourable to papal supremacy, but the early crusaders,
and those who sympathized with them, regarded the
enemies of the pope as the enemies of religion.
The early years of Henry V.'s reign were spent in campaigns
in Flanders, Bohemia, Hungary and Poland, but the new king
was soon reminded that the dispute over investitures
Jfe«f7 V. was unse ttled. Pope Paschal II. did not doubt, now
Otrmmny. that Henry IV. was dead, that he would speedily
triumph; but he was soon undeceived. Henry V.,
who with unconscious irony had promised to treat the pope
as a father, continued, like his predecessors, to invest prelates
with the ring and the staff, and met the expostulations of Paschal
by declaring that he would not surrender a right which had
belonged to all former kings. Lengthened negotiations took
place but they led to no satisfactory result, while the king's
enemies in Germany, taking advantage of the deadlock, showed
signs of revolt. One of the most ardent of these enemies was
Lot hair of Supplinburg, whom Henry himself had made duke
of Saxony upon the extinction of the Billung family in 1106.
Lotbair was humbled in 1112, but he took advantage ol the
The Pint
emperor's difficulties to rise again and again, the twin pillars of
his strength being the Saxon hatred of the Franconian emperor*
and an informal alliance with the papal see. Henry's chief friends
were his nephews, the two Hohenstaufen princes, Frederick
and Conrad, to whose father Frederick the emperor Henry IV.
had given the duchy of Swabia when its duke Rudolph
became his rival. The younger Frederick succeeded to this
duchy in 1105, while ten years later Conrad was made duke of
Franconia, a country which for nearly a century had been under
the immediate government of the crown. The two brothers
were enthusiastic imperialists, and with persistent courage they
upheld the cause of their sovereign during his two absences
in Italy.
At last, in September xia2, the investiture question was
settled by the concordat of Worms. By this compromise,
which exhaustion forced upon both parties, the right
of electing prelates was granted to the clergy, and 252""
the emperor surrendered the privilege of investing ^wrmt.
them with the ring and the staff. On the other hand
it was arranged that these elections should take place in the
presence of the emperor or his representative, and that he should
invest the new prelate with the sceptre, thus signifying that
the bishop, or abbot, held his temporal fiefs from him and not
from the pope. In Germany the victory remained with the
emperor, but it was by no means decisive. The Papacy was far
from realizing Hildebrand's great schemes; yet in regard to the
question in dispute it gained solid advantage, and its general
authority was incomparably more important than it had been
half a century before. During this period it had waged war upon
the emperor himself. Instead of acknowledging its inferiority as
in former times it had claimed to be the higher power; it had
even attempted to dispose of the imperial crown as if the Empire
were a papal fief; and it had found out that it could at any
time tamper, and perhaps paralyse, the imperial authority by
exciting internal strife in Germany. Having thus settled this
momentous dispute Henry spent his later years in restoring
order in Germany, and in planning to assist his father-in-law,
Henry I. of England, in France, During this reign under the
lead of Otto, bishop of Bamberg (c. 1063-1x39), Pomerania
began to come under the influence of Germany and of
Christianity.
The Franconian dynasty died out with Henry V. in May 1125,
and after a protracted contest Lothair, duke of Saxony, the
candidate of the clergy, was chosen in the following r&,r**»
August to succeed him. The new king's first enter- mi Lvtma*
prise was a disastrous campaign in Bohemia, but ***
before this occurrence he had aroused the enmity of ™**
the Hohenstaufen princes by demanding that they should
surrender certain lands which had formerly been the property
of the crown. Lothair's rebuff in Bohemia stiffened the backs
of Frederick and Conrad, and in order to contend with them
the king secured a powerful ally by marrying bis daughter
Gertrude to Henry the Proud, a grandson of Wclf, whom Henry
IV. had made duke of Bavaria, a duchy to which Henry himself
had succeeded in 1126. Henry was perhaps the most powerful
of the king's subjects, nevertheless the dukes of Swabia and
Franconia withstood him, and a long war desolated South
Germany. This was ended by the submission of Frederick in
1 1 34 and of Conrad in the following year. Lothair's position,
which before 1 130 was very weak, had gradually become stronger.
He had put down the disorder in Bavaria, in Saxony and in
Lorraine; a diet held at Magdeburg in 1135 was attended by
representatives from the vassal states of Denmark, Hungary,
Bohemia and Poland; and in 1136, when he visited Italy for
the second time, Germany was in a very peaceful condition. In
June 1 133 during the king's first visit to Italy he had received
from Pope Innocent II. the imperial crown and also the investi-
ture of the extensive territories left by Matilda, marchioness of
Tuscany; and at this time the pope seems to have claimed the
emperor as his vassal, a statement to this effect (post homo ft
papoe, sumil quo dante coronam) being inscribed in the audience
i \iaiioiv]bftV^itnAalBAinA.
history) GERMANY
Nothing could indicate more dearly than this fact how much
of their old power the German kings had lost. It was not past
hope that even yet some of their former splendour
{JjJJ^jJ might be restored, and for a brief period monarchy
ponr. did again stand high. Still, its foundations were sapped.
Incessant war, both at home and in Italy, had deprived
it of its force; it had lost moral influence by humiliations, of
which the scene at Canossa was an extreme type. Steadily,
with unwearied energy, letting no opportunity escape, the princes
had advanced towards independence, and they might well look
forward to such a bearing in regard to the kings as the kings
had formerly adopted in regard to them.
Henry the Proud was confident that he would succeed Lothair,
who had died on his return from Italy in December 1137; but,
by a hasty and irregular election, Conrad of Hohen-
staufen, duke of Franconia, was chosen king in March
1 138. Henry the Proud rebelled and was declared to
have forfeited his two duchies, Saxony and Bavaria, the former
being given to Albert the Bear, margrave of Brandenburg, and
the latter to Leopold IV., margrave of Austria. Henry defended
his rights with vigour and once again Germany was ravaged by
war, for although he was unpopular in Bavaria he was strongly
supported by the Saxons, who, since the time of Henry IV., had
always been ready to join in an attack on the monarchy, and he
had little difficulty in driving Albert the Bear from the land.
However, in October 1139 Henry died suddenly, but his young
son, Henry the Lion, was recognized at once as duke of Saxony,
while his brother, Wclf, upheld the fortunes of his house in
Bavaria. The struggle went on until May 1142, when peace
was made at Frankfort. Saxony, with the assent of Albert the
Bear, was granted by Conrad to Henry the Lion, and Bavaria
was given to Henry Jasomirgott, who had just succeeded his
brother Leopold as margrave of Austria. But this was only a
lull in the civil strife, which was renewed after the king had made
a successful expedition into Bohemia. The princes clerical and
lay were fighting against each other, and the Bavarians were at
war with the Hungarians, who gained a great victory in 1146.
Notwithstanding the many sources of confusion Conrad was
persuaded by the passionate eloquence of Bernard of Clairvaux
to take part in the second crusade; he left for the East in 1x47
and returned to Germany in 1140, to find Welf again in arms
and Henry the Lion claiming Bavaria. The king had done
nothing to stem the rising tide of disorder when he died at Bam berg
in February 1152. During this reign the work of conquering
and Germanizing the Slavonic tribes east of the Elbe was seriously
taken in hand under the lead of Albert the Bear and Henry the
Lion, and the foundation of the margraviatc of Brandenburg
by Albert tended to make life and property more secure in the
north-east of Germany.
After Conrad's death Germany passed under the rule of one
of the greatest of her sovereigns, Frederick I., called Barbarossa,
nephew of the late king and son of Frederick, that duke
^£%SJ£ of Swabia who had fought along with Conrad against
*?.j Henry the Proud. Frederick himself had also been
closely associated with Conrad, who advised the princes
to choose his nephew as his successor. This was done, and the
new king was crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle in March 1152. Allied
through his mother to the Welfs of Bavaria, and anxious to put
an end to the unrest which dominated Germany, especially to
the strife between the families of Welf and Hohenstaufcn,
Frederick began his reign by promising to secure for Henry the
Lion the duchy of Bavaria, and by appeasing Henry's uncle,
Count Welf, by making him duke of Spoleto and margrave of
Tuscany. But the new king had another, and perhaps a more
potent, reason for wishing to see peace restored in Germany.
For his adventurous and imaginative spirit Italy and the imperial
title had an irresistible charm, and in 11 54, two years after he
had ascended the throne, he crossed the Alps, being crowned
emperor at Rome in June 1 155. After this event the best years
of his life were spent in Italy, where, in his long and obstinate
struggle with the Lombard cities and with Pope Alexander III.,
be chiefly acquired bis fame. Although on the emperor's side
841
this struggle was conducted mainly with German troops it falls
properly under the history of Italy. In that country the record
of this reign is a blood-stained page, while in the history of
Germany, on the contrary, Frederick's name is associated with
a peaceful and prosperous period.
The promise that Bavaria should be granted to Henry the
Lion was not easily fulfilled, as Henry Jasomirgott refused to
give up the duchy. At last, however, in 1156, after
his return from his first expedition to Italy, Frederick *****
reconciled the latter prince by making Austria into a smxoay.
duchy with certain special privileges, an important
step in the process by which that country became the centre of
a powerful state. Henry Jasomirgott then renounced Bavaria,
and Henry the Lion became its duke. It was, however, in his
other duchy of Saxony that the latter duke's most important
work was done. Although he often gave offence by his haughty
and aggressive disposition, few German princes have earned' so
thoroughly the goodwill of posterity. Since the death of Otto
the Great the Slavonic lands to the east of the Elbe had been
very imperfectly held in subjection by the Germans. Devoting
himself to the conquest of the lands lying along the shore of the
Baltic, Henry succeeded as no one before him had ever done.
But he was not only a conqueror. He built towns and encouraged
those which already existed; he founded and restored bishoprics
in his new territories; and between the Elbe and the Oder be
planted bodies of industrious colonists. While he was thus at
work a similar task was being performed to the south-east of
Saxony by Albert the Bear, the first margrave of Brandenburg,
who, by his energetic rule was preparing this country for its
great destinies.
Early in his reign, by settling a dispute over the crown of
Denmark, Frederick brought the king of that country once more
into the position of a German vassal. Having spent jtjImJUL
the year n 56 in settling the Bavarian question and ia PoUo4
in enforcing order in the Rhincland and elsewhere, ***Of
the emperor marched into Poland in 1157, compelled *—*'
its ruler, Boleslaus IV., to do the homage which he had previously
refused to perform, and in return for services rendered during
the campaign and for promises of future aid, raised the duke of
Bohemia to the rank of a king, a change which in no way affected
his duties to the German crown, but which gave him a certain
precedence over other vassal princes. The king of Hungary,
too, although no attempt was made to subdue him, became a
useful ally. Thus the fame of Germany in the neighbouring
countries, which had been nearly destroyed during the confusion
of Henry IV.'s reign, was to a large extent restored. Frederick
asserted his authority in Burgundy or, as it was sometimes
called, Franche Comte. In Germany itself internal order was
established by a strict appliance of the existing laws against
those who broke the peace, fresh orders for its observance were
issued, and in Frederick the robber nobles found a most implac-
able enemy. The cities, too, flourished during this reign. The
emperor attached them to himself by granting to many of them
the very liberties which, by a strained interpretation of his
imperial rights, be withheld from the cities of Lombardy. Yet,
notwithstanding his policy, in these directions the German nobles
appear to have been enthusiastically devoted to Frederick. Time
after time they followed him to Italy, enduring serious losses and
hardships in order that he might enforce claims which were
of no advantage to them, and which, previously, had been a
curse to their nation. Their loyalty is well illustrated by the
famous scene at Besancon in October 11 57. During a meeting
of the diet a papal legate read a letter from Pope Adrian IV.,
which seemed to imply that the Empire was a papal fief. In-
dignant murmurs rose from the assembled nobles, and the life of
the legate was only saved from their fury by the intervention of
the emperor himself. The secret of Frederick's great popularity
was partly the national pride excited by his foreign achievements,
partly the ascendance over other minds which his genius gave
him, and partly the conviction that while he would forego none
of his lights be would demand from bis vassals nothing more
than was sanctioned by the laws of the Empire.
842
GERMANY
(HISTORY
Having suppressed a rising at Mainz Frederick set out in the
autumn of 1163 for Italy, 'which country was now distracted
by a papal schism. This incident was bound to affect
2j*J*J_ German politics. After the dealh of Adrian IV. in
mmdtriu' "59 tnc imperial party put forward an anti-pope,
Victor IV., against Alexander III., who had been
canonicaHy elected. The emperor made -stupendous efforts to
secure for Victor and then for his successor, Paschal III., recog-
nition by the sovereigns of Europe, but in vain; and almost
the only support which the anti-pope received came from the
German clergy. In May 1 165 Frederick held a diet at WUrzburg,
where the princes lay and clerical swore to be faithful to Paschal
and never to recognize Alexander. But Alexander soon found
partisans among the German clergy, hitherto the most loyal of
the emperor's friends; and Frederick retaliated by driving the
offending prelates from their sees, a proceeding which tended
to disturb the peace of the land. Then in August 1167, in the
midst of the struggle in Italy, came the pestilence which destroyed
the imperial army in Rome) and drove, the emperor as a fugitive
across the Alps. After this humiliation Frederick remained for
six years in Germany. He was fully occupied in restoring order
in Saxony, in the diocese of Salzburg and elsewhere; in adding
to his hereditary lands; in negotiating for a better understanding
with France and England; and in reminding the vassal states,
Hungary, Poland and Bohemia, of their duties towards the
Empire. The success with which he carried out this work shows
clearly that, in Germany at least, the disaster at Rome had not
seriously affected his prestige. Again in Italy in 1 1 74 the contest
with the Papacy was abruptly ended by Fredcrick'soverwhelming
defeat at Legnano in May 1 176, and by the treaty of Venice made
about a year later with Alexander III.
In the later years of his reign the emperor's chief enemy was
Henry the Lion. Rendered arrogant by success and confident
that his interests were in northern, and not in southern
^Xfulmiy Europe, the Saxon duke refused to assist Frederick
OvLhrn. in the campaign which ended so disastrously at
Legnano. Ascribing his defeat to Henry's defection,
Frederick returned to Germany full of anger against the Saxon
duke and firmly resolved to punish him. The immediate cause
of Henry's downfall, however, was not his failure to appear in
Italy, but his refusal to' restore some lands to the bishop of
Halbcrstadt, and it was on this charge that be was summoned
before the diet. Three times he refused to appear, and early in
1 180 sentence was pronounced against him; he was condemned
to lose all his lands and to go into banishment. For some time
he resisted, but at length the emperor in person marched against
him and he was forced to submit; the only favour he could
secure when peace was made at Erfurt in November 1181 was
permission to retain Brunswick and Ltineburg, which have
remained in the possession of his descendants until our own day.
Bavaria was granted to Otto of Wittelsbach, but it lost some
of its importance because Styria was taken from it and made into
a separate duchy. The extensive duchy of Saxony was com-
pletely dismembered. The name was taken by the small portion
of the former duchy which was given to Bernard, son of Albert
the Bear, the founder of a new Saxon line, and the extensive
western part was added to the archbishopric of Cologne. The
chief prelates of Saxony and many of the late duke's most
important feudatories were made virtually independent of all
control save that of the crown. Frederick's object in thus break-
ing up the two greatest duchies in his kingdom was doubtless
to strengthen the imperial authority. But in reality he made it
certain that the princes would one day shake off the imperial
power altogether; for it was perhaps more difficult for the
sovereign to contend with scores of petty nobles than with two
or three great princes.
Less serious* than the -struggle with Henry the Lion was
Frederick's struggle with Philip of Heihsberg, archbishop of
Cologne (d. 1101), on whom he had just conferred a great part
of Saxony. When the emperor went to Italy in 1184 he left the
government of Germany to his son Henry, afterwards the emperor
Henry _ VI., who bad been crowned German king in 1 169. On all
sides, but especially in the north-west, Henry was faced with
incipient revolution, and while he was combating this the
quarrel between Frederick and the Papacy broke out
again in Italy. At this juncture Philip of Cologne
united the German and the Italian oppositions. Several jJJJJ* 1
princes rallied to his standard and foreign powers ^" l *
promised aid, but although very formidable in appearance the
combination had no vestige of popular support. The greater
part of the German clergy again proved their loyalty to Frederick,
who hurried to Germany only to sec the opposition vanish before
him. In March 1 188 Philip of Cologne submitted at Mainz.
Germany was now at peace. With the accession of Gregory
VIII. pope and emperor were reconciled, and by the marriage
of his son Henry with Constance, daughter of Roger I.,
king of Sicily, the emperor had reason to hope that the
Empire would soon include Naples and Sicily. Re-
solving that the sunset of his life should be even more
splendid. than its dawn he decided to go on crusade, and in 1189
he started with a great army for the Holy Land. When the news
reached Germany that he had been drowned, an event which took
place in Cilicia in June 1 100, men felt that evil days were coming
upon the country, for the elements of discord would no longer
be controlled by the strong hand of the great emperor.
Evil days did not, however, come in the time of Henry VI.,
who, although without his father's greatness, bad some of his
determination and energy, and was at least his equal ^ ^
in ambition. Having in 1 100 reduced Henry the Lion
once more to submission, the new king set out to take possession
of his Sicilian kingdom, being on the way crowned emperor at
Rome. At the end of 1101 he returned to Germany, where he
was soon faced. by two serious risings. The first of these centred
round the restless and unruly Welfs; after a time these in-
surgents were joined by their former enemies, the rulers of Saxony,
of Thuringia and of Meissen, who were angered by Henry's
conduct. The Welfs also gained the assistance of Canute VI. ,
king of Denmark. Equally dangerous was a rebellion in the
Lower Rhineland, where the emperor made many foes by
appointing, regardless of their fitness, his own candidates to
vacant bishoprics. At Liege this led to serious complications;
and when Bishop Albert, who had been chosen against Henry's
wish, was murdered at Reims in November 1 192, the emperor
was openly accused of having instigated the crime. At once the
rulers of Brabant, of Limburg and of Flanders, with the arch-
bishops of Cologne and Trier, were in arms. In the east of
Germany Ottakar I. of Bohemia joined the circle of Henry's
enemies, and the southern duchies, Bavaria, Swabia and Austria,
were too much occupied with internal quarrels to send help
to the harassed emperor. But formidable as were these risings
they were crushed, although not entirely by force of arms.
In 1 103 Richard I. of England passed as a prisoner into Henry's
keeping, and with rare skill the emperor used him as a means
of compelling his enemies to come to terms. Henry the Lion was
the last to submit. He made his peace in 1194, when his son
Henry was promised the succession to the Rhenish Palatinate.
Returning from another visit to Sicily, the emperor was now so
powerful that, in pursuance of his plan for making himself the
head of a great world monarchy, he put forward the suggestion
that the imperial crown should be declared hereditary in his
family. This proposal aroused much opposition, but Henry
persisted with it; he promised important concessions to the
princes, many of whom were induced to consent, and but for his
sudden death, which occurred in Sicily in September 1197, it is
probable that he would have attained his end.
Great as was Henry's authority many of the princes, chief
among them being Adolph, archbishop of Cologne (d. 1220),
refused to recognize his son, Frederick, who had been ntt ^ w
chosen king of the Romans in 1106. This attitude jmmkia
was possibly owing to the fact that Frederick was *■*
young and inexperienced; it was, however, more Jfjj?" 1
probably due to a revival of the fear that the German
princes would be entangled in Italian politics. For a lime
Adolph and his friends, who were mainly princes of the Rhineland,
history) GERMANY
sought in vain for a new king. While they were thus employed
the friends of the house of Hohenslaufen, convinced that
Frederick's kingship was not possible, chose the late emperor's
brother, Philip, duke of Swabia, to All the vacant throne; soon
afterwards the enemies of the house found a candidate in the
person of Henry the Lion's son, Otto of Brunswick, who was
also chosen German king. Thus the struggle between Welf and
Hohenstaufcn was renewed and civil war broke out at once.
Philip's supporters were the nobles of southern and eastern
Germany, while a few cities in the west owned his authority;
Otto's friends were found mainly in the north and the north-west
of t he count ry. The number of available warriors was increased
by the return of many crusaders, among them being the famous
soldier, Henry von Kalden, who was mainly, responsible for the
success of Philip's cause in 2199. If Germany had been un-
connected with the Papacy, or even if the Papacy had been as
weak as in the days of Henry VI., the issue of the strife would
almost certainly have been an early victory for Philip. A
majority of the princes were on his side and the French king
Philip Augustus was his ally, while his personal character com-
manded general respect. Otto, whose chief supporter outside
Germany was his uncle Richard I. of England, on the other
hand was a harsh and violent man. But unfortunately for
Germany the papal chair at this time was occupied by Innocent
III., a pope who emulated Hildcbrand in ambition and in
statesmanship. At first vacillating, but by no means indifferent,
Innocent was spurred to action when a number of princes met
at Spires in May 1200, declared Philip to be the lawful king,
and denied the right of the pope to interfere. He was also
annoyed by Philip's attitude with regard to a vacancy in the
archbishopric of Cologne, and in March 1201 he declared
definitely for Otto. The efforts of the pope helped to rekindle
the expiring flames of war, and for a year or two success com-
pletely deserted Philip. He lost the support of Ottakar of
Bohemia and of Hermann I., landgrave of Thuringia; he was
driven from North Germany into Swabia and Otto's triumph
seemed assured. From 1204 onwards, however, fortune again
veered round, and Philip's prospects began to improve. Deserted
by Ottakar and even by Adolph of Cologne and his own brother
Henry, count palatine of the Rhine, Otto was forced to. take
refuge in Brunswick, his last line of defence, and was only saved
by Philip's murder, which occurred at Bamberg in June 1208.
A feature of this struggle was the reckless way in which the rival
kings gave away the property of the crown in order to gain
adherents, thus enriching the princes and weakening the central
government.
Otto was now again chosen German king, and to aid a*nd
mark the general reconciliation he was betrothed to the murdered
king's daughter Beatrix. Nearly all the princes
9*** ,Vm acknowledged him, and as pope and king were at
tauTias. Peace, Germany enjoyed a period of comparative quiet.
This however, did not last long. Having secured
his coronation at Rome in October 1209, Otto repudiated the
many pledges he had made to Innocent and began to act in
defiance of the papal wishes. To punish him the pope put
forward his own ward, Henry VI. 's son Frederick, who was living
in Sicily, as a rival king. While Otto was warring in Italy a
number of influential princes met at Nuremberg, at the instigation
of Innocent and of his ally Philip Augustus of France, and
invited Frederick to come to Germany. Otto then left Italy
hurriedly, but he was quickly followed by his young rival, who
in the warfare which had already broken out proved himself
a formidable opponent. Seeking to mend his failing fortunes,
the Welf Went to France to support his ally, the English king
John, against Philip Augustus, and at the battle of Bouvines
(July 27, 1214) memorable in the history alike of Germany t of
England and of France, his fate was sealed, although until his
death in May 1218 he maintained a desultory warfare against
Frederick.
Frederick II. was, if not the strongest, certainly the most
brilliant of German kings. With the medieval passion for
adventure he combined the intellectual culture and freedom of
8+3
a modern gentleman. A lover of poetry, of art and of science,
he was also a great statesman; he knew how to adapt his policy
to changing circumstances and how to move men by
appealing at one time to their selfishness and weak- A
ness and at another time to the nobler qualities of
human nature. For outward splendour his position was never
surpassed, and before he died he possessed six crowns, those
of the Empire, Germany, Sicily, Lombardy, Burgundy and
Jerusalem. But Germany profited neither by his gifts nor by
his prestige. After Bouvines he purchased the assistance of
Valdemar II., king of Denmark, by ceding to him a large stretch
of land along the Baltic coast; and, promising to go on crusade,
he secured his coronation at Aix-la-Chapclle in July 1215.
Then being generally recognized as king he was able to do
something to quell disturbances in various parts of the country,
and, in April 1220, to bring about the election of his young son
Henry as king of the Romans. But for this favour he had been
compelled to pay a high price. Seven years before, at Eger in
July 1 2 13, he had made extensive concessions to the church,
undertaking to take no part in episcopal elections, thus surrender-
ing the advantages gained by the concordat of Worms, and to
allow to German bishops the right of appeal to Rome. Proceeding
a step farther in the same direction, he now promised to erect
no new toll-centre, or mint, on the lands of the Spiritual princes,
and to allow no towns to be built thereon. Thus the prelates
possessed nearly all the rights of sovereigns, and regarded the
pope in Italy and not the king in Germany as their head, a state
of affairs which was fatal to the unity, nay, even to the existence
of the Empire.
Having made peace with Henry, count palatine of the Rhine
and brother, of Otto IV., and settled a dispute about the lands
of the extinct family of Zahringen in the south-west
of the country, Frederick left Germany in August
1220; engaged in his bitter contest with the Papacy ****
and the Lombard cities, in ruling Sicily, and, after ***•"**•
several real or imaginary delays, in fulfilling his crusading vow,
he did not return to it for fifteen years. During this period he
was represented by his son Henry, in whose name the government
of Germany was carried on by the regent Engelbcrt, archbishop
of Cologne. While Engclbert lived the country was in a fairly
peaceable condition, although, thanks to the emperor's conces-
sions, the spiritual princes were predominant, and all possible
means were taken to check the growth of the towns, whose
interests and aspirations were not favourable to this state of
affairs. There was, moreover, a struggle between Valdemar of
Denmark and some neighbouring German nobles. But after
Engelbcrt 's murder (November 1225) there was a change for
the worse, and the only success which can be placed to the
credit of the German arms during the next few years was the
regaining of the lands ceded to Denmark in 121 5, lands which
included the cities of Hamburg and Ltibcck. Under the rule
of the new regent, Louis I., duke of Bavaria, confusion reigned
supreme, and civil war prevailed in nearly every part of the
country.
After the treaty of San Germano, which was made- with
Pope Gregory in 1230, and the consequent lull in the struggle
with the Papacy, Frederick was able to devote some ^_^_
little attention to Germany, and in 1231 he sanctioned JJJj"** -
the great Privilege of Worms. This was a reward n #w Jf
to the princes for their efforts in bringing about the
peace, and an extension of the concessions made in 1220. The
princes, now for the first time referred to officially as domini
tcrrae, were given full rights of jurisdiction over their lands and
all the inferior officers of justice were made subservient to them.
Practically they became independent sovereigns, and to make
their victory more complete serious restraints were laid upon the
freedom of the towns. Before this date King Henry had begun
to take a personal part in the government and was already
involved in a quarrel with Otto II., duke of Bavaria. He
disliked the Privilege of Worms and, favouring the towns against
the princes, bis policy was diametrically opposed to that of the
emperor; -however, i& i»n Vw. ^«& \»fc^^"«^v««$«&.\5* .
8+4
GERMANY
[HISTORY
obey his father's commands. But in 1234, at a time of great
and increasing disorder in Germany, he rebelled; he appealed
publicly to the princes for support, gained some followers,
especially in his own duchy of Swabia, and made an alliance
with the Lombard cities. Confident of his strength Frederick
entered Germany with a few attendants in the middle of 1235,
and his presence had the anticipated effect of quelling the in-
surrection; Henry was sent a prisoner to Italy and disappeared
from history. Then, in August 1 235, amid surroundings of great
splendour, the emperor held a diet at Mainz, which was attended
by a large number of princes. This diet is very important in
the legal history of Germany, because here was issued that great
" land peace " (Landfrieden) which became the model for all
subsequent enactments of the kind. By it private war was
declared unlawful, except in cases where justice could not be
obtained; a chief justiciar was appointed for the Empire; all
tolls and mints erected since the death of Henry VI. were to be
removed; and other provisions dealt with the maintenance of
order.
In 1236, during another short stay in Germany, Frederick
in person led the imperial army against Frederick II., duke of
Austria, who had defied and overcome his repre-
2**"** sentatives; having taken* possession of Vienna and
(brmmy. the Austrian duchies he there secured the election
of his son Conrad, who had already succeeded his
brother as duke of Swabia, as king of the Romans (May 1237).
But in spite of these imposing displays of power the princes
looked with suspicion upon an emperor who was almost a stranger
to their country and who was believed to be a renegade from
their faith, and soon after Frederick's return to Italy the gulf
between him and his German subjects was widened by his
indifference to a great danger which threatened them. This
came from the Mongols who ravaged the eastern frontiers of the
country, but the peril was warded off by the efforts of Henry II.,
duke of Silesia, who lost his life in a fight against these foes near
Liegnitz in April 1241, and of Wenccslaus I., king of Bohemia.
The emperor's attitude with regard to the Mongol invasion
is explained by events in Italy where Frederick was engaged
in a new and, if possible, a more virulent struggle with
2jJ*jJ* the Lombard cities and with Gregory DC As usual,
pop,, the course of politics in Germany, which at this time
was ruled by King Conrad and by the regent Siegfried,
archbishop of Mainz (d. 1249), was influenced by this quarrel.
Frederick of Austria had allied himself with Wenccslaus of
Bohemia, and spurred on by the papal emissary had tried to
set up a rival king; but both the Danish and the French princes
who were asked to accept this thankless position declined the
invitation, and Frederick and Wenccslaus made their peace,
the former receiving back his duchies. After the defeat of
the Mongols, however, there was again the danger of a rebellion
based upon a union between the princes and the pope. Siegfried
of Mainz deserted his master, and visiting Germany in 1242
Frederick found it necessary to purchase the support of the
towns by a grant of extensive privileges; but, although this
had the desired effect, Conrad could make but little headway
against the increasing number of his enemies.. At last the Papacy
found an anti-king. Having declared Frederick deposed at
the council of Lyons in 1245, Gregory's- successor, Innocent IV.,
induced a number of princes to choose as their king the land-
grave of Thuringia, Henry Raspe, who had served as regent of
Germany. This happened in May 1246, and the conduct of
the struggle against the Pfoffenk&nig, as Henry was called, was
left to Conrad, who was aided by the Bavarians, until February
1247, when the anti-king died. The papal party then elected
William II., count of Holland, as Henry Raspe's successor, and
during the state of anarchy which now prevailed in Germany
the emperor died in Italy in December 1250.
Upon his father's death Conrad IV. was acknowledged by
many as king in Germany, but in 1251 he went to Italy, where
Coaniiv. he was fuUy occupied in fighting against the enemies
* of his house until his death in May 1254* The
ttrvggle to maintain the position of the Hohenstaufen in Italy
was continued after this event; but in October 1268, by
the execution of Conrad's son Conradin, the family became
extinct.
After Conrad's death William of Holland received a certain
allegiance, especially in the north of the country, and was
recognized by the Rhenish cities which had just
formed a league for mutual protection, a league which ft*
for a short time gave promise of great strength and rajlMW
usefulness. In January 1256, however, William was
killed, and in the following year there was a double election for
the German crown, Alphonso X., king of Castile, a grandson
of Philip of Swabia, and Richard, earl of Cornwall, brother of
the English king Henry III., being each chosen by parties of
electors. Richard was crowned in May 1257, but the majority
of his subjects were probably ignorant of his very name;
Alphonso did not even visit the country over which he claimed
to rule.
During the reign of Frederick II. Prussia was conquered for
Christianity and civilization by the knights of the Teutonic
Order, who here built up the state which was later, j»»
in association with Brandenburg, deeply to influence mini*
the course of history. This work was begun in 1230. £"**'*"
Knights eager to win fame by engaging in the war **■■■**
against the heathen Prussians flocked hither from all lands;
towns, Kdnigsberg, Thorn, Kulm and others, were founded;
and in alliance with the Brothers of the Sword, the order was
soon pressing farther eastwards. Courland and Livonia were
brought into subjection, and into these lands also Christian
institutions were introduced and German settlers brought the
arts of peace.
The age of the Hohenstaufen emperors is, in many respects,
the most interesting in the medieval history of Germany. It
was a period of great men and great ideas, of dramatic
contrasts of character and opinion — on the one side
a broad humanitarianism .combined with a gay enjoy-
ment of the world, on the other side an almost super-
human spirituality which sought its ideal in the rejection of
all that the world could give. It saw the new-birth of poetry
and of art; it witnessed the rise of the friars. The contest
between Empire and Papacy was more than a mere struggle
for supremacy between two world-powers; it was a war to the
death between two fundamentally opposite conceptions of life,
which in many respects anticipated and prepared the way for
the Renaissance and the Reformation. The emperor Frederick
II. himself stands out as the type of the one tendency; Innocent
III., Francis of Assisi and Dominic, in their various degrees,
are types of the other. Frederick himself, of course, was Italian
rather than German, akin to the despots of the Renaissance
in his many-sided culture, his tolerant scepticism and his policy
of " cruelty well applied." The culture of which he was the
supreme representative, that of Italy and of Provence, took
a more serious shade when it penetrated into Germany. The
German Minnesinger and romance-writers, whose golden age
corresponded with that of the Hohenstaufen, were not content
only to sing the joy of life or the chivalrous virtues of courage,
courtesy and reverence for women; they in some sort anticipated
the underlying ideas of the Reformation by championing the
claims of the German nation against the papal monarchy and
pure religion, as they conceived it, against the arrogance and
corruption of the clergy. In them the medieval lay point of
view became articulate, finding perhaps its most remarkable
expression in the ideas of religious toleration proclaimed by
Walt her von der Vogelweide and Wolfram von. Escbenbach.
In Germany, as elsewhere, the victory of the Papacy was the
victory of obscurantism. German culture, after a short revival,
perished once more amid the smoke of the fires kindled by
Conrad of Marburg and his fellow inquisitors.
In architecture, as in literature, this period was also one of
great achievement in Germany. Of the noble palaces which it
produced the castle of the Wartburg (q.v.) remains a perfect
specimen, while the many magnificent churches dating from
this time that still survive, prove the taste, wealth and piety
HISTORY)
GERMANY
8 45
of the burghers. For the science of government, too, much was
done, partly by the introduction from Italy of the study of Roman
law, partly by the collection of native customs in the Sachsen-
s pie gel compiled by Eike von Repgow early in the 13th century,
and the less valuable Deulschcnspiegcl and Sckwabenspiegel.
Altogether, Germany has seen no more fascinating epoch, none
more full of life, movement and colour.
Yet it was in this age that the German nation utterly lost its
political strength. Even after Lothair the Saxon, a line of
pAfHj^ sovereigns rigidly confining themselves to their own
chract*r kingdom might have mastered the many infiuences
0/ which were making for disunion. But the Hohcn-
° tr " M| v staufen family, like their Saxon and Franconian
tetthd. predecessors, would be content with nothing short of
universal dominion; and thus the crown which had once been
significant of power and splendour gradually sank into contempt.
Under the strong rule of Frederick Barbarossa and his son this
process was temporarily stopped, but only to advance more
rapidly when they were gone. During the confusion of the civil
war carried on by Otto IV. and Philip, the princes, being subject
to hardly any check, freely obtained crown lands and crown
rights, and the mischief was too extensive to be undone by
Frederick II. In 1220, in order to secure the adhesion of the
church to his son Henry, he formally confirmed the spiritual
princes in their usurpations; eleven years later at Worms
still more extensive advantages were granted to the princes,
both spiritual and secular, and these formal concessions formed
the lawful basis of the independence of the princely class. Such
authority as the emperor reserved for himself he could exercise
but feebly from a distant land in which his energies were other-
wise occupied. His immediate successors can hardly be said to
have exercised any authority whatever; and they lost hold of
the border countries which had hitherto been dependent upon or
connected with Germany. Thenceforth Denmark and Poland
rendered no homage to the German crown, and Burgundy was
gradually absorbed by France.
The country was not now divided into a few duchies which,
with skilful management, might still in times of emergency
aMtet have been made to act together. The age of the
of the great duchies was past. As we have seen, Bavaria
pQpmta* was shorn of extensive lands, over which new dukes
**■*• were placed, and the duchy of Saxony was altogether
broken up. Swabia and Franconia ceased to have dukes, and
Lorraine gave place to the duchy of Brabant and other smaller
slates. Thus there were archbishops, bishops, abbots, dukes,
margraves, landgraves, counts — forming together a large body —
each of whom claimed to have no superior save the emperor,
whose authority they and their predecessors had slowly destroyed.
All immediate nobles were not princes; but even petty knights
or barons, who possessed little more than the rude towers from
which they descended upon passing travellers, if their only
lord was the emperor, recognized no law save their own will.
Another independent element of the slate was composed of the
imperial cities. So long as the emperor really reigned, they
enjoyed only such liberties as they could wring from him, or
as he voluntarily conferred. But when the sovereign's power
decayed, the imperial cities were really free republics, governing
themselves according to their own ideas of law and justice (see
Commune). Besides the imperial cities, and the princes and
other immediate nobles, there were the mediate nobles, the
men who held land in fief of the highest classes of the aristocracy,
and who, in virtue of this feudal relation, looked down upon
the allodial proprietors or freemen, and upon the burghers.
There were also mediate towns, acknowledging the supremacy
of some lord other than the sovereign. Beneath all these, forming
the mass of the agricultural population, were the peasantry
and the serfs, the latter attached to the land, the former ground
down by heavy taxes. There was another class, large and
increasing in number, which was drawn from various sections of
society. This was composed of men who, being without land,
attached themselves to the emperor or to some powerful noble;
they performed services, generally of a military nature, for their
Ttf
lord, and were called Dienslmannen (ministeriaUs). They
were often transformed into " free knights " by the grant of
a fief, and the class ultimately became absorbed in that of
the knights.
The period from the death of Conrad IV. to the election of
Rudolph of Habsburg in 1273 is generally called the Great
Interregnum, and it was used by the princes to extend
their territories and to increase their authority. On
several occasions it had seemed as if the German
crown would become hereditary, but it had been kept elective
by a variety of causes, among them being the jealousy of the
Papacy and the growing strength of the aristocracy. In theory
the election of each king needed the sanction of the whole of the
immediate nobles, but in practice the right to choose the king
had passed into the hands of a small but varying number of
the leading princes. During the 13th century several attempts
were made to enumerate these princes, and at the contested
election of 1257 seven of them took part. This was the real
beginning of the electoral college whose members at this time
were the archbishops of Mainz, Cologne and Trier, the duke of
Saxony, the duke of Bavaria, who was also count palatine of the
Rhine, the margrave of Brandenburg and the king of Bohemia.
After this event the electors became a distinct element in the
state. They were important because they could maintain the
impotence of the crown to check disorder by imposing conditions
upon candidates for the throne, and by taking care that no
prince powerful enough to be dangerous to themselves should
be elected to this position.
Until the time of the interregnum the territories of a prince
were rarely divided among his descendants, the reason being
that, although the private fiefs of the nobles were otvMom
hereditary, their offices — margrave, count and the like •/ <*#
—were in theory at the disposal of the king. There was JjJJJJ^
now a tendency to set this principle aside. Otto II., *■■**
duke of Bavaria, a member of the Wittelsbach family, had
become by marriage ruler of the Rhenish Palatinate, and alter
his death these extensive lands were ruled in common by his
two sons; but in 1255 a formal division took place and the
powerful family of Wittelsbach was divided into two branches.
About the same time the small duchy of Saxony was divided
into two duchies, those of Wittenberg and Lauenburg, the former
to the south and the latter to the north of the great mark of
Brandenburg, and there were similar divisions in the less import*
ant states. It was thus practically settled that the offices and
territories, as well as the private fiefs, of the princes were heredi-
tary, to be disposed of by them at their pleasure. This being
thoroughly established it would have been hard, perhaps im-
possible, even for a sovereign of the greatest genius, to reassert
in anything like its full extent the royal authority. The process
of division and subdivision which steadily went on broke up
Germany into a bewildering multitude of principalities; but as
a rule the members of each princely house held together against
common enemies, and ultimately they learned to arrange by
private treaties that no territory should pass from the family
while a single representative survived.
The consolidation of the power of the princes was contemporary
with the rise of the cities into new importance. Several of
them, especially Mainz.Worms and Spires, had received ^ r1/fn
valuable rights from the kings and other lords; they
were becoming self-governing and to some extent independent
communities and an important and growing element in the
stale. The increase of trade and a system of taxation pro-
vided the governing body with funds, which were used to fortify
the city and in other ways to make life and property more secure.
The destruction of imperial authority compelled them to organise
their resources, so as to be at all times prepared against ambitions
neighbours. They began to form leagues which the greatest
princes and combinations of princes could not afford to despise.
Of these leagues the chief at this time was the Rhenish Con-
federation, which has been already mentioned. Great importance
was also acquired by the Hanseatic League, which had originated
during the interregnum in a treaty of alliance between Lubeck
8 4 6
GERMANY
[HISTORY
and Hamburg. It ultimately included more than eighty cities
and became one of the greatest commercial powers in Europe
(see Hans ea tic League).
A political system which allowed the princes to do as they
pleased was very much to their liking, and if they had followed
their own impulse it is possible that they would never
JJ*jJ£ have placed a king over their country. But the pope
tory intervened. He found from bis troubles in Italy and
from his diminished revenues from Germany that it
would be still convenient to have in the latter country a sovereign
who, like some of his predecessors, would be the protector of the
church. Therefore, after the death of Richard of Cornwall in
April 127a, Pope Gregory X., ignoring the absent Alphonso of
Castile, told the electors that if they did not choose a king
lie himself would appoint one. The threat was effective. In
September 1273 the electors met and raised to the throne a
Swabian noble, Rudolph, count of Habsburg, who proved to
possess more energy than they had imagined possible. For some
time before this event the most powerful prince in Germany
bad been Ottakar II., king of Bohemia, who by marriage and
conquest had obtained large territories outside his native king-
dom, including the duchy of Austria and other possessions of the
extinct family of Babenberg. Having himself cherished some
hopes of receiving the German crown Ottakar refused to do
homage to the new sovereign; after a time war broke out
between them, and in August 1278 in a battle at Durnkrut on
the March Ottakar was defeated and slain, his lands, save
Bohemia, passing into the possession of the victor. Rudolph
had been able to give his whole attention to this enterprise owing
to the good understanding which had been reached between
himself and the pope, to whom he had promised to allow a free
band in Italy.
Rudolph has often been called the restorer of the German
kingdom, but he has little real claim to this honourable title.
He marched once or twice against law-breakers, but
n ^ t in all the German duchies there were frequent dis-
turbances which he did very little to check. In his
later years he made some attempts to maintain the public peace,
and he distinguished himself by the vigour with which he punished
robber barons in Thuringia; he also won back some of the crown
lands and dues which had been stolen during the interregnum.
But he made no essential change in the condition of Germany.
There seemed to be only one way in which a king could hope
to overcome the arrogance of the princes, and that was to en-
courage the towns by forming with them a close and enduring
alliance. Rudolph, however, almost invariably favoured the
princes and not the towns. The latter had a class of burgher
called Pfahlbilrgtr, men who lived in the open country outside
the Pf&hle, or palisades of the town, but who could claim the
protection of the municipal authorities. By becoming Pjahl-
biirgcr men were able of escape from the tyranny of the large
landholders, and consequently the princes strongly opposed the
right of the towns to receive them. Not only did the king take
the part of the princes in this important struggle, but he harassed
the towns by subjecting them to severe imposts, a proceeding
which led to several risings. About this time the princes were
gaining influence in another direction. Their assent to all im-
portant acts of state, especially to grants of crown property,
was now regarded as necessary and was conveyed by means of
WUlcbrufe; henceforward they were not merely the advisers
of the king, they were rather partners with him in the business
of government.
Rudolph had all the sympathies and prejudices of the noble
class, and -the supreme object of his life was not to increase the
power of the state but to add to the greatness of his
MUbBbmrg own family* * policy which was perhaps justified by
*mUy, the condition of the German kingdom, the ruler of
which had practically no strength save that which he
derived from his hereditary lands. In this he was very successful.
Four years after the fall of Ottakar he obtained from the princes
a tardy and reluctant assent to the granting of Austria, Styria
and Qarniola to Iris own sons, Rudolph and Albert. In 1286
Carinthia was given to Mcinhard, count of Tirol, on condition
that when his male line became extinct it should pass to the
Habsburgs. Thus Rudolph made himself memorable as the real
founder of the house of Habsburg.
It was in vain that Rudolph sought to obtain the succession
to the crown for one of his sons; the electors would not lake
a step which might endanger their own rights, and
nearly a year after the king's death in July 1291 they
chose Adolph, count of Nassau, and not Rudolph's
surviving son Albert, as their sovereign. Adolph, an insignificant
prince, having been obliged to reward his supporters richly,
wished to follow the lines laid down by his predecessor and to
secure an extensive territory for his family. Meissen, which be
claimed as a vacant fief of the Empire, and Thuringia, which he
bought from the landgrave Albert II., seemed to offer a favourable
field for this undertaking, and he spent a large part of his short
reign in a futile attempt to carry out his plan. In his foreign
policy Adolph allied himself with Edward I. of England against
Philip IV. of France, but after declaring war on France in August
1294 he did nothing to assist his ally. At home he relieved the
cities of some of their burdens and upheld them in the quarrel
about the PfahibUrger; and he sought to isolate Albert of
Habsburg, who was treating with Philip of France. But many
of the princes were disgusted with him and, led by Albert of
Habsburg, Gerhard, archbishop of Main*, and Wenceslaus II.,
king of Bohemia, they decided to overthrow him, and at Mainz in
June 1298 he was declared deposed. He resisted the sentence,
but Albert, who had been chosen his successor, marched against
him, and in July 1298, at Gdllheim near Worms, Adolph was
defeated and killed.
After Adolph's death Albert was again chosen German king,
and was crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle in August 1298. Like his
father Rudolph, the new king made it the principal / m^ t.
object of his reign to increase the power of his bouse,
but he failed in his attempts to add Bohemia and Thuringia
to the hereditary lands of the Habsburgs, and he was equally
unsuccessful in bis endeavour to seize the countries of Holland
and Zealand as vacant fiefs of the Empire. In other directions,
however, he was more fortunate. He recovered some of the lost
crown lands and sought to abolish new and unauthorized tolls
on the Rhine; he encouraged the towns and took measures
to repress private wars; he befriended the serfs and protected
the persecuted Jews. For a time Albert allied himself with
Philip IV. of France against Pope Boniface VIII., who had
refused to recognize him as king, but in 1303 he made peace with
the pope, a step which enabled him to turn his attention to
Bohemia and Thuringia. The greatest danger which he bad to
face during his reign came from a league which was formed
against him in 1300 by the four Rhenish electors — the three
archbishops and the count palatine of the Rhine — who disliked
his foreign policy and resented his action with regard to the tolls.
Albert, however, supported by the towns, was victorious; and
the revolting electors soon made their peace.
After Albert's murder, which took place in May 1308, Henry,
count of Luxemburg, a brother of Baldwin (1285-1354)* the
powerful archbishop of Trier, became king as Henry ^^y yu.
VII. Although fortunate enough to obtain for his
son John the crown of Bohemia, the aggrandizement of his
family was not the main object of this remarkable. sovereign,
the last German king of the old, ambitious type. It was the
memory of the Empire which stirred his blood; from the begin-
ning of his reign he looked forward to securing the Lombard and
the imperial crowns. His purpose to cross the Alps at the head
of a great force was hailed with delight by the Ghibellines, whose
aspirations found utterance in Dante's noble prose, but his life
was too short for him to fulfil the hopes of his friends. Having
restored the Rhine tolls to the Rhenish archbishops and made his
peace with the Habsburgs, Henry went to Italy in the autumn
of 1310, not, however, with a large army, and remained in the
peninsula until his death in August 13 13. As in former times
the effect of the connexion of Germany with Italy was altogether
mischievous, because to expedite his Italian journey the king
HISTORY]
GERMANY
847
had added to the great privileges of the princes and had repressed
the energies of the towns.
After Henry's death the electors, again fearing lest the German
crown should become hereditary, refused to choose the late
fr fttt king's young son, John of Bohemia, as their ruler,
BmvmHmm although the candidature of this prince was supported
*arf by the powerful archbishops Baldwin of Trier and
******* Peter of Mainz. They failed, in fact, to agree upon any
lAtutri*. onft QLndidj^ ^ tf itr a 1^ j^y th ere was a
double election for the throne. This took place in October 1314,
when the larger party chose Louis IV., duke of Upper Bavaria,
while the' smaller party gave their votes to Frederick the Fair,
duke of Austria, a son of King Albert I. Although related to each
other, Louis and Frederick had come to blows before this event;
they represented two rival houses, those of Wittelsbach and
Habsburg, and the election only served to feed the flame of their
antagonism. A second time war broke out between them.
The struggle, marked by numerous raids, sieges and skirmishes,
lasted for nine years, being practically ended by Frederick's
decisive defeat at Muhldorf in September 1323. The vanquished
king remained in captivity until 1325, when, during the contest
between the Empire and the Papacy, Louis came to terms with
him. Frederick acknowledged his rival, and later the suggestion
was put forward that they should rule Germany jointly, but this
arrangemeat aroused much opposition and it came to nothing.
Frederick returned into an honourable captivity and died in
January 1330.
The success of Louis in his war with Frederick was to some
extent due to the imperial cities, which supported him from
Gmn the first. Not only did they pay high taxes, but they
f th» made splendid voluntary contributions, thus enabling
moots* ot the sovereign of their choice to continue the fight.
*•***• But Louis was perhaps still more indebted for his
victory to the memorable conflict between the Swiss and the
Habsburgs, the defeat of Leopold of Austria at Morgarten in
1315 striking a heavy blow at his position. Thus this struggle
for freedom, although belonging properly to the history of
Switzerland, exercised much influence on the course of German
history.
Had Louis been wise and prudent, it would have been fairly
easy for him to attain a strong position after his victory at
Muhldorf. But he threw away his advantages. He
*** "* offended John of Bohemia, who had aided him at
Sf/** Muhldorf, thus converting a useful friend into a for-
midable foe, and his other actions were hardly more
judicious. John was probably alarmed at the increase in the
power of the German king, and about the same time a similar
fear had begun to possess Pope John XXII. and Charles IV.
of France. About 1323 Louis had secured the mark of Branden-
burg for his son Louis, and he was eager to aggrandize his family
in other directions. It was just at the time when he had estranged
John of Bohemia that the pope made his decisive move. Assert-
ing that the German crown could only be worn by one who
had received the papal approbation he called upon Louis to lay
it down; the answer was an indignant refusal, and in 1324 the
king was declared deposed and excommunicate. Thus the ancient
struggle between the Papacy and the Empire was renewed, a
struggle in which the pen, wielded by Marsiglio of Padua, William
of Occam, John of Jandun and others, played an important part,
and in which the new ideas in religion and politics worked
Steadily against the arrogant papal claim. The pope and his
French ally, Charles IV., whom it was proposed to seat upon the
German throne, had completely misread the signs of the times,
and their schemes met with very little favour in Germany.
No longer had the princes as in former years any reason to dread
the designs of an ambitious king; the destinies of the kingdom
Were in their own hands and they would not permit tbem to be
controlled by an alien power. Such was the attitude of most of
the temporal princes, and many spiritual princes took the same
view. As for the electors, they had the strongest possible motive
for resisting the papal daim, because if this were once admitted
they would quickly lose their growing importance in the state.
Lastly, the dties which had stood behind the Empire in the most
difficult crises of its contest with Rome were not likely to desert
it now.
Thus encouraged, or rather driven forward, by the national
sentiment Louis continued to assert the independence of the
crown against the pope. In 1327 he marched into .
Italy, where be had powerful and numerous friends jjj£| *"
in the" Ghibelline party, the Visconti family and others; ^^'
in January 1328 he was crowned emperor at Rome, and after
this event be declared Pope John deposed and raised Peter of
Corvara to the papal chair as Nicholas V. The concluding
stages of this expedition were not favourable to the new emperor,
but his humiliation was only slight and it did not appreciably
affect the conditions of the controversy.
For a short time after the emperor's return to Germany there
was peace. But this was soon broken by a dispute over the
succession to the duchy of Carinthia and the county
of Tirol, then ruled by Henry V., who was without g*^jL
sons, and whose daughter, Margaret Maultasch, was
married to John Henry, margrave of Moravia, a son of John of
Bohemia. Upon these lands the three great families in Germany,
those of Wittelsbach, of Habsburg and of Luxemburg, were
already casting covetous eyes; Carinthia, moreover, was
claimed by the Habsburgs in virtue of an arrangement made in
1 286. Thus a struggle between the Luxemburgs and the Habs-
burgs appeared certain, and Louis, anxious to secure for his
house a share of the spoil, hesitated for a time between these
rivals. In 1335 Duke Henry died and the emperor adjudged
his lands to the Habsburgs; wars broke out, and the result was
that John Henry secured Tirol while the other conttnding
family added Carinthia to its Austrian possessions.
During this time Louis had been negotiating continually
with Pope John and with his successor Benedict XII. to regain
the favour of the church, and so to secure a free hand
for his designs in Germany. But the pope was not Tb0 P***
equally complaisant, and in 1337 the emperor allied JjSJJJI
himself with Edward III. of England against Philip VI.
of France, whom he regarded as primarily responsible for the
unyielding attitude of the Papacy. This move was very popular
in Germany, and the papal party received a further rebuff in
July 1338 when the dectors met at Rcnse and declared that in
no possible manner could they allow any control over, or
limitation of, thdr electoral rights. As a sequel to this declara-
tion the diet, meeting at Frankfort a month later, asserted that
the imperial power proceeded from God alone and that the
individual chosen by a majority of the dectors to occupy this
high station needed no confirmation from the pope, or from
any one else, to make his election valid. Contrary opinions
they denounced as pestifera dogmata.
But in spite of this support Louis threw away his advantages;
he abandoned Edward III. in 1341, although this step did not
win for him, as he desired, the goodwill of the pope,
and he was soon involved in a more serious straggle
with John of Bohemia and the Luxemburgs. With
his Bohemian followers John Henry had made himsdf —■ •■•
very unpopular in Tirol, where his wife soon counted herself
among his enemies, and in 1341 he was driven from the land,
while Margaret announced her intention of repudiating him
and marrying the emperor's son Louis, margrave of Brandenburg.
The emperor himself entered heartily into this scheme for
increasing the power of his family; he declared the marriage
with John Henry void, and bestowed upon his son and his bride
Margaret not only Tirol, but also Carinthia, now in the hands of
the Habsburgs* Nothing more was needed to unite together
all the emperor's foes, including Pope Dement VI., who, like his
predecessors, had rejected the advances of Louis; but in 1345,
before the gathering storm broke, the emperor took possession
of the counties of Holland, Zealand and Friesland, which had
been left without a ruler by the death of his brother-in-law,
Count William IV. By this time John of Bohemia and his
allies had completed their plans. In July 1346 five of the electors
met, and, having declared Louis deposed, they raised John's
8 4 8
GERMANY
[history
•on Charles, margrave of Moravia, to the German throne. For
a time no serious steps were taken against Louis, but after King
John had met his death at Crecy Charles, who succeeded him as
king of Bohemia, began to make vigorous preparations for war,
and only the sudden death of the emperor (October 1347) saved
Germany from civil strife.
Notwithstanding the defects of Louis's personal character his
reign is one of the most important in German history. The
m claim of the Papacy to political supremacy received
4*a*aUo in his time its death-blow, and the popes themselves
{■*?•' sowed the seeds of the alienation from Rome which
• was effected at the Reformation. With regard to the
public peace Louis persistently followed the lines laid down
by Albert I. He encouraged the princes to form alliances for
'its maintenance, and at the time of his death such alliances
existed in all parts of the country. To the cities he usually
showed himself a faithful friend. In many of them there had
been for more than a century a struggle between the old patrician
families and the democratic gilds. Louis could not always
follow his own impulses, but whenever he could he associated
himself with the latter party. Thus in his day the government
of the imperial cities became more democratic and industry
and trade flourished as they had never before done. The steady
dislike of the princes was the best proof of the importance of
the cities. They contained elements capable of enohnous
development; and had a great king arisen he might even yet,
by their means, have secured for Germany a truly national life.
In January 1349 the friends of the late emperor elected Gunlher,
count of Schwarzburg, as their king, but before this occurrence
CbrnHt* Charles of Moravia, by a liberal use of gifts and promises,
iv. *•- had won over many of his enemies, prominent among
JJ""^* whom were the cities. In a few months Gunthcr
T* himself abandoned the struggle, dying shortly after-
wards, and about the same time his victorious rival was recog-
nized by Louis of Brandenburg, the head of the Wittelsbach
family. As king of Bohemia Charles was an enlightened and
capable ruler, but he was indifferent towards Germany, although
this country never stood in more urgent need of a strong and
beneficent sovereign. In the early years of the reign the people,
especially in the south and west, attacked and plundered the
Jews; and the consequent disorder was greatly increased by the
ravages of the Black Death and by the practices and preaching
of the Flagellants, both events serving to spur the maddened
populace to renewed outrages on the Jews. In dealing with this
outburst of fanaticism many of the princes, both spiritual and
secular, displayed vigour and humanity, but Charles saw only
in the sufferings of this people an excuse for robbing them ol their
wealth.
Charles's most famous achievement was the issue' of the
Golden Bull (q.v.). Although the principle of election had
long been admitted and practised with regard to the
JJj^ German crown, yet it was surrounded by many practical
jta& difficulties. For instance, if the territory belonging
to an electoral family were divided, as was often the
case, it had never been settled whether all the ruling princes
were to vote, or, if one only were entitled to this privilege, by
what principle the choice was to be made. Over these and other
similar points many disputes had arisen, and, having been
crowned emperor at Rome in April 1355, Charles decided to set
these doubts at rest. The Golden Bull, promulgated in January
1356 and again after some tedious negotiations in December
of the same year, fixed the number of electors at seven, Saxe-
Wittenberg and not Saxe-Laucnburg obtaining the Saxon vote,
and the vote of the Wittelsbachs being given to the ruler of the
Rhenish Palatinate and not to the duke of Bavaria. The votes
of a majority of the electors were held to make an election valid.
In order tnat there might be no possibility of dispute between
the princes of a single bouse, the countries ruled by the four
secular electors— Bohemia, the Rhenish Palatinate, Saxony
and Brandenburg — were declared to be indivisible and to be
heritable only by the accepted rules of primogeniture. The
electors were granted full sovereign rights over their lands,
and their subjects were allowed to appeal to the royal or the
imperial tribunals only in case they could not obtain justice else
where. A blow was struck at the cities, which were forbidden
to form leagues or to receive PfaklbUrger.
If the Golden Bull be excepted, the true interest of this reign
is in the movements beyond the range of the emperor's influence.
It is significant that at this time the FemgarichU, or
Fehmic Courts (q.v.), vastly extended the sphere ol
their activities, and that in the absence of a strong
central authority they were respected as a check upon the lawless-
ness of the princes. The cities, notwithstanding every kind of
discouragement, formed new associations for mutual defence
or strengthened those which already existed. The Hansealic
League carried on war with Valdemar V., king of Denmark, and
his ally, the king of Norway, seventy-seven towns declaring
war on these monarch* in 1367, and emerged victorious from
the struggle, while its commerce extended to nearly all pans
of the known world. In 1376 some Swabian towns formed
a league which, in spite of the imperial prohibition, soon became
powerful in south-west Germany and defeated the forces of the
count of Wurttemberg at Reutlingen in May 1377. The emperor,
meanwhile, was occupied in numerous intrigues to strengthen
his personal position and to increase the power of bis bouse.
In these he was very fortunate, managing far more than* his
predecessors to avoid conflicts with the Papacy and the princes.
The result was that when he died in November 1378 he wore the
crowns of the Empire, of Geimany, of Bohemia, of Lombard/
and of Burgundy; he had added Lower Lusatia and parts of
Silesia to Bohemia; he had secured the mark of Brandenburg
for his son Wenceslaus in 1373; and he had bought part of the
Upper Palatinate and territories in all parts of Germany.
After the death of Charles, his son Wenceslaus, who had been
crowned German king in July 1376, was recognized by the
princes as their ruler, but the new sovereign was
careless and indolent and in a few years he left Germany " , " *'
to look after itself. During his reign the struggle
between the princes and the cities reached its climax. Following
the example set by the electors at Rense both parties formed
associations for protection, prominent among these being the
Sw&bian League on the one side and the League of the Lion
{Lowcnbund) 1 on the other. The result was that the central
authority was almost entirely disregarded. Wenceslaus favoured
first one of the antagonists and then the other, but although
he showed some desire to put an end to the increasing amount
of disorder he was unable, or unwilling, to take a strong and
definite line of action. The cities entered upon the approach-
ing contest at a considerable disadvantage. Often they were
separated one from the other by large stretches of territory
under the rule of a hostile prince and their trade was peculiarly
liable to attack by an adventurous body of knights. The
citizens, who were called upon to fight their battles, were usually
unable to contend successfully with men whose whole lives
had been passed in warfare; the isolation of the cities was not
favourable to the creation or mobilization of an active and
homogeneous force; and, moreover, at this time many of them
were disturbed by internal troubles. However, they minimized
this handicap by joining league to league; in 1381 the Swabian
and the Rhenish cities formed an alliance for three years, while
the Swabian League obtained promises of help from the Swiss.
The Swiss opened the fight. Attacked by the Habsburgs
they defeated and killed Duke Leopold of Austria at Sempach
in July 1386 and gained another victory at N&fcls two
years later; but their allies, the Swabian cities, '
were not equally prompt or equally fortunate. The
decisive year was 1388, when the strife became general
all over south-west Germany. In August 1388 the princes,
under Count Ebcrhard of Wurttemberg, completely defeated
their foes at Dornngcn, while in the following November Rupert
II., elector palatine of the Rhine, was equally successful in
his attack on the forces of the Rhenish cities near Worms.
1 So called from the badge worn by the knights (Limenrilla)
who composed it.
HISTORY]
GERMANY
849
Exhaustion soon compelled the combatants to come to terms, and
greatly to the disadvantage of the cities peace was made in 1389.
The main result of this struggle was everywhere to strengthen
the power of the princes and to incite them to fresh acts of
aggression. During the same time the Hanse towns were passing
through a period of difficulty. They were disturbed by democratic
movements in many of the cities and they were threatened by
the changing politics of the three northern kingdoms, Norway,
Sweden and Denmark, and by their union in 1397; their trading
successes had raised up powerful enemies and had embroiled
them with England and with Flanders, and the Teutonic Order
and neighbouring princes were not slow to take advantage of
their other difficulties.
Towards the close of the century the discontent felt at the
incompetent and absent German king took a decided form.
The movement was led by the four Rhenish electors,
JJjJJJjJ and after some preliminary proceedings these princes
f,, mg met in August 1400; having declared Wenceslaus
dethroned they chose one of their number, the elector
palatine Rupert III., in his stead, and the deposed monarch
accepted the sentence almost without demur. Rupert was an
excellent elector, and under more favourable circumstances would
have made a good king, but so serious were the jealousies and
divisions in the kingdom that he found little scope for his energies
outside the Palatinate. In spite of the peace of 1389 the cities
had again begun to form leagues for peace; but, having secured
a certain amount of recognition in the south and west of Germany,,
the new king turned aside from the pressing problems of govern-
ment and in 1401 made a futile attempt to reach Rome, an
enterprise which covered him with ridicule. After his return to
Germany he had to face the hostility of many of the princes,
and this contest, together with vain attempts to restore order,
occupied him until his death in May 14 10.
After's Rupert's death two cousins, Jobst, margrave of
Moravia, and Sigismund, king of Hungary, were in the autumn
of 1410 both chosen to fill the vacant throne by oppos-
ing parties; and the position was further complicated
by the fact that the deposed king, Wenceslaus, was
still alive. Jobst. however, died in January 1411,
and in the succeeding July Sigismund, having come to terms
with Wenceslaus, was again elected king and was generally
recognized. 'The commanding questions of this reign were
ecclesiastical. It was the age of the great schism, three popes
claiming the allegiance of Christendom, and of the councils of
Constance and of Basel; in all ranks of the Church there was an
urgent cry for reform. Unfortunately the council of Constance,
which met mainly through the efforts of Sigismund in 1414,
marred its labours by the judicial murders of John Huss and
of Jerome of Prague. This act greatly incensed the Bohemians,
. who broke into revolt in 1419, and a new and fiercer outburst
occurred in 1420 when Sigismund, who had succeeded his brother
Wenceslaus as king of Bohemia in the preceding August, an-
nounced his intention of crushing the Hussites. Led by their
famous general, John 2ilka, the Bohemians won several battles
and spread havoc and terror through the neighbouring German
lands. During the progress of this revolt Germany was so
divided and her king was so poor that it was impossible to collect
an army of sufficient strength to crush the malcontents. At
the diet of Nuremberg in 1422 and at that of Frankfort in 1427
Sigismund endeavoured to raise men and money by means of
contributions from the estates, but the plan failed owing to
mutual jealousies and especially to the resistance of the cities.
He secured some help from Frederick of Brandenburg, from
Albert of Austria, afterwards the German king Albert II., and
from Frederick of Meissen, to whom he granted the, electoral
duchy of Saxe-Wittenberg; but it was only when the Hussites
were split into two factions, and when 2izka was dead, that
Germany was in any way relieved from a crushing and intolerable
burden.
The continual poverty which hindered the successful prosecu-
tion of the war against the Hussites, and which at times placed
Sigismund in the undignified position of having to force himself
xi 14*
as an unwelcome guest upon princes and cities, had, however,
one good result. In 1415 he granted, or rather sold, the mark
of Brandenburg to his friend Frederick of Hohen- DraMlta
zoUcrn, burgrave of Nuremberg, this land thus passing aw* mm4
into the hands of the family under whom it was des- t **J**** mm
lined to develop into the kingdom of Prussia. During *•*■***■
this reign the princes, especially the electors, continued their
endeavours to gain a greater share in the government of Germany,
and to some extent they succeeded. Sigismund, on his part,
tried to enforce peace upon the country by forming leagues of
the cities, but to no purpose; in fact all his plans for reform
came to nothing.
Sigismund, who died in December 1437, was succeeded on
the German throne and also in Hungary and Bohemia by his
son-in-law Albert of Austria, and from this time, .
although remaining in theory elective, the German
crown was always conferred upon a member of the house
of Habsburg until the extinction of the male line of this
family in 1740. The, reign of Albert II. was too short to enable
him to do more than indicate his good intentions; he acted in
general with the electors in observing a neutral attitude with
regard to the dispute between the council of Basel and Pope
Eugenius IV., and he put forward a scheme to improve the
administration of justice. He died in October 1439, and was
succeeded by his kinsman Frederick, duke of Styria, who
became German king as Frederick IV. and, after his coronation
at Rome in 1452, emperor as Frederick III.
The first concern of the new king was with the papal schism.
The council of Basel was still sitting, and had elected an anti-pope,
Felix V., in opposition to Eugenius IV., while the n»*<fci
electors, adhering to their neutral altitude, sought tthmmt
to bring Frederick into line with them on this question. J£*_
Some years were occupied in negotiations, but the ******
king soon showed himself anxious to come to terms with Eugenius,
and about 1446 the electors ceased to act together. At length
peace was made. The consent of several of the electors having
been purchased by concessions, Frederick signed with Pope
Nicholas V., the successor of Eugenius, in February 1448 the
concordat of Vienna, an arrangement which bound the German
Church afresh to Rome and perpetuated the very evils from
which earnest churchmen had been seeking deliverance. Thus
Germany lost the opportunity of reforming the Church from
within, and the upheaval of the 16th century was rendered
inevitable.
Frederick's reign is one of great importance in the history of
Austria and of the house of Habsburg, but under him the fortunes
of Germany sank to the lowest possible point. Without
any interference from the central authority wars were 2JJ!? V
waged in every part of the country, and disputes of ntdmkt
every kind were referred to the decision of the sword.
The old enmity between the cities and the princes blazed out
afresh; grievances of every kind were brought forward and
many struggles were the result. Perhaps the most famous of
these was one between a confederation of Franconian and
Swabian cities under the leadership of Nuremberg on the one
side, and Albert Achilles, afterwards elector of Brandenburg,
and a number of princes on the other. The war was carried on
with great barbarity for about four years (1440-1453). and
was in every respect a critical one. If the cities had gained the
day they might still have aimed at balancing the power of the
princes, but owing partly to their imperfect union, partly to
the necessity of fighting with hired troops, they did not gain any
serious advantage. On the whole, indeed, in spite of temporary
successes, they decidedly losl ground, and on the conclusion
of peace there was no doubt that the balance of power in the state
inclined to the princes. Frederick meanwhile was involved in
wars with the Swiss, with his brother Albert and his Austrian
subjects, and later with the Hungarians. He had no influence
in Italy; in Burgundy he could neither stop Duke Philip the
Good from adding Luxemburg to his possessions, nor check the
towering ambition of Charles the Bold; while after the death of
Charles in 1477 be was equally unable to prevent the king of
850
GERMANY
IHISTORY
France from seizing a large part of his lands. Torn by dissensions
the Teutonic Order was unsuccessful in checking the encroach-
ments of the Poles, and in 1466 the land which it had won in the
north-east of Germany passed under the suzerainty of Poland,
care being taken to root out all traces of German influence therein.
Another loss took place in 1460, when Schleswig and Holstein
were united with Denmark. In Germany itself the king made
scarcely any pretence of exercising the supreme authority;
for nearly thirty years he never attended the imperial diet', and
the suggestions which were made for his deposition failed only
because the electors could not agree upon a successor. In his
later years he became more of a recluse than ever, and even
before February i486, when his son Maximilian was chosen
German king, he had practically ceased to take any part in the
- business of the Empire, although he survived until August 1493.
During the reign of Frederick the electors and the greater
princes continued the process of consolidating and increasing
their power. Lands under their rule, which were
UjJ 0,r,r technically imperial fiefs, were divided and devised
fritoc»& by them at will like other forms of private property;
they had nearly all the rights of a sovereign with'
regard to levying tolls, coining money, administering justice
and granting privileges to towns; they were assisted in the work
of government by a privy council, while their courts with their
numerous officials began to resemble that of the king or emperor.
They did not, however, have everything their own way. During
this century their power was limited by the formation of diets in
many of the principalities. These, bodies were composed of the
mediate prelates, the mediate nobles and representatives of the
mediate cities. They were not summoned because the princes
desired their aid, but because arms could only be obtained from
the nobles and money from the cities, at least on an adequate
scale. Once having been formed these local diets soon extended
their functions. They claimed the right of sanctioning taxation ;
they made their voice heard about the expenditure of public
money; they insisted, although perhaps not very effectually,
on justice being administered. Such institutions as these were
clearly of the highest importance, and for two centuries they did
something to atone for the lack of a genuine monarchy.
During this reign the conditions of warfare began to change.
The discovery of gunpowder made small bodies of men,
adequately armed, more than a match for great forces
equipped in medieval fashion. Hence the custom of
hiring mercenary troops was introduced, and a prince
could never be certain, however numerous his vassals
might be, that the advantage would not rest with his opponent.
This fact, added to the influence of the local diets, made even
the princes weary of war, and a universal and continuous demand
arose for some reform.of the machinery of government. Partly
at the instance of the emperor a great Swabian confederation
was formed in 1488. This consisted of both princes and cities
and was intended to enforce the public peace in the south-
western parts of Germany. Its effects were excellent; but
obviously no partial remedy was sufficient. It was essential
that there should be some great reform which would affect every
part of the kingdom, and for the present this was not to be secured.
Maximilian came to the throne in i486 with exceptional advan-
tages. He was heir to the extensive Austrian lands, and as the
widowed husband of Charles the B old's daughter
^2taajL Mary he administered the Netherlands. Although
he soon gave up these provinces to his son Philip, the
fact that they were in the possession of his family added to his
influence, and this was further increased when Philip married
Joanna, the heiress of the Spanish kingdoms. From Maximilian's
accession the Empire exercised in the affairs of Europe an
authority which had not belonged to it for centuries. The reason
for this was not that the Empire was stronger, but that its
crown was worn by a succession of princes who were great
sovereigns in their own right
Having in 1400 driven the Hungarians from Vienna and
recovered his hereditary lands, and having ordered the aflairs
of the Netherlands, Maximilian turned his attention to Italy,
whither he was drawn owing to the invasion of that country by
Charles VIII. of France in 1494. But before he could take any
steps to check the progress of Charles pecuniary neces-
sities compelled him to meet the diet. At this time the *■
German, or imperial, diet consisted of three colleges, ^__
one of the electors, another of the princes, both spiritual
and secular, and a third of representatives of the free cities,
who had, however, only just gained the right to sit beside the
other two estates. The diet was an extremely clumsy instrument
of government, and it was perhaps never more discredited or
more impotent than when it met Maximilian at Worms in March
1495. But in spite of repeated rebuffs the party of reform was
valorous and undaunted; its members knew that their case was
overwhelmingly strong. Although disappointed in the hope
which they had nourished until about 1490 that Maximilian
himself would lead them, they bad found a capable head in
Bert old, elector of Mainz. The king lost no time in acquainting
the diet with his demands. He wished for men and money to
encounter the French in Italy and to resist the Turks. Bcrtold
retorted that redress of grievances must precede supply, and
Maximilian and the princes were soon discussing the proposals
put forward by the sagacious elector. His first suggestion that
a council nominated by the estates should be set up with the
power of vetoing the acts of the king was abandoned because
of the strenuous opposition of Maximilian; but Bertold was
successful in getting the diet to proclaim an eternal Land/rude,
that is, to forbid private war without any limitation of time,
and it was agreed that the diet should meet annually to advise
the king on matters of moment. The idea of a council, however,
was not given up although it took a different form. An imperial
court of justice, the Reickskamnur%cricht, was established;
this consisted of sixteen members nominated by the estates and
a president appointed by the king. Its duties were to judge
between princes of the Empire and to act as the supreme court
of appeal in cases where humbler persons were concerned.
Partly to provide for the expenses of this court, partly to furnish
Maximilian with the promised monetary aid, a tax called the
common penny was instituted, this impost taking the form both
of a property tax and of a poll tax. Such in outline were the
reforms effected by the important diet of Worms.
The practical difficulties of the reformers, however, were
only just beginning. Although Maximilian took some interest
in the collection of the common penny it was difficult,
and from some classes impossible, to obtain payment -
of this tax, and the king was persistently hostile to '
the imperial court of justice, his hostility and the want '
of money being indeed successful in preventing that institution
for a time from doing any real service to Germany. In 1497
he set up a new Aulic council or Hofrat, the members of which
were chosen by himself, and to this body he gave authority to
deal with all the business of the Empire. Thus he undermined
the foundations of the Rcuhskammcrgericht and stole a march
upon Bertold and his friends. A series of diets between 1495
and 1499 produced only mutual recriminations, and then
Maximilian met with a serious rebuff. The Swiss refused to
pay the common penny and to submit to the jurisdiction of the
imperial court of justice. Consequently, in 1499, Maximilian
sent such troops as he could collect against them, but his forces
were beaten, and by the peace of Basel he was forced to concede
all the demands made by the Swiss, who became virtually
independent of the Empire. Heartened by this circumstance
Bertold and his followers returned to the attack when the diet
met at Augsburg in 1500. The common penny as a means of
taxation fell into the background, and in its place a scheme
was accepted which it was thought would provide the king with
an army of about 30,000 men. But more important perhaps
was the administrative council, or Rcicksregiment, which was
established by the diet at this time. A revival of the idea put
forward by the elector of Mainz at Worms in 149s, this council
was to consist of twenty members appointed by the electors
and other princes and by representatives of the cities, with a
president named by the king. Its work was practically that of
history] GERMANY
governing Germany, and it was the most considerable encroach-
ment which had yet been made on the power of the king. It
is not surprising therefore that Maximilian hated the new body,
to the establishment of which he bad only consented under
great pressure.
In 1500 the Rcuhsrcgimcnt met at Nuremberg and began
at once to treat for peace with France. Maximilian was not
slow to resent this interference; he refused to appoint
a president, and soon succeeded in making the meetings
of the council impossible. The relations between
the king and the princes were now very strained.
Bertold called the electors together to decide upon a
plan of campaign; Maximilian on his part tried to destroy
the electoral union by winning over individual members.
The result was that when the elector of Mainz died in 2504
the king's victory was complete. The Reichskommergcrkki and
the Reichsngiment were for all practical purposes destroyed,
and greater authority had been given to the Ho/rat. Hence-
forward it was the king who put forward schemes of reform and
the diet which modified or rejected them. When the diet met
at Cologne in 1505 Maximilian asked for an army and the
request was granted, the necessary funds being raised by the old
plan of a levy on the estates. At Constance, two years later,
the diet raised men and money in a similar fashion, and on this
occasion the imperial court of justice was restored, with some
slight alteration in the method of appointing its members. After
Maximilian had taken the novel step of assuming the title of
Roman emperor at Trent in 1508 the last of the reforming diets
met at Cologne in 1512. In 1500 Germany had been divided
into six circles {Kreise) or districts, for the purpose of sending
representatives to the Reichsrcginunl. These circles were now
increased in number to ten and an official (Haupt matin) was
placed over each, his duties being to enforce the decisions of
the Reic/ukammcrgericht. But it was some time before the circles
came into working order; the only permanent reform of the
reign was the establishment of the imperial court of justice,
and even this was not entirely satisfactory, Maximilian's remain-
ing diets loudly denouncing it for delay and incompetence.
The period marked by the attempted reform of Bertold of Mainz
was that of the last struggle between the supporters of a united
Germany and those who preferred a loose confederation of states.
Victory remained with the latter party. Maximilian himself
had done a great deal to promote the unity of his Austrian
lands and, incidentally, to cut them off from the remainder
of the German kingdom, and other princes were following his
example. This movement spelled danger to the small princi-
palities and to the free cities, but it gave a powerful impetus
to the growth of Brandenburg, of Saxony, of Bavaria and of the
Palatinate, and the future of the country seemed likely to
remain with the particularist and not with the national idea.
During the period of these constitutional struggles the king's
chief energies were spent in warring against the French kings
Mmxh Charles VIII. and Louis XII. in Italy, where he hoped
mBtoa>$ to restore the claims, dormant, perhaps even extinct,
wmnlm f fat German kings. In 1508 he helped to promote
itMfr ' the league of Carabrai, formed to despoil Venice, but
he soon returned to his former policy of waging war against
France, and he continued to do this until peace was made in
1 5 16. The princes of Germany showed themselves singularly
indifferent to this struggle, and their king's battles were largely
fought with mercenary troops. Maximilian gained his most
conspicuous success in his own kingdom in 1504, when he
interfered in a struggle over the succession to the duchy of
Bavaria-Landshut. He gained some additions of territory,
but his victory was more important because it gave him the
prestige which enabled him to break down the opposition of
the princes and to get his own way with regard to his domestic
policy.
In many respects the reign of Maximilian must be regarded
as the end of the middle ages. The feudal relation between the
king and the princes and between the princes and their vassals
had become purely nominal. No real control was exerted by the
851
crown over the heads of the various states, and, now that war was '
carried on mainly by mercenary troops, the mediate nobles did
not hold their lands on condition of military service.
The princes were sovereigns, not merely feudal lords; SjJJi**
and by the institution of local diets in their territories rrhfi'rrti
an approach was made to modern conceptions of
government. The age of war was far indeed from being
over, but men were at least beginning to see that unnecessary
bloodshed is an evil, and that the true outlet for the mass of
human energies is not conflict but industry. By the growth
of the cities in social, if not in political, importance the products
of labour were more and more widely diffused; and it was
easier than at any previous time for the nation to be moved
by common ideas and impulses. The discovery of America,
the invention of printing, the revival of learning and many
other causes had contributed to effect a radical change in the
point of view from which the world was regarded; and the
strongest of all medieval relations, that of the nation to the
Church, was about to pass through the fiery trial of the Reforma-
tion. This vast movement, which began in the later years of
Maximilian, definitely severed the medieval from the modern
world.
The seeds of the Reformation were laid during the time of
the great conflict between the Papacy and the Empire. The
arrogance and the ambition of the popes then stamped
upon the minds of the people an impression that was fam,,^!
never effaced. During the struggle of Louis IV.
with the popes of his day the feeling revived with fresh intensity;
all classes, clerical as well as lay, looked upon resistance to papal
pretensions as a necessity imposed by the national honour.
At the same time the spiritual teaching of the mystics awakened
in many minds an aspiration which the Church, in its corrupt
state, could not satisfy, and which was in any case unfavourable
to an external authority. The Hussite movement further
weakened the spell of the Church. Still more powerful, because
touching other elements of human nature and affecting a more
important class, was the influence of the Renaissance, which,
towards the end of the 15th century, passed from Italy to the
universities of Germany. The men of the new learning did not
sever themselves from Christianity, but they became indifferent
to it; its conceptions seemed to them dim and faded, while
there was a constantly increasing charm in literature, in
philosophy and in art. No kind of effort was made by the
Church to prepare for the storm. The spiritual princes, besides
displaying all the faults of the secular princes, had special defects
of their own; and as simony was universally practised, the
lives of multitudes of the inferior clergy were a public scandal,
while their services were cold and unimpressive. The moral
sense was outraged by such a pope as Alexander VI.; and
neither the military ambition of Julius II. nor the refined
paganism of Leo X. could revive the decaying faith in the
spirituality of their office. Pope Leo, by his incessant demands
for money and his unscrupulous met hods of obtaining it, awakened
bitter hostility in every class of the community.
The popular feeling for the first time found expression when
Luther, on All Saints' day 1517, nailed to a church door in
Wittenberg the theses in which he contested the doctrine . .
which by at the root of the scandalous traffic in in-
dulgences carried on in the pope's name by Tetzel and his like.
This episode, derided at first at Rome as the act of an obscure
Augustinian friar intent on scoring a point in a scholastic dis-
putation, was in reality an event of vast significance, for it
brought to the front, as the exponent of the national sentiment,
one of the mightiest spirits whom Germany has produced.
Under the influence of Luther's strong personality the most
active and progressive elements of the nation were soon in more
or less open antagonism to the Papacy.
When Maximilian died in January 1519 his throne was com-
peted for by his grandson Charles, king of Spain, and by Francis L
of France, and after a long and costly contest the former was
chosen in the following June. By the time Charles reached
Germany and was crowned at Aix-la-Chapelle (October 1520)
852
GERMANY
[HBTO*Y
Luther had confronted the cardinal legate Cajetan, had passed
through his famous controversy at Leipzig with Johann Eck, and
Chmitamv was aD0Ut to Durn tnc Du ^ °* excommunication.
2J r ^ ' After this daring step retreat was impossible, and with
Lmtbtr. keen excitement both the reformer's followers and
his enemies waited for the new sovereign to declare
himself on one side or on the other. Charles soon made
up his mind about the general lines of his policy, although
he was completely ignorant of the strength of the feeling which
had been aroused. He fancied that he had to deal with a mere
monkish quarrel; at one time he even imagined that a little
money would set the difficulty at rest. It was not likely, however,
in any case that he would turn against the Roman Church,
and that for various reasons. He was by far the most important
ruler of the time, and the peoples under his direct sway were still
adherents of the old faith. He was king of Spain, of Sicily,
of Naples and of Sardinia ; he was lord of the Netherlands, of
the free county of Burgundy and of the Austrian archduchies;
he had at his command the immense resources of the New World;
and he had been chosen king of Germany, thus gaining a title
to the imperial crown. Following the example set by Maxi-
milian he called himself emperor without waiting for the formality
of a coronation at Rome. Now the protection of the Church
had always been regarded as one of the chief functions of tht
emperors; Charles could not, therefore, desert it when it was
so greatly in need of his services. Like his predecessors he
reserved to himself the right to resist it in the realm of politics;
in the realm of faith he considered that he owed to it his entire
allegiance. Moreover, he intended to undertake the subjugation
of northern Italy, a task which had baffled his imperial grand-
father, and in order to realize this scheme it was of the highest
importance that he should do nothing to offend the pope. Thus
it came about that at the diet of Worms, which met in January
1521, without any thorough examination of Luther's position,
Charles issued the famous edict, drawn up by Cardinal Aleandro,
which denounced the reformer and his followers. This was
accepted by the diet and Luther was placed under the imperial
ban.
When Charles was chosen German king he was obliged to
make certain promises to the electors. Embodied in a Wahl-
Cbart9a kapitulaiion, as it was called, these were practically
mad the the conditions on which the new sovereign was allowed
mwv to take the crown, and the precedent was followed
JJJJJU* at subsequent elections. At the diet of Worms steps
were taken to carry these promises into effect. By
his Wahlkapiiulolion Charles had promised to respect the freedom
of Germany, for the princes looked upon him as a foreigner. He
was neither to introduce foreign troops into the country, nor to
allow a foreigner to command German soldiers; he must use
the German language and every diet must meet on German soil.
An administrative council, a new Reicksregiment, must be
established, and other reforms were to be set on foot. The
constitution and powers of this Reichsregiment were the chief
subject of difference between Charles and the princes at the
diet. Eventually it was decided that this council should consist
of twenty-two members with a president named by the emperor;
but it was only to govern Germany during the absence of the
sovereign, at other times its functions were merely advisory.
The imperial chamber was restored on the lines laid down
by Bertold of Mainz in 149s (it survived until the dissolution
of the Empire in 1806), and the estates undertook to aid the
emperor by raising and paying an army. In April 1521 Charles
invested bis brother Ferdinand, afterwards the emperor Fer-
dinand I., with the Austrian archduchies, and soon afterwards
he left Germany to renew bis long struggle with Francis I. of
France.
While the emperor was thus absent great disturbances took
place in Germany. Among Luther's friends was one, Ulrich von
Hutten, at once penetrated with the spirit of the Renaissance
and emphatically a man of action. The class to which Hutten and
his friend, Franz von Sickingen, a daring and ambitious Rhenish
bsron, Mongcd, was th&t of tht small feudal tenants in chief, tht
RiUcrsckafl or knights of the Empire. This dass was subject
only to the emperor, but its members lacked the territorial
possessions which gave power to the princes; they were ^^
partly deprived of their employment owing to the JJjJ"
suppression of private wars, and they had suffered nmmm,
through the substitution of Roman law for the ancient
feudal laws and customs. They had no place in the con-
stitution or in the government of Germany, and they had
already paralysed the administration by refusing to pay the taxes.
They were intensely jealous of the princes, and it occurred to
Hutten and Sickingen that the Reformation might be used to
improve the condition of the knights and to effect a total
change in the constitution of the Empire. No general reform,
they maintained, either in church or state, could be secured
while the country was divided into a number of principalities,
and their plan was to combine with all those who were dis-
contented with the existing order to attack the princes and to
place the emperor at the head of a united nation. Sickingen,
who has been compared to WaUcnstein, and who doubtless hoped
to secure a great position for himself, had already collected
a large army, which by its very presence had contributed some-
what to the election of Charles at Frankfort in 1 519. He bad
also earned renown by carrying on feuds with the citizens of
Worms and of Mctz, and now, with a view to realizing his larger
ambitions, he opened the campaign (August 1522) by attacking
the elector of Trier, who, as a spiritual prince, would not, it
was hoped, receive any help from the religious reformers. For
a moment it seemed as if Hutten's dream would be realized,
but it was soon evident that it was too late to make so great a
change. Luther and other persons of influence stood aloof
from the movement; on the other hand, several princes, includ-
ing Philip, landgrave of Hesse, united their forces against the
knights, and in May 1523 Sickingen was defeated and slain.
A few weeks later Hutten died on an island in the lake of Zurich.
This war was followed by another of a much more serious
nature. The German peasants had grievances compared with
which those of the knights and lesser barons were j^
imaginary. For about a century several causes had cmomt
tended to make their condition worse and worse. •#«*•
While taxes and other burdens were increasing the ^JJJ^ - "*
power of the king to protect them was decreasing;
with or without the forms of law they were plundered by every
other class in the community; their traditional privileges were
withdrawn and, as in the case of the knights, their position had
suffered owing to the introduction of Roman law into Germany.
In the west and south-west of the country especially, opportuni-
ties of migration and of expansion had been gradually reduced,
and to provide for their increasing numbers they were compelled
to divide their holdings again and again until these patches of
land became too small for the support of a household. Thus,
solely under the influence of social and economic conditions,
various risings of the peasants had taken place during the latter
part of the 15th century, the first one being in 146 1, and at times
the insurgents had combined their forces with those of the
lower classes in the towns, men whose condition was hardly
more satisfactory than their own. In the last decade of the
15th and the first decade of the 16th century there were several
insurrections in the south-west of Germany, each of which was
called a Bundsekuk, a shoe fastened upon a pole serving as the
standard of revolt. In 1 514 Wtirttemberg was dist urbed by the
rising of " poor Conrad," but these and other similar revolts
in the neighbourhood were suppressed by the princes. These
movements, however, were only preludes to the great revolution,
which is usually known as the Peasants' War (Bauemkrug).
The Renaissance and the Reformation were awakening extra-
vagant hopes in the minds of the German peasants, and it is
still a matter of controversy among historians to what
extent Luther and the reformers were responsible for j> ■■■■*■'
their rising. It may, however, be stated with some Wmn
certainty that their condition was sufficiently wretched
to drive them to revolt without any serious pressure from outside.
Tht tfs\n% tos dut primarily neither to religious nox to political,
HISTORY]
GERMANY
853
but to economic causes. The Peasants' War, properly so called,
broke out at StUhlingen in June 1522. The insurgents found a
leader in Hans Mailer of Bulgenbach, who gained some support
in the surrounding towns, and soon all Swabia was in revolt.
Quickly the insurrection became general all over central and
southern Germany. In the absence of the emperor and of his
brother, the archduke Ferdinand, the authorities in these parts
of the country were unable to check the movement and, aided
by many knights, prominent among whom was G6tz von Ber-
lichingen, the peasants were everywhere victorious, while another
influential recruit, Ulrich, the dispossessed duke of Wttrttemberg,
joined them in the hope of recovering his duchy. Ulrica's
attempt, which was made early in 1525, was, however, a failure,
and about the same time the peasants drew up twelve articles
embodying their demands. These were sufficiently moderate.
They asked for a renewal of their ancient rights of fishing and
hunting freely, for a speedier method of obtaining justice, and
for the removal of new and heavy burdens. In many places the
lords yielded to these demands, among those who granted con-
cessions being the elector palatine of the Rhine, the bishops of
Bamberg and of Spires, and the abbots of Fulda and of Hersfeld.
But meanwhile the movement was spreading through Franconia
to northern Germany and was especially formidable in Thuringia,
where it was led by Thomas M (Inzer. Here again success attended
the rebel standards. But soon the victorious peasants became
so violent and so destructive that Luther himself urged that they
should be sternly punished, and a number of princes, prominent
among whom was Philip of Hesse, banded themselves together
to crush the rising. MUnzer and his followers were defeated at
Frankenhausen in May, the Swabtari League gained victories
in the area under its control, successes were gained elsewhere by
the princes, and with much cruelty the revolt of the peasants
was suppressed. The general result was that the power of the
territorial lords became greater than ever, although in some cases,
especially in Tirol and in Baden, the condition of the peasants
was somewhat improved. Elsewhere, however, this was not
the case; many of the peasants suffered still greater oppression
and some of the immediate nobles were forced to submit to a
detested yoke.
Before the suppression of this rising the Reichsregiment had
met with very indifferent success in its efforts to govern Germany.
Meeting at Nuremberg early in 1522 it voted some
HScbs- *l'8ht assistance for the campaign against the invading
ngfiBMt Turks, but the proposals put forward for raising the
necessary funds aroused much opposition, an opposition
which came mainly from the large and important cities. The
citizens appealed to Charles V., who was in Spain, and after some
hesitation the emperor decided against the Reicksrcgimenl.
Under such disheartening conditions it is not surprising that this
body was totally unable to cope with Sickingen's insurrection,
and that a few weeks after its meeting at Nuremberg in 1524
it succumbed to a scries of attacks and disappeared from the
history of Germany. But the Reichsregimenl had taken one step,
although this was of a negative character. It had shown some
sympathy with the reformers and had declined to put the edict
of Worms into immediate execution. Hardly less lukewarm,
the imperial diet ordered the edict to be enforced, but only as far
as possible, and meanwhile the possibilities of accommodation
between the two great religious parties were becoming more and
more remote. A national assembly to decide the questions at
issue was announced to meet at Spires, but the emperor forbade
this gathering. Then the Romanists, under the guidance of Car-
dinal Campeggio and the archduke Ferdinand, met at Regens-
burg and decided to take strong and aggressive measures to
destroy Luthcranism, while, on the other hand, representatives
of the cities met at Spires and at Ulm, and asserted their inten-
tion of forwarding and protecting the teaching of the reformed
doctrines. All over the country and through all classes of the
people men were falling into line on one side or the other, and
everything was thus ready for a long and bitter religious war.
During these years the religious and political ideas of the
Reformation were rapidly gaining ground, and, aided by a
vigorous and violent polemic literature, opposition to Rome
was growing on every side. Instigated by George of Saxony
the Romanist princes formed a defensive league at Dessau in
2525; the reforming princes took a similar step at pnmt*
Gotha in 1526. Such were the prevailing conditions otth*
when the diet met at Spires in June 1526 and those *•****•
who were still loyal to the Roman Church clamoured ***
for repressive measures. But on this occasion the reformers were
decidedly in the ascendant. Important ecclesiastical reforms
were approved, and instructions forbidding all innovations and
calling upon the diet to execute the edict of Worms, sent by the
emperor from Spain, were brushed aside on the ground that
in the preceding March when this letter was written Charles
and the pope were at peace, while now they were at war. Before
its dissolution the diet promulgated a decree providing that,
pending the assembly of a national council, each prince should
order the ecclesiastical affairs of his own state in accordance
with his own conscience, a striking victory for the reformers
and incidentally for separatist ideas. The three years which
elapsed between this diet and another important diet which
met in the same city are full of incident. Guided by Luther and
Melanchthon, the principal states and cities in which the ideas of
the reformers prevailed — electoral Saxony, Brandenburg, Hesse
and the Rhenish Palatinate, Strassburg, Nuremberg, Ulm and
Augsburg— began to carry out measures of church reform.
The Romanists saw the significance of this movement and,
fortunately for them, were able to profit by the dissensions
which were breaking out in the ranks of their opponents, especi-
ally the doctrinal differences between the followers of Luther
and those of Zwingli. Persecutions for heresy had begun,
the feeling between the two great religious parties being further
embittered by some revelations made by Otto von Pack (q.i.)
to Philip of Hesse. Pack's stories, which concerned the existence
of a powerful league for the purpose of making war upon the
reformers, were proved to be false, but the soreness occasioned
thereby remained. The diet met in February 1529 and soon
received orders from the emperor to repeal the decree of 1526.
The supporters of the older faith were now predominant and,
although they were inclined to adopt a somewhat haughty
attitude towards Charles, they were not averse from taking
strong measures against the reformers. The decree of the diet,
formulated in April, forbade the reformers to make further
religious changes, while the toleration which was conceded to
Romanists in Lutheran states was withheld from Lutherans in
Romanist states. This decree was strongly resented by the
reforming princes and cities. They drew up a formal protest
against it (hence the name " Protestant "), which they presented
to the archduke Ferdinand, setting forward the somewhat novel
theory that the decree of 1526 could not be annulled by a succeed-
ing diet unless both the parties concerned assented thereto.
By this decree they declared their firm intention to abide.
The untiring efforts of Philip of Hesse to unite the two wings
of the Protestant forces met with very little success, and the
famous conference at Marburg in the autumn of 1529,
for which he was responsible, revealed the fact that it JJ^J^JJ
was practically impossible for the Lutherans and the tmrg.
Zwinglians to act together even when threatened by
a common danger, while a little later the alliance between the
Lutheran states of north Germany and the Zwingli an cities of
the south was destroyed by differences upon points of doctrine.
In 1530 the emperor, flushed with success in Italy and at peace
with his foreign foes, came to Germany with the express intention
of putting an end to heresy. In June he opened the diet at
Augsburg, and here the Lutherans submitted a summary of
their doctrines, afterwards called the Augsburg Confession.
Drawn up by Melanchthon, this pronouncement was intended
to widen the breach between the Lutherans and the Zwinglians,
and to narrow that between the Lutherans and the Romanists;
from this time it was regarded as the chief standard of the
Lutheran faith. Four Zwinglian cities, Strassburg, Constance,
Lindau and Memmingen, replied with a confession of their own
and the Romanists also drew up an answer. The ceriod ol
85+
GERMANY
(HISTORY
negotiation which followed served only to show that no accom-
modation was possible. Charles himself made no serious effort
to understand the controversy; he was resolved, whether the
Lutherans had right on their side or not, that they should submit,
and he did not doubt but that he would be able to awe them
into submission by an unwonted display of power. But to his
surprise the Lutheran princes who attended the diet refused to
give way. They were, however, outnumbered by their enemies,
and it was the Romanist majority which dictated the terms of
the decree, which was laid before the diet in September, enjoining
a return to religious conformity within seven months. The
Protestant princes could only present a formal protest and
leave Augsburg. Finally the decree of the diet, promulgated
in November, ordered the execution of the edict of Worms,
the restoration of all church property, and the maintenance
of the jurisdiction of the bishops. The duty of enforcing the
decree was especially entrusted to the Rcichskammergericht;
thus by the processes of law the Protestant princes were to be
deprived of much of their property, and it seemed probable
that if they did not submit the emperor would have recourse
to arms.
For the present, however, fresh difficulties with France and
an invasion by the Turks, who had besieged Vienna with an
Tbt immense army in the autumn of 1529, forced Charles
• a/ to mask his designs. Meanwhile some of the Lutherans,
angered and alarmed by the decisions of the Reichs-
kammcrgcricht, abandoned the idea that resistance
to the imperial authority was unlawful and, meeting in December
1 530, laid the foundation of the important league of Schmalkalden,
among the first members of the confederation being the rulers
of Saxony and Hesse and the cities of Bremen and Magdeburg,
The league was soon joined by other strong cities, among them
Strassburg, Ulm, Constance, Liibeck and Goslar; but it was not
until after the defeat and death of Zwingli at Kappel in October
1 531 that it was further strengthened by the adhesion of those
towns which had hitherto looked for leadership to the Swiss
reformer. About this time the military forces of the league
were organised, their heads being the elector of Saxony and the
landgrave of Hesse. But the league had a political as well as a
religious aspect. It was an alliance between the enemies of the
house of Habsburg, and on this side it gained the support of the
duke of Bavaria and treated with Francis I. of France. To this
its rapid growth was partly due, but more perhaps to the fact
that the Reformation in Germany was above all things a popular
movement, and thus many princes who would not have seceded
from the Roman Church of their own accord were compelled to
tlo so from political motives. They had been strong enough
to undermine the imperial power; they were not strong enough
to resist the pressure put upon them by a majority of their
subjects. It was early in 1532, when faced with the necessity
of resisting the Turkish advance, that Charles met the diet
at Regensburg. He must have men and money for this purpose
even at the price of an arrangement with the Protestants. But
the Lutherans were absent from the diet, and the Romanists,
although they voted help, displayed a very uncompromising
temper towards their religious foes. Under these circumstances
the emperor took the matter into his own hands, and his negotia-
tions with the Protestants resulted in July 1532 in the' religious
peace of Nuremberg, a measure which granted temporary tolera-
tion to the Lutherans and which was repeatedly confirmed
in the following years. Charles's reward was substantial and
immediate. His subjects vied with each other in hurrying
soldiers to his standard, and in a few weeks the great Turkish
host was in full retreat.
While the probability of an alliance between Pope Clement
VII. and Francis L of France, together with other international
f complications, prevented the emperor from following
mtfminof U P °^ s victory over the Turks, or from reducing the
Owmmmy* dissenters from the Roman religion to obedience,
Protestantism was making substantial progress in
the states, notably in Anhalt and in Pomerania, and in the
cities, and in January 1534 the Protestant princes' wet* bold
enough to declare that they did not regard the decisions of the
Reichskammergericht as binding upon them. About this time
Germany witnessed three events of some importance. Through
the energy of Philip of Hesse, who was aided by Francis I.,
Ulrich of Wurttemberg was forcibly restored to his .duchy.
The members of the Romanist league recently founded at Halle
would not help the Habsburgs, and in June 1534, by the treaty
of Cadan, King Ferdinand was forced to recognize the restoration
as a. fail accompli; at the same time he was compelled to promi&c
that he would stop all proceedings of the Reickskammergcrukt
against the members of the league of Schmalkalden. The two
other events were less favourable for the new religion, or rather
for its orthodox manifestations. After a struggle, the Ana-
baptists obtained control of Munstcr and for a short lime
governed the town in accordance with their own peculiar ideas,
while at LUbeck, under the burgomaster Jiixgen WuUenwebcr,
a democratic government was also established. But the bishop
of Munstcr and his friends crushed the one movement, and after
interfering in the affairs of Denmark the Liibeckers were com-
pelled to revert to their former mode of government. The
outbreak of the war between the Empire and France in 1536
almost coincided with the enlargement of the league of Schmal-
kalden, the existence of which was prolonged for ten years.
All the states and cities which subscribed to the confession
of Augsburg were admitted to it, and thus a large number
of Protestants, including the duchies of Wurttemberg and
Pomerania and the cities of Augsburg and Frankfort, secured
a needful protection against the decrees of the RcicJukammn-
gcrickl, which the league again repudiated. Among the new
membersof the confederation was Christian III., king of Denmark.
About the same time (May 1536) an agreement between the
Lutherans and the Zwinglians was arranged by Martin Bucer,
and was embodied in a document called the Concord of Witten-
berg, and for the present the growing dissensions between the
heads of the league, John Frederick, elector of Saxony, and
Philip of Hesse, were checked. Thus strengthened the Protestant
princes declared against the proposed general council at Mantua,
while as a counterpoise to the league of Schmalkalden the imperial
envoy, Mathias Held (d. 1563), persuaded the Romanist princes
in June 1538 to form the league of Nuremberg. But, although
he had made a truce with France at Nice in this very month,
Charles V. was more conciliatory than some of his representatives,
and at Frankfort in April 1539 he came to terms with the
Protestants, not, however, granting to them all their demands.
In x 539, too, the Protestants received a great accession of strengt h.
the Lutheran prince Henry succeeding his Romanist brother
George as duke of Saxony. Ducal Saxony was thus completely
won for the reformed faith, and under the politic elector Joachim
II. the same doctrines made rapid advances in Brandenburg.
Thus practically all North Germany was united in supporting
the Protestant cause.
In 1542, when Charles V. was again involved in war with
France and Turkey, who were helped by Sweden, Denmark and
Scotland, the league of Schmalkalden took advantage *t m
of his occupations to drive its stubborn foe, Henry, •#**•
duke of Brunswick- Wolfcnbuttel, from his duchy and
to enthrone Protestantism completely therein. But
this was not the only victory gained by the Protestants about
this time. • The citizens of Regensburg accepted their doctrines,
which also made considerable progress in the Palatinate and io
Austria, while the archbishop of Cologne, Hermann von Wied,
and William, duke of Gelderland, Clevtis and Juliets, announced
their secession from the Roman religion. The Protestants
were now at the height of their power, but their ascendancy
was about to be destroyed, and that rather by the folly and
imprudence of their leaders than by the skill and valour of their
foes. The unity and the power of the league of Schmalkalden
were being undermined by two important events, the
bigamy of Philip of Hesse, which for political reasons frir"
was condoned by the Lutheran divines, and the dissen-
sions between John Frederick, the ruler of electoral, and Maurice,
the new ruler of ducal Saxony. To save himself from the
HISTORY]
GERMANY
855
consequences of his double marriage, which had provided him
with powerful enemies, Philip in June 1541 came to terms with the
emperor, who thus managed to spike the guns of the league of
Schmalkalden, although the strength of this confederation did
not fail until after the campaign against Henry of Brunswick.
But while on the whole the fortunes of the European war, both
in. the cast and in the west, were unfavourable to the imperialists,
Charles V. found time in 1543 to lead a powerful force against
William of Gelderland, who had joined the circle of his foreign
foes. 'William was completely crushed; Gelderland was added
to the hereditary lands of the Habsburgs, while the league of
Schmalkalden impotently watched the proceedings. This
happened about a year after war between the two branches of
the Saxon house had only been averted by the mediation of
Luther and of Philip of Hesse. The emperor, however, was
unable, or unwilling, to make a more general attack on the
Protestants. In accordance with the promises made to them
at Frankfort in 1539, conferences between the leaders of the two
religious parties were held at Hagenau, at Worms and at Rcgens-
burg, but they were practically futile. The diets at Rcgensburg
and at Nuremberg gave very Utile aid for the wars, and did
nothing to solve the religious difficulties which were growing
more acute with repeated delays. At the diet of Spires in 1544
Charles purchased military assistance from the Protestants by
making lavish promises to them. With a new army he marched
against the French, but suddenly in September 1 544 he concluded
the treaty of Crepy with Francis I. and left himself free to begin
a new chapter in the. history of Germany.
Charles was now nearly ready to crush the Protestants, whose
influence and teaching had divided Germany and weakened
Victory of tne imperial P° w * r » an <J were now endangering the
Chariet supremacy of the Habsburgs in the Netherlands and
oyer iht in Alsace. His plan was to bring about the meeting
leagvt of a general council to make the necessary reforms in
*JJ* 1 ' th« church, and then at whatever cost to compel the
tMM0 " 9 Protestants to abide by its decisions. While Pope
Paul III., somewhat reluctantly, summoned the council which
ultimatcly#het at Trent, Charles made vigorous preparations
for war. Having made peace with the Turks in October 154s
he began to secure allies. Assistance was promised by the pope;
the emperor purchased the neutrality of Duke William of Bavaria,
and at a high price the active aid of Maurice of Saxony; he
managed to detach from the league of Schmalkalden those
members who were without any enthusiasm for the Protestant
cause and also those who were too timid to enter upon a serious
struggle. Meanwhile the league was inactive. Its chiefs differed
on questions of policy, one section believing that the emperor
did not intend to proceed to extremities, and for some time no
measures were taken to meet the coming peril. At last, in June
1546, during the meeting of the diet at Rcgensburg, Philip and
John Frederick of Saxony realized the extent of the danger and
began to muster their forces. They were still much more powerful
than the emperor, but they did not work well together, or with
Sebastian Scharllin von Burfcnbach, who- led their troops in
South Gcrmahy. In July 1546 they were placed under the
imperial ban, and the war began in the valley of the Danube.
Charles was aided by soldiers hurried from Italy and the Nether-
lands, but he did not gain any substantial successes until after
October 1546, when his ally Maurice invaded electoral Saxony
and forced John Frederick to march northwards to its defence.
The Lutheran cities of southern and central Germany, among
them Strassburg, Augsburg, Ulm and Frankfort, now submitted
to the emperor, while Ulrich of Wlirttembcrg and the elector
palatine of the Rhine, Frederick II., followed their example.
Having restored Roman Catholicism in the archbishopric of
Cologne and seen Henry of Brunswick settled in his duchy early
in 1 547, Charles led his men against his principal enemies, Philip
of Hesse and John Frederick, who had quickly succeeded in
driving Maurice from his electorate. At Muhlbcrg in April 1547
be overtook the army of the Saxon elector. His victory was
complete. John Frederick was taken prisoner, and a little later
Philip of Hesse, after vainly prolonging the struggle, was induced
to surrender. The rising in the other parts of northern Germany
was also put down, and the two leaders of political Lutheranism
were prisoners in the emperor's hands.
Unable to shake the allegiance of John Frederick to the
Lutheran faith, Charles kept him and Philip of Hesse in captivity
and began to take advantage of his triumph, although 4
Magdeburg was still offering a stubborn resistance HH^JT
to his allies. By the capitulation of Wittenberg the •
electorate of Saxony was transferred to Maurice, and in the
mood of a conqueror the emperor met the diet at Augsburg
in September 1547. His proposals to strengthen and reform
the administration of Germany were, however, not acceptable
to the princes, and the main one was not pressed; but the
Netherlands were brought under the protection of the Empire
and some minor reforms were carried through. A serious quarrel
with the pope, who had moved the council from Trent to Bologna,
only increased the determination of Charles to establish religious
conformity. In consultation with both Romanist and Lutheran
divines a confession of faith called the Interim was drawn up;
this was in the nature of a compromise and was issued as an edict
in May 1548, but owing to the opposition of the Romanist
princes it was not made binding upon them, only upon the,
Lutherans. There was some resistance to the Interim, but
force was employed against Augsburg and other recalcitrant
cities, and soon it was generally accepted. Thus all Germany
seemed to lie at the emperor's feet. The Reformation had
enabled him to deal with the princes and the imperial cities
in a fashion such as no sovereign had dealt with them for three
centuries.
Being now at the height of his power Charles wished to secure
the succession to the imperial throne to his son Philip, after-
wards Philip II. of Spain. This intention produced rb»
dissensions among the Habsburgs, especially between /«*«*#
the emperor and his brother Ferdinand, and other JJ?"*"
causes were at work, moreover, to undermine the
former's position. The Romanist princes were becoming alarmed
at his predominance, the Protestant princes resented his arbitrary
measures and disliked the harsh treatment meted out to John
Frederick and to Philip of Hesse; all alike, irritated by the
presence of Spanish soldiers in their midst, objected strongly
to take Philip for their king and to any extension of Spanish
influence in Germany. Turkey and France were again threaten-
ing war, and although the council had returned to Trent it
seemed less likely than ever to satisfy the Protestants. . The
general discontent found expression in the person of r*#
Maurice of Saxony, a son-in-law of Philip of Hesse, nvoMof
whose services to Charles against the league of Schmal- M — ** •*
kaldcn had made him very unpopular in his own
Smxomjr.'
country. Caring little or nothing about doctrinal disputes, but
a great deal about increasing his own importance, Maurice now
took the lead in plotting against the emperor. He entered into
an alliance with John, margrave of Brandenburg-Custrin, with
another Hohcnzollcrn prince, Albert Alcibiadcs of Bnyreuth,
and with other Lutheran leaders, and also with Henry II. of
France, who eagerly seized this opportunity of profiting by the
dissensions in the Empire and who stipulated for a definite
reward. Charles knew something of these proceedings, but his
recent victory had thrown him partly oft* his guard. The treaty
with France was signed in January 1552; in March Henry II.
invaded Germany as the protector of her liberties, while Maurice
seized Augsburg and marched towards Innsbruck, where the em-
peror was residing, with the intention of making him a prisoner.
An attempt at accommodation failed; Charles fled into
Carinlhia; and at one stroke all the advantages which he had
gained by his triumph at Muhlbcrg were lost. Masters of the
situation, Maurice and his associates met their opponents at
Passau in May 1552 and arranged terms of peace, although the
emperor did not assent to them until July. The two captive
princes were released, but the main point agreed upon was that
a diet should be called for the purpose of settling the religious
difficulty, and that in the meantime the Lutherans were to enjoy
full religious liberty.
856
GERMANY
[HISTORY
Delayed by the war with France and Turkey, the diet for the
settlement of the religious difficulty did not meet at Augsburg
until February 1555. Ferdinand represented his
*£f n nf brother, and after a prolonged discussion conditions
Aujphurj. of peace were arranged. Romanists and Lutherans
were placed upon an equal footing, but the toleration
which was granted to them was not extended to the Calvinists.
Each secular prince had the right to eject from his land all those
who would not accept the form of religion established therein;
thus the principle of cujus rcgio ejus rcligio was set up. Although
the Lutherans did not gain all their demands, they won solid
advantages and were allowed to keep all ecclesiastical property
secularized before the peace of Passau. A source of trouble,
however, was the clause in the treaty usually called the eccles-
iastical reservation. This required an ecclesiastical prince, if
he accepted the teaching of the confession of Augsburg, or in
other words became a Lutheran, forthwith to resign his princi-
pality. The Lutherans denied the validity of this clause, and
notwithstanding the protests of the Roman Catholics several
prelates became Lutheran and kept their territories as secular
possessions. The peace of Augsburg can hardly be described
as a satisfactory settlement. Individual toleration was not
allowed, or only allowed in unison with exile, and in the treaty
there was abundant material for future discord.
After Maurice of Saxony had made terms with Charles at
Passau he went to help Ferdinand against the Turks, but one
of his allies, Henry II. of France, continued the war
„^JJ ' * in Germany while another, Albert Alcibiadcs, entered
upon a wild campaign of plunder in Franconia. The
French king seized Mctz, which was part of the spoil promised
to him by his allies, and Charles made an attempt to regain the
city. For this purpose he took Albert Alcibiadcs into his
service, but after a stubborn fight his troops were compelled
to retreat in January 1553. Albert then renewed his raids, and
these became so terrible that a league of princes, under Maurice
of Saxony, was formed to crush him; although Maurice lost
his life at Sicvershauscn in July 1553, this purpose was accom-
plished, and Albert was driven from Germany. After the peace
of Augsburg, which was published in September 1555, the
emperor carried out his intention of abdicating. He entrusted
Spain and the Netherlands to Philip, while Ferdinand look over
the conduct of affairs in Germany, although it was not until
1558 that he was formally installed as his brother's successor.
Ferdinand I., who like all the German sovereigns after him
was recognized as emperor without being crowned by the pope,
' made it a prime object of his short reign to defend
Mad j, and enforce the religious peace of Augsburg for which
he was largely responsible. Although in all probability
numerically superior at this time to the Romanists, the Pro-
testants were weakened by divisions, which were becoming
daily more pronounced and more serious, and partly owing to
this fact the emperor was able to resist the demands of each
party and to moderate their excesses, lie was continually
harassed by the Turks until peace was made in 1562, and con-
nected therewith were troubles in Bohemia and especially in
Hungary, two countries which he had acquired through marriage,
while North Germany was disturbed by the wild schemes of
Wilhclm von Grumbach (q.v.) and his associate John Frederick,
duke of Saxony. With regard to the religious question ciTorts
were made to compose the differences among the Protestants;
but while the:* ended in failure the Roman Catholics were
gaining ground. Ferdinand sought earnestly to reform the
church from within, and before he died in July 1564 the Counter-
Reformation, fortified by the entrance of the Jesuits into Germany
and by the issue of the decrees of the council of Trent, had
begur..
Under Ferdinand's rule there were some changes in the
administtation of the Empire. Lutherans sat among the judges
ASmiab* °f tl»c Rcichskammcrgcruht, and the Aulic Council, or
trmttv } r 'tfrat, established by Maximilian I. for the Austrian
€ksagn, lands, extended its authority over the Empire
*nd was known as the Kcichhojrat. Side by side wilh these
changes the imperial diet was becoming more useless and un-
wieldy, and the electors were gaining power, owing partly to
the WakikapUuiaiion, by which on election they circumscribed
the power of each occupant of the imperial throne.
Ferdinand's son and successor, the emperor Maximilian IL (
was a man of tolerant views; in fact at one lime he was sus-
pected of being a Lutheran, a circumstance which Mmm ,
greatly annoyed the Habsburgs and delayed his own m tu*mU
election as king of the Romans. However, having
given to the electors assurances of his fidelity to the Romas
Church, he was chosen king in November 1562, and became
ruler of Germany on his father's death nearly two years later.
Like other German sovereigns Maximilian pursued the phantom
of religious union. His first diet, which met at Augsburg in
1 566, was, however, unable, or unwilling, to take any steps is
this direction, and while the Roman Catholics urged the enforce-
ment of the decrees of the council of Trent the. serious differences
among the Protestants received fresh proof from the attempt
made to exclude the Calvinisl prince Frederick III., elector
palatine of the Rhine, from the benefits of the peace of Augsburg.
After this Frederick and the Calvinists looked for sympathy
more and more to the Protestants in France and the Netherlands,
whom they assisted with troops, while the Lutherans, whose
chiei prince was Augustus, elector of Saxony, adopted a more
cautious policy and were anxious not to offend the emperor.
There were, moreover, troubles of a personal and private nature
between these two electors and their families, and these cmbiiicrcd
their religious differences. But these divergences of opii>k>n
were not only between Roman Catholic and Lutheran or between
Lutheran and Calvinist, they were, in electoral and ducal
Saxony at least, between Lutheran and Lutheran. Thus the
Protestant cause was weakened just when It needed strengthen-
ing, as, on the other side, the Roman Catholics, especially Albert,
duke of Bavaria, were eagerly forwarding the progress ct the
older faith, which towards the end of this reign was restored
in the important abbey of Fulda. In secular affairs Maximilian
had, just after his accession, to face a renewal of the Turkish
war. Although his first diet voted liberal assist ^sxc for the
defence of the country, and a large and splendid army was
collected, he had gained no advantage when the campaign ended.
The diet of Spires, which met in 1570, was mainly occupied
in discussing measures for preventing the abuses caused by
the enlistment by foreigners of German mercenary troops, but
nothing was done to redress this grievance, as the estates were
unwilling to accept proposals which placed more power in the
emperor's hands. Maximilian found lime to make earnest but
unavailing efforts to mediate between his cousin, Philip II.
of Spain, and the revolted Netherlands, and also to interfere
in the affairs of Poland, where a faction elected him as their
king. He was still dealing with this matter and hoping to gain
support for it from the diet of Rcgcnsburg when he died 1 October
1576).
Maximilian's successor was his son. Rudolph II., who had hcen
chosen king of the Romans in October 1575, and who in his
later years showed marked traces of insanity. The
new emperor had little of his father's tolerant spirit, iL
and under his feeble and erratic rule religious and
political considerations alike tended to increase the disorder
in Germany. The death of the Calvinist leader, the elector
palatine Frederick III., in October 1576 and the accession el
his son Louis, a prince who held Lutheran opinions, obviously
afforded a favourable opportunity for making another attempt
to unite the Protestants. Under the guidance of Augustus of
Saxony a Lutheran confession of faith, the Formula cencordiat,
was drawn up; but, although this was accepted by 51 princes
and 3S towns, others— like the landgraves of Hesse and the
cities nf Madgeburg and St rassburg— refused to sign it, and thus
it served only to emphasize the divisions among the Protestants.
Moreover, the friendship between the Saxon and the Palatine
houses was soon destroyed; for, when the elector I.oi:is died
in 158}, he was succeeded by a minor, his son Frederick IV.,
wYto was. uititet the guardianship of his uncle John Casimir
history] GERMANY
(1543-1592), a prince of very marked Calvinist sympathies and
of some military experience. Just before this time much unrest
in the north-west of Germany had been caused by the settlement
there of a number of refugees from the Netherlands. Spreading
their advanced religious views, these settlers were partly
responsible for two serious outbreaks of disorder. At Aix-la-
Chapelle the Protestants, not being allowed freedom of worship,
took possession of the city in 1581. The matter came before the
diet, which was opened at Augsburg in July 1582, but the case
was left undecided; afterwards, however, the Rcichshojrat
declared against the insurgents, although it was not until 1508
that Protestant worship was abolished and the Roman Catholic
governing body was restored. At Cologne the archbishop,
Gebhard Truchscss von Wa Id burg, married and announced his
intention of retaining his spiritual office. Had this proceeding
passed unchallenged, the Protestants, among whom Gebhard
now counted himself, would have had a majority in the electoral
college. The Roman Catholics, however, secured the deposition
of Gebhard and the election in his stead of Ernest, bishop of
Liege, and war broke out in 1583. Except John Casimir, the
Protestant princes showed no eagerness to assist Gebhard, who
in a short time was driven from his see, and afterwards took up
his residence in Strassburg, where also he instigated a rebellion
on a small scale. Thus these quarrels terminated in victories
for the Roman Catholics, who were successful about this time
in restoring their faith in the bishoprics of Wiirzburg, Salzburg,
Bamberg, Paderborn, Minden and Osnabruck. Another dispute
also ended in a similar way. This was the claim made by the
administrator of the archbishopric of Magdeburg, a Hohensollern
prince, Joachim Frederick, afterwards elector of Brandenburg,
to sit and vote in the imperial diet; it was not admitted, and
the administrator retired from Augsburg, a similar fate befalling
a similar claim made by several other administrators some
years later.
After the death of Augustus of Saxony in February 1586
there was another brief alliance between the Protestant parties,
Tb*Pn>- although on this occasion the lead was taken not by
teXAot the Saxon, but by the Palatine prince. Less strict
in his adherence to the tenets of Lutheranism than
Augustus, the new elector of Saxony, Christian I.,
fell under the influence of John Casimir. The result was that
Protestant princes, including the three temporal electors, united
in placing their grievances before the emperor; obtaining no
redress they met at Torgau in 1501 and offered help to Henry
IV. of France, a proceeding which was diametrically opposed to
the past policy of Saxony. But this alliance, like its forerunner,
was of very short duration. Christian I. died in 1 591 , and under
Christian II. electoral Saxony re-established a rigid Lutheranism
at home and pursued a policy of moderation and neutrality
abroad. A short time afterwards the militant party among
the Protestants suffered a heavy loss by the death of their
leader, John Casimir, whose policy, however, was continued by
his nephew and pupil, the elector Frederick IV. But neither
desertion nor death was able to crush entirely the militant
Protestants, among whom Christian, prince of Anhalt (1568-
1630), was rapidly becoming the most prominent figure. They
made themselves very troublesome at the diet of Regensburg
in 1593, and also at the diet held in the same city four years
later, putting forward various demands for greater religious
freedom and seeking to hinder, or delay, the payment of the
grant for the Turkish war. Moreover, in 1508 they put forward
the theory that the vote of a majority in the diet was not binding
upon the minority; they took up the same position at Regens-
burg in 1603, when they raised strong objections to the decisions
of the Rekkshofrat and afterwards withdrew from the diet in
a body. Thus, under Maximilian of Bavaria and Christian of
Anhalt respectively the two great parties were gaining a better
idea of their own needs and of each other's aims and were
watching vigilantly the position in the duchies of Cleves, Julich
and Berg, where a dispute over the succession was impending.
While wars and rumours of wars were disturbing the peace in
the west of Germany the Turks were again harassing the east.
857
The war between them and the Empire, which was renewed fa
1593, lasted almost without interruption until November ioo6 t
when peace was made, the tribute long paid by the emperor
to the sultan being abandoned. This peace was concluded not
by Rudolph, but by his brother, the archduke Matthias, who
owing to the emperor's mental incapacity had just been declared
by his kinsman the head of the house of Habsburg. Rudolph
resented this indignity very greatly, and until his death in January
1612 the relations between the brothers were very strained, but
this mainly concerns the history of Hungary and of Bohemia,
which were sensibly affected by the fraternal discord.
By this time however, there were signs of substantial progress
on the part of the great Catholic reaction, which was to nave
important consequences for Germany. This was due Th0
mainly to the persistent zeal of the Jesuits. For a Co*u*«*
long time the Protestants had absorbed the intellectual **'««■•
strength of the country, but now many able scholars "**
and divines among the Jesuits could hold their own with their
antagonists. These devoted missionaries of the church gave
their attention mainly to the young, and during the reign of
Rudolph II. they were fortunate enough to make a deep im«
pression upon two princes, each of whom was destined to play
a great part in the events of his time. These' princes were
Maximilian, duke of Bavaria, and Ferdinand, archduke of
Styria, the former a member of the house of Wittelsbach, and
the latter of the house of Habsburg. Maximilian became pro*
minent in 1607 by executing an imperial mandate against the
free city of Donauwttrth, where a religious riot had taken place,
and afterwards treating it as his own. Rendered suspicious
by this arbitrary act, the Protestant princes in 1608 formed a
confederation known as the Evangelical Union, and in response
the Roman Catholics, under the guidance of Maximilian, united
in a similar confederation afterwards called the Catholic League.
This was founded at Munich in* July 1609. As the Union was
headed by the elector palatine of the Rhine, Frederick IV.,
who was a Calvinist, many Lutherans, among them the elector
of Saxony, were by no means enthusiastic in its support. It
acquired, however, immense importance through its alliance
with Henry IV. of France, who, like Henry II., wished to profit
by the quarrels in Germany, and who interfered in the disputed
succession to the duchies of Cleves and Julich. War seemed
about to break out between the two confederations and their
foreign allies over this question, but after the murder of the
French king in May 1610 the Union did not venture to fight.
Ferdinand was even more vigorous than Maximilian in defence
of his religion. On assuming the government of Styria he set
to work to extirpate Protestantism, which had made
considerable progress in the Austrian arch-duchies. ™
Soon afterwards he was selected by the Habsburgs
as the heir of the childless emperor Matthias, and on coming to
Vienna after the death of that sovereign in March 1619 he found
himself in the midst of hopeless confusion. The Bohemians
refused to acknowledge him as their king and elected in his
stead Frederick V., the elector palatine of the Rhine, a son-in-
law of the English king James I., and the Hungarians and the
Austrians were hardly less disaffected. As Ferdinand II~,
however, he succeeded in obtaining the imperial crown in
August 1619, and from that time he was dominated by a fixed
resolve to secure .the triumph of his church throughout the
Empire, a resolve which cost Germany the Thirty Years' War.
He began with Bohemia. Although supported by Spain be
could not obtain from this quarter an army sufficiently strong
to crush the Bohemians, and for some time he remained
powerless and inactive in Vienna. Then at the n0 t ^JT
beginning of 1620 he came to terms with Maximilian n7ri«mfs,
of Bavaria, who, after carefully securing his own
interests, placed the army of the League, commanded by the
celebrated Tilly, at his disposal. Conditionally the Union
promised assistance to Frederick, but he wasted several months
and vaguely hoped that the English king would help him out
of his embarrassments. Meanwhile Tilly advanced into Bohemia,
and in November i6ao Frederick's army was utterly routed at
8 5 8
GERMANY
[HISTORY
the battle of the White Hill, near Prague, and the unfortunate
elector had just time to escape from the kingdom he had rashly
undertaken to govern. Ferdinand drove to the uttermost the
advantages of his victory. The Union being destroyed and
the Bohemian revolution crushed, attention was turned to the
hereditary lands of the elector palatine. The Spanish troops
and the army of the League invaded the Rhenish Palatinate,
which was defended by Frederick's remaining adherents, Christian.
of Brunswick and Count Ernst von Mansfeld, but after several
battles it passed completely into the possession of the imperialists.
Having been placed under the imperial ban Frederick became
an exile from his inheritance, and the electorate which he was
declared to have forfeited was conferred on Maximilian.
Thus ended the first stage of the Thirty Years' War, although
some desultory fighting continued between the League and
Daotib it* opponents. The second began in 1625 with the
later- formation, after much fruitless negotiation, of a
ftrtmxia p ro testant combination, which had the support of
o war, England, although its leading member was Christian
IV., king of Denmark, who as duke of Holstein was a prince of
the Empire, and who like other Lutherans was alarmed at the
emperor's successes. It was in this war that Europe first became
familiar with the great name of Wallenstcin. Unable himself
to raise and equip a strong army, and restive at his depend-
ence on the League, Ferdinand gladly accepted Wallenstein's
offer to put an army into the field at no cost to him-
self. After Wallenstein had beaten Mansfeld at the bridge
of Dessau in April 1626, and Tilly had defeated Christian of
Denmark at Lutter in the succeeding August, the two generals
united their forces. Denmark was invaded, and Wallenstcin.
now duke of Friedland, was authorized to govern the conquered
duchies of Mecklenburg and Pomerania; but his ambitious
scheme of securing the whole of the south coast of the Baltic
was thwarted by the resistance of the city of Stralsund, which
for five months he vainly tried to take. Denmark, however,
was compelled to conclude peace at Lilbeck in May 1629.
Intoxicated by success, Ferdinand had issued two months
before the famous Edict of Restitution. This ordered the
restoration of all ecclesiastical lands which had come
oMVa//»n- ulto lDC possession of the Protestants since the peace
•<«*. of Passau in 1552, and, as several archbishoprics
and bishoprics had become Protestant, it struck
a tremendous blow at the emperor's foes and stirred among
them intense and universal opposition. A little later, yielding
to Maximilian and his colleagues in the League, Ferdinand
dismissed Wallenstein, whose movements had aroused their
resentment, from his service. A more inauspicious moment
could not have been chosen for these two serious steps, because
in the summer of 1630 Gustavus Adolphus left Sweden at the
head of a strong army for the purpose of sustaining the Protestant
cause in Germany. At first this great king was coldly received
by the Protestants, who were ignorant of his designs and did not
want a stranger to profit by the internal disputes of their country.
A mistake at the outset would probably have been fatal to him,
but he saw the dangers of his position and moved so warily
that in less than a year he had obtained the alliance of the
elector of Saxony, a consequence of the terrible sack of Magdeburg
by the imperialists in May 1631 and of the devastation of the
electorate by Tilly. He had also obtained on his own terms the
assistance of France, and was ready to enter upon his short but
brilliant campaign.
Having captured Frankfort-on-Oder and forced the hesitating
elector of Brandenburg, George William, to grant him some assist-
Tt» cam- ance, Gustavus Adolphus added the Saxon army to his
pflxuot own, and in September 1631 he met Tilly, at the head
of nearly the whole force of the League, at Brcitenield,
near Leipzig, where he gained a victory which placed
North Germany entirely at his feet. So utterly had he shattered
the emperor's power that he could doubtless have marched
straight to Vienna; he preferred, however, to proceed through
central into southern Germany, while his Saxon ally, the elector
John George, recovered Silesia and Lusatia and invaded Bohemia.
Wiirzburg and Frankfort were among the cities which opened
their gates to the Swedish king as the deliverer of the Protestants;
several princes sought his alliance, and, making the captured
city of Mainz his headquarters, he was busily engaged for some
months in resting and strengthening his army and in negotiating
about the future conduct of the war. Early in 1632 he led his
troops into Bavaria. In April he defeated Tilly at the crossing
of the Lech, the imperialist general being mortally wounded
during this fight, and then Jie took possession of Augsburg and
of Munich. Before these events Ferdinand had realized how
serious had been his mistake in dismissing Wallenstein, and after
some delay his agents persuaded the great general to emerge
from his retirement. The conditions, however, upon which
Wallenstein consented to come to the emperor's aid were remark-
ably onerous, but Ferdinand had perforce to assent to them.
He obtained sole command of the imperial armies, with the
power of concluding treaties and of granting pardons, and
he doubtless insisted on the withdrawal of the Edict of Restitu-
tion, although this is not absolutely certain; in brief, the only
limits to his power were the limits to the strength of his army.
Having quickly assembled this, he drove the Saxons from
Bohemia, and then marched towards Franconia, with the
intention of crossing swords with bis only serious rival, Gustavus
Adolphus, who had left Munich when he heard that this foe
had taken the field. The Swedes and their allies occupied Nurcm*
berg, while the imperialists fortified a great camp and blockaded
the city. Gustavus made an attempt to storm these fort i neat ions,
but he failed to make any impression on them; he failed also
in inducing Wallenstein to accept battle, and he was forced to
abandon Nuremberg and to march to the protection of Saxony.
Wallenstein followed? and the two armies faced each other at
Liitzen on the i6th of November 1632. Here the imperialists
were beaten, but the victory was even more disastrous to the
Protestant cause than a defeat, for the Swedish king was among
the slain.
The Swedes, whose leader was now the chancellor Oxenst jerna,
were stunned by this catastrophe, but in a desultory fashion
they maintained the struggle, and in April 1633 a
new league was formed at Heilbronn between them and
the representatives of four of the German circles,
while by a new agreement France continued to furnish ***<*•
monetary aid. Of this alliance Sweden was the pre- JJjJJJjlf
dominant member, but the German allies had a certain mMo*
voice in the direction of affairs, the military command
being divided between the Swedish general Horn and Bernhard,
duke of Saxc- Weimar. About this time some discontent arose
in the allied army, and to allay this Bernhard was granted the
bishoprics of Wiirzburg and of Bamberg, with the title of duke
of Franconia, but on the strange condition that he should hold
the duchy as the vassal of Sweden, not as a vassal of the Empire.
The war, thus revived, was waged principally in the valleys
of the Danube and the Rhine, the Swedes, seizing Alsace while
Bernhard captured Regensburg. Meanwhile Wallenstein was
again arousing the suspicions of his nominal allies. Instead of
attacking the enemy with his accustomed vigour, he withdrew
into Bohemia and was engaged in lengthy negotiations with the
Saxon soldier and diplomatist, Hans Gcorg von Arnim (15S1-
1 641), his object being doubtless* to come to terms with Saxony
and Brandenburg either with or without the emperor's consent.
His prime object was, however, to secure for himself a great
territorial position, possibly that of king of Bohemia, and it is
obvious that his aims and ambitions were diametrically opposed
to the ends desired by Ferdinand and by his Spanish and Bavarian
allies. At length he set his troops in motion. Having gained
some successes in the- north-east of Germany he marched to
succour the hardly pressed elector of Bavaria; then suddenly
abandoning this purpose he led his troops back to Bohemia and
left Bernhard of Saxe-Weimar in possession of the Danube
valley. It is not surprising that a cry, louder than ever, now
arose for his dismissal. Ferdinand did as he was required.
In January 1634 he declared Wallenstcin deposed from his
command, but he was still at the bead of an army when be was
HISTORY)
GERMANY
8 5 g
murdered in the following month at Eger. Commanded now by
the king of Hungary, afterwards the emperor Ferdinand III.,
the imperialists retook Regensburg and captured Donau worth;
then, aided by some Spanish troops, they gained a victory at
Ndrdlingen in September 1634, the results of which were as
decisive and as satisfactory for them as the results of Breitenfeld
had been for their foes two years before.
The demoralization of the Swedes and their allies, which was
a consequence of the defeat at Ndrdlingen, was the opportunity
Pnun of France. Having by clever diplomacy placed gar-
tmkmtpart risons in several places in Alsace and the Palatinate,
* «*» the king of France, or rather Cardinal Richelieu, now
war ' entered the field as a principal, made a definite alliance
with Sweden at Compiegnc in April 1635, and in the following
month declared war and put four armies in motion. But the
thoughts of many had already turned in the direction of peace,
and in this manner John George of Saxony took the lead, signing
in May 1635 the important treaty of Prague with the emperor.
The vexed and difficult question of the ownership of the ecclesi-
astical lands was settled by fixing November 1627 as the deciding
date; those who were in possession then were to retain them
for forty years, during which time it was hoped a satisfactory
arrangement would be reached. The Saxon elector gained
some additions of territory and promised to assist Ferdinand
to recover any lands which had been taken frdra him by the
Swedes, or by other foes. For this purpose a united army was
to serve under an imperial general, and all leagues were to be
dissolved. In spite of the diplomatic efforts of Sweden the treaty
of Prague was accepted almost at once by the elector of Branden-
burg, the duke of WUrttemberg and other princes, and also by
several of the most important of the free cities. It was only, in
fact, the failure of Saxony and Sweden to come to terms which
prevented a general peace in Germany. The Thirty Years'
War now took a different form. Its original objects were almost
forgotten and it was continued mainly to further the ambitions
of France, thus being a renewal of the great fight between
the houses of Habsburg and of Bourbon, and to secure for
Sweden some recompense for the efforts which she had put
forward.
While the signatories of the peace of Prague were making
ready to assist the emperor the only Germans on the other side
were found in the army under Bernhard' of Saxe-
0/ SuT 1 * Weimar. The final stage of the war opened with con-
Wtimar. siderable Swedish successes in the north of Germany,
especially the signal victory gained by them over the
imperialists and the Saxons at Witt stock in October 1636.. At
the same time good fortune was attending the operations of the
French in the Rhineland, where they were aided by Bernhard of
Saxe- Weimar, a satisfactory financial arrangement between
these parties having been reached in the autumn of 1635. The
year 1638 was an especially fortunate one for France and her
allies. Bernhardt capture of Rheinfeldcn and of Breisach gave
them possession of the surrounding districts, but dissensions
arose concerning the division of the spoil; these, however, were
stopped by the death of Bernhard in July 1639, when France
took his army into her pay. Thus the war continued, but the
desire for peace was growing stronger, and this was reflected in
the proceedings of the diet which met at Regensburg in 1640.
Under Count Torstensscn the Swedes defeated the imperialists
at Breitenfeld in 1642; three years later they gained another
victory at Jankau and advanced almost to Vienna, and then the
last decisive move of the war was made by the great French
general, Turenne. Having been successful in the Rhineland, where
he had captured Philippsburg and Worms, Turenne joined his
forces to those of Sweden under Wrangel and advanced into
Bavaria. Ravagingtheland.they compelled the elector Maximilian
to sign a truce and to withdraw his troops from the imperial army.
When, however, the allied army had retired Maximilian repented
of his action. Again he joined the emperor, but his punishment
was swift and sure, as Turenne and Wrangel again marched into
the electorate and defeated the Bavarians at Zusmarshausen,
near Augsburg, in May 1648. A few minor operations followed,
and then came the welcome news of the conclusion of the treaty
of Westphalia.
The preliminary negotiations for peace were begun at Hamburg
and Cologne before the death of the emperor Ferdinand II. in
1637. By a treaty signed at Hamburg in December
164 1 it was agreed that peace conferences should meet J^JU*
at MOnster and at Osnabrtick in March 1642, the £.%£? '
emperor treating with France in the former, and with
Sweden in the latter city. The Roman Catholic princes of the
Empire were to be represented at Munstcr and the Protestants
at Osnabrtick. Actually the conferences did not meet until 1645,
when the elector of Brandenburg had made, and the elector of
Saxony was about to make, a truce with Sweden, these two
countries being withdrawn from the ravages of the war. In
three years the many controversial questions were discussed and
settled, and in October 1648 the treaty of Westphalia was signed
and the Thirty Years' War was at an end.
The Thirty Years' War settled once for all the principle that
men should not be persecuted for their religious faith. It is true
that the peace of Westphalia formally recognized only g/f^g &
the three creeds, Catholicism, Lutheranism and the Thirty
Calvinism, but so much suffering had been caused Y—nr
by the interference of the state with individual con- Wmk
viction, that toleration in the largest sense, so far as law was
concerned, was virtually conceded. This was the sole advantage
gained from the war by the Protestants. The Catholics insisted
at first on keeping all the ecclesiastical lands which had been
taken from them before the Edict of Restitution in 1629. The
Protestants responded by demanding that they should lose
nothing which they had held before 1618, when the war began.
A compromise was at last effected by both parties agreeing to the
date 1624, an arrangement which secured to the Catholics their
gains in Bohemia and the other territories of the house of
Habsburg. The restoration of the elector palatine to part of his
lands, and his reinstatement in the electoral office, were im-
portant concessions; but on the other hand, the duke of Bavaria*
kept the Upper Palatinate, the elector palatine becoming the
eighth and junior member of the electoral college.
The country suffered enormous territorial losses by the war.
Up to this time the possession of Metz, Toul and Verdun by
France had never been officially recognized; now
these bishoprics were formally conceded to her. She ttnkily.
also received as much of Alsace as belonged to Austria.
To the Swedes were granted Western Pomcrania, with Stettin,
and the archbishopric of Bremen and the bishopric of Verden.
These acquisitions, which surpassed the advantages Gustavus
Adolphus had hoped to win, gave Sweden the command both of
the Baltic and of the North Sea. In virtue of her German posses-
sions Sweden became a member of the Empire; but France
obtained absolute control of her new territories. There was a
further diminution of Germany by the recognition of the inde-
pendence of Switzerland and the United Provinces. Both had
long been virtually free; they now for the first time took the
position of distinct nations.
In the political constitution of Germany the peace of West-
phalia did not so much make changes as sanction those already
effected. The whole tendency of the Reformation had
been to relax the bonds which united the various i*'/JJ
elements of the state to each other and to their head, modthm
It divided the nation into two hostile parties, and the political
emperor was not able to assume towards them a JJUJ^**"
perfectly impartial position. His imperial crown im-
posed upon him the necessity of associating himself with the
Roman Catholics; so that the Protestants had a new and power-
ful reason for looking upon him with jealousy, and trying to
diminish his authority. The Roman Catholics, while maintaining
their religion, were willing enough toco-operate with them for this
object ; and Germany often saw the strange spectacle of princes
rallying round the emperor for the defence of the church, and at
the same time striking deadly blows at his political influence.
The diet was a scene of perpetual quarrelling between the two
factions, and their differences made it impossible for the imperial
86o
GERMANY
(HISTORY
chamber to move beyond the region of official routine. Thus
before the Thirty Years' War the Empire had virtually ceased
to exist, Germany having become a loose confederation of princi-
palities and free cities. For a moment the emperor Ferdinand
appeared to have touched the ideal of Charles V. in so far, at
least, as it related to Germany, but only for a moment. The
stars in their courses fought against him, and at the time of his
death he saw how far beyond his power were the forces with
which even Charles had been unable to contend. The state of
things which actually existed the peace of Westphalia made
legal. So nearly complete was the independence of the stales
that each received the right to form alliances with any of the
others, or with foreign powers, nominally on condition that their
alliances should not be injurious to the emperor or to the Empire.
Any authority which still lawfully belonged to the emperor was
transferred to the diet. It alone had now the power of making
laws, of concluding treaties in the name of Germany, and of
declaring war and re-establishing peace. No one, however, ex-
pected that it would be of any real service. From 1663 it became
a permanent body, and was attended only by the representatives
of the princes and the cities; and from that time it occupied
itself mainly with trifles, leaving the affairs of each stale to be
looked after by its own authorities, and those of the country
generally to such fortunes as chance should determine.
It would not have been strange if so shadowy an Empire had
been brought altogether to an end. Some slight bond of con-
Cootioa- nexion was, however, necessary for defence against
mm common dangers; and the Empire had existed so long,
*"** and so many great associations were connected with
•***•> .^ t jj at j t sceme j t0 a y parties preferable to any other
form of union. Moreover, Sweden, and other states which were
now members of the Empire, warmly supported it; and the
house of Habsburg, on which it reflected a certain splendour,
would not willingly have let it die. An Austrian ruler, even
when he spoke only in the name of Austria, derived authority
from the fact that as emperor he represented many of the greatest
memories of European history.
The effect of the Thirty Years' War on the national life was
disastrous. It bad not been carried on by disciplined armies,
but by hordes of adventurers whose sole object was
plunder. The cruelties they inflicted on their victims
are almost beyond conception. Before the war the
population was nearly twenty millions; after it the number
was probably about six millions. Whole towns and villages
were laid in ashes, and vast districts turned into deserts.
Churches and schools were closed by hundreds, and to such
straits were the people often reduced that cannibalism is said to
have been not uncommon. Industry and trade were so com-
pletely paralysed that in 1635 the Hanscatic League was virtually
broken up, because the members, once so wealthy, could not
meet the necessary expenditure. The population was not only
impoverished and reduced in numbers but broken in spirit.
It lost confidence in itself, and for a time effected in politics,
literature, art and science little that is worthy of serious
study.
The princes knew well how to profit by the national prostration.
The local diets, which, as we have seen, formed a real check
on petty tyranny, and kept up an intimate relation
priacm. between the princes and their subjects, were nearly
all destroyed. Those which remained were injurious
rather than beneficial, since they often gave an appearance of
lawfulness to the caprices of arbitrary sovereigns. After the
Thirty Years' War it became fashionable for the heirs of princi-
palities to travel, and especially to spend some time at the court
of France. Here they readily imbibed the ideas of Louis XIV.,
and in a short time nearly every petty court in Germany was a
feeble imitation of Versailles. Before the Reformation, and even
for some lime after it, the princes were thorough Germans in
sympathies and habits; they now began to be separated by a
wide gulf from their people. Instead of studying the general
welfare, they wrung from exhausted stales the largest possible
revenue to support lavish and ridiculous expenditure. The
pettiest princeling had his army, his palaces, bis multitudes of
household officers; and most of them pampered every vulgar
appetite Without respect either to morality or to decency. Many
nobles, whose lands had been wasted during the war, flocked to
the little capitals to make their way by contemptible court
services. Beneath an outward gloss of refinement these nobles
were, as a class, coarse and selfish, and they made it their chid
object to promote their own interests by fostering absolutist
tendencies. Among the people there was no public opinion to
discourage despotism; the majority accepted their lot as
inevitable, and tried rather to reproduce than to restrain the vices
of their rulers. Even the churches offered little opposition to
the excesses of persons in authority, and in many instances the
clergy, both Protestant and Catholic, acquired an unenviable
notoriety for their readiness to overlook or condone actions
which outraged the higher sentiments of humanity. In the
free imperial cities there was more manliness of tone than eke-
where, but there was little of the generous rivalry _^
among the different classes which had once raised them ^^
to a high level of prosperity. Most of them resigned
their liberties into the hands of oligarchies, and others allowed
themselves to be annexed by ambitious princes. (A. W. H.*)
Ferdinand III. succeeded to the throne when the fortunes
of his house were at a low ebb, and he continued the Thirty
Years! War, not in the hope of re-establishing the r j*^^
Roman Catholic religion or of restoring the imperial tlL
authority, but of remedying as far as he could the
havoc caused by his father's recklessness. After the conclusion
of peace nothing happened to make his reign memorable. His
son Leopold I. was a man of narrow intellect and . ^.
feeble will; yet Germany seldom so keenly felt the <vw
need of a strong emperor, for she had during two generations to
contend with a watchful and grasping rival. For more than a
century it had been the policy of France to strengthen herself
by fostering the internal dissensions of Germany. This was now
easy, and Louis XIV. made unscrupulous use of the
advantages his predecessors had helped to gain for Lota%
him. Germany, as a whole, could not for a long time
be induced to resist him. His schemes directly
threatened the independence of the princes; but they were too
indolent to unite against his ambition. They grudged even the
contributions necessary for the maintenance of the frontier
fortresses, and many of them stooped to accept the bribes he
offered them on condition that they should remain quiet. In his
war with ihc United Provinces and Spain, begun in 1672, he was
opposed by the emperor as ruler of Austria, and by Frederick
William, the elector of Brandenburg; and in 1675 ln * latter
gained a splendid victory at Fchrbellin over his allies, the Swedes.
At the end of the war, in 1678, by ihe peace of Nijmwcgcn, Louis
took care that Frederick William should be deprived of the
fruits of his victory, and Austria had to resign Freiburg im
Breisgau to the French. Under the pretence that when France
gained the Austrian lands in Alsace she also acquired a right
to all places that had ever been united to them, Louis began a
series of systematic robberies of German towns and territories.
" Chambers of Reunion " were appointed to give an appearance
of legality to these proceedings, which culminated, in 1681, in
the seizure of Strassburg. Germans of all stales and ranks were
indignant at so gross a humiliation, but even the loss of Strassburg
did not suffice to move the diet. The emperor himself might
probably have interfered, but Louis had provided him with
ample employment by stirring up against him the Hungarians
and the Turks. So complete was his hold over the majority of
the princes that when the Turks, in 1683, surrounded Vienna,
and appeared not unlikely to advance into the heart of Germany,
they looked on indifferently, and allowed the emperor to be saved
by the promptitude and courage of John Sobieski, king of Poland.
At last, when, in 1689, on the most frivolous pretext, Louis
poured into southern Germany armies which were guilty ol
shameful outrages, a number of princes came forward and aided
the emperor. This time France was sternly opposed by the
league of which William III. of England was the moving spirit;
history) GERMANY
and although at the end of the war he kept StrassDurg, he had
to give up Freiburg, Philipsburg, Breisach, and the places he
War of had seized because of their former connexion with
SpaaHM Alsace. In the War of the Spanish Succession two
^j"**" powerful princes, the elector of Bavaria and the elector
of Cologne, joined Louis; but as the states of the
Empire declared war against him in 1702, the other princes,
more or less loyally, supported the emperor and his allies.
Leopold died during the progress of this war,but it was vigorously
continued by his son Joseph I.
Joseph's brother and successor, Charles VI., also went on with
it,; and such were the blows inflicted on France by the victories
g^ . y, of Blenheim, Ramillies and Malplaquet that the war
was generally expected to end in her utter discomfiture.
But the conclusion of the treaty of Utrecht by England, in 17 13,
so limited the military power of Charles VI. that he was obliged
to resign the claims of Austria to the Spanish throne, and to
content himself with the Spanish Netherlands, Milan, Naples
and. Sardinia. He cared so little for Germany, as distinguished
from Austria, that he allowed Louis to compel the diet to cede the
imperial fortress of Landau. At a later stage in his reign he was
guilty of an act of even grosser selfishness; for after the War
of the Polish Succession, in which he supported the claims of
Augustus III., elector of Saxony, he yielded Lorraine to Stanislaus
Leszczynski, whose claims had been defended by France, and
through whom France ultimately secured this beautiful German
province. Having no son, Charles drew up in 17 13
the pragmatic sanction, which ordained that, in the
event of an Austrian ruler being without male heirs,
his hereditary lands and titles should pass to his nearest female
relative. The aim of his whole policy was to secure for this
measure, which was proclaimed as a fundamental law in 1724,
the approval of Europe; and by promises and threats he did
at last obtain the guarantee of the states of the Empire and the
leading European powers.
Germany was now about to be aroused from the torpor into
which she had been cast by the Thirty Years' War; but her
ommfth m§ awa ^ en * a 8 was due, not t0 tne actio* 1 of the Empire,
JJJ2£ which was more and more seen to be practically dead,
but to the rivalry of two great German states, Austria
and Prussia. The latter had long been laying the foundations
of her power. Brandenburg, the centre of the Prussian kingdom,
was, as we have seen, granted in the 15th century by the emperor
Sigismund to Frederick, count of Hohenzollern. In his hands,
and in those of his prudent successors, it became one of the most
flourishing of the North-German principalities. At the time of
the Reformation Albert, a member of a subordinate branch of
the house of Hohenzollern, happened to be grand master of the
Teutonic Order. He became a Protestant, dissolved the order,
and received in fief of the king of Poland the duchy of Prussia.
In 161 1 this duchy fell by inheritance to the elector of Branden-
burg, and by the treaty of Wehlau, in 1657, in the time of
Frederick William, the Great Elector, it was declared independent
of Poland. By skill, foresight and courage Frederick William
managed to add largely to his territories; and in an age of
degenerate sovereigns he was looked upon as an almost model
ruler. His son, Frederick, aspired to royal dignity, and in 1 701,
having obtained the emperor's assent, was crowned king of
Prussia. The extravagance of Frederick drained the resources
of his state, but this was amply atoned for by the rigid economy
of Frederick William L, who not only paid off the debts accumu-
lated by his father, but amassed an enormous treasure. He so
Organized all branches of the public service that they
nHJj^ were brought to a point of high efficiency, and his
army was one of the largest, best appointed and best
trained in Europe (see Prussia: History). He died in 1740,
and within six months, when Frederick II. was on the Prussian
throne, Maria Theresa claimed, in virtue of the pragmatic sanc-
tion, the lands and hereditary titles of her father Charles VI.
Frederick II., a young, ambitious and energetic sovereign,
longed not only to add to his dominions but to play a great
part in European politics. His father had guaranteed the prag-
861
matic sanction, but as the conditions on which the guarantee had
been granted had not been fulfilled by Charles VI., Frederick
did not feel bound by it, and revived some old claims
of his family on certain Silcsian duchies. Maria
Theresa would not abate her rights, but before she
could assert them Frederick had entered Silesia and
made himself master of it. Meanwhile, the elector of Bavaria
had come forward and disputed Maria Theresa's right to the
succession, and the elector of Saxony had also put in a ^^
claim to the Austrian lands. Taking advantage of JjJ m
these disputes, France formed an alliance with the two
electors and with the king of Prussia against Austria; and- in
the war which followed the allies were at first so successful
that the elector of Bavaria, through the influence of France,
was crowned emperor as Charles VII. (1742-1745). Maria
Theresa, a woman of a noble and undaunted spirit,
appealed, with her infant son, afterwards Joseph II.,
in her arms, to the Hungarian diet, and the enthusiastic
Magyars responded chivalrously to her call. To be more at
freedom she concluded peace with Frederick, and ceded Silesia
to him, although greatly against her will. Saxony also was
pacified and retired from the struggle. After this Maria Theresa,
supported by England, made way so rapidly and so triumphantly
that Frederick became alarmed for his new possessions; and
in 1742 he once more proclaimed war against her,
nominally in aid of the emperor, Charles VII. Ulti-
mately, in 1 748, she was able to conclude an honourable ^n
peace at Aix-la-Chapcile; but she had been forced,
as before, to rid herself of Frederick by confirming him in the
sovereignty of the territory he had seized.
After the death of Charles VII., Francis, grand duke of Tuscany,
Maria Theresa's husband, was elected emperor. Francis. I.
(1745-1765), an amiable nonentity, with the instincts -^^ ,
of a shopkeeper, made no pretence of discharging "***"•
important imperial duties, and the task of ruling the hereditary
possessions of the house of Habsburg fell wholly to the empress-
queen. She executed it with discretion and vigour, so that
Austria in her hands was known to be one of the most formidable
powers in the world. Her rival, Frederick II., was, if possible,
still more active. It did not occur to him, any more than to
the other German sovereigns of the 18th century, to associate
his people with him in the government of the country; he was
in every respect a thoroughly absolute sovereign. But he shared
the highest ideas of the age respecting the responsibilities of a
king, and throughout his long reign acted in the main faithfully
as " the first servant of the state." The army he always kept
in readiness for war; but he also encouraged peaceful arts, and
diffused throughout his kingdom so much of his own alert and
aggressive spirit that the Prussians became more intelligent
and more wealthy than they had ever before been. He excited
the admiration of the youth of Germany, and it was soon the
fashion among the petty princes to imitate his methods of govern-
ment. As a rule, they succeeded only in raising far larger
armies than the taxpayers could afford to maintain.
Maria Theresa never gave up the hope of winning back Silesia,
and, in order to secure this object, she laid aside the jealousies
of her house, and offered to conclude an alliance with France.
Frederick had excited the envy of surrounding sovereigns, and
had embittered them against him by stinging sarcasms. Not
only France, therefore, but Russia, Saxony and ultimately
Sweden, willingly came to terms with Austria, and the aim of
their union was nothing short of the partition of Prussia.
Frederick, gaining knowledge of the plot, turned to ^ ^
England, which had in the previous war helped vara 9 '
Austria. At the close of 1755 his offer of an alliance War,
was acceded to; and in the following year, hoping jjg£
by vigorously taking the initiative to prevent his
enemies from united action, he invaded Saxony, and began the
Seven Years' War (?.«.), . the result of which was to confirm
Prussia in the possession of Silesia.
Prussia now took rank as one of the leading European powers,
and by her rise a new element was introduced into the political
862
GERMANY
{HISTORY
life of Germany. Austria, although associated with the Empire,
could no longer feel sure of her predominance, and it was inevi-
table that the jealousies of the two states should lead to a final
conflict for supremacy. Even before the -Seven Years' War
there were signs that the German people were beginning to
tire of incessant imitation of France, for in literature they
welcomed the early efforts of Klopstock, Wieland and Lessing;
but the movement received a powerful impulse from the great
deeds of Frederick. The nation, as a whole, was proud of him,
and began, for the first time since the Thirty Years' War, to
feel that it might once more assume a commanding place in the
world.
In 1772 the necessities of Frederick's position compelled him
to join Russia and Austria in the deplorable partition of Poland,
whereby he gained West Prussia, exclusive of Danzig
JJrtto^d, and Thorn, and Austria acquired West Silesia. After
this he had to watch closely the movements of the
emperor Joseph II., who, although an ardent admirer of Frederick,
was anxious to restore to Austria the greatness she had partially
lost. The younger branch of the Wittelsbach line, which
jLmmk „ had hitherto possessed Bavaria, having died out in
J09e * tlL X777> Joseph asserted claims to part of its territory.
Frederick intervened, and although no battle was fought in the
nominal war which followed, the emperor was obliged to content
himself with a very unimportant concession. He made a second
attempt in 1785, but Frederick again came forward. This time
he formed a league (Fiirslcnbund) for the defence of the imperial
constitution, and it was joined by the majority of the small
states. The memory of this league was almost blotted out by
the tremendous events which soon absorbed the attention of
Germany and the world, but it truly indicated the direction of
the political forces which were then at work beneath the surface,
and which long afterwards triumphed. The formation of the
league was a distinct attempt on the part of Prussia to make
herself the centre for the national aspirations both of northern
and of southern Germany,
The French Revolution was hailed by many of the best minds
of Germany as the opening of a new era. Among the princes
at excited horror and alarm, and in 1792 the emperdr
JJJJJSJ. Leopold II. and Frederick William II., the unworthy
tloa. successor of Frederick the Great, met at PillniU,
and agreed to support by arms the cause of the French
king. A more important resolution was never taken. It plunged
Europe into a conflict which cost millions of lives, and which
overthrew the entire states system of the continent. Germany
herself was the principal sufferer. The structure which the
princes had so laboriously built up crumbled into ruins, and
the mistakes of centuries were expiated in an agony of disaster
and humiliation.
The states of the Empire joined Austria and Prussia,' and,
had there been hearty co-operation between the allies* they
could scarcely have failed of success. While the war was in
progress, in 1793, Prussia joined Russia in the second partition
of Poland. Austria considered herself overreached, and began
negotiations with Russia for the third and final partition, which
was effected by the three powers in 1795. Prussia, irritated
by the proceedings of her rival, did as little as possible in the war
with France; and in 179s she retired from the struggle, and
by the treaty of Basel ceded to the French republic her possessions
on the left bank of the Rhine. The war was continued by
Austria, but her power was so effectually shattered by blow
after blow that in 1797 she was forced tp conclude the peace
of Campo Formic Napoleon Bonaparte, to whose genius the
triumph of France was mainly due, began separate negotiations
with tlie states of the Empire at Rastadt; but, before terms
could be agreed upon, war again began in 1799, Austria acting
on this occasion as the ally of Great Britain and Russia. She
was beaten, and the peace of Lun6 ville added fresh humiliations
to those imposed upon her by the previous war. France now
obtained the whole of the left bank of the Rhine, the dispossessed
princes being compensated by grants of secularized church
hods and of mediatized imperial cities (1803). -The contempt
of Napoleon for the Empire was illustrated by his occupation of
Hanover in 1803, and by his seizure of the duke of Enghicn on
imperial territory in 1804. In 1805 Austria once more appealed
to arms in association with her former allies, but in vain. By
the peace of Presburg she accepted more disastrous terms than
ever, and for the moment it seemed as if she could not again
hope to rise to her former splendour. In this war she was
opposed not only by France, but by Bavaria, Wilrttemberg
and Baden, all of which were liberally rewarded for their services,
the rulers of the two former countries being proclaimed kings.
The degradation of Germany was completed by the formation,
in 1806, of the Confederation of the Rhine, which was composed
of the chief central and southern states. The welfare of the
Empire was asserted to be its object, but a body of £,* ^
which Napoleon was the protector existed, of course,
for no other purpose than to be a menace to Austria
and Prussia. Francis II., who had succeeded Leopold
II. in 1792 and in 1804 had proclaimed himself hereditary
emperor of Austria, as Francis I., now resigned the imperial
crown, and thus the Holy Roman Empire and the German
kingdom came to an end. The various states, which had for
centuries been virtually independent,- were during the next
few years not connected even by a nominal bond. (J. Si.)
Frederick William III. (1 797-1840) of Prussia, the successor
of Frederick William II., had held aloof from the struggle of
Austria with France. This attitude had been dictated
partly by his constitutional timidity, partly by Che.
desire to annex Hanover, to which Austria and Russia * j 9MA
would never have assented, but which Napoleon was
willing to concede in return for a, Prussian alliance. The Con-
federation of the Rhine, however, was a menace to Prussia too
serious to be neglected; and Frederick William's hesitations
were suddenly ended by Napoleon's contemptuous violation of
Prussian territory in marching three French brigades through
Ansbach without leave asked. The king at once concluded a
convention with the emperor Alexander I. of Russia and declared
war on France. The campaign that ended in the disastrous
battle of Jena (October 14, 1806) followed; and the prestige
of the Prussian arms, created by Frederick the Great, perished
at a blow. With the aid of Russia Frederick William held out a
while longer, but after Napoleon's decisive victory at Friedland
(June 14, 1807) the tsar came to terms with the French emperor,
sacrificing the interests of his ally. By the treaty of Tilsit
(July 9) the king of Prussia was stripped of the best part of his
dominions and more than half his subjects. I
Germany now seemed fairly in the grip of Napoleon. Early
in November 1806 he had contemptuously deposed the elector
of Hesse and added his dominions to Jerome's kingdom
of Westphalia; on the 21st of the same month he
issued from Berlin the famous decree establishing the
"continental system," which, by forbidding all trade with
England, threatened German commerce with ruin. His triumph
seemed complete when, on the nth of October 1807, Metternich
signed at Fontainebleau, on behalf of Austria, a convention that
conceded all his outstanding xlaims, and seemed to range the
Habsburg monarchy definitely on his side. There was, however,
to be one final struggle before Napoleon's supremacy was estab-
lished. The submission of Austria had been but an expedient
for gaining time; under Count Stadion's auspices she set to
work increasing and reorganizing her forces; and when it
became clear from Napoleon's resentment that he was meditating
fresh designs against her she declared war (1809). The campaign
ended in the crushing defeat of Wagram (July 6) and the humiliat-
ing treaty of peace dictated by Napoleon at the palace of Schon-
brunn in Vienna (October 14). Austria, shorn of her fairest
provinces, robbed of her oversea commerce, bankrupt and
surrounded on all sides by the territories of the French emperor
and his allies, seemed to exist only* on sufferance, and had
ceased to have any effective authority in Germany— now
absolutely in the power of Napoleon, who proved this in 1810
by annexing the whole of the northers coast as far as the Elbe
to his empire.
HSTORY]
GERMANY
863
The very completeness of the humiliation of Germany was
the means of her deliverance. She had been taught self-respect
by Frederick IJ., and by her great writers in literature
and philosophy; it was felt to be intolerable that
in politics she should do the bidding of a foreign
master. Among a large section of the community patriotism
became for the first time a consuming passion, and it was
stimulated by the counsels of several manly teachers, among
whom the first place belongs to the philosopher Fichte. The
governments cautiously took advantage of the national move-
ment to strengthen their position. Even in Austria, where on
the 8th of October 1809 Metternich had become minister for
foreign affairs and the dominant influence in the councils of the
empire, some timely concessions were made to the various
populations. Prussia, under the guidance of her great minister
Stein, reorganised her entire administration. She abolished
serfdom, granted municipal rights to the cities, established
an admirable system of elementary and secondary education,
and invited all classes to compete for civil offices; and ample
means were provided for the approaching struggle by drastic
military reform. Napoleon had extracted an engagement
that the Prussian army should be limited to 43,000 men. This
was fulfilled in the letter, but in spirit set aside, for one body
of men was trained after another until the larger part of the male
population were in a position, when a fitting opportunity should
occur, to take up arms for their country.
The disastrous retreat of the French from Moscow in 181 2
gave Germany the occasion she desired. In 1 813 King Frederick
William, after an agony of hesitation, was forced by
JJfj' the patriotic initiative of General Yorck, who concluded
jm** with the Russians the convention of Tauroggen on
his own responsibility, and by the pressure of public
opinion supported by Queen Louise and by Hardenberg, to enter
into an alliance with Russia. All now depended on the attitude
of Austria ; and this was for some time doubtful. The diplomacy
of Metternich (q.v.), untouched by the patriotic fervour which he
disliked and distrusted, was directed solely to gaining time to
enable Austria to intervene with decisive effect and win for
the Habsburg monarchy the position it had lost. When the
time came, after the famous interview with Napoleon at Dresden,
and the breakdown of the abortive congress of Prague, Austria
threw in her lot with the allies. The campaign that followed,
after some initial reverses, culminated in the crushing victory of
the allies at Leipzig (October 16-18, 181 3), and was succeeded by
the joint invasion of France, during which the German troops
wreaked vengeance on the unhappy population for the wrongs
and violences of the French rule in Germany.
Long before the issue of the War of Liberation bad been finally
decided, diplomacy had been at work in an endeavour to settle
the future constitution of Germany. In this matter, as in others,
the weakness of the Prussian government played into the hands
of Austria. Metternich had been allowed to take the initiative
in negotiating with the princes of the Confederation of the Rhine,
and the price of their adhesion to the cause of the allies had been
the guarantee by Austria of their independent sovereignty. The
guarantee had been willingly given; for Metternich had no
desire to see the creation of a powerful unified German empire,
but aimed at the establishment of a loose confederation of weak
states over which Austria, by reason of her ancient imperial
prestige and her vast non-German power, would exercise a
dominant influence. This, then, was the view that prevailed,
and by the treaty of Chaumont (March x, r8i4) it was decided
that Germany should consist of a confederation of sovereign
states.
The new constitution of Germany, as embodied in the Final
Act of the congress of Vienna (June 9, 1815) was based on this
Th0 principle. It was ttye work of a special committee of
Omrtmam the congress, presided over by Metternich; and,
«m*4n»» owing to the panic created by Napoleon's return from
***** Elba (March 5), it remained a mere sketch, the hasty
output *of a few hurried sessions, of which .the elaboration was
reserved for the future. In spite of the clamour of the mediatiaed
princes for the restoration of their " liberties," no attempt was
made to reverse the essential changes in the territorial disposition
of Germany made during the revolutionary epoch. Of the
300 odd territorial sovereignties under the Holy Empire only
39 survived, and these were readjusted on the traditional prin-
ciples of "compensations," "rectification of frontiers" and
"-balance of power." The most fateful arrangements were
naturally those that affected the two leading powers, Austria
and Prussia. The latter had made strenuous efforts, supported
by Alexander I. of Russia, to obtain the annexation of the whole
of Saxony, a project which was defeated by the opposition of
Great Britain, Austria and France, an opposition which resulted
in the secret treaty of the 3rd of January 181 5 for eventual
armed intervention. She received, however, the northern part
of Saxony, Swedish Pomerania, Posen and those territories—
formerly part of the kingdom of Westphalia — which constitute
her Rhine provinces While Prussia was thus established on
the Rhine, Austria, by exchanging the Netherlands for Lombardo-
Venetia and abandoning her claims to the former Habsburg
possessions in Swabia, definitively resigned to Prussia the task
of defending the western frontier of Germany, while she
strengthened her power in the south-east by recovering from
Bavaria, Salzburg, Vorarlberg and Tirol Bavaria, in her turn,
received back the greater part of the Palatinate on the left bank
of the Rhine, with a strip of territory to connect it with the main
body of her dominions. For the rest the sovereigns of Wurttem-
berg and Saxony retained the title of king bestowed upon them
by Napoleon, and this title was also given to the elector of
Hanover; the dukes of Weimar, Mecklenburg and Oldenburg
became grand dukes; and Lubeck, Bremen,- Hamburg and
Frankfort were declared free cities.
As the central organ of this confederation (Bund) was estab-
lished the federal diet (Bundestag) , consisting of delegates of
the several states. By the terras of the Final Act
this diet had very wide powers for the development VjLut
of the mutual relations of the governments in all 4hL
matters of common interest. It was empowered to
arrange the fundamental laws of the confederation; to fix the
organic institutions relating to its external, internal and military
arrangements; to regulate the trade relations between the
various federated states. Moreover, by the famous Article
13, which enacted that there were to be " assemblies of
estates " in all the countries of the Bund, the constitutional
liberties of the German people seemed to be placed under its
aegis. But the constitution of the diet from the first condemned
its debates to sterility. In the so-called narrower assembly
(Engere Versammlung), for the transaction of ordinary business,
Austria, Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, Hanover, WUrttemberg,
Baden, Hesse-Cassel, Hesse-Darmstadt, Hoist ein and Luxemburg
had one vote each; while the remaining twenty -eight states
were divided into six curiae, of which each had but a single
vote. In this assembly a vote of the majority decided. Questions
of more than usual importance were, however, to be settled in
the general assembly (Plenum) where a two-thirds majority
was necessary to carry a resolution. In this assembly the voting
power was somewhat differently distributed; but the attempt
to make it bear some proportion to the importance of the various
states worked out so badly that Austria had only four times
the voting power of the tiny principality of Liechtenstein.
Finally it was laid down by Article 7 that a unanimous vote
was necessary for changing " fundamental laws, organic institu-
tions, individual rights, or in matters of religion," a formula
wide enough to embrace every question of importance with
which the diet might be called upon to deal. Austria, in virtue
of her tradition, received the perpetual presidency of the diet.
It was clear that in such a governing body neither Austria nor
Prussia would be content with her constitutional position, and
that the internal politics of Germany would resolve themselves
into a diplomatic duel for ascendancy between the two powers,
for which the diet would merely serve as a convenient arena.
In this duel the victory of Austria was soon declared. The
Prussian government believed that the effective government
864
of Germany could only be secured by a separate understanding
between the two great powers; and the indiscretion of the
Prussian plenipotentiary revealed to the diet a plan for what
meant practically the division of Germany into Prussian and
Austrian spheres of influence. This threw the lesser princes,
already alarmed at the growth of Prussian military power, into
the arms of Austria, which thus secured a permanent majority
in the diet. To avoid any possible, modification of a situation
so satisfactory, Count Buol, the Austrian president of Ihe diet,
was instructed to announce that the constitution as fixed by the
Final Act, and guaranteed by Europe, must be regarded as
final; that it might be interpreted, but not altered.
The conception of the diet as a sort of international board of
control, responsible in the last resort not to Germany but to
Europe, exactly suited Metternich 's policy, in which the interests
of Germany* were subordinate to the wider ambitions of the
Habsburg monarchy. It was, moreover, largely justified by
the constituent elements of the diet itself. Of the German
states represented in it even Prussia, by the acquisition of Poscn, .
had become a non-German power; the Habsburg monarchy
was predominantly non-German; Hanover was attached to
the crown of Great Britain, Holstein to that of Denmark, Luxem-
burg to that of the Netherlands. The diet, then, properly
controlled, was capable of being converted into an effective
instrument for furthering the policy of " stability " which
Metternich sought to impose upon Europe. Its one effort to
make its authority effective as the guardian of the constitution,
in the matter of the repudiation of the Westphalian debt and of
the sale of the domains by the elector of Hesse, was crushed
by the indignant intervention of Austria. Henceforth its sdle
effective function was to endorse and promulgate the decrees
of the government of Vienna.
In this respect the diet fairly reflected the place of Germany
in Europe. The constitution was the work of the powers,
12, which in all matters arising out of it constituted the
iM^toi final court of appeal. The result was not wholly one-
tfew* sided. Until the congress of Troppau in 1820
9tttaaoa9, " Jacobinism " was still enthroned in high places
in the person of Alexander I. of Russia, whose " divine mission,"
for the time, included a not wholly disinterested advocacy of the
due carrying out of Article 13 of the Final Act. It was not
to Russia's interest to sec Austrian influence supreme in the
confederation. The lesser German princes, too, were quick to
grasp at any means to strengthen their position against the
dominant powers, and to this end they appealed to the Liberal
sentiment of their peoples. Not that this sentiment was very
deep or widespread. The mass of the people, as Metternich
rightly observed, wished for rest, not constitutions; but the
minority of -thoughtful men— professors, students, officials,
Tnany soldiers — resented the dashing of the hopes of German
unity aroused by the War of Liberation, and had drunk deep
of the revolutionary inspiration. This sentiment, since it could
not be turned to the uses of a united Germany, might be made
to serve the purposes of particularism. Prussia, in spite of the
promises of Frederick William in the hour of need, remained
without a central constitution; all the more reason why the
states of second rank should provide themselves with one.
Charles Augustus, the enlightened grand duke of Weimar, set
the example, from the best of motives. Bavaria, paden,
Wurttemberg and others followed, from motives less dis^
interested. Much depended on the success of these experiments.
To Metternich they were wholly unwelcome. In spite of the
ring-fence of censors, and custom-bouse officers, there was danger
Better- of the Liberal infection spreading to Austria, with
Mkh mb4 disintegrating results; and the pose of the tsar as
<*•«•" protector of German liberties was a perpetual menace.
autmUoMM. j^ e zea ^ gn( j inexperience f German Liberals played
into his hands. Hie patriotism and Pan-Germanism of the
gymnastic societies (Turnvereine) and students' associations
(Bursckenschaften) expressed themselves with more noise than
discretion; in the South-German parliaments the platitudes and
catchwords of the Revolution were echoed. Soon, in Baden, in
GERMANY [history
Wurttemberg, in Bavaria, the sovereigns and the chambers
were at odds, united only in a common opposition to the central
authority. To sovereigns whose nerves had been shattered by
the vicissitudes of the revolutionary epoch these symptoms
were in the highest degree alarming; and Metternich was at
pains to exaggerate their significance. The" Wartburg y^
festival " of October 1818, which issued in nothing;
worse than the solemn burning, in imitation of Dr
Martin Luther, of Kamptz's police law, a corporal's
cane and an uhlan's stays, was magnified into a rebellion; drew
down upon the grand duke of Weimar a collective protest of the
powers; and set in motion the whole machinery of reaction.
The murder of the dramatist Kotzebue, as an agent of this
reaction, in the following year, by a fanatical student named
Karl Sand, clinched the matter; it became obvious to the govern-
ments that a policy of rigorous repression was necessary if a
fresh revolution were to be avoided. In October, after a pre-
liminary meeting between Metternich and Hardenberg, in the
course of which the latter signed a convention pledging Prussia
to Austria's system, a meeting of German ministers was held at
Carlsbad, the discussion of which issued in the famous Carlsbad
Decrees (October 17, 1819). These contained elaborate provisions
for supervising the universities and muzzling the press, laying
down that no constitution " inconsistent with the monarchical
principle " should be granted, and setting op a central com-
mission at Mainz to inquire into the machinations of the great
revolutionary secret society which existed only in the imagina-
tion of the authorities. The Carlsbad Decrees, hurried through
the diet under Austrian pressure, excited considerable opposition
among the lesser sovereigns, who resented the claim of the diet
to interfere in the internal concerns of their states, and whose
protests at Frankfort had been expunged from the records.
The king of Wurttemberg, ever the champion of German
" particularism," gave expression to his feelings by issuing a
new constitution to his kingdom, and appealed to his relative,
the emperor Alexander, who hid not yet been won over by
Metternich to the policy of war d entrance against reform, and
took this occasion to issue a fresh manifesto of his Liberal creed
At the conference of ministers which met at Vienna, on the 20th
of November, for the purpose of " developing and completing
the Federal Act of the congress of Vienna," Metternich found
himself face to face with a more formidable opposition than at
Carlsbad. The "middle" states, headed by Wurttemberg,
had drawn together, to form the nucleus of an inner league of
"pure German States" against Austria and Prussia, and of
" Liberal particularism" against the encroachments of the diet
With Russia and, to a certain extent, Great Britain sympathetic,
it was impossible to ignore their opposition. Moreover, Prussia
was hardly prepared to endorse a policy of greatly strengthening
the authority of the diet, which might have been fatal to the
Customs Union of which she was laying the foundation. Metter-
nich realized the situation, and yielded so gracefully that he gave
his temporary defeat the air of a victory. The result was that
the Vienna Final Act (May 15, 1820), whkh received the sanction
of the diet on the 8th of June, was not unsatisfactory to the
lesser states while doing nothing to lessen Austrian prestige.
This instrument merely defined more clearly the principles of
the Federal Act of 181 5. So far from enlarging the powers of
the diet, it reaffirmed the doctrine of non-intervention; and,
above all, it renewed the clause forbidding any fundamental
modification of the constitution without a unanimous vote.
On the vexed question of the interpretation of Article 13
Metternich recognized the inexpediency of requiring the South
German states to revise their constitutions in a reactionary sense.
By Articles 56 and 57, however, it was laid down that constitu-
tions could only be altered by constitutional means; that the
complete authority of the state must remain united in its head;
and that the sovereign could be bound to co-operate with the
estates only in the exercise of particular rights. These provisions,
in fact, secured for Metternich all that was necessary for the
success of his policy: the maintenance of the status ft*. So
long as the repressive machinery instituted by the Carlsbad
HISTORY)
GERMANY
865
Decrees worked smoothly, Germany was not likely to be troubled
by revolutions.
The period that followed was one, outwardly at least, of
political stagnation. The Mainz Commission, though hampered
by the jealousy of the governments (the king of Prussia refused
to allow his subjects to be haled before it), was none the less
effective enough in preventing all free expression of opinion;
while at the universities the official " curators " kept Liberal
enthusiasts in order. The exuberance of the epoch of Liberation
gave place to a dull lethargy in things political, relieved only by
the Philhellenism which gave voice to the aspirations of Germany
under the disguise of enthusiasm for Greece. Even the July
revolution of 1830 in Paris reacted but partially and spasmodic-
ally on Germany. In Hanover, Brunswick, Saxony and
jJjJJ^JJ Hesse-Cassel popular movements led to the granting
jgjgi of constitutions, and in the states already constitu-
tional Liberal concessions were made or promised.
But the governments of Prussia and Austria were unaffected;
and when the storm had died downMeltemich was able, with the
aid of the federal diet, to resume his task of holding " the Revolu-
tion " in check. No attempt was, indeed, made to restore the
deposed duke of Brunswick, who by universal consent had
richly deserved his fate; but the elector of Hesse could reckon
on the sympathy of the diet in his struggle with the chambers
(see Hesse-Cassel), and when, in 1837, King Ernest Augustus
of Hanover inaugurated his reign by restoring the old illiberal
constitution abolished in 1831, the diet refused to interfere.
It was left to the seven professors of Gdtlingen to protest;
who, deprived of their posts, became as famous in the con-
stitutional history of Germany as the seven bishops in that of
England.
Yet this period was by no means sterile in developments
destined to produce momentous results. In Prussia especially
the government continued active in organizing and
f£sst*M consolidating the heterogeneous elements introduced
tywktm. into the monarchy .by the settlement of 181 5. The
task was no easy one. There was no sense of national
unity between the Catholics of the Rhine provinces, long sub-
mitted to the influence of liberal France, and the Lutheran
squires of the mark of Brandenburg, the most stereotyped class
in Europe; there was little in common between either and the
Polish population of the province of Posen. The Prussian
monarchy, the traditional champion of Protestant orthodoxy,
found the new Catholic elements difficult to assimilate; and
premonitory symptoms were not wanting of a revival of the
secular contest between the spiritual and temporal powers which
was to culminate after the promulgation of the dogma of papal
infallibility (1870) in the Kulturkampf. These conditions formed
the excuse for the continual postponement of the promised
constitution. But the narrow piety of Frederick William III.
was less calculated to promote the success of a benevolent
despotism than the contemptuous scepticism of Frederick the
Great, and a central parliament would have proved a safely
valve for jarring passions which the mistaken efforts of the king
to suppress, by means of royal decrees and military coercion,
only served to embitter. Yet the conscientious tradition of
Prussian officialism accomplished much in the way of administra-
tive reform.
Above all it evolved the Customs-Union (Zolherein), which
gradually attached the smaller states, by material interests if
Yfi not by sympathy, to the Prussian system. A reform
nmttltm of the tariff conditions in the new Prussian monarchy
£■* had been from the first a matter of urgent necessity,
*—*+ and this was undertaken under the auspices of Baron
Heinrich von Billow (1792-1846), minister in the foreign depart-
ment for commerce and shipping, and Karl Gcorg Maassen
(1769-1834), the minister of finance. When they took office
there were in Prussia sixty different tariffs, with a total of nearly
j8oo classes of taxable goods: in some parts importation was
free, or all but free; in others there was absolute prohibition,
or duties so heavy as to amount to practical prohibition. More-
over, the long and broken line of the Prussian frontier, together
with the numerous enclaves,' made the effective enforcement
of a high tariff impossible. In these circumstances it was decided
to introduce a system of comparative free trade; raw materials
were admitted free; a uniform import of 10% was levied on
manufactured goods, and 20% on " colonial wares," the tax
being determined not by the estimated value, but by the weight
of the articles. It was soon realized, however, that to make
this system complete the neighbouring states must be drawn
into it; and a beginning was made with those which were
enclaves in Prussian territory, of which there were no less than
thirteen. Under the new tariff laws light transit dues were
imposed on goods passing through Prussia; and it was easy
to bring pressure to bear on states completely surrounded by
Prussian territory by increasing these dues or, if need were,
by forbidding the transit altogether. The small states, though
jealous of their sovereign independence, found it impossible to
hold out. Schwarzburg-Sondershausen was the first to succumb
(1819); Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt (1822), Saxe- Weimar and
Anhalt-Bernburg (1823), Lippe-Dctmold and Mecklenburg-
Schwerin (1826) followed suit so far as their "cnclaved"
territories were concerned; and in 1826 Anbalt-Dessau and
Anhalt-Cothen, after several years' resistance, joined the
Prussian Customs-Union. In 1828 Hesse-Cassel entered into
a commercial treaty with Prussia. Meanwhile, alarmed at this
tendency, and hopeless of obtaining any general system from
the federal diet, the " middle " states had drawn together; by
a treaty signed on the 18th of January 1828 Wiirttemberg and
Bavaria formed a tariff union, which was joined in the following
year by the Hohenzollcrn principalities; and on the 24th of
September 1828 was formed the so-called " Middle German
Commercial Union " (Handclsvcrein) between Hanover, Hesse-
Cassel, the Saxon duchies, Brunswick, Nassau, the principalities
of Reuss and Schwarzburg, and the free cities of Frankfort and
Bremen, the object of which was to prevent the extension of
the Prussian system and, above all, any union of the northern
Zollverein with that of Bavaria and Wiirttemberg. It was
soon, however, found that these separate systems were unwork-
able; on the 27th of May 1829 Prussia signed a commercial
treaty with the southern union; the Handclsvcrein was broken
up, and one by one the lesser states joined the Prussian Customs-
Union. Finally, on l he 22nd of March 1833, the northern and
southern unions were amalgamated; Saxony and the Thuringian
states attached themselves to this union in the same year;
and on the 1st of January 1834 the German Customs- and
Commercial-Union {Dculschcr Zoll- und Handclsvcrein) came
into existence, which included for tariff purposes within a single
frontier the greater part of Germany. Outside this, though not
in hostility to it, Hanover, Brunswick, Oldenburg and Schaum-
burg-Lippc formed a separate customs-union (Stcuerverein) by
treaties signed on the 1st of May 1834 and the 7th of May 1836,
and to this certain Prussian and Hessian enclaves were attached.
Subsequently other states, e.g. Baden and Nassau (1836), Frank-
fort and Luxemburg (1842), joined the Prussian Zollverein, to
which certain of the members of the Stcuerverein also transferred
themselves (Brunswick and Lippe, 1842). Finally, as a counter-
move to the Austrian efforts to break up the Zollverein, the latter
came to terms with the Stcuerverein, which, on the 1st of January
1854, was absorbed in the Prussian system. Hamburg was to
remain outside until 1883; but practically the whole of what
now is Germany was thus included in a union in which Prussia
had a predominating influence, and to which, when too' late,
Austria in vain sought admission. 1
Even in the earlier stages of its development the Zollverein
had a marked effect on the condition of the country. Its
growth coincided with the introduction of railways, and enabled
the nation to derive from them the full benefit; so that, in spite
of the confusion of political powers, material prosperity increased,
together with the consciousness of national unity and a tendency
to look to Berlin rather than to Vienna as the centre of this
unity.
1 The best account, in English, of the development of the Zoll-
verein is in Percy Ashley's Modem Tariff History (London, 1904).
866
GERMANY
{HISTORY
This tendency was increased by the accession to the throne
of Prussia, in 1840, of Frederick William IV., a prince whose
conspicuous talents and supposed " advanced " views
****"** raised the hopes of the German Liberals in the same
WflSra degree as they excited the alarm and contempt of
Mettcrnich. In the end, however, the fears were more
justified than the hopes. The reign began well, it is true,
notably in the reversal of the narrow ecclesiastical policy of
Frederick William III. But the new king was a child of the
romantic movement, with no real understanding of, and still
less sympathy with, the modern Liberal point of view. He
cherished the idea of German unity, but could conceive of it
only in the form of the restored Holy Empire under the house
of Habsburg; and so little did he understand the growing
nationalist temper of his people that he seriously negotiated
for a union of the Lutheran and Anglican churches, of which
the sole premature offspring was the Protestant bishopric of
Jerusalem.
Meanwhile the Unionist and Liberal agitation was growing
in strength, partly owing to the very efforts made to restrain
it. The emperor Nicholas I. of Russia, kept informed by his
agents of the tendencies of opinion, thought it right to warn his
kinsman of Prussia of the approach of danger. But Frederick
William, though the tsar's influence over him was as great as
over his father, refused to be convinced. He even thought the
time opportune for finishing " the building begun by Papa "
by summoning the central assembly of the diets, and wrote to
the tsar to this effect (December 31, 1845); and he persevered
in this intention in spite of the tsar's paternal remonstrances.
On the 13th of February 1847 was issued a patent summoning
the united diet of Prussia. But, as Metternich had prophesied,
this only provided an organ for giving voice to larger constitu-
tional aspirations. The result was a constitutional dead-lock;
for the diet refused to sanction loans until its " representative "
character was recognized; and the king refused to allow " to
come between Almighty God in heaven and this land a blotted
parchment, to rule us with paragraphs, and to replace the
ancient, sacred bond of loyalty." On the 26th of June the diet
was dissolved, nothing having been done but to reveal the
widening gulf between the principle of monarchy and the growing
forces of German Liberalism.
The strength of these forces was revealed when the February
revolution of 1848 in Paris gave the signal for the outbreak of
popular movements throughout Europe. The effect of the
revolution in Vienna, involving the fall of Mettcrnich (May 13)
and followed by the nationalist movements in Hungary and
Bohemia, was stupendous in Germany. Accustomed to look to
Austria for guidance and material support, the princes every-
where found themselves helpless in face of the popular clamour.
The only power which might have stemmed the tide was Prussia.
But Frederick William's emotional and kindly temperament
little fitted him to use " the mailed fist "; though the riot
which broke out in Berlin on the 15th of March was suppressed
by the troops with but little bloodshed, the king shrank with
horror from the thought of fighting his " beloved Berliners,"
and when on the night of the 18th the fighting was renewed,
he entered into negotiation with the insurgents, negotiations
that resulted in the withdrawal of the troops from Berlin. The
next day, Frederick William, with characteristic histrionic
versatility, was heading a procession round the streets of Berlin,
wrapped in the German tricolour, and extolling in a letter to the
indignant tsar the consummation of " the glorious German
revolution."
The collapse of the Prussian autocracy involved that of the
lesser German potentates. On the 30th of March the federal
^^ diet hoisted the German tricolour and authorized
JJJJJJj. the assembling of the German national parliament at
hMm Frankfort. Arrangements for this had already been
made without official sanction. A number of deputies,
belonging to different legislative assemblies, taking it upon them-
selves to give voice to the national demands, had met at Hcidel-
bcrg, and,*, committee appointed by them had invited all
Germans who then were, or who bad formerly been, members
of diets, as well as some other public men, to meet at Frankfort
for the purpose of considering the question of national reform.
About 500 representatives accepted the invitation. Tbey con-
stituted themselves a preliminary parliament {Vorforlamtni),
and at once began to provide for the election of a national
assembly. It was decided that there should be a representative
for every group of 50,000 inhabitants, and that the dectioa
should be by universal suffrage. A considerable party wished
that the preliminary parliament should continue to act until
the assembly should be formed, but this was overruled, the
majority contenting themselves with the appointment of a
committee of 50, whose duty it should be in the interval to guard
the national interests. Some of those who were discontented
with this decision retired from the preliminary parliament, and
a few of them, of republican sympathies, called the population
of Upper Baden to arms. The rising was put down by the
troops of Baden, but it did considerable injury by awakening
the fears of the more moderate portion of the community.
Great hindrances were put in the way of the elections, but, as
the Prussian and Austrian governments were too much occupied
with their immediate difficulties to resist to the uttermost, the
parliament was at last chosen, and met at Frankfort on the
1 8th May. The old diet, without being formally dissolved,
(an omission that was to have notable consequences) broke up,
and the national representatives had before them a clear field.
Their task would in any case have been one of extreme difficulty.
The new-born sentiment of national unity disguised
a variety of conflicting ideals, as well as deep-seated JjjJ^ '
traditional local antagonisms; the problem of con- m—L
structing a new Germany out of states, several of
which, and those the most powerful, were largely composed of
non-German elements, was sure to lead to international com-
plications; moreover, the military power of the monarchies had
only been temporarily paralysed, not destroyed. Yet, had the
parliament acted with promptitude and discretion it might have
been successful. Neither Austria nor Prussia was for some
time in a position to thwart it, and the sovereigns of the smaller
states were too much afraid of the revolutionary elements
manifested on all sides to oppose its will. But the Germans
had had no experience of free political life. Nearly every deputy
had his own theory of the course which ought to be pursued,
and felt sure that the country would go to ruin if it were not
adopted. Learned professors and talkative journalists insisted
on delivering interminable speeches and on examining in the
light of ultimate philosophical principles every proposal laid
before the assembly. Thus precious time was lost, violent
antagonisms were called forth, the patience of the nation was
exhausted, and the reactionary forces were able to gather
strength for once more asserting themselves. The very first
important question brought out the weaknesses of the deputies.
This related to the nature of the central provisional executive.
A committee appointed to discuss the matter suggested that
there should be a directory of three members, appointed by the
German governments, subject to the approval of the parliament,
and ruling by means of ministers responsible to the latter
body. This elaborate scheme found favour with a largcnumber
of members, but others insisted that there should be a president
or a centra] committee, appointed by the parliament, while
another party pleaded that the parliament itself should exercise
executive as well as legislative functions. At last, after a vast
amount of tedious and useless discussion, it was agreed that the
parliament should appoint an imperial vicar (Rricksvervtur)
who should carry on the government by means of a ministry
selected by himself; and on the motion of Heinrich von Gagern
the archduke John of Austria was chosen by a large majority
for the office. With as little delay as possible be formed an
imperial cabinet, and there were hopes that, as his appointment
was generally approved both by the sovereigns and the people,
more rapid progress would be made with the great and compli-
cated work in hand. Unfortunately, however, it was necessary
to enter upon the discussion of the fundamental laws, a subject
Scbki
history) GERMANY
presenting many opportunities for the display of rhetoric and
intellectual subtlety. It was soon obvious that beneath all
varieties of individual opinion there were two bitterly hostile
tendencies—republican and constitutionalist. These two parties
attacked each other with constantly growing animosity, and in
a few weeks sensible men outside the parliament gave up all hope
of their dealing satisfactorily with the problem they had been
appointed to solve.
In the midst of these disputes the attention of the nation
was occupied by a question which had arisen before the out-
break of the revolutionary movements— the so-
called " Schleswig-Holstein question " (g.v.). In 1846
Christian VIII. of Denmark had officially proclaimed
that Schleswig and the greater part of Holstein were
indissolubly connected with the Danish monarchy. This excited
vehement opposition among the Germans, on the ground that
Holstein, although subject to the king of Denmark, was a member
of the German confederation, and that in virtue of ancient treaties
it could not be severed from Schleswig. In 1848 the German
party in the duchies, headed by Prince Frederick of August on burg,
rose against the Danish government. Frederick VII., who had
just succeeded Christian VIII., put down the rebellion, but
Prussia, acting in the name of the confederation, despatched
an army against the Danes, and drove them from Schleswig.
The Danes, who were supported by Russia, responded by
blockading the Baltic ports, which Germany, having no navy,
was unable effectually to defend. By the mediation of Great
Britain an armistice was concluded, and the Prussian troops
evacuated the northern districts of Schleswig. As the Danes
soon afterwards took possession of Schleswig again, thcPrussians
once more drove them back, but, in view of the threatening
attitude of the powers, Frederick William summoned up courage
to flout the opinion of the German parliament, and on the 26th
of August, without the central government being consulted, an
armistice of seven months was agreed upon at Malmoe.
The full significance of this event was not at once realized.
To indignant patriots it seemed no more than a piece of perfidy,
Dhpmto* * or which Prussia should be called to account by united
/• **• Germany. The provisional government of the duchies
Fraaktort appealed from Prussia to the German regent; and
wembty. the Frankfort parliament hotly took up its cause. A
large majority voted an order countermanding the withdrawal
of the Prussian troops, in spite of the protest of the ministry,
who saw that it would be impossible to make it effective. The
ministry resigned, but no other could be found to take its place;
and the majority began to realize the situation. The central
government depended ultimately on the armed support of the
two great powers; to quarrel with those would be to ruin the
constitution, or at best to play into the hands of the extreme
revolutionists. On the 14th of September the question of the
convention of Malmoe again came up for discussion, and v/as
angrily debated. The democrats called their adherents to arms
against the traitors who were preparing to sell the Schleswig-
Holsteiners. The Moderates took alarm; they had no stomach
for an open war with the governments; and in the end the
convention was confirmed by a sufficient majority. The result
was civil war in the streets of Frankfort; two deputies were
murdered; and the parliament, which could think of no better
way of meeting the crisis than by continuing " with imposing
calm " to discuss " fundamental rights," was only saved from
the fury of the mob by Prussian troops. Its existence was
saved, but its prestige had vanished; and the destinies of the
German people were seen to be in the hands that held the
sword.
While these events were in progress, it seemed not impossible
that the Austrian empire would fall to pieces. Bohemia and the
Italian states wtrc in revolt, and the Hungarians
^^V^. strove with passionate earnestness for independence.
to Austria. Towards the end of 1848 Vienna was completely in
the hands of the revolutionary party, and it was re-
taken only after desperate fighting. A reactionary ministry,'
headed by Prince Schwarzenbcrg, was then raised to power,
867
and in order that a strong policy might be the more vigorously
pushed forward, the emperor Ferdinand resigned, and was
succeeded by his nephew, Francis Joseph.
The prospects of reform were not much more favourable
in Prussia. The assembly summoned amid the revolutionary
excitement of March met on the 22nd of May. De-
mands for a constitutional system were urged with
great force, and they would probably have been
granted but for the opposition due to the violence of politicians
out of doors. The aristocratic class saw ruin before it if the
smallest concession were made to popular wishes, and it soon
recovered from the terror into which it had been plunged at
the Outbreak of the revolution. Extreme antagonism was excited
by such proposals as that the king should no longer be said to
wear his crown " by the grace of God "; and the animosity
between the liberal and the conservative sections was driven to
the highest pitch by the attack of the democratic majority of
the diet on the army and the attempt to remodel it in the direction
of a national militia. Matters came to a crisis at the end of
October when the diet passed a resolution calling on the king to
intervene in favour of the Viennese revolutionists. When, on
the evening of the 30th, a mob surrounded the palace, clamouring
for the king to give effect to this resolution, Frederick William
lost patience, ordered General Wrangcl to occupy Berlin with
troops, and on the 2nd of November placed Count Brandenburg,
a scion of the royal house and a Prussian of the old school, at
the head of a new ministry. On the pretext that fair deliberation
was impossible in the capital, the assembly was now ordered
to meet in Brandenburg, while troops were concentrated near
Berlin and a state of siege was proclaimed. In vain the assembly
protested and continued its sittings, going even so far as to
forbid the payment of taxes while it was subjected to illegal
treatment. It was forced in the end to submit. But the dis-
cussions in Brandenburg were no more successful than those
in Berlin; and at last, on the 5th of December, the king dissolved
the assembly, granted a constitution about which it had not
been consulted, and gave orders for the election of a representative
chamber.
About the time that the Prussian parliament was thus
created, and that the emperor Ferdinand resigned, the Frankfort
parliament succeeded in formulating the fundamental rtnqut*-
laws, which were duly proclaimed to be those of Ger- Hoaoftht
many as it was now to be constituted. The principal 2J"* Wb *
clauses of the constitution then began to be discussed.
By far the most difficult question was the relation in which
Austria should stand to the Germany of the future. There
was a universal wish that the Austrian Germans should be
included in the German state; on the other hand, it was felt
that if all the various nationalities of Austria formed a united
monarchy, and if this monarchy as a whole were included in
the confederation, it would necessarily overshadow Germany,
and expose her to unnecessary external dangers. It was therefore
resolved that, although a German country might be under the
same ruler as non-German lands, it could not be so joined to
them as to form with them a single nation. Had the parliament
adopted this resolution at once, instead of exhausting itself by
pedantic disquisitions on the abstract principles of jurisprudence,
it might have hoped to triumph; but Austria was not likely
to submit to so severe a blow at the very time when she was
strong enough to appoint a reactionary government, and had
nearly re-established her authority, not only in Vienna, but in
Bohemia and in Italy. Prince Schwarzenberg took the earliest
opportunity to declare that the empire could not assent to any
weakening of its influence. Bitter strife now broke out in the
parliament between the Great German (Gross- Deutsch) and
Little German (Klein-Deutsch) parties. Two of the ministers
resigned, and one of those who took their place, Heinrich von
Gagern (q.v.), proposecf that, since Austria was to be a united
state, she should not enter the confederation, but that her
relations to Germany should be regulated by a special act of
union. This of course meant that Prussia should be at the head
of Germany, tnd tewcccmfcwtei \\«5i \* >&* ^^ ^ ^*
868
GERMANY
fHISTORY
constitutional party. It was resisted by the Austrian members,
who were supported by the ultramontanes and the democrats,
both of whom disliked Prussia, the former because of her
Protestantism, the latter because of her bureaucratic system.
Gagern's proposal was, however, adopted. Immediately after-
wards the question as to the character of the executive was
raised.. Some voted that a directory of princes should be ap-
pointed, others that there should be a president, eligible from
the whole German nation; but the final decision was that the
headship of the state should be offered by the parliament to
some particular German prince, and that he should bear the
title of German emperor.
The whole subject was as eagerly discussed throughout the
country as in Frankfort. Austria firmly opposed the idea of
a united German state, insisting that the Austrian
emperor could not consent to be subordinate to any
other prince. She was supported by Bavaria, but on
the other side were Prussia, Brunswick, Baden, Nassau, Mecklen-
burg and various other countries, besides the Hansealic towns.
For some time Austria offered no counter scheme, but she
ultimately proposed that there should be a directory of seven
princes, the chief place being held alternately by a Prussian
and an Aust rian imperial vicar. Nothing came of this suggestion,
and in due time the parliament proceeded to the second reading
of the constitution. It was revised in a democratic sense, but
the imperial title was maintained, and a narrow majority
decided that it should be hereditary. Frederick William IV.
of Prussia was then chosen emperor.
All Germany awaited with anxiety the reply of Frederick
William. It was thought not improbable that he would accept
the honour offered him, for in the early part of his reign he
had spoken of German unity as enthusiastically as of liberty,
and, besides, the opportunity was surprisingly favourable. The
larger number of the North-German states were at least not
unwilling to submit to the arrangement; and Austria, whose
opposition in ordinary circumstances would have been fatal,
was paralysed by her struggle with Hungary. Frederick
William, however, whose instincts were far from democratic,
refused " to pick up a crown out of the gutter "; and the deputa-
tion which waited upon him was dismissed with the answer
that he could not assume the imperial title without the full
sanction of the princes and the free cities.
This answer was in reality a death-blow to the hopes of German
patriots, but the parliament affected to believe that its cause
Bad of was not y et l° st » an0< appointed a committee to see
Fnakfori that the provisions of the constitution were carried
p-riis- out# a vigorous agitation began in the country for
mtaL the acceptance of the constitution by the governments.
The king of Wtirttemberg was forced to accede to it; and in
Saxony, Baden and Rhenish Bavaria armed multitudes kept the
sovereigns in terror. Prussia, which, following the example
of Austria, had recalled her representatives from Frankfort,
sent her troops to put down these risings, and on the 21st of
May 1S49 the larger number of the deputies to the parliament
voluntarily resigned their scats. A few republican members
held on by it, and transferred the sittings to Stuttgart. Here
they even elected an imperial government, but they had no longer
any real influence, and on the 18th of June they were forcibly
dispersed by order of the Wtirttemberg ministry.
Although Frederick William had refused to become emperor,
he was unwilling to miss altogether the opportunity afforded
?*.
by the difficulties of Austria. He invited the states
to send representatives to Berlin to discuss the condi
Vaioa. tion of Germany; and he concluded a treaty with
the kings of Saxony and Hanover. Two days after-
wards the three allies agreed upon a constitution which was in
many respects identical with that drawn up by the Frankfort
parliament. The functions of the executive were, however,
extended, the electoral law was made less democratic, and it
was decided that, instead of an emperor, there should be merely
m supreme chief aided by a college of princes. This constitution
vms accepted by a jiumbcr 0/ states, which assumed the aunt
of " The Union," and on the 20th of March 1850 a parliament
consisting of two houses met in Erfurt. Both houses accepted
the constitution; and, immediately after they broke up, the
members of the Union assembled in Berlin, and a provisional
college of princes was elected. By that time, however, the
whole situation of Germany had changed. In the autumn of
1849 Austria had succeeded, by the help of Russia, in quelling
the Hungarian insurrection, and she was then in no j^.^
mood to let herself be thrust aside by Prussia. a-J^
Encouraged by her, Hanover and Saxony bad severed
themselves from the Union, and Saxony, Wtirttemberg and
Bavaria arrived at an understanding as to a wholly new constitu-
tion. Afterwards all four states, with several others, accepted
the invitation of Austria to consider the propriety of re-establish-
ing the Confederation. The representatives of the states
favourable to this proposal, i.e, Austria, Luxemburg, Denmark
and the four kingdoms, came together in Frankfort on the 4th
of September 1850, constituted themselves a Plenum of the old
diet and refused to admit the other states except under the
terms of the act of 181 5.
Thus the issue to which the events of about a century had
been pointing was apparently raised; Germany was divided
into two hostile parties, one set of states grouping o**tw±
themselves around Austria, another around Prussia. mm»ir
A difficulty which arose in Hesse-Cassel almost J***!
compelled the powers to bring their differences to the CaMmL
test of war. In this small state the liberal movement of 1848
had been followed by reaction, and the elector ventured to replace
Hassenpflug, the unpopular minister who had been driven from
power. Hassenpflug, being detested by the chamber, dissolved
it in June 1850; but the new one was not less hostile, and
refused to sanction the collection of the taxes until it had con-
sidered the budget. For this offence it also was dissolved, and
orders were issued for the raising of the taxes without its consent.
Many officials refused to obey; the judges remained loyal to the
constitution; and when attempts were made to solve the difficulty
by the army, the officers instructed to act resigned in a body.
Meanwhile, Hassenpflug had appealed to the representatives
in Frankfort who claimed to be the restored diet, and under the
influence of Austria they resolved to support him. Prussia, on
the other hand, announced its determination to carry out the
principles of the Union and to maintain the Hessian constitution.
Austrian and Bavarian troops having entered Hesse, a Prussian
army immediately occupied Cassel, and war appeared to be
imminent. Prussia, however, was wholly unprepared for war;
and, when this was realized, Radowitz, the foreign minister,
who had so far pursued a vigorous policy, retired, and was
replaced by Manleuffel, who, although the whole Prussian army
was mobilized, began by making concessions. The Union was
dissolved; and after Austria had despatched an ultimatum
formulating her demands, Baron Manteuffel met Prince
Schwarzenberg at Olmtitz, and, by a convention signed on the
29th of November 1850, virtually yielded everything he insisted
upon. The difficulty in Hesse was to be left to the decision of
the German governments; and as soon as possible ministerial
conferences were to be held in Dresden, with a view' to the
settlement of the German constitution.
The Austrian government strove to secure the appointment
of a stronger executive than had hitherto existed; but its
proposals met with steady opposition from Prussia.
Every Prussian scheme was in like manner resisted
by Austria. Thus, from the sheer inability of the
assembled ministers to devise a plan on which all could agree,
Prussia and the states that had joined her in the Union were
compelled to recognize the Frankfort diet. From the 12th of
June 1851 its sittings went on as if nothing had occurred since
it was dispersed.
This wretched fiasco was hardly less satisfactory' to the
majority of Germans than the manner in which the national
claims in Schleswig-Holstcin were maintained. The armistice
of Malmoc having expired in March 1849, the war with Denmark
t was, tt&ttHftA. fw qw&vdttsJble army was despatched against
3RY|
GERMANY
869
•ones by the Frankfort government, but on the 10th of
in armistice was signed at Berlin for six months, and
r afterwards Prussia concluded peace. The inhabitants
duchies, however, continued the war. During the inter-
it Olmutz between Manteuffcl and Schwarzenbcrg it was
[ that, like the affairs of Hesse-Cassel, those of Schleswig-
:ra should be submitted to the decision of all German states,
bat, in the meantime, Prussia and Austria should act
ter. By the intervention of Austrian troops peace was
id; and when, early in 1852, the government of Denmark,
•viding a constitution for, the whole monarchy, promised
joint separate ministers for Schlcswig and Holstem, and
equal justice to the German and the Danish populations,
ro powers declared themselves satisfied and the Austrian
were withdrawn. The diet also, after some delay, pro-
to be content with this arrangement. While it was
ling the subject, a conference of the European powers
1 London, and by the protocol of May 28, 1852, settled
Frederick VII. of Denmark should be succeeded by
ian, duke of Glucksburg, and that the duchies should
iissolubly united to the Danish monarchy. Austria
Prussia accepted the protocol, but it was not signed by
iet.
ill these later events the first place had been taken by
a. The temporary dissolution of the ZoUvercin in 1851
gave her an opportunity of trying to extend her in-
, fluence, she demanded that a union should be formed
of which she should belhe leading member. A congress
of all German states, with the exception of Prussia
\c or two states which sympathized with her, was held in
&; and it was followed by several other congresses favour-
Austrian pretensions. Prussia, however, being hereon
ground, refused to give way; and not only was the
as union restored in accordance with her wishes, but
a concluded with her in 1853 a treaty of commerce which
lied some important concessions.
many had now fairly entered a period which, although
not last very long, was, in some respects, as humiliating
as any in her history. The popular movement, from
fc which great things had been hoped, had on some
occasions almost touched its goal; and, as might have
ftpected, a reaction set in, which the princes knew how to
the fullest advantage. The Austrian government, after
injection of Hungary, withdrew every concession it had
under pressure, and established a thorough despotism,
Bng upon the rights of the individual nationalities, and
{ all its subjects into a common political mould. In
1 the parliament, summoned by the king on the 5th of
iber 1848, met early in the following year. Although
mocrats had declined to vote, it was not conservative
1 for the court, and not till the 31st of January 1850 was
derstanding arrived at respecting the constitution. The
l thus established was repeatedly revised, and always
he same object — to reduce to a minimum the power of the
a! representatives, and to exalt and extend that of the
tnent. At the same time the ministry persecuted the
and allowed hardly a whisper of discontent to pass un-
ed. The smaller states followed with alacrity in the
if the two leading powers. The Liberal ministries of 1848
Ibmisscd, the constitutions were changed or abolished, and
Munbers were elected under a severely restricted suffrage.
nc battle been fairly fought out between the govern-
and the people, the latter would still have triumphed;
le former had now, in the Frankfort diet, a mightier
nent than ever against freedom. What it could do was
x> clearly from the case of Hesse-Cassel. After the settle -
of Olmutz, federal troops occupied that country, and
I execution was carried out with shameful harshness,
tl law was everywhere proclaimed; officers, and all classes
jab who had incurred the displeasure of the government,
ubjected to arbitrary penalties; and such was the misery
people that multitudes of them were compelled to emigrate.
The constitution having been destroyed by the Bund, the
elector proclaimed one of his own making; but even the chamber
elected under the provisions of this despotic scheme could not
tolerate his hateful tyranny, and there were incessant disputes
between it and the government. The Bund interfered in a like
spirit in Hanover, although with less disastrous results, after
the accession of George V. in 1851. For the whole of .Germany
this was emphatically the period of petty despotism, and not
only from Hesse, but from all parts of the country there was a
vast stream of emigration, mainly to the New World.
The outbreak of the Crimean War profoundly moved the
German nation. The sympathies of Austria were necessarily
with the Western powers, and in Prussia the majority
of the people took the same side; but the Prussian wsn*"
government, which was at this time completely under
the control of Russia, gave its moral support to the tsar. It
did, indeed, assent to a treaty — afterwards signed on behalf
of the confederation — by which Prussia and Austria guaranteed
each other, but it resolutely opposed the mobilization of the
confederate army. The Prussian people were keenly irritated
by the cordial relations between their court and the most despotic
power in Europe. They felt that they were thus most unjustly
separated from the main stream of Western progress.
During the Crimean War the political reaction continued with
unabated force. In Prussia the government appeared resolved
to make up for its temporary submission to the popular will
by the utmost violence on which it could venture. A general
election took place in the autumn of 185$, and so harshly was
the expression of opinion restrained that a chamber was returned
with scarcely a single liberal element of serious importance.
The feudalists called for a still further revision of the constitution,
and urged 'that even the reforms effected by Stein should be
undone. In Bavaria a chamber elected about the same time
as that of Prussia was rather less docile; but the government
shared to the full the absolutist tendencies of the day, and
energetically combated the party which stood up for law and
the constitution. The Hanoverian government, backed by the
Frankfort diet, was still more successful in its warfare with the
moderate reformers whom it was pleased to treat as revolutionists;
and in Austria the feudalists so completely gained the upper hand
that on the z8th of August 1855 the government signed a con-
cordat, by which the state virtually submitted itself to the control
of the church.
The German people seemed to have lost both the power and
the will to assert their rights; but in reality they were deeply
dissatisfied. And it was clear to impartial observers ftl>gt<a
that, in the event of any great strain upon the power amd
of the governments, the absolutist system would s*itmf
break down. The first symptom that the reaction .*■■*
had attained its utmost development displayed itself in Prussia,
whose attention was for a time distracted from home politics
by a quarrel with Switzerland. The Swiss authorities had
imprisoned some foolish royalists of Neuchatel, in which the
house of HohenzoUcrn had never resigned its rights. War
was threatened by Prussia, but when the prisoners were set free,
the two states entered upon negotiations, and in the summer
of 1857 King Frederick William withdrew all claims to the
principality.
Soon after this, the mental condition of the king made it
necessary that his duties should be undertaken by a substitute,
and his brother William, the prince of Prussia, took his
place for three months. In October 1858 the prince *MJjSJ
became regent. The accession to power of the new ^iprmukl
regent was universally recognized as involving a change
of system. The temper of William, in contradistinction to that
of his brother, was pre-eminently practical; and he had the
reputation of a brave, piously orthodox Prussian soldier. The
nickname "cartridge-prince" (KarUUschcti print) bestowed upon
him during the troubles of '48 was undeserved; but he was notori-
ously opposed to Liberalism and, had he followed his own instincts,
he would have modified the constitution in a reactionary sense.
Fortunately, however, he was singularly open to conviction^
870
GERMANY
(HISTORY
and Otto von Bismarck, though not yet in office, was already
in his confidence. Bismarck realized that, in the struggle with
Austria which he foresaw, Prussia could only be weakened
were she to take up an attitude of opposition to the prevailing
Liberal sentiment, and that to tamper with the constitution
would not only be inexpedient, but useless, since special measures
could always be resorted to, to meet special circumstances. The
interests of Prussia, he urged, had been too often sacrificed to
abstract ideas. William listened and was convinced. He not
only left the constitution intact, but he dismissed Manteufiel's
" feudal " ministry and replaced it with moderate Liberals.
The change was more revolutionary in appearance than in
reality. Manteuffel and his policy were associated in the regent's
mind with the humiliation of Olmtilz, and the dismissal of the
ministry symbolized the reversal of this policy. William
believed with his whole soul in the unification of Germany, and
in Prussia as its instrument; and, if he doubted, it was only as
to the how and when. Of one thing he was certain — that who-
ever aspired to rule over Germany must be prepared to seize
it (letter to von Natzmer, May 20, 1849). This attitude had
little in common with the Liberal appeal to the voice of the people.
Such a revolutionary foundation might be good enough for the
ephemeral empires of France; the appeal of Prussia should be
to the God of battles alone.
The antagonism between these conflicting principles was
not long in revealing itself. In Germany the relations between
P L UMM r tt Austria and Prussia were becoming unpleasantly
smith* strained in the question of the admission of the Habs-
Aostro- burg monarchy to the Zollvcrcin, in that of the elector
*Jf a *° of Hesse and his parliament, in that of the relation
*"' of the Elbe duchies to the crown of Denmark. But
for the outbreak of the Italian war of 1859 the struggle of 1866
might have been anticipated. The outcome of the war increased
the prestige of Prussia. She had armed, not with the idea
of going to the aid of a German power in difficulties, but in order,
at the right moment, to cast her sword into the scale wherein
her own interests might for the time lie. At the menace of her
armaments, concentrated on the Rhine, Napoleon had stopped
dead in the full career of victory; Austria, in the eyes of German
men, had been placed under an obligation to her rival; and Italy
realized the emergence of a new military power, whose interests in
antagonism to Austria were identical with her own.
So striking an object lesson was not lost on the Prussian regent,
and he entered on a vigorous policy of reforming and strengthen-
ing the army, General von Roon being appointed
rvAirara minister of war for this purpose. To the Liberal
arf«M. ministers, however, and to the Liberal majority in
atMrntiomml the Prussian diet, this was wholly objectionable.
JJj**f" Schemes were under discussion for reforming the con-
stitution of the Confederation and drawing the German
states closer together on a Liberal basis; the moment seemed
singularly inopportune for Prussia, which had not shown herself
particularly zealous for the common interests, to menace the
other German governments by increasing herseparate armaments.
When, therefore, on the 10th of February i860, the bills necessary
for carrying out the reform of the army were introduced into the
diet, they met with so strenuous an opposition that they had to
be withdrawn. Supplies were, however, granted for fourteen
months, and the regent took this as justifying him in proceeding
with his plans. On the 1st of January 1861 the standards of the
new regiments were solemnly blessed; on the next day Frederick
William IV. died, and the new king was face to face with a
constitutional crisis.
Austria, meanwhile, had been making the first tentative
essays in constitutional concession, which culminated, in May
1861, in the establishment at Vienna of a Rcicksrat for the whole
empire, including Hungary. The popularity she thus gained
among German Liberals and Nationalists was helped by the
course of events at Berlin. The Prussian diet of 1862 was no
whit more tractable than its predecessor, but fell to attacking
the professional army and advocating the extension of the militia
(LanJwaAr) system; on the nth of Much the king dissolved
it in disgust, whereupon the Liberal ministry resigned, and was
succeeded by the Conservative cabinet of Prince Hobcnlobe.
Public opinion was now violently excited against the govern-
ment; the new elections resulted (May 6) in the return of a yet
larger Liberal majority; on the 22nd of August the army
estimates were thrown out. Hohenlohe now declared himself
incapable of carrying on the government, and King William
entrusted it to Otto von Bismarck.
In choosing this man of iron will as his instrument during the
actual crisis the king's instinct had not betrayed him. For nine
years Prussian delegate at the diet of Frankfort, m mim
Bismarck was intimately acquainted with all the issues
of the German problem; with his accustomed calculated blunt-
ncss he had more than once openly asserted that this probleni
could only be settled by Austria ceasing to influence the German
courts and transferring " her centre of gravity towards Buda-
pest "; with equal bluntness he told the committee on the
budget, on the 30th of September 1862, that the problem could
not be solved " by parliamentary decrees," but only " by blood
and iron." For the supreme moment of this solution he was
determined that Prussia should be fully prepared; and this
meant that he must defy the majority within the diet and public
opinion without. Some sort of constitutional pretence was given
to the decision of the government to persevere with the military
reforms by the support of the Upper House, and of this Bismarck
availed himself to raise the necessary taxes without the consent
of the popular assembly. He regretted the necessity for flouting
public opinion, which he would have preferred to carry with him ;
in due course he would make his peace with Liberal sentiment,
when success should have justified his defiance of it. His plans
were singularly helped by international developments. The
Polish rising of 1863 came just in time to prevent a threatened
Franco-Russian alliance; the timid and double-faced attitude
of both France and Austria during the revolt left them isolated
in Europe, while Bismarck's ready assistance to Russia assured
at least the benevolent neutrality in the coming struggle with
the Habsburg power.
Meanwhile, among the German people the object lesson of the
Italian war had greatly stimulated the sentiment of national
unity. As to the principle, however, on which this t x u. *
unity was to be based, the antagonism that had been «•<»
fatal in 1849 still existed. The German National a*rmm
Union (Deutscher N ationalvcrein) , organized in the **"*•>
autumn of 1859, favoured the exclusion of Austria and the
establishment of a federation under the hegemony of Prussia;
it represented the views of the so-called "Gothacr," the political
heirs of the rump of the Frankfort parliament which had re-
assembled at Gotjia in June 1840, and supported the Prussian
Union and the Erfurt parliament. To counteract this, a con-
ference of five hundred " Great Germans " assembled at Frank-
fort and, on the 22nd of October 1862, founded the German
Reform Union (Deutscher Rtformvcrcin), which, consisting
mainly of South German elements, supported the policy of
Austria and the smaller states. The constitutional crisis in
Prussia, however, brought both societies into line, and in 1S63
the National Union united with the Reform Union in an attempt
to defeat Prussian policy in the Schles wig- Hoi stein question.
This anti-Prussian feeling Austria now tried to exploit for
her own advantage. On the 2nd of August the emperor Francis
Joseph proposed to King William, during a meeting j^*./^^
at Gastein, to lay before an assembly of the German mttmuf
princes a scheme for the reconstitution of the Bund. •*****•
The king neither accepted nor refused; but, without tortm
waiting for his assent, invitations were sent out to the other
princes, and on the 14th the congress (FUrstcnlag) opened at
Frankfort. Of the German sovereign states but four were
unrepresented— Anhalt-Bcrnburg, Holstein, Lippe and Prussia;
but the absence of Prussia was felt to be fatal; the minor princes
existed by reason of the balance between the two great powers,
and objected as strongly to the exclusion of the one as of the other
from the Confederation; an invitation, to King William was
therefore signed by all present and carried by the king of Saxony
HISTORY)
GERMANY
871
III person to Berlin. Bismarck, however, threatened to resign if
the king accepted; and the congress had to do the best it could
without Prussian co-operation. On the 1st of September it
passed, with some slight modifications, the Austrian proposals for
the reconstruction of the Bund under a supreme Directory, an
assembly of delegates from the various parliaments, a federal
court of appeal and periodical conferences of sovereigns. Every-
thing now depended on the attitude of Prussia, and on the 22nd
her decision was received. " In any reform of the Bund,** it ran,
•• Prussia, equally with Austria, must have the right of vetoing
war; she must be admitted, in the matter of the presidency, to
absolute equality with Austria; and, finally, she will yield no
tittle of her rights save to a parliament representing the whole
German nation."
Prussia thus made a bid for the sympathy of the democracy
at the same time as she declared war against the dynasties;
and her power was revealed by the fact that her veto was
sufficient to wreck a proposal seconded by the all but unanimous
vote of the German sovereigns. The Austrian stroke had failed,
and worse than failed, for Napoleon HI., who had been filled
with alarm at this attempt to create on his flank an " empire
of 70,000,000," saw in Prussia's attitude no more than a deter-
mination to maintain for her own ends the division and weakness
of Germany; and this mistaken diagnosis of the situation
determined his altitude during the crisis that followed.
This crisis was due to the reopening of a fresh acute phase
of the Schlcswig-Holstcin question by the accession of the
y^ " protocol-king " Christian IX. to the throne of Den-
a&ktwir mark (November 15, 1863), and his adhesion to the
/#•&*#/« new constitution, promulgated two days before, which
♦j*** 1 ** embodied the principle of the inalienable union of
^^ the Elbe duchies with the Danish body politic. The
news of this event caused vast excitement in Germany; and
the federal diet was supported by public opinion in its decision
to uphold the claims of Prince Frederick of Augustcnburg to the
Succession of the duchies. An agitation in his favour had already
begun in Holstein and, after the promulgation of the new
Danish constitution, this was extended to Schlcswig. On the
24th of December Saxon and Hanoverian troops occupied
Holstein in the name of the German Confederation, and sup-
ported by their presence and the favour of the population the
prince of Augustcnburg, as Duke Frederick VIII., assumed the
government.
From these proceedings Prussia and Austria held rigorously
aloof. Both had signed the protocol of 1852, and both realized
thai, if the European powers were to be given no excuse to inter-
vene, their attitude must be scrupulously " correct "; and this
involved the recognition of King Christian's rights in the duchies.
On the other hand, the constitution of the 13th of November had
been in flat contradiction to the protocol of London, which
recognized the separate rights of the duchies: and if the two great
German powers chose to make this violation of an agreement to
which they had been parties a casus belli, Europe would have no
right to interfere. Prussia had begun to mobilize in November;
and Austria also soon realized that action must speedily be taken
if the lesser German governments were not to be allowed to get
out of hand. Russia and Great Britain had already protested
against the occupation of Holstein and the support given to
the Augustcnburg claimant; and now Bcust, the Saxon minister,
was proposing that the federal diet, which had been no party to
the protocol, should formally recognize his claim. Bismarck,
then, had no difficult task in persuading Austria that the time
for action had come. A last attempt of the two powers to carry
the diet with thera in recognizing the protocol having failed,
they formally announced that they would act in the matter as
independent European powers. On the 16th of January
1 864 1 he agreement bet ween them was signed, an article,
drafted by Austria, intended to safeguard the settle-
ment of 1852, being replaced at the instance of Prussia
by another, which stated that the contracting powers would
decide only in concert upon the relations of the duchies, and that
in no case would they determine the succession save by mutual
consent. A clause was also inserted provisionally recognizing
the principle of the integrity of Denmark.
Whatever Austria's ulterior views may have been, Bismarck
certainly from the first had but one aim before him. He saw
clearly what the possession of the duchies would mean to
Germany, their vast importance for the future of German
sea-power; already he had a vision of the great war-harbour
of Kiel and the canal connecting the Baltic and the North seas;
and he was determined that these should be, if not wholly
Prussian, at least wholly under Prussian control. Annexation
was the goal which from the beginning he kept steadily before
his eyes (Reminiscences, ii. 10). As for treaties to the contrary,
he was to avow in his Reminiscences that these have little force
when no longer reinforced by the interests of the contracting
parties. His main fear was that the Danes might refuse to fight
and appeal instead to a European congress; and, to prevent
this, he led the Copenhagen government to believe that Great
Britain had threatened to intervene in the event of Prussia
going to war, " though, as a matter of fact, England did nothing
of the kind. " This sufficed to provoke the defiance of the Danes,
and on the 1st of February 1864 the Austrian and
Prussian troops crossed the Eider. The issue of a w"rot
war between powers so ill-matched was a foregone 1864.
conclusion; the famous rampart of the Dannewerk
(9.0.), on which the Danish defence chiefly relied, was turned,
and after a short campaign, in which the Danes fought with
distinguished courage, peace was concluded by the treaty of
Vienna (August 1, 1864), by which Schlcswig, Holstein and
Lauenburg were ceded to Austria and Prussia jointly.
The Austro- Prussian alliance had been only an interlude in the
great drama in which the two powers were playing rival parts.
To the other causes of friction bet ween them had been j^ mttr i at
added, just before the war, a renewed quarrel as to prw»*ia
Austria's relation to the ZoIIvercin. In 1862, in the smith*
name of the customs union, Prussia had concluded with f olf L
France a commercial treaty, based mainly on free trade
principles. This treaty most of the small states refused to sign,
and they were supported in their objections by Austria, which
loudly complained that Prussia had given to a foreign power
what she had denied to a sister state of the Bund. Prussia, how-
ever, remained firm, and declared that, were the treaty rejected,
she would break up the Zollverein. After the war Bismarck
in fact succeeded in obtaining the signature of the smaller states
to the treaty; and Austria, her protests having proved unavail-
ing, was fain to sign a commercial treaty with the Zollverein,
essentially the same as that of 1853. Treaties concluded with
Great Britain and Belgium, about the same time, also tended to
enhance Prussian prestige.
Austria now sought in the question of the Elbe duchies an
occasion for re-establishing her influence in Germany. The
ambitions of Prussia were notorious, and Austria had
no wish to see her rival still further strengthened by ttoalT
the annexation of the duchies. In this attitude she autete
was sure of the support of the German princes, and of
German public opinion, which was enthusiastically in favour of
the Augustcnburg claimant. She therefore took up the cause of
Duke Frederick, and under her influence a small majority of the
federal diet decided to request the two powers to invest him with
the sovereignty of Holstein. Bismarck's reply was to deny the
competency of the diet to interfere; and in the Prussian parlia-
ment the minister of war moved for a special grant for the creation
of a war-harbour at Kiel. Against this Austria protested, as
having the same right as Prussia to Kiel; an angry correspond-
ence followed; but neither power was quite prepared for war,
and on the 20th of August 1865 the convention of Gastein, to
use Bismarck's phrase, " papered over the cracks." Pending
a settlement, Schleswig was to be occupied and administered
by Prussia, Holstein by Austria; while Lauenburg was made
over absolutely to Prussia in return for a money payment.
This was so far a diplomatic victory for Prussia, as it ignored
entirely the claims of the duke of Augustcnburg.
Bismarck had consented to the convention of Gastein in order
S 7 2
GERMANY
(HISTORY
to gain time to prepare the ground for the supreme struggle
with Austria for the hegemony of Germany. He had no intention
of postponing the issue long; for the circumstances of the two
powers were wholly favourable to Prussia. The Prussian army
had attained an unprecedented excellence of organization and
discipline; the Prussian people, in spite of the parliamentary
deadlock, were loyal and united; while in Austria army and
state were alike disorganized by nationalist discontent and the
breakdown of the centralized system. But there were other
factors to be considered. The attitude of Napoleon was dubious ;
the active alliance of Italy was necessary to the certainly of
Prussian success; and the policy of Italy depended ultimately
upon that of France. Lastly, the conscience of King William,
though since the acquisition of Lauenburg he had " developed
a taste for conquest," shrank from provoking war with a German
power. The news of the convention of Gastein, which seemed
to re-cement the union of Germany, had been received
flUftwXo/ * n France w ' tn clamorous indignation; and on the
fame*. 20lh of August, under pressure of public opinion, the
French government issued a circular note denouncing
it as an outrage on national liberty and European law, the protest
being backed by note of the 14th of September circulated by
Lord John Russell on behalf of the British government. But
Napoleon was himself little inclined to use the warlike tone
of his people; and Bismarck found it easy to win him over to
his views by explaining the temporary nature of the convention,
and by dropping hints at the famous interview at Biarritz
(September 30, 1865) of possible " compensations " to France
in the event of a Prussian victory over Austria; the probability of
a prolonged struggle in Germany between two powers apparently
evenly matched, moreover, held out to the French emperor the
prospect of his being able to intervene at the proper moment with
overwhelming effect.
Napoleon having been successfully hoodwinked, Bismarck
turned to Italy. His previous advances had been interrupted
Badottbm ^ v lne Gastein convention, which seemed to the Italian
Awstrrf government a betrayal of the Italian cause. Italy
Prussia* attempted to negotiate with Austria for the purchase of
ufodio Venetia; but the offer was curtly refused by the
* emperor Francis Joseph, and the counter-proposal of
a commercial rapprochement was forestalled by Prussia, which
with the aid of most of the lesser states, angered by the betrayal
of their interests by Austria at Gastein, arranged a commercial
treaty between Italy and the Zollverein, an act which involved
the recognition of the Italian kingdom. The counter-stroke of
Austria was to embarrass Prussia by allowing full play in Holslcin
to the agitation in favour of the Augustenburg claimant. To
the protests of Prussia, Austria replied that she had a full right
to do what she liked in the duchy, and that she still adhered to
the declaration of the princes, made on the 28th of May 1864, in
favour of Duke Frederick. This " perfidy " removed the last
scruples of King William; and the Auslro- Prussian alliance
came to an end with the declaration of Bismarck that Prussia
" must win full freedom for her own entire policy " and his
refusal to continue the correspondence.
War, though still postponed, was now certain; and with this
certainty the desire of the Italians for the Prussian alliance,
now recommended by Napoleon, revived. By the i6lh of March
1866 the Austrian war preparations were so far advanced that
Count Mcnsdorff thought it safe to send an ultimatum to Prussia
and, at the same time, a circular note to the princes declaring
that, in the event of an evasive reply. Ausi ria would move in the
diet for the mobilization of the federal forces. On the 24th
Bismarck in his turn issued a circular note stating that, in view
of the Austrian war preparations, Prussia must take measures
for her defence; at the same time he laid before the princes the
outline of the Prussian scheme for the reform of the Confedera-
tion, a scheme which included u national parliament to be elected
by universal suffrage, " as offering surer guarantees for conserva-
tive action than limitations that seek to determine the majority
beforehand." Clearly Prussia meant war, and the Italian
a treaty of alliance. By this instrument it was agreed that is
the event of her proposals for the reform of the federal constitu-
tion being rejected by the German princes, Prussia
should declare war " in order to give effect to her pro- JSHT
posais," and that, in that case, Italy would also declare *a*m*.
war against Austria. As a result of the war Venetia
was to be added to Italy and an equivalent amount of territory
in North Germany to Prussia. The agreement , however, was only
to hold good if war broke out within three months.
On the day after the signature of the treaty the Prussian
project of reform was presented to the federal diet. It was,
however, no more than a bid for the support of public
opinion on the part of Bismarck; for even while it was
under discussion an angry correspondence was being
carried on between Berlin and Vienna on the question *»**■
of armaments, and by the beginning of May both ^Smmi. m
powers were making undisguised preparations for
war. On the 21st of April, the very day when the discussioa
of the Prussian proposals began in the diet, Austria, alarmed
at a threatened attack by Garibaldi on Venetia, began to mobilize
in defiance of an agreement just arrived at with Prussia. Five
days later, in spite of this, she sent an ultimatum to Berlin,
demanding the continuance of the Prussian disarmament and
an immediate settlement of the Schlcswig-Holstcin question.
The supreme issue was, however, delayed for a few weeks by the
intervention of Napoleon, who, urged on by the loud alarm of the
French people at the prospective aggrandizement of Prussia,
attempted to detach Italy from the Prussian alliance by persuad-
ing Austria to a cession of Venetia. The negotiations broke
downon the refusal of Italy to throw over her ally, and Napoleon's
proposal of a European congress, to reconsider the whole settle-
ment under the treaties of 1815, proved equally abortive. Mean-
while the preparations for war had been continued, and on the
1st of June Austria flung down the gage by declaring her intention
of submitting the whole question of the duchies to the federal diet
and of summoning a meeting of the Holslcin estates. This was
denounced by Bismarck in a circular note to the powers as \
breach of the convention of Gastein and of the treaty of
January 16, 1864, by which Austria and Prussia had agreed to
govern the duchies in common. At the same time he handed in
the formal protest of Prussia to the federal diet. Prussia, he
said, would only recognize the right of a reformed federal power
to settle the Schlcswig-Holstcin question, and this power must
be based on a German parliament, which alone could guarantee
Prussia that any sacrifices she might make would be for the good
of Germany and not of the dynasties. The Prussian plan of
reform laid before the diet included the exclusion of Austria
from the Confederation; the creation of a federal navy; the
division of the supreme command of the army between Prussia
and Bavaria; a parliament elected by manhood suffrage; the
regulation of the relations between the Confederation and
Austria by a special treaty. In the event of the actual constitu-
tion of the Build being shattered by war, the German slates were
asked whether they would be prepared to join this new organiza-
tion. On the oth of June Prussian troops had already marched
into Holslcin, the Austrians, with Duke Frederick, falling back
on Allona. On the 14th the Prussian scheme of reform was laid
before the diet, together with Austria's counter-proposal for a
decree of federal execution against Prussia. In the event of the
rejection of Prussia's motion, Bismarck bad made it clear that
Prussia would withdraw from the Confederation, and ^^
that in the event of her being victorious in the ensuing »imimi
war thojc states of northern Germany that voted ^mm»
against her would cease to exist. In spite of this, ** Bmm4 ' m
the Austrian motion was carried by nine votes to six. The
Prussian delegate at once withdrew from the diet, and on the
following day (June 15) the Prussian troops advanced over
the Saxon frontier.
The war that followed, conveniently called the Seven Weeks'
War, (q.v.), culminated before a month had passed, on the 3rd
of July, in the crushing Prussian victory of Koniggratz. The
government thought it safe to sign, on the 8th of April 1866, | rapidity and overwhelming character of the Prussian success
HISTORY]
GERMANY
873
ensured the triumph of Bismarck's policy. The intervention
which Napoleon had planned resolved itself into diplomatic
Atutr9 . pourparlers of which the result was wholly insignificant ;
f%— turn and even before the war was ended Bismarck was
Wmrmt preparing for an understanding with Austria and with
MM * the South German states that should minimize the risk
of a French attack. By the preliminary treaty of peace signed
at Kikolsburg on the 26th of July the great objects for which
Prussia had fought were fully secured. By Article
7Wa<rof I. the integrity of the Austrian monarchy was pre-
AagvZ'u. served, with the exception of Lombardo-Vcnetia;
by Article II. Austria consented to " a new organiza-
tion of Germany without the participation of the empire of
Austria," consented to " the closer union " to be founded by
the king of Prussia to the north of the Main, and to the German
states south of the Main entering into a union, the national
relations of which with the North German Confederation were to
be " the subject of an ulterior agreement between the two
parties "; by Article III Austria transferred all her rights in
Schlcswig and Hoi sic in to Prussia, reserving the right of the people
of north Schleswig to be again united to Denmark should they
" express a desire to be so by a vote freely given ", by Article
V. the territory of Saxony was to remain intact . These Articles,
enbodying the more important terms, were included with slight
verbal alterations in the treaty of peace signed at Prague on the
23rd of August. Separate t reat ies of peace had been signed with
Wiirttemberg on the 13th, with Baden on the 17th and with
Bavaria on the 22nd of August, treaties with Hesse-Darmstadt
followed on the 3rd of September, with Saxe-Mciningcn
A*** 9 * , on the 8th of October and with Saxony on the 21st.
The other unfortunate North German states which
had sided with Austria were left to their fate, and on
the 20th of September King William issued a decree annexing
Hanover, Hesse-Cassel, Nassau and the free city of Frankfort
to the Prussian monarchy, and bringing them under the Prussian
constitution.
The return of King William to his capital had been a triumphal
progress; and Bismarck had shared to the full the new-born
^_^_ popularity of his master He seized the occasion to
££!mI_ make his peace with Liberal sentiment, and the bill
ifn, of indemnity for past ministerial breaches of the
constitution was carried in the new Prussian diet with
enthusiasm. On the 24th of February 1867 the constituent
diet of the confederation, elected by universal suffrage and
the ballot, met in Berlin, and soon accepted in its essential
features the constitution submitted to it. It was arranged that
the headship of the confederation should be hereditary, that it
should belong to the king of Prussia, and that legislative functions
should be exercised by a federal council (Bund&rat), repre-
sentative of the various governments, and by a diet (Bundestag)
elected by the whole people.
The federal parliament began at once the task of consolidating
the new institutions. In the sessions of 1869 and 1870 it estab-
lished a supreme tribunal of commerce, silting in
Leipzig, and passed a new penal code. Great as were
these results, they did not satisfy the aspirations
of patriotic Germans, who, having so suddenly and so unex-
pectedly approached unity, longed that the work should be
completed. A party called the National Liberals was formed,
whose main object was to secure the union of South with North
Germany, and it at once entered into peculiar relations with
Bismarck, who, in spile of his native contempt for parliaments
and parliamentary government, was quite prepared to make use
of any instruments he found ready to his hand. There was,
indeed, plentiful need for some show of concession to Liberal
sentiment, if a union of hearts was to be established between the
South and North Germans. The states south of the Main had
issued from the war as sovereign and independent powers, and
they seemed in no great haste to exchange this somewhat pre-
carious dignity either for a closer alliance among each other
or with the North German Confederation. The peoples, too,
fully shared the dislike of their rulers to the idea of a closer union
with North Germany. The democrats hated Prussia as " the
land of the corporal's stick," and Bismarck as the very incarna-
tion of her spirit. The Roman Catholics hated her as the land
par excellence of Protestantism and free thought. Nothing but
the most powerful common interests could have drawn the
dissevered halves of Germany together. This sense of common
Interests it was Bismarck's study to create. An important
step was taken in 1867 by the conclusion of a treaty
with the southern states, by which it was agreed that fjjjjj 1 *
all questions of customs should be decided by the a***,
federal council and the federal diet, and that, for the
consideration of such questions, the southern states should send
representatives to Berlin. In reality, however, the customs
parliament (ZoUparlamenl) was of little service beyond the
limits of its special activity. In the election to the
customs parliament in 1868, Wiirttemberg did not re-
turn asingle deputy who was favourable to the national
cause; in Bavaria the anti-nationalists had a large tou
majority; and even in Baden and Hesse-Darmstadt, where the
opposition to Prussia was less severe, a powerful minority of
the deputies had no liking for Bismarck and his ways. Thus the
customs parliament was kept rigidly to the objects for which it
was founded, greatly to the disappointment of patriots who had
not doubted that it would become an effective instrument for
the attainment of far larger purposes. Had the completion of
unity depended wholly on internal causes, it certainly would
not have been soon achieved, but other forces, not lfrmMttn
altogether unexpectedly, came to Bismarck's aid. ^g^mH.
France had been irritated by the enormous increase
of Prussian power, and even before the treaty of Prague was
signed the emperor Napoleon HI. indicated a wish to be
" compensated " with the left bank of the Rhine This was a
claim exactly calculated to play into Bismarck's hands. The
communication of the French emperor's original proposals to
the South German governments, whose traditional policy had
been to depend on France to save them from the ambitions of the
German great powers, was enough to throw them into the arms
of Prussia. The treaties of peace between Prussia and the South
German states were accompanied by secret treaties of offensive
and defensive alliance, under which the supreme command in
war was to be given to the Prussian king. A common war
against a common enemy now appeared the surest means of
welding the dissevered halves of Germany together, and for
this war Bismarck steadily prepared. There were soon plentiful
signs of where this enemy was to be sought. On the 14th of
March 1867 Thiers in the French Chamber gave voice to the
indignation of France at the bungling policy that had suffered
the aggrandizement of Prussia. The reply of Bismarck was
to publish (March 19) the secret treaties with the South German
states. War was now only a question of time, and the study of
Bismarck was to bring it on at the moment most favourable
to Germany, and by a method that should throw upon France
the appearance of being the aggressor. The European situation
was highly favourable. France was hampered by the Roman
question, which divided her own counsels while it embroiled her
with Italy, the Luxemburg question, arising out of her con-
tinued demand for " compensation," had only served to isolate
her still further in Europe French patriotic feeling, suspicious,
angry and alarmed, needed only a slight provocation to cause it
to blaze up into an uncontrollable fever for war
The provocation was supplied at the right moment by the candi-
dature of the prince of Hohenzollern for the vacant crown of Spain.
To bring the Peninsula under French influence had ^
been for centuries the ambition of French statesmen, Hob»m»
it was intolerable that it should fall to a " Prussian "
prince and that France should be threatened by
this new power not only from the cast but from the
south. High language was used at Paris, and the French am-
bassador, Count Benedetti, was instructed to demand from the
king of Prussia the withdrawal of the Hohenzollern candidature.
The demand was politely but firmly refused, and Bismarck,
judging that the moment had come for applying the match to
8 7 4
GERMANY
(HISTOty
the powder magazine, published an " edited " version of the
telegram from the king describing the episode, a version which
" without the addition of a single word " turned the refusal
into an insult. The " Ems telegram " made the con-
J^ 8 * 00 " tinuance of peace impossible; on the 14th of July
Wmn** Napoleon 111. signed the declaration of war; and on
the 2nd of August the affair of Saarbriicken opened
the struggle which was to cause the downfall of the French and
the creation of the German empire (see Franco-German War).
On the 18th of January 1871, ten days before the capitulation
Procisma- of Paris, William I., king of Prussia, was proclaimed
ooaofthe German emperor in the great hall of the palace of
°*"J** Versailles, on the initiative of the king of Bavaria, the
•aptrt, mo5 t powerful of the South German sovereigns, the
traditional ally of France. The cession of Alsace and the greater
part of Lorraine, wrested two centuries before by Louis XIV.
from the Holy Empire, was the heaviest part of the price that
France had to pay for peace (treaty of Frankfort, May io,
1871). (W.A. P)
The foundation of the empire in 187 1 begins a new era in the
history of Germany. The rivalry of the dynasties to which
for so long the interests of the nation had been
™^* w sacrificed now ceased. By the treaties of Versailles
*8Th' lnc kingdoms of Bavaria and Wiirttcmberg, and the
grand-duchy of Baden, as well as t he southern provinces
of the grand-duchy of Hesse, were added to the North German
Confederation. Henceforward all the German states that had
survived the struggle of 1866, with the exception of the empire
of Austria, the grand-duchy of Luxemburg, and the principality
of Liechtenstein, were incorporated in a permanent federal
state under the leadership of Prussia. The revision in 1871
made no important alterations in the constitution of 1867
The states retained their autonomy except in those matters
which were expressly transferred to the imperial authorities;
the princes retained their sovereignty; the king of Prussia,
though he now took the title of German emperor, was only
primus inter pares; he was president of the confederation, but
had no suzerainty over the other princes. None the less, from
this time the acts of the state governments and parliaments
have ceased to have more than a local importance; the history
of the nation is centred in Berlin, in the Bundesral or federal
council, in which the interests of the individual states are
represented, in the Reichstag, in which the feelings and wishes
of the nation are expressed, and above all, in the Prussian
government and imperial executive.
The new const itulion has stood the test. The number of states
of which the empire consists has remained unaltered; 1 occasional
disputes have been settled harmoniously in a legal
T ** em " manner. The special rights reserved to Bavaria and
*hc8tMttM. Wuntcmbcrg have not proved, as was feared, a danger
to the stability of the empire. Much apprehension
had been caused by the establishment of a permanent committee
for foreign affairs in the Bundesrat, over which the Bavarian
representative was to preside; but the clause remained a dead
letter. There is no record that the committee ever met until
July 1900, when it was summoned to consider the situation in
China; and on that occasion it probably formed a useful support
to the government, and helped to still apprehension lest a too
adventurous policy should be pursued. Another clause deter-
mined that in a division in the Reichstag on any law which did
not concern the whole empire, the representatives of those states
which were not concerned should not vote. This, had it been
retained, would have destroyed the coherence of the Reichstag
as representative of the whole nation. It was repealed in 1873.
The permission to maintain diplomatic missions has been equally
harmless: most of the states have recalled all their diplomatic
representatives; Saxony, Bavaria and Wiirttcmberg have
maintained only those at Vienna, the Vatican and at St Petcrs-
* The only formal change is that the duchy of Lauenburg, which
since 1865 had been governed by the kineoi Prussia as a separate
principality (but without a vole in the Bundesrat), was in 1876
incorporated in the Prussian province of Schlcswig-Holstein.
burg. Bavaria has even voluntarily adopted many imperial
laws from which it was legally exempted; for instance, the laws
of settlement.
If the states have been loyal to the empire, the imperial goven-
ment has also respected the constitutional pnvilcgcs of the states.
The harmonious working of the constitution depends
on the union of policy between the empire and Prussia,
for it is the power of Prussia which gives strength to
the empire. This was practically secured by the fact
that the emperor, who is king of Prussia, appoints the chancellor,
and the chancellor is generally president of the Prussian ministry
as well as minister of foreign affairs — in his person the govern-
ment of the two is identified For twenty years the double
office was held by Bismarck, who, supported as he was by the
absolute confidence of the emperor, and also of the allied princes,
held a position greater than that ever attained by any subject
in modern Europe since the time of Richelieu. Forten months
in 1873 he, indeed, resigned the office of minister-president to
Roon, and in the same way Caprivi* during the years 1893- 1804,
held the chancellorship alone; but in neither case was the
experiment successful, and Hohcnlohc and Biilow adhered to the
older plan. So important is the practical cooperation of the
imperial administration and the Prussian government, that it has
become customary to appoint to seats in the Prussian ministry
the more important of the secretaries of state who administer
imperial affairs under the chancellor. Delbriick, bead of the
imperial chancery, had held this position since 1868; in 1877
Bulow, secretary of state for foreign affairs, was appointed
Prussian minister, and this has become the ordinary practice.
One result of this is to diminish the control which the Prussian
parliament is able to maintain over the Prussian ministry.
In the federal council Prussian policy nearly always prevails,
for though Prussia has only seventeen votes out of fifty-eight, the
smaller states of the North nearly always support her; practically
she controls the vote of Waldeck and since 1885 those of Bruns-
wick. A definite defeat of Prussia on an important question
of policy must bring about a serious crisis; it is generally avoided
because, as the meetings are secret, an arrangement or com-
promise can be made. Bismarck, knowing that nothing would
more impede the consolidation of the empire than an outbreak
of local patriotism, always so jealous of its rights, generally used
his influence to avoid constitutional disputes, and discouraged
the discussion of questions which would require an authoritative
interpretation of the constitution. It was, however, opposition
in the Bundesrat which obliged him to abandon his scheme for
imperial railways, and when, in 1877, it was necessary to deter-
mine the seat of the new supreme court of justice, the proposal
of the government that Berlin should be chosen was out-voted
by thirty to twenty-eight in favour of Leipzig. On this occasion
Bismarck accepted the decision, but when important interests
were at slake he showed himself as ready to crush opposition
as in the older days, as in the case of Hamburg and Bremen.
The great personal qualities of the reigning emperors and the
widely extended family connexions of the house of Hohenzollern
have enabled them to hold with ease their position as leaders
among the ruling families. So far as is known, with one or two
unimportant exceptions, the other princes loyally accepted their
new position. It is only as regards the house of Brunswick
that the older dynastic questions still have some political
importance.
The other princes who were dispossessed in 1866 have all
been reconciled to Prussia. The elector of Hesse and the duke
of Nassau have formally relinquished their claims, uta^m.
In 1883 the daughter of the duke of Augustenburg, the
former claimant to the duchies of Schleswig and Holstein,
married the heir to the Prussian throne, who became William II.
On the other hand, the royal family of Hanover has never ceased
to protest against the acts by which they were deprived of their
dominions. King George to the end of his days, whether in
Austria or in France, still regarded himself as in a state of war
with Prussia. As he had used his large personal property to
organize a regiment in order to regain bis possessions, the Prussian
HISTORY]
GERMANY
«75
government had sequestrated that part of his income, amounting
to some £50,000, over which they had control, and used it as
secret service money chiefly for controlling the press; to this
fund the name " Welfcn-Fond " was commonly given. After
1870 the Hanoverian regiment was disbanded, but the sequestra-
tion continued. The death of the old king in 1878 made no
difference, for his son in a letter to the king of Prussia announced
that he assumed and maintained all his father's rights, and that
he did not recognize the legal validity of the acts by which he
was, as a matter of fact, prevented from enjoying them. His
protest was supported by a considerable number of his former
subjects, who formed a party in the Reichstag. The marriage
of the duke of Cumberland (the title by which the king called
himself till he could come into his possessions) with Princess
Thyra of Denmark in the same year was made the occasion of a
great demonstration, at which a deputation of the Hanoverian
nobility assured the duke of their continued attachment to his
house.
After Bismarck's retirement the emperor attempted to bring
about a reconciliation with the duke and the Hanoverians. His
Attention had been drawn to the bad moral effect of the use to
which the Wcl fen -Fond was applied, and on the duke of Cumber-
land writing him a letter, in which, while maintaining his claims
to the throne of Hanover, he recognized the empire and undertook
not to support any enterprise against the empire or Prussia, with
the consent of the Prussian parliament the sequestration of his
property was removed. The attitude of passive resistance is,
however, still maintained, and has affected the position of the
duchy of Brunswick.
In 1884 William, duke of Brunswick, died after a reign of
fifty-four years. The younger son of the duke who fell at
Quatre Bras, he had been called to the throne in 183 1
vmt to take the place of his elder brother Charles, who had
been deposed. Duke Charles had died at Geneva in
1873, and as both brothers were childless the succession
went to the duke of Cumberland as head of the younger branch
of the house of Brunswick-Ltineburg. Duke William before his
death had arranged that the government should be carried on
by a council of regency so long as the heir was prevented from
actually assuming the government; at the end of a year a
regent was to be chosen from among the non-reigning German
princes. He hoped in this way to save his duchy, the last
remnant of the dominions of his house, from being annexed by
Prussia. As soon as he died the town was occupied by the
Prussian troops already stationed therein; the duke of Cumber-
land published a patent proclaiming his succession; the council
of slate, however, declared, in agreement with the Bundesrat,
that the relations in which he stood to the kingdom of Prussia
were inconsistent with the alliances on which the empire was
based, and that therefore he could not assume the govern meat.
The claim of the duke of Cambridge as the only male heir of full
age was referred to the Bundesrat, but the duke refused to bring
it before that body, and after a year the Brunswick government
elected as regent Prince Albert of Ilohcnzollcrn, to hold office
so long as the true heir was prevented from entering on his rights.
On the death of Prince Albert in September 1006, the Brunswick
diet petitioned the Bundesrat to allow the youngest son of the
duke of Cumberland to succeed to the duchy on renouncing his
persona] claims to the 'crown of Hanover. This was refused,
and on the 28th of May 1007 Duke John Albert of Mecklenburg-
Schwerin was elected regent by the diet. Under the regency of
Prince Albert, Brunswick, which had hitherto steadily opposed
all attempts to assimilate and subordinate its institutions to
those of Prussia, though it retained formal independence, was
brought into very close dependence upon Prussia, as is the case
with all the other northern states. In them the armies are
incorporated in the Prussian army; the railways are generally
merged in the Prussian system; indirect taxation, post office,
WahfttM an( * near * v lnc wn °te of the judicial arrangements are
imperial. None.howevcr, has yet imitated the prince of
Waldeck.who in 1867, at the wish of his own subjects, transferred
be administration of his principality to Prussia. The local estates
still meet, and the principality still forms a separate administra-
tive district, but it is managed by a director appointed by Prussia.
The chief reason for this act was that the state could not meet
the obligations laid upon it under the new system, and the re-
sponsibility for any deficit now rests with Prussia.
A curious difficulty, a relic of an older state of society, arose
in the principality of Lippe, in consequence of the extinction
of the elder ruling line and a dispute as to the succession f t ...
(see Lippe). Some political importance attached to ******
the case, for it was not impossible that similar difficulties might
occur elsewhere, and the open support given by the emperor
to the prince of Schaumburg-Lippe, who had married his sister,
caused apprehension of Prussian aggression.
A much more serious question of principle arose from the
peculiar circumstances of Mecklenburg*. The grand-duchies,
which, though divided between two lines of the ducal Th«Meck.
house, had a common constitution, were the only kmbmrg
state in Germany in which the parliament still took the €aaamm
form of a meeting of the estates — the nobility and the tioa '
cities — and had not been altered by a written constitution.
Repealed attempts of the grand-dukes to bring about a reform
were stopped by the opposition of the Ritterschaft. Buffing,
one of the Mecklenburg representatives in the Reichstag, there-
fore proposed to add to the imperial constitution a clause that
in every state of the confederation there should be a parlia-
mentary assembly. This was supported by all the Liberal party
and carried repeatedly; of course it was rejected by the Bundesrat;
for it would have established the principle that the constitution
of each state could be revised by the imperial authorities, which
would have completely destroyed their independence. It is
noticeable that in 1804 when this motion was introduced it was
lost; a striking instance of the decay of Liberalism.
The public political history of Germany naturally centres
around the debates in the Reichstag, and also those in the
Prussian parliament. In the Prussian parliament r*bBc
are discussed questions of education, local government, mttatn:
religion and direct taxation, and though of course it P*«**#
is only concerned with Prussian affairs, Prussia is so
parihs.
large a part of Germany that its decisions have a national import-
ance. A very large number of the members of the Reichstag
and of the Prussian parliament sit in both, and the parties in
the two are nearly identical. In fact, the political parties in
the Reichstag are generally directly descended from the older
Prussian parties.
The first place belongs to the Conservatives, who for twenty
years had been the support of the Prussian government. The
party of the feudal aristocracy in North Germany, they ^^
were strongest in the agricultural districts cast of the ^^
Elbe; predominantly Prussian in origin and in feeling,
they had great influence at court and in the army, and desired
to maintain the influence of the orthodox Lutheran Church. To
them Bismarck had originally belonged, but the estrangement
begun in 1866 constantly increased for the next ten years.
A considerable number of the party had, however, seceded in
1867 and formed a new union, to which was given the name of
the Deutsche RekhsparUi (in the Prussian House they were called
the Frei Con serva liven). These did not include any prominent
parliamentary leaders, but many of the most important ministers
and officials, including Moltke and some of the great nobles.
They were essentially a government party, and took no part in
the attacks on Bismarck, which came from the more extreme
Conservatives, the party of the Kreuzuitung.
The events of 1866 had brought about a similar division
among the Progressives. A large section, including the most
important leaders, determined to support Bismarck NaUoaal
in his national policy and to subordinate to this, uurmH.
though not to surrender, the struggle after constitu-
tional development. Under the name of National-Liberal- Parte*
they became in numbers as in ability the strongest party both in
Prussia and the empire. Essentially a German, not a Prussian,
party, they were joined by the Nationalists from the annexed
provinces of Hanover and Hesse; in 1871 they were greatly
8 7 6
GERMANY
IHISTOftY
The
Ceatn.
strengthened by ihc addition of the National representatives
from the southern states; out of fourteen representatives from
Baden twelve belonged to them, seventeen out of eighteen
Wurttembergcr, and a large majority of the Bavarians. It was
on their support that Bismarck depended in building up the
institutions of the empire. The remainder of the Progressives,
the Forlsckr ills par ki, maintained their protest against the
military and monarchical elements in the state; they voted
against the constitution in 1867 on the ground that it did not
provide sufficient guarantees for popular liberty, and in 1871
against the treaty with Bavaria because it left too much inde-
pendence to that state. Their influence was strongest in Berlin,
and in the towns of East Prussia, they have always remained
characteristically Prussian.
These great parties were spread over the whole of Germany,
and represented the great divisions of political thought. To
them must be added others which were more local, as the Yolks-
parlci or People's party in Wurttcmbcrg, which kept alive the
extreme democratic principles of 1848, but was opposed to
Socialism. They had been opposed to Prussian supremacy, and
in 1870 for the time completely lost their influence, thchigh they
were to regain it in later years.
Of great importance was the new party of the Centre. Till
the year 1863 there had been a small party of Catholics in the
Prussian parliament who received the name of the
Centrum, from the part of the chamber in which they
sat. They had diminished during the years of conflict
and disappeared in 1866. In December 1870 it was determined
to found a new party which, while not avowedly Catholic,
practically consisted entirely of Catholics. The programme
required the support of a Christian-Conservative tendency;
it was to defend positive and historical law against Liberalism,
and the rights of the individual states against the central power.
They were especially to maintain the Christian character of the
schools. Fifty-four members of the Prussian parliament at once
joined the new party, and in the elections for the Reichstag in
1871 they won sixty scats. Their strength lay in Westphalia
and on the Rhine, in Bavaria and the Polish provinces of Prussia.
The close connexion with the Poles, the principle of federalism
which they maintained, the support given to them by the Bavarian
" patriots," their protest against the " revolution from above "
as represented equally by the annexation of Hanover and the
aboliljon of the papal temporal power, threw them into strong
opposition to the prevailing opinion, an opposition which re-
ceived its expression when Hermann von Mallincrodt (1821-
1874), the most respected of their parliamentary leaders, declared
that " justice was not present at the birth of the empire." For
this reason they were generally spoken of by the Nationalist
parties as Rcichsfcindlich.
This term may be more properly applied to those who still
refuse to recognize the legality of the acts by which theempirc
was founded. Of these the most important were the so-called
Guclphs(WV//ew), described by themselves as the Hannoverischc
Rcchlsparlci, member of the old Hanoverian nobility who repre-
sented the rural districts of Hanover and still regarded the
deposed K ing George V. and, after his death, the duke of Cumber-
land as their lawful sovereign. In the elections of 1898 they still
returned nine members to the Reichstag, but in those of 1903
their representation had sunk to six, and in 1907 it had practi-
cally disappeared. A similar shrinkage has been displayed in the
case of the protesting Alsace- Lorraincrs, who returned only two
deputies in 1907. A pleasant concession to Hanoverian feeling
was made in 1899, when the emperor ordered that the Hanoverian
regiments in the Prussian army should be allowed to assume
the names and so continue the traditions of the Hanoverian
army which was disbanded in 1S66.
The government has also not succeeded in reconciling to the
empire the alien races which have been incorporated in the
Pok ^ kingdom of Prussia. From the Polish districts of
West Prussia, Poscn and Silesia a number of repre-
sentatives have continued to be sent to Berlin to protest against
their incorporation in the empire. Bismarck, influenced by the
older Prussian traditions, always adopted towards them an &u>
tudc of uncompromising opposition. The growth of the Poliia
population has caused much anxiety; supported by the Ronua
Catholic Church, the Polish language has advanced, especially in
Silesia, and this is only part of the general tendency, so marked
throughout central Europe, for the Slavs to gain ground upon the
Teutons. The Prussian government has attempted to prevent
this by special legislation and severe administrative measures.
Thus in 1885 and 1886 large numbers of Austrian and Russian
Poles who had settled in these provinces were expelled. Wind*
thorst thereupon raised the question in the Reichstag, but ibe
Prussian government refused to take any notice of the inter-
polation on the ground that there was no right in the const it ut loo
for the imperial authority to take cognizance of acts of the
Prussian government. In the Prussian parliament Bismarck
introduced a law taking out of the hands of the local authorities
the whole administration of the schools and giving them to the
central authority, so as to prevent instruction being given in
Polish. A further law authorized the Prussian government to
spend £5,000,000 in purchasing estates from Polish families
and settling German colonists on the land. The commission,
which was appointed for the purpose, during the next ten years
bought land to the amount of about 200, 000 acres and on it
settled more than 2000 German peasants. This policy has not,
however, produced the intended c/Tcct; for the Poles founded
a society to protect their own interests, and have often managed
to profit by the artificial value given to their property. It has
merely caused great bitterness among the Polish peasants, aod
the effect on the population is also counteracted by the fact that
the large proprietors in purely German districts continue to
import Polish labourers to work on their estates.
In the general change of policy that followed after the retire-
ment of Bismarck an attempt was made by the emperor to con-
ciliate the Poles. Concessions were made to them in the matter
of schools, and in 1891 a Pole, Florian von Slablcwski (1841-
1906), who had taken a prominent part in the Kullurkampf,
was accepted by the Prussian government as archbishop of Posen-
Gnesen. A moderate party arose among the Poles which
accepted their position as Prussian subjects, gave up all hopes
of an immediate restoration of Polish independence, and limited
their demands to that free exercise of the religion and language
of their country which was enjoyed by the Poles in Ausiria.
They supported government bills in the Reichstag, and woo
the commendation of the emperor. Unfortunately, for reason
which arc not apparent, the Prussian government did not
continue a course of conciliation; in 1001 administrative edicts
still further limited the use of the Polish language; even religious
instruction was to be given in German, and an old royal ordinance
of 1 Si/ was made the pretext for forbidding private instruction
in Polish.
All these efforts have been in vain. The children in the schools
became the martyrs of Polish nationality. Religious instruction
continued to be given to them in German, and when they refused
to answer questions which they did not understand, they were
kept in and flogged. In 1906, as a protest, the school children
to the number of 100,000 struck throughout Prussian Poland;
and, as a result of a pastoral issued by the archbishop, Polish
parents withdrew their children from religious instruction in the
schools. The government responded by fining and imprisoning
the parents. The efforts of the government were not confined
to the forcible Germanization of the children. Polish newspapers
were confiscated and their editors imprisoned, fines were imposed
for holding Polish meetings, and peasants were forbidden to
build houses on their own land. The country gentlemen could
not have a garden party without the presence of a commissary
of police.
The climax, however, was reached in 1007 when Prince Bulov,
on the 26th of November, introduced into the Prussian parlia-
ment a bill to arm the German Colonization Committee in Poscn
with powers of compulsory expropriation. He pointed out that
though the commission had acquired 815,000 acres of land aod
settled upon it some 100,000 German colonists, nearly 150,000
tnsroiw] GERMANY
acres more had passed from German into Polish hands. He pro-
posed, therefore, to set aside a credit of £17,500,000 for this
purpose. On the 26th of February 1908 the discussion on this
bill was continued, Count Arnim defending it on the ground that
" conciliation had failed and other measures must now be tried!"
The Poles were aiming at raising their standard of civilization
and learning and thus gradually expelling the Germans, and this,
together with the rapid growth of the Polish population, con-
stituted a grave danger. These arguments were reinforced by an
appeal of Prince Billow to the traditions of Bismarck, and in
spite of a strenuous and weighty opposition, the bill with certain
modifications passed by 143 votes to 11 1 in the Upper House,
and was accepted by the Lower House on the 13th of March.
A bill forbidding the use of any language but German at public
meetings, except by >pecial permission of the police, had been
laid before the Reichstag in 1007 by Prince Bulow at the same
time as he had introduced the Expropriation Bill into the Prussian
parliament. The bill, with certain drastic amendments limiting
its scope, passed the House on the 8th of April by a majority of
200 to 179 This law gave increased freedom in the matter of
the right of association and public meeting; but in the case of
the Poles it was applied with such rigidity that, in order to evade
it they held " mute " public meetings, resolutions being written
up in Polish on a blackboard and passed by show of hands,
without a word being said. 1
Compared with the Polish question, that of the Danes in North
Schleswig is of minor importance; they number less than 1 50,000,
and there is not among them, as among the Poles,
the constant encroachment along an extended line of
frontier; there is also no religious question involved. These
Danish subjects of Germany have elected one member to the
Reichstag, whose duly is to demand that they should be handed
over to Denmark. Up to the year 1878 they could appeal to
the treaty of Prague; one clause in it determined that the
inhabitants of selected districts should be allowed to vote
whether they should be Danish or German. This was inserted
merely to please Napoleon; after his fall there was no one to
demand its execution. In 1878, when the Triple Alliance was
concluded, Bismarck, in answer to the Guelphic demonstration
at Copenhagen, arranged with Austria, the other party to the
treaty of Prague, that the clause should lapse. Since then the
Prussian government, by prohibiting the use of Danish in the
schools and public offices, and by the expulsion from the country
of the numerous Danish optants who had returned to Schleswig,
has used the customary means for compelling all subjects of the
king to become German in language and feeling. 1
The attempt to reconcile the inhabitants of Alsace-Lorraine
to their condition proved equally difficult. The provinces had
Atmatmm been placed under the immediate rule of the emperor
and the chancellor, who was minister for them; laws
were to be passed by the Reichstag. In accordance
with the treaty of Frankfort, the inhabitants were permitted to
choose between French and German nationality, but all who
chose the former had to leave the country; before the 1st of
October 1872, the final day, some 50,000 had done so. In 1874,
for the first time, the provinces were enabled to elect members for
the Reichstag; they used the privilege to send fifteen Elsasscr,
who, after delivering a formal protest against the annexation,
retired from the House; they joined no party, and took little
part in the proceedings except on important occasions to vote
against the government. The same spirit was shown in the
elections for local purposes. It seemed to be the sign of a change
when a new party, the AuUmomisten, arose, who demanded as
a practical concession that the dictatorship of the chancellor
should cease and local self-government be granted. To some
extent this was done in 1879; a resident governor or StatlkalUr
was appointed, and a local representative assembly, which was
consulted as to new laws. All the efforts of Field marshal
1 See Annual Register (1908), pp. 289 et seq.
* The whole question is exhaustively treated from the Danish point
of view in La Question de Slesiig (Copenhagen, 1906), a collective
work edited by F. de Jessens.
877
Legmt
Edwin von Manteuffel, the first governor, to win the confidence
of the people failed; the anti-German feeling increased; the
party of protestors continued in full numbers. The next governor,
Prince Hohenlohe, had to use more stringent measures, and in
1888, to prevent the agitation of French agents, an imperial
decree forbade any one to cross the frontier without a passport.
Since 1800 there has been, especially in the neighbourhood of
Strassburg, evidence of a spread of national German feeling,
probably to a great extent due to the settlement of Germans
from across the Rhine.
The presence of these anti-German parties, amounting some*
times to one-tenth of the whole, in the Reichstag added greatly
to the difficulty of parliamentary government. Gradually, bow-
ever, as a new generation grew up their influence declined. In
the Reichstag of 1007, Guclphs, Alsace-Lorrainers and Danes
together could muster only five members.
The great work since 1870 has been that of building up the
institutions of the empire. For the first time in the history
of Germany there has been a strong administration
ordering, directing and arranging the life of the whole JJi*****
nation. The unification of Germany was not ended isjs!°
by the events of 1866 and 187 1; it was only begun.
The work has throughout been done by Prussia; it has been the
extension of Prussian principles and Prussian administrative
energy over the whole of Germany. It naturally falls into two
periods; the first, which ends in 1878, is that in which Bismarck
depended on the support of the National Liberals. They were
the party of union and uniformity. The Conservatives were
attached to the older local diversities, and Bismarck had therefore
to turn for help to his old enemies, and for some years an alliance
was maintained, always precarious but full of results.
The great achievement of the first period was legal reform.
In nothing else was legislation so much needed. Forty-six
districts have been enumerated, each of which enjoyed
a separate legal system, and the boundaries of these
districts seldom coincided with the frontiers of the
states. Everywhere the original source of law was I he old German
common law, but in each district it had been wholly or partly
superseded by codes, text-books and statutes to a great extent
founded on the principles of the Roman civil law. Owing to
the political divisions, however, this legislation, which reached
back to the 14th century, had always been carried out by local
authorities. There had never been any effective legislation
applicable to the whole nation. There was not a state, not the
smallest principality, in which some authoritative but imperfect
law or code had not been published. Every free city, even an
imperial village, had its own " law," and these exist down to the
present time. In Bremen the foundation of the civil code was
still the statutes of 1433; in Munich, those of 1347. Most el
the states by which these laws had been published had long ago
ceased to exist; probably in every case their boundaries had
changed, but the laws remained valid (except in those cases in
which they had been expressly repealed) for the whole of the
district for which they had been originally promulgated. Let
us take a particular case. In 1591 a special code was published
for the upper county of Katzellenbogen. More than a hundred
years ago Katzellenbogen was divided between the neighbouring
states. But till the end of the 19th century this code still re-
tained its validity for those villages in Hesse, and in the Prussian
province of Hesse, which in old days had been parts of Katzellen-
bogen. The law, however, had to be interpreted so as to take
into consideration later legislation by the kingdom of Westphalia,
the electorate of Hesse, and any other statc(and they arc several)
in which for a short time some of these villages might have been
incorporated.
In addition to these earlier imperfect laws, three great codes
have been published, by which a complete system was applied
to a large district: the Prussian Code of 1704, the Austrian
Code of 181 1 and the Code Napoleon, which applied to all
Germany left of the Rhine; for neither Prussia, nor Bavaria, nor
Hesse had ever ventured to interfere with the French law. In
Prussia therefore the older provinces came under the Prussian
8 7 8
GERMANY
IHISTORT
Code, the Rhine provinces had French law, the newly annexed
provinces had endless variety, and in part of Pomerania con-
siderable elements of Swedish law still remained, a relic of the
long Swedish occupation. On the other hand, some districts
to which the Prussian Code applied no longer belonged to the
kingdom of Prussia — for instance, Anspach and Bayreuth, which
are now in Bavaria. In other parts of Bavaria in the same
way Austrian law still ran, because they had been Austrian in
x8n. In two slates only was there a more or less uniform
system: in Baden, which had adopted a German translation of
the Code Napoleon; and in Saxony, which had its own code,
published in 1865. In criminal law and procedure there was an
equal variety. In one district was trial by jury in an open court ;
in another the old procedure by written pleadings before a judge.
In many districts, especially in Mecklenburg and some of the
Prussian provinces,, the old feudal jurisdiction of the manorial
courts survived.
The constant changes in the law made by current legislation
in the different states really only added to the confusion, and
though imperial laws on these points with which the central
government was qualified to deal superseded the state laws, it is
obvious that to pass occasional acts on isolated points would
have been only to introduce a further element of complication.
It was therefore convenient, so far as was possible, to allow
the existing system to continue until a full and complete code
dealing with the whole of one department of law could be agreed
upon, and thus a uniform system (superseding all older legislation)
be adopted. Legislation, therefore, has generally taken the form
of a series of elaborate codes, each of which aims at scientific
completeness, and further alterations have been made by amend-
ments in the original code. The whole work has been similar in
character to the codification of French law under Napoleon;
In most matters the variety of the older system has ceased, and
the law of the empire is now comprised in a limited number of
codes.
A beginning had been made before the foundation of the
empire; as early as 1861 a common code for trade, commerce
and banking had been agreed upon by the states included in the
Germanic Confederation. It was adopted by the new confedera-
tion of 1869. In 1897 it was replaced by a new code. In 1869
the criminal law had been codified for the North German Con-
federation, and in 1870 there was passed the Gciecrbcordnung,
an elaborate code for the regulation of manufactures and the
relations of masters to workmen. These were included in the
law of the empire, and the work was vigorously continued.
In 187 x a commission was appointed to draw up regulations
for civil and criminal procedure, and also to frame regulations
for the organization of the law courts. The draft code of civil
procedure, which was published in December 1872, introduced
many important reforms, especially by substituting public and
verbal procedure for the older German system, under which the
proceedings were almost entirely carricdon by written documents.
It was very well received. The drafts for the other two laws
were not so successful. Protests, especially in South Germany,
were raised against the criminal procedure, for it was proposed
to abolish trial by jury and substitute over the whole empire the
Prussian system, and a sharp conflict arose as to the method of
dealing with the press. After being discussed in the Reichstag,
all three projects were referred to a special commission, which
after a year reported to the diet, having completely remodelled
the two latter laws. After further amendment they were
eventually accepted, and became law in 1877. By these and
other supplementary laws a uniform system of law courts was
established throughout the whole empire; the position and pay
of the judges, the regulations regarding the position of advocates,
and costs, were uniform, and the procedure in every state was
identical. To complete the work a supreme court of appeal was
established in Leipzig, which was competent to hear appeals
not only from imperial law, but also from that of the individual
states.
By the original constitution, the imperial authorities were
only qualified to deal with criminal and commercial law; the
whole of the private law, in which the variety was greatest,
was withdrawn from their cognizance. Lasker, to remedy this
defect, proposed, therefore, an alteration in the constitution,
which, after being twice carried against the opposition of the
Centre, was at last accepted by the JBundcsrat. A commissmi
was then appointed to draw up a civil code. They completed
the work by the end of 1887; the draft which they then published
was severely criticized, and it was again submitted for revieoa
to a fresh commission, which reported in 1805. In its amended
form this draft was accepted by the Reichstag in x8o6, and it
entered into force on the isl of January 1000. The new Civil
Code deals with nearly all matters of law, but excludes these
concerning or arising out of land tenure and all matters in which
private law comes into connexion with public law; for instance,
the position of government officials, and the police: it excludes
also the relations of master and servant, which in most point*
are left to the control of individual states. It was accompanied
by a revision of the laws for trade and banking.
Equal in importance to the legal was the commercial reform,
for this was the condition for building up the material prosperity
of the country. Germany was a poor country, but the ^
poverty was to a great extent the result of political jj^j u
causes. Communication, trade, manufactures, were r**r»
impeded by the political divisions, and though the
establishment of a customs union had preceded the foundation
of the empire, the removal of other barriers required imperial
legislation. A common system of weights and measures was
introduced in 1868. The reform of the currency was the first task
of the empire. In 187 1 Germany still had seven different systems;
the most important was the TkaUr and the Croscken^whkh pre*
vailed over most of North Germany, but even within this there
were considerable local differences. Throughout the whole of
the south of Germany and in some North German states the
gulden and kreuzer prevailed. Then there were other systems
in Hamburg and in Bremen. Everywhere, except in Bremen,
the currency was on a silver basis. In addition to this each
stale had its own paper money, and there were over 100 banks
with the right of issuing bank-notes according to regulations
which varied in each state. In 1871 a common system for the
whole empire was established, the unit being the Mark ( - xif<U,
which was divided into a hundred Pfennigei a gold currency
was introduced (Doppel-Kronen»20 M.\ Kronen— xo if.);
no more silver was to be coined, and silver was made a legal
tender only up to the sum of twenty marks. The gold required
for the introduction of the new coinage was provided from the
indemnity paid by France. Great quantities of thalers, which
hitherto had been the staple of the currency, were sold. The
right of coinage was, however, left to the individual states, and as
a special concession it was determined that the rulers of the states
should be permitted to have their head placed on the reverse of
the gold coins. All paper currency, except that issued by the
empire, ceased, and in 1873 the Prussian Bank was converted
into the Imperial Bank (Reichsbank).
Closely connected with the reform of the currency and the
codification of the commercial law was the reform of the bank*
ing laws. Here the tendency to substitute uniform
imperial laws for state laws is clearly seen. Before
1870 there had been over 100 banks with the right of
issue, and the conditions on which the privilege was granted
varied in each state. By the Bank Act of March 14, 1875,
which is the foundation of the existing system, the right of
granting the privilege is transferred from the governments of
the states to the Bundesrat. The existing banks could not be
deprived of the concessions they had received, but unless they
submitted to the regulations of the new law their notes were not
to be recognized outside the limits of the state by which the
concession had been granted. All submitted to the conditions
except the Brunswick Bank, which remained outside the banking
system of the empire until the Bank Act of June 5, 1906,
was passed, when it surrendered its right to issue notes. The
experience of Germany in this matter has been different from
that of England, for nearly all the private banks have no*
HISTORY]
GERMANY
879
surrendered their privilege, and there remain only five banks,
including the Reichsbank, which still issue bank notes. The other
four are situated in Bavaria, Saxony, Wurttemberg and Baden.
The total note-issue was fixed by the law of 187s, a proposal being
assigned to each bank. Any £art of this issue assigned to private
banks which might be withdrawn from circulation, owing to a
deficiency in the legal reserve funds, was to be transferred to the
Reichsbank. The result has been the tendency of the latter
gradually to absorb the whole note-issue. By the law of 1906
the Reichsbank was authorized to issue 20 M. and 50 M. notes.
Treasury notes (Reicks-Kassenscheine) for these amounts were
no longer to be issued; but the state reserved the right to
circulate notes of the value of 5 M. and 10 M.
The organization of the imperial post-office was carried out
with great success by Herr von Stephan (?.v.), who remained at
the head of this department from its creation till his death in
1897. Proposals were also made to Bavaria and Wurttemberg to
surrender their special rights, but these were not accepted.
The unification of the railways caused greater difficulties.
Nearly every state had its own system; there was the greatest
BattwMrt. va " elv m * ne methods of working and in the tariffs, and
the through traffic, so important for the commercial
prosperity of the country, was very ineffective. In Baden,
Wiirttcmberg and Hanover the railways were almost entirely
the property of the state, but in all other parts public and private
lines existed side by side, an arrangement which seemed to
combine the disadvantages of both systems. In 187 1 three-
quarters of the railway lines belonged to private companies,
and the existence of these powerful private corporations, while
they were defended by many of the Liberals, was, according to
the national type of thought, something of an anomaly. Bis-
marck always attached great importance to the improvement
of the railway service, and he saw that uniformity of working
and of tariffs was very desirable. In the constitution of the
empire he had introduced several clauses dealing with it. The
independent administration of its lines by each state was left,
but the empire received the power of legislating on railway
matters; it could build lines necessary for military purposes
even against the wish of the state in whose territory they lay,
and the states bound themselves to administer their lines as part
of a common system. In order to carry out these clauses a law
was passed on the 27th of June i873»creating an imperial railway
office (Reickseisenbahnami) for the purpose of exercising a general
control over the railways. This office has done much in
the matter of unifying the systems of various railways and of
regulating their relations to the military, postal and telegraph
organizations; it also took a leading part in the framing of the
international laws regarding goods traffic; but the imperial
code of railway law which it drafted has never been laid before
the Reichstag. It effectively controls only the privately owned
lines in Prussia. Yet, in setting it up, Bismarck had in miffd
the ultimate acquisition of all the railways by the empire. He
found, however, that it was impossible to carry any Bill enforcing
this. He therefore determined to begin by transferring to the
imperial authority the Prussian state railways; had he bean able
to carry this out the influence of the imperial railways would
have been so great that they would gradually have absorbed
those of the other states. The Bill was carried through the
Prussian parliament, but the opposition aroused in the other
states was so great that he did not venture even to introduce
in the Bundesrat a law empowering the empire to acquire the
Prussian railways. In many of the state parliaments resolutions
were carried protesting against the system of imperial railways,
and from that time the preservation of the local railway manage-
ment has been the chief object towards which, in Saxony, Bavaria
and WUrttemberg, local feeling has been directed. The only
imperial railways are those in Alsace-Lorraine.
The result of the legal reform and other laws has been greatly
to diminish the duties of the state governments, for every new
imperial law permanently deprives the local parliaments of part
of their authority. Generally there remains to them the control
of education and religion — their most important duty — police,
all questions connected with land tenure, local government,
the raising of direct taxes, and, in the larger states, the manage-
ment of railways. The introduction of workmen's insurance,
factory legislation, and other measures dealing with the condition
of the working classes by imperial legislation, was at a later
period still further to limit the scope of state legislation.
Meanwhile the government was busy perfecting the administra*
tion of the national defences. From the war indemnity large
sums had been expended on coast defence, on fortifica-
tions and on replacing the equipment and stores A *?* mtmm .
destroyed during the war. A special fund, producing t&j 11 **
annually about a million pounds, was put aside, from
which pensions to the wounded, and to the widows and orphans
of those who had fallen, should be provided. It was also desir-
able to complete the military organization. It must be remem-
bered that technically there is no German army, as there is no
German minister of war. Each state, however small, maintains
its own contingent, subject to its own prince, who has the right
and the obligation of administering it according to the provisions
of the treaty by which he entered the federation. Practically
they are closely tied in every detail of military organization.
The whole of the Prussian military system, including not only
the obligation to military service, but the rules for recruiting,
organization, drill and uniforms, has to be followed in all the
states; all the contingents arc under the command of the emperor,
and the soldiers have to swear obedience to him in addition to the
oath of allegiance to their own sovereign. It is therefore not
surprising that, having so little freedom in the exercise of their
command, all the princes and free cities (with the exception of
the three kings) arranged separate treaties with the king of
Prussia, transferring to him (except for certain formal right sj
the administration of their contingents, which are thereby
definitely incorporated in the Prussian army. The first of these
treaties was arranged with Saxe-Coburg Gotha in 1861; those
with the other North German states followed at short interval?
after 1866. The last was that with Brunswick, which was
arranged in 1885; Duke William had always refused to surrender
the separate existence of his army. Owing to the local organisa-
tion, this does not prevent the contingent of each state from,
preserving its separate identity; it is stationed in its own district,
each state contributing so many regiments.
In 1873 a common system of military jurisprudence was
introduced for the whole empire except Bavaria (a revised code
of procedure in military courts was accepted by Bavaria
in 1898); finally, in February 1874, an important
law was laid before the Reichstag codifying the
administrative rules. This superseded the complicated system
of laws and royal ordinances which had accumulated in Prussia
during the fifty years that had elapsed since the system of short
service had been introduced; the application to other states
of course made a clearer statement of the laws desirable. Most
of this was accepted without opposition or debate. On one clause
a serious constitutional conflict arose. In 1867 the peace
establishment had been provisionally fixed by the constitution
at 1% of the population, and a sum of 225 thalcrs (£3$, 15s.)
had been voted for each soldier. This arrangement had in 1871
been again continued to the end of 1874, and the peace estab-
lishment fixed at 401,659. The new law would have made this
permanent. If this had been done the power of the Reichstag
over the administration would have been seriously weakened ;
its assent would no longer have been required for either the
number .of the army or the money. The government attached
great importance to the clause, but the Centre and the Liberal
parties combined to throw it out A disastrous struggle was
averted by a compromise suggested by Bennigsen. The numbers
were fixed for the next seven years (the so-called Scptennat);
this was accepted by the government, and carried against the
votes of the Centre and some of the Progressives. On this
occasion the Fortschrittpartci, already much diminished, split
up into two sections. The principle then established has since
been maintained; the periodical votes on the army have become
the occasion for formally testing the strength of the Government.
Tb»Sep*\
882
GERMANY
[HISTORY
in which he could no longer co-operate with Bismarck. The work
of the office was then divided between several departments,
at the head of each of which was placed a separate official, the
most important receiving the title of secretary of state. Bis-
marck, as always, refused to appoint ministers directly re-
sponsible cither to the emperor or to parliament; the new officials
in no way formed a collegiate ministry or cabinet. He still
retained in his own hands, as sole responsible minister, the
ultimate control over the whole imperial administration. The
more important secretaries of state, however, are political
officials, who are practically almost solely responsible for their
department; they sit in the Bundesrat, and defend their policy
in the Reichstag, and they often have a seat in the Prussian
ministry. Moreover, a law of 1878, the occasion of which was
Bismarck's long absence from Berlin, empowered the chancellor
to appoint a substitute or representative (SttUverlreter) either
for the whole duties of his office or for the affairs of a particular
department. The signature of a man who holds this position
gives legal validity to the acts of the emperor.
This reorganization was a sign of the great increase of work
which had already begun to fall on the imperial authorities, and
was a necessary step towards the further duties which Bismarck
intended to impose upon them.
Meanwhile the relations with the National Liberals reached
a crisis. Bismarck remained in retirement at Varzin for nearly
a year; before he returned to Berlin, at the end of 1877, he was
visited by Bennigsen, and the Liberal leader was offered the post
of vice-president of the Prussian ministry and vice-president
of the Bundesrat. The negotiations broke down, apparently
because Bennigsen refused to accept office unless he received a
guarantee that the constitutional rights of the Reichstag should
be respected, and unless two other members of the party, Forckcn-
beck and Stauffenbcrg, were given office. Bismarck would not
assent to these conditions, and, even if he had been willing to do
so, could hardly have overcome the prejudices of the emperor.
On the other hand, Bennigsen refused to accept Bismarck's
proposal for a state monopoly of tobacco. From the beginning
the negotiations were indeed doomed to failure, for what Bismarck
appears to have aimed at was to detach Bennigsen from the rest
of his party and win his support for an anti-Liberal policy.
The session of 1878, therefore, opened with a feeling of great
uncertainty. The Liberals were very suspicious of Bismarck's
p . H . intentions. Proposals for new taxes, especially one on
mfterisrs. tobacco, were not carried. Bismarck took the oppor-
tunity of avowing that his ideal was a monopoly of
tobacco, and this statement was followed by the resignation
of Camphausen, minister of finance. It was apparent that
there was no prospect of his being able to carry through the
great financial reform which he contemplated. He was looking
about for an opportunity of appealing to the country on some
question which would enable him to free himself from the control
of the Liberal majority. The popular expectations were ex-
pressed in the saying attributed to him, that he would " crush
the Liberals against the wall." The opportunity was given by
the Social Democrats.
The constant increase of the Social Democrats had for some
years caused much uneasiness not only to the government,
but also among the middle classes. The attacks on
national feeling, the protest against the war of 1870,
crmcy. the sympathy expressed for the Communards, had
offended the strongest feelings of the nation, especially
as the language used was often very violent; the soldiers were
spoken of as murderers, the generals as cut-throats. Attacks
on religion, though not an essential part of the party programme,
were common, and practically all avowed Social Democrats
were hostile to Christianity. These qualities, combined with the
open criticism of the institutions of marriage; of monarchy,
and of all forms of private property, joined to the deliberate
attempt to stir up class hatred, which was indeed an essential
part of their policy, caused a widespread feeling that the Social
Democrats were a serious menace to civilization. They were
looked upon even by many Liberals as an enemy to be crushed;
much more was this the case with the government. Attempts
had already been made to check the growth of the party. Charges
of high treason were brought against some. In 187a Bebel and
Liebknecht were condemned to two years' imprisonment. la
1876 Bismarck proposed to introduce into the Criminal Code a
clause making it an offence punishable with two years' imprisoa-
ment " to attack in print the family, property, universal military
service, or other foundation of public order, in a manner which
undermined morality, feeling for law, or the love of the Father-
land." The opposition of the Liberals prevented this from being
carried. Lasker objected to these " elastic paragraphs," an ex-
pression for which in recent years there has been abundant use.
The ordinary law was, however, sufficient greatly to harass the
Socialists. In nearly every state there still existed, as survivals
of the old days, laws forbidding the union of different political
associations with one another, and all unions or associations of
working men which followed political, socialistic or communistic
ends. It was possible under these to procure decisions in courts
of justice dissolving the General Union of Workers and the coali-
tions and unions of working men. The only -result was* that the
number of Socialists steadily increased. In 1874 they secured
nine seats in the Reichstag, in 1877 twelve, and nearly 500,000
votes were given to Socialist candidates.
There was then no ground for surprise that, when in April
1878 an attempt was made on the life of the emperor, Bismarck
used the excuse for again bringing in a law expressly ff ^ h
directed against the Socialists. It was badly drawn up amm
and badly defended. The National Liberals refused to agisisf
voteforit,anditwaseasilydefeated. The Reichstag was ***
prorogued; six days later a man named Nobiling again Sgd— "^
shot at the emperor, and this time inflicted dangerous injuries.
It is only fair to say that no real proof was brought that the
Socialists had anything to do with either of these crimes, or that
either of the men was really a member of the Socialist party;
nevertheless, a storm of indignation rose against them. The
government seized the opportunity. So great was the popular
feeling, that a repressive measure would easily have been carried;
Bismarck, however, while the excitement was at its height,*
dissolved the Reichstag, and in the elections which took place
immediately, the Liberal parties, who had refused to vote for the
first law, lost a considerable number of seats, and with them their
control over the Reichstag.
The first use which Bismarck made of the new parliament was
to deal with the Social Democrats. A new law was introduced
forbidding the spread of Socialistic opinions by books, news-
papers or public meetings, empowering the police to break up
meetings and to suppress newspapers. The Bundesrat could
proclaim a state of siege in any town or district, and when this
was done any individual who was considered dangerous by the
police could be expelled. The law was carried by a large majority,
being opposed only by the Progressives and the Centre. It was
applied with great severity. The whole organization of news-
papers, societies and trades unions was at once broken up.
Almost every political newspaper supported by the party was
suppressed; almost all the pamphlets and books issued by them
were forbidden; they were thereby at once deprived of the only
legitimate means which they had for spreading their opinions.
In the autumn of 1878 the minor state of siege was proclaimed
in Berlin, although no disorders had taken place and no resistance
had been attempted, and sixty-seven members of the party
were excluded from the city. • Most of them were married and
had families; money was collected in order to help those who
were suddenly deprived of their means of subsistence. Even this
was soon forbidden by the police. At elections every kind of
agitation, whether by meetings of the party or by distribution
of literature, was suppressed. The only place in Germany
where Socialists could still proclaim their opinions was in the
Reichstag. Bismarck attempted to exclude them from it also ,
In this, however, he failed. Two members who had been ex-
pelled from Berlin appeared in the city for the meeting of the
Reichstag at the end of 1878. The government at once asked
permission that they should be charged with breaking the law.
HISTORY)
GERMANY
883
The constitution provided that no member of the House might
be brought before a court of justice without the permission of
the House, a most necessary safeguard. In this case the per-
mission was almost unanimously refused. Nor did they assent
to Bismarck's proposal that the Reichstag should assume power
to exclude from the House members who were guilty of mis-
using the liberty of speech which they enjoyed there. Bismarck
probably expected, and it is often said that he hoped, to drive
the Socialists into some flagrant violation of the law, of such a
kind that it would be possible for him completely to crush them.
This did not happen. There were some members of the party
who wished to turn to outrage and assassination. Most, a printer
from Leipzig, who had been expelled from Berlin, went to
London, where he founded the Frdkeit, a weekly paper, in which
he advocated a policy of violence. He was thereupon excluded
from the party, and after the assassination of the emperor
Alexander II. of Russia bad to leave England for Chicago.
A similar expulsion befell others who advocated union with the
Anarchists. As a whole, however, the party remained firm in
opposition to any action which would strengthen the hands of
their opponents. They carried on the agitation as best they could,
chiefly by distributing reports of speeches made in the Reichstag.
A weekly paper, the Social- Democrat, was established at Zurich.
Its introduction into Germany was of course forbidden, but it
was soon found possible regularly to distribute thousands of
copies every week in every part of the country, and it continued
to exist till 1887 at Zurich, and till 1800 in London. In August
of 1880 a congress of Socialists was held at the castle of Wyden, in
Switzerland, at which about eighty members of the party, met,
discussed their policy, and separated before the police knew
anything of it. Here it was determined that the members of
the Reichstag, who were protected by their position, should
henceforward be the managing committee o£ the party, and
arrangements were made for contesting the elections of x88i.
A similar meeting was held in 1883 at Copenhagen, and in 1887
at St Gallen, in Switzerland. Notwithstanding all the efforts of
the government, though every kind of public agitation was for-
bidden, they succeeded in winning twelve seats in 1881. The
law, which had obviously failed, was renewed in 1881; the state
of siege was applied to Hamburg, Leipzig and Stettin, but all
to no purpose; and though the law was twice more renewed,
in 1886 and in x888, the feeling began to grow that the Socialists
were more dangerous under it than they had been before.
The elections of 1878, by weakening the Liberal parties,
enabled Bismarck also to take in band the great financial reform
which he had long contemplated.
At the foundation of the North German Confederation it had
been arranged that the imperial exchequer should receive the
produce of all customs duties and also of excise. It
tttonmT depended chiefly on the taxes on salt , tobacco, brandy
beer and sugar. So far as the imperial expenses were
not covered by these sources of revenue, until imperial taxes
were introduced, the deficit had to be covered by " matricular "
contributions paid by the individual states in proportion to their
population. All attempts to introduce fresh imperial taxes had
failed. Direct taxation was opposed by the governments of the
states, which did not desire to see the imperial authorities
interfering in those sources of revenue over which they had
hitherto had sole control; moreover, the whole organization
for collecting direct taxes would have had to be created. At
the same time, owing to the adoption of free trade, the income
from customs was continually diminishing. The result was that
the sum to be contributed by the individual states constantly
increased, and the amount to be raised by direct taxation,
including local rates, threatened to become greater than could
conveniently be borne. Bismarck had always regarded this
system with disapproval, but during the first four or five years he
had left the care of the finances entirely to the special officials,
and had always been thwarted in his occasional attempts to
introduce a change. His most cherished project was a large in-
crease in the tax on tobacco, which at this time paid, for home-
grown tobacco, the nominal duty of four marks- per hundred
kilo, (about a farthing a pound), and on imported tobacco twenty-
four marks. Proposals to increase it had been made in 1869
and in 1878, and on the latter occasion Bismarck for the first
time publicly announced his desire for a state monopoly, a
project which he never gave up, but for which he never was able
to win any support. Now, however, he was able to take up the
work. At his invitation a conference of the finance ministers
met in July at Heidelberg; they agreed to a great increase in
the indirect taxes, but refused to accept the monopoly on tobacco.
At the beginning of the autumn session a union of 204 members
of the Reichstag was formed for the discussion of economic
questions, and they accepted Bismarck's reforms. In December
he was therefore able to issue a memorandum explaining his
policy; included a moderate duty, about 5%, on all imported
goods, with the exception of raw material required for German
manufactures (this was a return to the old Prussian principle);
high finance duties on tobacco, beer, brandy and petroleum;
and protective duties on iron, com, cattle, wood, wine and sugar.
The whole of the session of 1879 was occupied with the great
struggle between Free Trade and Protection, and it ended with
a decisive victory for the latter. On the one side Pnietttoai
were the seaports, the chambers of commerce, and the
city of Berlin, the town council of which made itself the centre
of the opposition. The victory was secured by a coalition
between the agricultural interests and the manufacturers;
the latter promised to vote for duties on corn if the landlords
would support the duties on iron. In the decisive vote the duty
on iron was carried by 218 to 88, on corn by 226 to 100. The
principle of protection was thus definitely adopted, though
considerable alterations have been made from time to time in
the tariff. The result was that the income from customs and
excise rose from about 230 million marks in 1878-1879 to about
700 millions in 1 898-1 899, and Bismarck's object in removing
a great burden from the states was attained.
The natural course when the new source of income had been
obtained would have been simply to relieve the states of part
or all of their contribution. This, however, was not
done. The Reichstag raised difficulties on the con-
stitutional question. The Liberals feared that if the
government received so large a permanent source of
revenue it would be independent of parliament; the Centre,
that if the contributions of the states to the imperial exchequer
ceased, the central government would be completely independent
of the states. Bismarck had to come to an agreement with one
party or the other; he chose the Centre, probably for the reason
that the National Liberals were themselves divided on the policy
to be pursued, and therefore their support would be uncertain;
and he accepted an amendment, the celebrated Franckenslein
Clause, proposed by Georg Arbogast Freiherr von Franckenslein
(1825-1890), one of the leaders of the Centre, by which all pro-
ceeds of customs and the tax on tobacco above 130 million marks
should be paid over to the individual states in proportion to
their population. Each year a large sum would be paid to the
states from the imperial treasury, and another sum as before paid
back to meet the deficit in the form of state contributions.
From 187 1 to 1879 the contribution of the states bad varied
from 94 to 67 million marks; under the new system the surplus
of the contributions made by the stales over the grant by the
imperial treasury was soon reduced to a very small sum, and in
1884-1885 the payments of the empire to the states exceeded
the contributions of the states to the empire by 20 milliou marks,
and this excess continued for many years; so that there was,
as it were, an actual grant in relief of direct taxation. In Prussia,
by toe Lex Huene, from 1885 to 1895, all that sum paid to
Prussia, so far as it exceeded 15 million marks, was handed over
to the local authorities in relief of rates. The increased ex-
penditure on the navy after 1897 again caused the contributions
required from the states to exceed the grants to them from the
imperial exchequer. In 1003 Baron von Stengel, who succeeded
Baron von Thielmann as finance minister in this year, proposed
that the matricular contributions of the several states, instead
of varying as heretofore with the, exigencies of the annual budget,
88 4
GERMANY
IH1SI0K!
should be fixed by law. This plan, originally suggested by Dr
von Mi quel, was adopted by the Reichstag in May 1004. The
deficits in the imperial budget, however, continued. In 1000
the whole system of German imperial finance was once more
in the melting-pot, and, in spite of the undoubted wealth of the
country, the conflict of state and party interests seemed to make
it practically impossible to remould it on a satisfactory basis.
The acceptance by Bismarck of the principle of Protection and
his alliance with the Catholic Centre were followed by the dis-
__ ruption of the National Liberal party and a complete
cb^grs. change in the parliamentary situation. Already the
Liberal ministers, Falk and Hobrecht, had resigned,
as well as Max von Forckenbeck the president, and Stauffenberg
the vice-president of the Reichstag; in their place <Jiere were
chosen a Conservative, and the Catholic Baron von Francken-
stein. The whole party had voted against the Franckcnstein
Clause, but a few days later fifteen of the right wing left the party
and transferred their support to the government. For another
year the remainder kept together, but there was no longer any
real harmony or co-operation; in 1880 nineteen, including most
of the ablest leaders, Lasker,, Forckenbeck, Bamberger and
Bunsen, left the party altogether. The avowed cause of difference
was commercial policy; they were the Free Traders, but they
also justly foresaw that the reaction would extend to other
matters. They took the name of the Liberate Vereini-
gung, but were generally known as the Sezessianisten;
they hoped to become the nucleus of a united Liberal
party in which all sections should join together on the principles
of Free Trade and constitutional development. At the elections
of 1 881 they secured forty-seven seats, but they were not -strong
enough to maintain themselves, and with great reluctance
in 1884 formed a coalition with the Progressives (Freisinnigen),
who had gained greatly in strength owing to the breach among
the government parties. They did so reluctantly, because they
would thereby condemn themselves to assume that attitude of
purely negative criticism which, during the great days of their
prosperity, they had looked down upon with contempt, and were
putting themselves under the leadership of Eugen Richter, whom
they had long opposed. The new party, the Deutsckfreisinnige,
had no success; at the election of 1884 they secured
only sixty-seven seats, a loss of thirty-nine; they were
subjected to all inconveniences which belonged to
opposition; socially, they were boycotted by all who were
connected with the court or government; they were cut off from
all hope of public activity, and were subjected to constant
accusations for Bismarck Beleidigung. Their only hope was in
the time when the crown prince, who had shown great sympathy
with them, should succeed. They were popularly known as the
crown prince's party. Lasker soon died; others, such as Forcken-
beck and Bunsen, retired from public life, unable to maintain
their position at a time when the struggle of class interests had
superseded the old conflicts of principle. At the election of 1887
they lost more than half their seats, and in 1893 the party again
broke up.
The remainder of the National Liberals only won forty-five
seats in 1881, and during the next three years they were without
influence on the government; and even Bennigsen, unable to
follow Bismarck in his new policy, disgusted at the proposals
for biennial budgets and the misuse of government influence at
the elections, retired from political life. In 1884 a new develop-
ment took place: under the influence of Miquel a meeting was
held at Heidelberg of the South German members of the party,
who accepted the commercial and sodal policy of the govern-
ment, including the Socialist law; their programme received
Bismarck's approval, and was accepted by the rest of the party,
so that they henceforward were taken into favour by the govern-
ment; but they had won the position by sacrificing almost all the
characteristics of the older Liberalism the hope of a reunion
for all the different sections which had hitherto kept the name
of Liberal was at an end.
These events had a very unfortunate effect on the character
of the parliament. From 1878 to 1887 there was no strong party
FnhhH
on which Bismarck could depend for support. After 1881 thi
parties of opposition were considerably strengthened. Alsaliaa
and Poles, Guelphs, Clericals and Radicals were joined
in a common hostility to the government. Parlia- nwnu
mentary history took the form of a hostile criticism
of the government proposals, which was particularly bitter
because of the irreconcilable opposition of the Free Trader*.
Few of the proposals were carried in their entirely, many woe
completely lost ; the tobacco monopoly and the brandy monopoly
were contemptuously rejected by enormous majorities; even 2a
increase of the tax on tobacco was refused; the first proposals
for a subsidy to the Norddeutsche Lloyd were rejected. The
personal relations of the chancellor to Parliament were never so
bitter. At the same time, in Prussia there was a tendency to
make more prominent the power of the kins *nd to diminisa
the influence of the parliament. A proposal to introduce
biennial budgets was for this reason regarded with great suspicion
by the Opposition as a reactionary measure, and rejected. The
old feelings of suspicion and jealousy were again aroused; the
hostility which Bismarck encountered was scarcely less thaa
in the old days of the conflict. After the elections of 1881 1
protest was raised against the systematic influence exercised
by Prussian officials. Puttkammer, who had now become
minister of the interior, defended the practice, and a royal
edict of 4th January 1882 affirmed the monarchical character
of the Prussian constitution, the right of the king personally to
direct the policy of the state, and required those officials who held
appointments of a political nature to defend the policy of the
government, even at elections.
One result of the new policy was a reconciliation with the
Centre. Now that Bismarck could no longer depend on the
support of the Liberals, it would be impossible to carry
on the government if the Catholics maintained their %£*£■'*'
policy of opposition to all government measures, tmmtt
They had supported him in his commercial reform
of 1878, but by opposing the Septennate in 1880 they had shown
that he could not depend upon them. It was impossible to con-
tinue to treat as enemies of the state a party which had supplied
one of the vice-presidents to the Reichstag, and which after the
election of 1881 outnumbered by forty votes any other single
party. Moreover, the government, which was now very seriously
alarmed at the influence of the Social Democrats, was anxious
to avail itself of every influence which might be used against
them. In the struggle to regain the adherence of the working
men it seemed as though religion would be the most valuable
ally, and it was impossible to ignore the fact that the Roman
Catholic priests had alone been able to form an organisation in
which hundreds of thousands of working men had been enlisted.
It was therefore for every reason desirable to remedy a state of
things by which so many parishes were left without incumbents,
a condition the result of which must be cither to diminish the hold
of Christianity over the people, or to confirm in them the belief
that the government was the real enemy of Christianity. It
was not easy to execute this change of front with dignity, and
impossible to do so without forsaking the principles on which
they had hitherto acted. Ten years were to pass before the work
was completed. But the cause of the conflict had been rather
in the opinions of the Liberals than in the personal desire of
Bismarck himself. The larger political reasons which had brought
about the conflict were also no longer valid; the fears to which
the Vatican decrees had given rise had not been fulfilled; the
failure of the Carlists in Spain and of the Legitimists in France,
the consolidation of the new kingdom in Italy, and the alliance
with Austria had dispelled the fear of a Catholic league. The
growth of the Catholic democracy in Germany was a much more
serious danger, and it proved to be easier to come to terms with
the pope than with the parliamentary Opposition, It would
clearly be impossible to come to any agreement on the principles.
Bismarck hoped, indeed, putting all questions of principle aside,
to establish a modus tivendi; but even tins was difficult to attain.
An opportunity was given by the death of the pope in 1878.
Leo XIIL notified his accession to the Prussian government to
HISTORY)
GERMANY
885
a courteous despatch; the interchange of letters was followed
by a confidential discussion between Bismarck and Cardinal
Franchi at Kissingen during the summer of 1878. The hope
that this might bring about some agreement was frustrated by
the sudden death of the cardinal, and his successor was more
under the influence of the Jesuits and the more extreme party.
Bismarck, however, was not discouraged.
The resignation of Falk in July 1879 was a sign of the change
of policy; he was succeeded by Puttkammer, who belonged to
the old-fashioned Prussian Conservatives and had no sympathy
with the Liberal legislation. The way was further prepared
by a lenient use of the penal laws. On the 24th of February 1880
the pope, in a letter to the ex-archbishop of Cologne, said he was
willing to allow clerical appointments to be notified if the govern-
ment withdrew the obnoxious laws. In 1880 a provisional Bill
was submitted to parliament giving the crown discretionary
power not to enforce the laws. It was opposed by the Liberals
on the ground that it conceded too much, by the Clericals that
it granted too little, but, though carried only in a mutilated
form, it enabled the priests who had been ejected to appoint
substitutes, and religious worship was restored in nearly a
thousand parishes. In the elections of 1881 the Centre gained
five more seats, and in 1883 a new law was introduced prolong-
ing and extending that of 1881. Meanwhile a Prussian envoy
had again been appointed at the Vatican; all but three of the
vacant bishoprics were filled by agreement between the pope
and the king, and the sequestrated revenues were restored.
Finally, in 1886, a fresh law, besides other concessions, did
away with the Kultur Exanun, and exempted seminaries from
state control. It also abolished the ecclesiastical court, which,
in fact, had proved to be almost unworkable, for no priests
would appeal to it. By this, the real Kulturkampf, the attempt
of the state to control the intellect and faith of the clergy,
ceased. A further law of 1887 permitted the return to Prussia
of those orders which were occupied in charitable work.
As permanent results of the conflict there remain only the
alteration in the Prussian constitution and the expulsion of the
Jesuits; the Centre continued to demand the repeal of this,
and to make it the price of their support of government
measures; in 1807 the Bundesrat permitted the return of the
Redemptorists, an allied order. With these exceptions absolute
religious peace resulted; the Centre to a great extent succeeded
to the position which the National Liberals formerly held;
in Bavaria, in Baden, in Prussia they obtained a dominant
position, and they became a government party.
Meanwhile Bismarck, who was not intimidated by the parlia-
mentary opposition, irritating and embarrassing though it was,
resolutely proceeded with his task of developing the
Msttoa^f materia * resources of the empire. In order to do so
'ilnJayt. tne better, he undertook, in addition to his other
offices, that of Prussian minister of commerce. He
was now able to carry out, at least partially, his railway schemes,
for he could afford to ignore Liberal dislike to state railways,
and if he was unable to make all the lines imperial, he could make
most of them Prussian. The work was continued by his suc-
cessors, and by the year 1806 there remained only about 2000
kilometres of private railways in Prussia; of these none except
those in East Prussia belonged to companies of any great import-
ance. More than this, Bismarck was able to obtain Prussian
control of the neighbouring states; in 1886 the Brunswick
railways were acquired by the Prussian government, and in 1805
the private lines in Thuringia. The imperial railways in Alsace-
Lorraine are managed in close connexion with the Prussian
system, and in 1895 an important step was taken towards ex-
tending Prussian influence in the south. A treaty was made
between Prussia and Hesse by which the two states together
bought up the Hesse-Ludwig railway (the most important
private company remaining in Germany), and in addition to
this agreed that they would form a special union for the joint
administration of all the lines belonging to either state. What
this means is that the Hessian lines are managed by the Prussian
department, but Hesse has the right of appointing one director.
and the expenses and profits are divided between the two states
in proportion to their population. Thus a nucleus and precedent
has been formed similar to that by which the ZoUverein was begun,
and it was hoped that it might be possible to arrange similar
agreements with other states, so that in this way a common
management for all lines might be established. There is, how-
ever, strong opposition, especially in South Germany, and most
of the states cling to the separate management of their own lines.
Fearful that Prussia might obtain control over the private lines,
they have imitated Prussian policy and acquired all railways
for the state, and much of the old opposition to Prussia is
revived in defence of the local railways.
A natural supplement to the nationalization of railways was
the development of water communication. This is of great
importance in Germany, as all the chief coal-fields and ^ mmmlm
manufacturing districts— Silesia, Saxony, Westphalia •*•**•
and Alsace — are far removed from the sea . The most i mporlant
works were the canal from Dortmund to the mouth of the Ems,
and the Jahde canal from the Ems to the Elbe, which enables
Westphalian coal to reach the sea, and so to compete better
with English coal. In addition to this, however, a large number
of smaller works were undertaken, such as the canalization of
the Main from Frankfort to the Rhine, and a new canal from
the Elbe to Lttbeck. The great ship canal from Kiel to the Elbe,
which was begun in 1887 and completed in 1806, has perhaps
even more importance for naval than for commercial purposes.
The Rhine, so long the home of romance, has become one of the
great arteries of traffic, and lines of railways on both sides have
caused small villages to become large towns. The Prussian
government also planned a great scheme by which the West-
phalian coal-fields should be directly connected with the Rhine
in one direction and the Elbe in the other by a canal which
would join together Minden, Hanover and Magdeburg. This
would give uninterrupted water communication from one end
of the country to the other, for the Elbe, Oder and Vistula are
all navigable rivers connected by canals. This project, which
was a natural continuation of Bismarck's policy, was, however,
rejected by the Prussian parliament in 1899. The opposition
came from the Agrarians and extreme Conservatives, who feared
that it would enable foreign corn to compete on better terms
with German corn; they were also jealous of the attention paid
by the government to commercial enterprise in which they were
not immediately interested. The project was again laid by the
government before the Prussian Landtag on the 14th of April
1001 and was again rejected. In 1904 it was once more intra*
duced in the modified form of a proposal of a canal from the
Rhine to Leine in Hanover, with a branch from Dattdn to Ham,
and also of a canal from Berlin to Stettin. This bill was passed
in February 1905.
Equally important was the action of the government in
developing foreign trade. The first step was the inclusion of
Hamburg and Bremen in the Zollvertin; this was
necessary if German maritime enterprise was to become
a national'and not merely a local concern, for the two
Hansa cities practically controlled the whole foreign
trade and owned three-quarters of the shipping; but so long
as they were excluded for the Customs Union their interests
were more cosmopolitan than national. Both cities, but especi-
ally Hamburg, were very reluctant to give up their privileges and
the commercial independence which they had enjoyed almost
since their foundation. As a clause in the constitution deter-
mined that they should remain outside the Customs Union until
they voluntarily offered to enter it, there was some difficulty
in overcoming their opposition. Bismarck, with characteristic
energy, proposed to take steps, by altering the position of the
imperial customs stations, which would practically destroy the
commerce of Hamburg, and some of his proposals which seemed
contrary to the constitution aroused a very sharp resistance m
the Bundesrat. It was, however, not necessary to go to ex-
tremities, for in 1 88 1 the senate of Hamburg accepted an agree*
ment which, after a keen struggle, was ratified by the citizens.
By this Hamburg was to enter the ZoUv€rein\ a part of the
886
GERMANY
(HfSTOftY
harbour was to remain a free port, and the empire contributed two
million pounds towards rearranging and enlarging the harbour.
A similar treaty was made with Bremen, the free port of that
city being situated near the mouth of the Weser at Bremerhaven;
and in 1888, the necessary works having been completed, the
cities* entered the Customs Union. They have had no reason to
regret the change, for no part of the country profited so much by
the great prosperity of the following years, notwithstanding
the temporary check caused by the serious outbreak of cholera
at Hamburg in 1892.
During the first years of the empire Bismarck had occasionally
been asked to interest himself in colonial enterprise. He had
^^ refused, for he feared that foreign complications
might ensue, and that the country might weaken itself
by dissipation of energy. He was satisfied that the Germans
should profit by the commercial liberty allowed in the British
colonies. Many of the Germans were, however, not contented
with this, and disputes regarding the rights of German settlers
in Fiji caused some change of feeling. The acquisition of German
colonies was really the logical and almost necessary sequel of
a protective policy. For that reason it was always opposed by
the extreme Liberal party.
The failure of the great Hamburg house of Godcfroy in 1879
threatened to ruin the growing German industries m the South
Seas, which it had helped to build up. Bismarck therefore con-
sented to apply to the Reichstag for a state guarantee to a com-
pany which would take over its great plantations in Samoa.
This was refused, chiefly owing to the influence of the Liberal
party. Bismarck therefore, who took this rebuff much to heart,
said he would have nothing more to do with the matter, and
warned those interested in colonies that they must depend on
self-help; he could do nothing for them. By the support of
some of the great financial firms they succeeded in forming a
company, which carried on the business and undertook fresh
settlements on the islands to the north of New Guinea. This
event led also to the foundation of a society, the Dcutscher
Kolonial Vcrdn, under the presidency of the prince of Hohenlobe-
Langenburg, to educate public opinion. Their immediate
object was the acquisition of trading stations. The year 1884
brought a complete change. Within a few months Germany
acquired extended possessions in several parts both of Africa and
the South Seas. This was rendered possible owing to the good
understanding which at that time existed between Germany
and France. Bismarck therefore no longer feared, as he formerly
had, to encounter the difficulties with Great Britain which would
be the natural result of a policy of colonial expansion.
His conversion to the views of the colonial party was gradual,
as was seen in his attitude to the proposed acquisition of German
Atr . stations in South-West Africa. In Namaqualand and
Damaraland, British influence, exercised from Cape
Colony, had long been strong, but the British government had
refused to annex the country even when asked so to do by the
German missionaries who laboured among the natives. In 1882
F. A. LiideriU, a Bremen tobacco merchant, approached Bis-
»marck on the question of establishing a trading station on the
coast at Angra Pequefia. The chancellor, while not discouraging
LiideriU, acted with perfect fairness to Great Britain, and
throughout 1883 that country might have acted had she known
her mind. She did not, and in the summer of 1884 Bismarck
decided no longer to await her pleasure, and the south-west
coast of Africa from the frontier of the Portuguese possessions
to the Orange river, with the exception of Walfish Bay, was
taken under German protection. During the same year Dr
Nachtigal was despatched to the west coast, and stealing a
march on bis British and French rivals he secured not only
Togoland but Cameroon for the Germans. On the east coast
Bismarck acted decisively without reference to British interests.
A company, the Gesellxhajt fur dtutschc Kolcniwlion, was
founded early in 1884 by Dr Carl Peters, who with two com-
panions went off to the cast coast of Africa and succeeded in
November of that year in negotiating treaties with various chiefs
on the mainland who were alleged to be independent of Zanzibar.
In this icgion British opposition had to be considered, but ia
February 1885 a German protectorate over the territory acquired
by Peters was proclaimed.
Similar events took place in the South Seas. The acquisition
of Samoa, where German interests were most extensive, was
prevented (for the time being) by the arrangement made ia
1870 with Great Britain and the United States. But in 1884 and
1885 the German flag was hoisted on the north of New
Guinea (to which the name Kaiser Wilhelmsland has g%a&.
been given), on several parts of the New Britain Archi-
pelago (which afterwards became the Bismarck Archipelago),
and on the Caroline Islands. The last acquisition was not kept.
The Spanish government claimed the islands, and Bismarck,
in order to avoid a struggle which would have been very disastrous
to monarchical government in Spain, suggested that the pope
should be asked to mediate. Leo XIII. accepted the offer,
which was an agreeable reminiscence of the days when popes
determined the limits of the Spanish colonial empire, all the more
gratefully that it was made by a Protestant power. He decided
in favour of Spain, Germany being granted certain rights in the
islands. The loss of the islands was amply compensated for by
the political advantages which Bismarck gained by this attention
to the pope, and, after all, not many years elapsed before they
became German.
Bismarck in his colonial policy had repeatedly explained that
he did not propose to found provinces or take over for the
government the responsibility for their administration; he
intended to leave the responsibility for their material develop-
ment to the merchants, and even to entrust to them the actual
government. He avowedly wished to imitate the older form of
British colonization by means of chartered companies, which
had been recently revived in the North Borneo Company; the
only responsibility of the imperial government was to be their
protection from foreign aggression. In accordance with this
policy, the territories were not actually incorporated in the empire
(there would also have been constitutional difficulties in doing
that), and they were officially known as Protectorates (Schub-
gcbiele), a word which thus acquired a new signification. In 1885
two new great companies were founded to undertake the govern-
ment. The DentsclhOsi-Afrika GeseUsckaft, with a capital of
£200,000, took over the territories acquired by Dr Peters, and
for the South Seas the Ntu-Guinea GeseUsekaft, founded by an
amalgamation of a number of firms in 1884, received a charter
in 1 88s. It was not, however, possible to limit the imperiil
responsibility as Bismarck intended. In East Africa the great
revolt of the Arabs in 1888 drove the company out of all their
possessions, with the exception of the port of Dar-es-Salam.
The company was not strong enough to defend itself; troops
had to be sent out by the emperor under Captain Wissmann,
who as imperial commissioner took over the government. This,
which was at first a temporary arrangement, was afterwards
made permanent.
The New Guinea Company had less formidable enemies to
contend with, and with the exception of a period of three
years between 1889 and 1892, they maintained a full responsi-
bility for the administration of their territory till the year 1899,
when an agreement was made and ratified in the Reichstag,
by which the possession and administration was transferred
to the empire in return for a subsidy of £20,000 a year, to be
continued for ten years. The whole of the colonies have therefore
now come under the direct administration af the empire. They
were at first placed under the direction of a special department
of the Foreign Office, and in 1800 a council of experts on colonial
matters was instituted, while in 1007 a separate office for colonial
affairs was created. In 1887 the two chief soctet ies fox supporting
the colonial movement joined under the name of the Deutsche
KotonialgcseUschajt. This society takes a great part in forming
public opinion on colonial matters.
This new policy inevitably caused a rivalry of interests with
other countries, and especially with Great Britain. In every spot
at which the Germans acquired territory they found themselves
in opposition to British interests. The settlement of Angra
HISTORY}
GERMANY
887
Pequefia caused much ill feeling in Cape Colony, which was,
however, scarcely justified, for the Cape ministry was equally
Oermaay 'esP 011 ^ ^ w * l h th* British government for the dila-
toriness which led to the loss of what is now German
South-West Africa. I n Togoland and Cameroon B ritish
traders had long been active, and the proclamation of
British sovereignty was impending when the German flag was
hoisted The settlement in East Africa menaced the old-estab-
lished British influence over Zanzibar, which was all the more
serious because oi the close connexion between Zanzibar and the
rulers of the Persian Gulf; and Australia saw with much concern
the German settlement in New Guinea, especially as a British
•Protectorate (which in the view of Australians should have in-
cluded the whole of what Germany was allowed to take) had
previously been established in the island. In Africa Britain and
France proceeded to annex territory adjacent to the German
acquisitions, and a period followed during which the boundaries
of German, French and British possessions were determined by
negotiation. The overthrow of Jules Ferry and the danger of
war with France made a good understanding with Great Britain
of more importance. Bismarck, by summoning a conference
to Berlin (1884-1885) to discuss African questions, secured for
Germany a European recognition which was very grateful to the
colonial parties; and in 1888, by lending his support to the anti-
slavery movement of Cardinal Lavigerie, he won the support
of the Centre, who had hitherto opposed the colonial policy.
Finally a general agreement for the demarcation of Africa was
made in 1800 (see Africa, § 5). A similar agreement had been
made in 1886 regarding the South Seas. It was made after
Bismarck had retired from office, and he, as did the colonial party,
severely criticized the details; for the surrender of Zanzibar
and Witu cut short the hopes which had been formed of building
up a great German empire controlling the whole of East Africa.
Many of the colonial party went further, and criticized not only
the details, but the principle. They wen much offended by
Capri vi's statement that no greater injury could be done to
Germany than to give her the whole of Africa, and they refused
to accept his contention that " the period of flag-hoisting was
over," and that the time had come for consolidating their
possessions. It must, however, be recognized that a continuation
of the ambitious policy of the last few years might easily have
involved Germany in dangerous disputes.
It appeared a small compensation that Great Britain sur-
rendered to Germany the island of Heligoland, which she had
taken from the Danes in the Napoleonic wars. It
*J22°* was annexed to Prussia; the natives born before the
year 1880 were exempted from military service, and
till the year 1001 no additional import duties were to be imposed.
It has been strongly fortified and made a naval station.
It was easy for the Opposition to criticize the colonial policy.
They could point out that, with the exception of parts of South-
Progmi West Africa, no territory had been acquired in which
ofOtrmma any large number of German emigrants could live
coJoaisi an( j rear families. They went as a rule to the United
expsoato*. states and South America, or to territories under the
British flag. As markets for German products the colonies
remained of small importance; in 1007 the whole value of the
trade, import and export, between Germany and her colonies
was less than £3,300,000, and the cost of administration, including
the grant to the shipping companies, often exceeded the total
trade. Many mistakes were made in the administrat ion, and cases
of misconduct by individual officials formed the text for attacks
on the whole system. Generally, however, these criticisms were
premature; it was surely wise, while the opportunity was still
open, to take care that Germany, in the partition of the world
among European races, should not alone go entirely without a
share. The lack of colonial experience, and, often, the lack of
sympathy with, or understanding of, the negro and other races
over whom they had assumed a protectorate, were contributory
causes in the slow development of Germany's African colonies.
The unwillingness of the Reichstag to sanction the expenditure
of any large sums on railways and other public works also
hindered the exploitation of the economic resources of very large
areas. Yet at the close of the first twenty-five years' existence
of the colonial empire it might be said that the initial difficulties
had been overcome, and sufficient knowledge gained to ensure
Germany a return fairly commensurate with the efforts she had
put forth. The necessity to enlist the interests of the natives on
the side oi the government, if any progress was to be made in
industry or trade, was a lesson slowly learned. After the Arab
opposition had been crushed on the east coast of Africa, rirfff)T||rf
there still remained the native states to be dealt with, wan .
and few tribes voluntarily submitted to European ?*•
control There was a serious rising in 1005-1906, JJjJ?
when thousands of lives were lost. In Togoland there #m **
were disturbances of a comparatively minor character; in the
Cameroon hinterland campaigns were undertaken against the
Fulu and Bomucsc princes. It was, however, in South-West
Africa that the Germans had their chief and most bitter ex*
pcrience in colonial warfare. Though " annexed " in 1884 it was
not till ten years later, after protracted fighting, that the Hotten-
tots of Namaqualand recognized Germany. After another decade
of comparative peace war again broke out (1003) and spread from
the Hottentots to the Hcrcro. The Anglo-Boer War had then
but recently ended, and in Germany generally, and especially is
military circles, it had provoked much adverse criticism on the
inability of the British to bring the contest to a speedier con-
clusion. To their surprise the Germans now found that, against
an inferior foe operating in a more restricted area, they were
unable to do as well as the British army had done. The-
story of the war is told elsewhere (see German South-West
Africa); it lasted well into 1008 and the Germans were indebted
to the Cape Mounted Police for material help in bringing it to an.
end. As it progressed the Germans adopted many of the methods
employed by the British in their colonial wars, and they learned,
to appreciate more accurately the immensity of the task which
Lord Kitchener accomplished in overcoming the guerrilla war-
fare in the Boer republics.
It was obviously little use acquiring colonies and creating manu-.
factures if German foreign trade was to be in the hands of other
nations. As early as x8Si the government had pub-
lished a proposal for a subvention to German shipping;
it was criticized with peculiar energy by Bamberger
and the Free Traders; a Bill introduced in 1884 was
abandoned, but in 1885 Bismarck succeeded in carrying a vote
by which, for fifteen years, four million marks could annually
be devoted to helping a line of mail steamers to the Pacific and
Australia and a branch line in the Mediterranean. An agree*
raent was made with the Norddeutsche Lloyd, one clause of
which was that all the new steamers were to be built in Germany;
in 1800 a further vote was passed for a line to Delagoa Bay and
Zanzibar. This far from exhausts the external activity of the
nation and the government: the establishment of studentships
for the study of oriental languages enabled Germans to make
their way in the Turkish and Persian empires, and to open up
a fresh market for German goods; by the great excavations at
Pergamum and Olympia Germany entered with great distinction*
on a field in which the way had been shown by France and Great-
Britain. The progress of technical studies and industrial enter*
prise enabled Germany to take a leading place in railway and
shipbuilding, in the manufacture of military weapons, in chemical
experiments, and in electrical work.
It was a part of the new policy not only to combat Social
Democracy by repression, but to win the confidence of the
working men by extending to them the direct protection
of the state. Recent legislation, culminating in the
Cewcrbeordnung of i860, had, in accordance with the
principles of the Liberal Economists, or, as the Germans called
it, the Manchester School, instituted freedom from state control:
in the relations between employers and workmen. The old gilds,
had been destroyed, compulsory apprenticeship had ceased;
little protection, however, was given to the working men, and
the restrictions on the employment of women and children were
of Utile use, as there was no efficient system of factory inspection.
SodMt
888
GERMANY
[HISTORY
It was difficult for the men by their own exertions to improve
their condition, for the masters had full liberty of association,
which the law refused to the workmen. Even before 1870 a
protest was raised against this system among the Roman Catholics,
who were chiefly concerned for the preservation of family life,
which was threatened by the growth of the factory system and
also by the teaching of the Social Democrats. Baron von
Ketteler, archbishop of Mainz, had maintained that it was the
duty of the state to secure working men work and provision
during sickness and old age. The general interest of the Church
in the social question was recognized by a congress of the bishops
at Fulda. Reader's work was continued by Canon Moufang,
and Catholics brought forward motions in the Reichstag demand-
^^ ing new factory legislation. The peculiar importance
fffn... of the Catholic movement is that it alone was able to
some extent to meet the Socialists on their own ground.
The Catholics formed societies which were joined by large
numbers of workmen. Originated by Father Kolping on the
Rhine, they soon spread over the whole of Catholic Germany.
Herr von Schorlemer-Ast, a Catholic landed proprietor from
Westphalia, formed similar associations among the peasants.
The result of this has been that the Social Democrats have failed
to conquer the Catholic as they have the Protestant districts.
A similar movement began among the Protestants after the
commercial crisis of 1873, which forms an epoch in German
thought, since it was from that year that men first began to
question the economic doctrines of Liberalism, and drew attention
to the demoralization which seemed to arise from the freedom
of speculation and the influence of the stock exchange — a move-
ment which in later years led to some remarkable attempts to
remedy the evil by legislation. A minister, Rudolph Todt,
and Rudolph Meyer criticized the moral and economic doctrines
of Liberalism; his writings led to the foundation of the Christlick-
Sotialc-Arbeilcrvercin, which for a few years attained considerable
notoriety under the leadership of Adolph Stocker. The Pro-
testant movement has not succeeded in attaining the same
position as has the Catholic among the working men; but it
received considerable support among the influential classes
at court, and part of the programme was adopted by the Con-
servative party, which in 1876 demanded restriction of industrial
liberty and legislation which would prevent the ruin of the
independent artizans.
In a country where learned opinion has so much influence
on public affairs it was of especial importance that several of
the younger teachers separated themselves from the dominant
Manchester School and asserted the duty of the state actively
to promote the well-being of the working classes. At a congress
held in Erfurt in 1873, Schmoller, Wagner, Brenlano and others
founded the Vcrein fiir SoziaJ-Politik, which by its publications
has had much influence on German thought.
The peculiar social conditions brought it about that in many
cases the Christian Social movement took the form of Anti-
^^ Semitism (q.v.). Nearly all the bankers and stock-
Stmtm, brokers in Germany were Jews. Many of the leaders
• of the Liberal parties, e.g. Bamberger and Lasker,
were of Jewish origin; the doctrines of Liberalism were supported
by papers owned and edited by Jews; hence the wish to restore
more fully the avowedly Christian character of the state, coincid-
ing with the attack on the influence of finance, which owed so
much to the Liberal economic doctrines, easily degenerated into
attacks on the Jews. The leader in this was Stocker. During
the years 1879 to 1881 the anti-Semite agitation gained consider-
able importance in Berlin, Breslau and other Prussian cities,
and it culminated in the elections of that year, leading in some
cases to riots and acts of violence.
So long as the government was under the influence of the
National Liberals, it was indifferent if not hostile to these move-
ments. The Peasants' Union had actually been forbidden by
the police; Bismarck himself was violently attacked for his
reputed connexion with a great Jewish firm of bankers. He bad,
however, kept himself informed regarding these movements,
chiefly by means of Hermann Wagener, an old editor of the
Krcuszeitung, and in the year 1878 he felt himself free to return
in this matter to his older opinions. The new policy suggested
in that year was definitely announced at the opening of the
session in the spring of 1881, and at the meeting of the new
Reichstag in November 1881. It was explained in a speech froa
the throne, which, as the emperor could not be present, became
an imperial message. This is generally spoken of as the beginmni
of a new era. The help of the Reichstag was asked for " heafiaf
social evils by means of legislation . . . based on the moral
foundation of Christianity." Compulsory insurance, tbe creatioa
of corporate unions among working men under the protectioa
of the state, and the introduction of indirect taxes, were the chid
elements in the reform.
The condition of parties was such that Bismarck could not
hope to win a majority for his schemes, especially as he could
not obtain the monopoly on tobacco on which he depended to
cover the expense. The first reform was the restoration of the
gilds, to which the Conservatives attached great importance.
Since 1869 they continued to exist only as voluntary associations
with no public duties; many had been dissolved, and this is
said to have brought about bad results in the management of
lodging-houses, the condition of apprentices, • support during
illness, and the maintenance of labour bureaus. It was supposed
that, if they could be restored, the corporate spirit would
prevent the working men from falling under the influence of the
Socialists. The law of 1 881, while it left membership voluntary,
gave to them many duties of a semi-public nature, especiaDy
that of arbitration between masters and men. These were ex-
tended by a further law in 1884.
The really important element was the scheme for a great
imperial system by which all working men and women should
be provided for in case of sickness, accident or old age.
Bismarck hoped by this to relieve the parishes of the Com T*
burden of the poor-rate, which would be transferred ^Siimi
to the empire; at the same time the power of the
government would be greatly extended. The first proposal in
March 1881 was for compulsory insurance against accidents.
Every one employed on railways, mines and factories was to
be insured in an imperial office; the premium was to be divided
equally between masters, workmen and the state. It was bitterly
opposed by the Liberals, especially by Bamberger; all essential
features were altered by the Reichstag, and it was withdraws
by the government after it had passed the third reading.
In 1 88 a a fresh scheme was laid before the newly elected
Reichstag dealing with insurance against accident and against
sickness. The two parts were separated by the Reichstag; the
second, which was the necessary prelude to the other, was passed
in 1883. The law was based on an old Prussian principle;
insurance was made compulsory, but the state, instead of doing
the work itself, recognized the existing friendly and other
societies; they were still to enjoy their corporate existence and
separate administration, but they were placed under stale con-
trol, and for this purpose an imperial insurance department
was created in the office of the secretary of state for the interior.
Uniform regulations were to be followed in all trades and districts;
one-third of the premium was paid by the employer, two-thirds
by the workmen.
The Accident Law of 1883 was rejected, for it still included
the state contribution to which the Reichstag would not assent,
and also contributions from the workmen. A new law, drafted
according to their wishes, was passed in 1884. It applied only
to those occupations, mines and factories, in which the use of
machinery was common; it threw the whole burden of com-
pensation on to the masters; but, 00 the other hand, for the
first thirteen weeks after an accident the injured workman
received compensation from the sick fund, so that the cost only
fell on the masters in the more serious cases. Tbe masters were
compelled to insure themselves against the payments for which
they might become liable, and for this purpose had to form trades
associations, self-governing societies, which in each district
included all the masters for each particular trade. The applica-
tion of this law was subsequently extended to other trades.
H1ST0RY1
GERMANY
889
It was not till 1889 that the greatest innovation, that of insurance
against old age, was carried. The obligation to insure rested
on all who were in receipt of wages of not more than two pounds
a week. Half the premium, according to the wages received, was
paid by the master. The pension began at the age of seventy,
the amount varying by very complicated rules, but the state
paid a fixed sum of two pounds ten shillings annually in addition
to the pension. These measures worked well. They were re-
garded with satisfaction by masters and men alike. Alterations
have been made in detail, and further alterations demanded,
but the laws have established themselves in practice. The large
•.mount of self-administration has prevented an undue increase
of bureaucratic power. The co-operation of masters and men
in the administration of the societies has a good effect oh the
relations of the classes.
Except in the matter of insurance, the total result, however,
for the moment was small. The demands repeatedly made
by the Centre and the Conservatives for effective factory legis-
lation and prohibition of Sunday labour were not successful.
Bismarck did not wish to lay heavier burdens on the capitalists,
and it was not till a later period that they were carried out.
During all this period Bismarck's authority was so great,
that in the conduct of foreign affairs he was freed from the
Porrlxu criticism and opposition which so often hampered
mffMfn: aim in his internal policy, and he was able to establish
JJJJ2J* that system of alliances on which for so many years
the political system of Europe depended. The close
union of the three empires which had existed since the meeting
of the emperors in 1872 did not survive the outbreak of dis-
turbances in the East. Bismarck had maintained an attitude of
neutrality, but after the congress of Berlin he found himself
placed between the alternatives of friendship with Austria or
Russia. Movements of Russian troops on the western frontier
threatened Austria, and the tsar, in a letter to the German
emperor, stated that peace could only be maintained if Germany
gave her support to Russia. Bismarck, now that the choice
was forced upon him, determined in favour of Austria, and during
a visit to Vienna in October, arranged with Count Andrassy an
alliance by which in the event of either being attacked by Russia
the other was to assist; if either was attacked by any power
other than Russia, the other was to preserve benevolent neutrality
unless the attacking power was helped by Russia. The effect of
this was to protect Austria from attack by Russia, and Germany
from the danger of a combined attack by France and Russia.
Bismarck with some difficulty procured the consent of the
emperor, who by arranging a meeting with the tsar had attempted
to preserve the old friendship. From that time the alliance with
Austria has continued. In 1883 it was joined by Italy, and was
renewed in 1887, and in 1891 for six years, and if not then
denounced, for twelve.
In 1882, after the retirement of Gorchakov, the relations
with Russia again improved. In 1884 there was a meeting of
the three emperors, and at the same lime Bismarck came to a
close understanding with France on colonial questions. The
period of quiet did not last long. The disaster in Tongking
brought about a change of ministry in France, and Bulgarian
affairs again alienated Austria and Russia. Bismarck with great
skill used the growing foreign complications as a means of freeing
himself from parliamentary difficulties at the same time that
he secured the position of Germany in Europe.
To meet the increase in the French army, and the open
menaces in which the Russian press indulged, a further increase
Btm ^ t ^ mm in the German army seemed desirable. The Septcnnate
JJ72ST* would expire in 1888. In the autumn of 1886 a pro-
posal was laid before the Reichstag to increase the peace
establishment for the next seven years to 468,409 men. The
Reichstag would not assent to this, but the opposition parties
offered to vote the required increase for three years. Bismarck
refused to accept this compromise, and the Reichstag was dis-
solved. Under his influence the Conservatives and National
Liberals formed a coalition or Cartel by which each agreed to
support the candidates of the other. The elections caused
greater excitement than any which had taken place since 187a
The numbers who went to the poll were much larger, and all the
opposition parties, except the Catholics, including even the
Socialists, suffered severe loss. Bismarck, in order to win the
support of the Centre, appealed directly to the pope, but Wind-
thorst took the responsibility of refusing to obey the pope's
request on a matter purely political The National Liberals
again became a government party, but their position was much
changed. They were no longer, as in the old days, the leading
factor. They had to take the second place. They were sub-
ordinate to the Conservatives. They could no longer impose their
will upon the government. In the new parliament the govern-
ment proposals were accepted by a majority of 223 to 48 (seven
members of the Centre voted for it, the others abstained). The op-
position consisted chiefly of Socialists and Radicals (Freisinnigen),
The fall of Boulanger removed the immediate danger from
France, but for the rest of the year the relations with Russia
caused serious apprehensions. Anti-German articles
appeared in Russian newspapers. The growth of the JJJ" 1
Nationalist party in Russia led to measures injurious RmsmU.
to German trade and German settlers in Russia.
German vessels were forbidden to trade on the Niemen. The
increase of the duties on iron injured German trade. Stringent
measures were taken to stamp out German nationality in the
Baltic provinces, similar to those used by the Germans against
the Poles. Foreigners were forbidden to hold land in Russia.
The German government retaliated by a decree of the Rcichs*
bank refusing to deal with Russian paper. Large accumulations
of troops on the western frontier excited alarm in Germany and
Austria. During a short visit paid by the emperor of Russia to
Berlin in November Bismarck discovered that forged despatches
misrepresenting the policy of Germany in the Eastern Question
had been communicated to him. This did not seem to remove
all danger, and in February 1888 the government introduced
an amendment to the imperial Military Law extending the
obligation for service from twelve to eighteen years. In this
way it was possible to increase the war establishment, excluding
the Landsturm, by about half a million men without adding to
the burden in time of peace. Another law authorized a loan
of £14,000,000 for military equipment. At the same time
the text of the Triple Alliance was published. The two laws
were adopted without opposition. Under the effect of one of
Bismarck's speeches, the Military Bill was unanimously passed
almost without debate.
It was probably at the meeting of 1884 that a secret treaty,
the existence of which was not known for many years, was
arranged between Germany and Russia. The full text Stent
has never been published, and the exact date is un- awKr
certain. Either state pledged itself to observe bene- JSLi*
volcnt neutrality in case the other were attacked
by a third power. Apparently the case of an attack by France
on Germany, or by Austria on Russia, was expressly mentioned.
The treaty lapsed in 1800, and owing to Bismarck's dismissal
was not renewed. Caprivi refused to renew it because it was
doubtful whether by increasing the number of treaties the value*
of them was not diminished. Under this system it was to be
apprehended that if war broke out between Austria and Russia,
Austria would claim the support of Germany under the Triple
Alliance, Russia neutrality under this treaty. The decision of
Germany would theoretically have to depend on the question
which party was the aggressor — a question which notoriously
is hardly ever capable of an answer. (For this treaty see the
debate in the Reichstag of the 16th of November 1806; the
Hamburger Nachrickten of 24th October in the same year;
and Schulthess, Europ&uckcs GtsckickUkalcrtdar, 1896.)
The emperor William died on the 9th of March 1888. He was*
succeeded by his son, who took the title of Frederick III. In
Italy the older title of king of Piedmont has been
absorbed in the newer kingdom of Italy; this is not tiSrrkk
the case in Germany, where the title German emperor Uk
is merely attached to and not substituted for that of
king of Prussia. The events of this short reign, which lasted
890
GERMANY
tmsron
only ninety-nine days, have chiefly a personal interest, and are
narrated under the articles Frederick III. and Bismarck.
The illness and death of the emperor, however, destroyed the
last hope of the Liberals that they might at length succeed to
power. For a generation they had waited for his accession,
and bitter was their disappointment, for it was known that his
son was more inclined to follow the principles of Bismarck than
those of his own father. The emperor, crippled and dying though
he was, showed clearly how great a change he would, had he
lived, have introduced in the spirit of the government. One of
his first acts was severely to reprimand Puttkammer for misusing
government influence at elections. The minister sent in his
resignation, which was accepted, and this practice, which had
been deliberately revived during the last ten years, was thereby
publicly disavowed. Bismarck's own position would naturally
have been seriously affected by the fall of a colleague with whom
he was closely connected, and another point of internal policy
showed also how numerous were the differences between the
chancellor and the emperor. Laws had been passed prolonging
the period of both the Prussian and Imperial parliaments from
three to five years; when they were laid before the emperor
for his signature he said that he must consider them. Bismarck
then pointed out that the constitution of the empire did not
authorize the emperor to withhold his assent from a law which
had passed both the Reichstag and the Bundcsrat; he could
as king of Prussia oppose it by his representatives in the federal
council, but when it had been accepted there, it was his duly as
emperor to put the law into execution. The emperor accepted
this exposition of the constitution, and after some delay eventu-
ally gave his consent also to the Prussian law, which he was
qualified to reject.
He was succeeded by his eldest son, William IL (q.v.). The
first year of the new reign was uneventful. In his public speeches
the emperor repeatedly expressed his reverence for
U m the memory of his grandfather, and his determination
to continue his policy; but he also repudiated the
attempt of the extreme Conservatives to identify him with their
party. He spent much time on journeys, visiting the chief courts
of Europe, and he seemed to desire to preserve close friendship
with other nations, especially with Russia and Great Britain.
Changes were made in the higher posts of the army and civil
service, and Moltke resigned the office of chief of the staff,
which for thirty years he had held with such great distinction.
The beginning of the year 1S90 brought a decisive event.
The period of the Reichstag elected in 1887 expired, and the new
elections, the first for a quinquennial period, would take
place. The chief matter for decision was the fate of
the Socialist law; this expired on the 30th of September
1800. The government at the end of 1889 introduced a new law,
which was altered in some minor matters, and which was to be
permanent. The Conservatives were prepared to vote for it;
the Radicals and Centre opposed it; the decision rested with the
National Liberals, and they were willing to accept it on condition
that the clause was omitted which allowed the state governments
to exclude individuals from districts in which the state of siege
had been proclaimed. The final division took place on the 25th
of February 1800 An amendment had been carried omitting
this clause, and the National Liberals therefore voted for the
bill in its amended form. The Conservatives were ready to
vote as the government wished; if Bismarck was content with
the amended bill, they would vote for it, and it would be carried ;
no instructions were sent to the party; they therefore voted
against the bill, and it was lost. The House was immediately
dissolved. It was to have been expected that, as in 1878, the
government would appeal to the country to return a Conservative
majority willing to vote for a strong law against the Socialists.
Instead of this, the emperor, who was much interested in social
reform, published two proclamations. In one addressed to the
chancellor he declared his intention, as emperor, of bettering the
lot of the working classes; for this purpose he proposed to call
an international congress to consider the possibility of meeting
the requirements and wishes of the working men; in the other,
Fallot
which he issued as king of Prussia, he declared that the regulauos
of the time and conditions of labour was the duty of the state,
and the council of state was to be summoned to discuss ika
and kindred questions. Bismarck, who was less hopeful thai
the emperor, and did not approve of this policy, was thereby
prevented from influencing the elections as be would have wished
to do; the coalition parties, in consequence, suffered severe loo;
Socialists, Centre and Radicals gained numerous seats. A far
days after the election Bismarck was dismissed from office. The
difference of opinion between him and the emperor was oot
confined to social reform; beyond this was the more serww
question as to whether the chancellor or the emperor was to
direct the course of the government. The emperor, who, ai
Bismarck- said, intended to be his own chancellor, required
Bismarck to draw up a decree reversing a cabinet order of
Frederick William IV., which gave the Prussian minister-
president the right of being the sole means of commnnicauoi
between the other ministers and the king. This Bismarck refused
to do, and he was therefore ordered to send in his resignation.
Among those more immediately connected with the govern-
ment his fall was accompanied by a feeling of relief which was
not confined to the Opposition, for the burden of his caamat
rule had pressed heavily upon all. There was, however, /<**** at
no change in the principles of government or avowed Coamvm
change in policy; some uncertainty of direction and Csp * hL
sudden oscillations of policy showed the presence of a less ex-
perienced hand. Bismarck's successor, General von Caprivi,
held a similar combination of offices, but the chief control passed
now into the hands of the emperor himself. He aspired by his
own will to direct the policy of the state; he put aside the reserve
which in modern times is generally observed even by absolute
rulers, and by his public speeches and personal influence took
a part in political controversy. He made very evident the
monarchical character of the Prussian state, and gave to the office
of emperor a prominence greater than it had hitherto had.
One result of this was that it became increasingly difficult in
political discussions to avoid criticizing the words and actions of
the emperor. Prosecutions for Itsc-majcstt became commoner
than they were in former reigns, and the difficulty was much fell
in the conduct of parliamentary debate. The rule adopted was
that discussion was permitted on those speeches of the emperor
which were officially published in the Reichsanzcigar. It was,
indeed, not easy to combine that respect and reverence which
the emperor required should be paid to him, with that open
criticism of his words which seemed necessary (even for self-
defence) when the monarch condescended to become the censor
of the opinions and actions of large parties and classes among his
subjects. The attempts to combine personal government with
representative institutions was one of much interest; it was more
successful than might have been anticipated, owing to the dis-
organization of political parties and the absence of great political
leaders; in Germany, as elsewhere, the parliaments had not
succeeded in maintaining public interest, and it is worth noting
that even the attendance of members was very irregular. There
was below the surface much discontent and subdued criticism
of the exaggeration of the monarchical power, which the Germans
called Byzantinismus; but after all the nation seemed to welcome
the government of the emperor, as it did that of Bismarck. The
uneasiness which was caused at first by the unwonted vigour of
his utterances subsided, as it became apparent how strong was
his influence for peace, and with how many-sided an activity he
supported and encouraged every side of national life. Another
result of the personal government by the emperor was that it
was impossible, in dealing with recent history, to determine how
far the ministers of state were really responsible for the measures
which they defended, and how far they were the instruments
and mouthpieces of the policy of the emperor.
The first efforts of the " New course," as the new administra-
tion was termed, showed some attempt to reconcile to the govern-
ment those parties and persons whom Bismarck had kept in
opposition. The continuation of social reform was to win over
the allegiance of the working men to the person of the emperor.
HISTORY)
GERMANY
891
«B attempt was made to reconcile the Gnelpha, and even the
Poles were taken into favour; Windthorst was treated with
marked distinction. The Radicals alone, owing to their ill-timed
criticism on the private relations of the imperial family, and their
continued opposition to the army, were excluded. The attempt,
however, to unite and please all parties failed, as did the similar
attempt in foreign policy. Naturally enough, it was social re-
form on which at first activity was concentrated, and the long-
delayed factory legislation was now carried out. In 1887 and
1888 the Clerical and Conservative majority had carried through
f ^j the Reichstag laws restricting the employment of
JJJJJJ 1 *' women and children and prohibiting labour on Sundays.
These were not accepted by the Bundesrat, but after
the International Congress of 1800 an important amendment
and addition to the Gewirbeorinung was carried to this effect. It
was of even greater importance that a full system of factory
inspection was created. A further provision empowered the
Bundesrat to fix the hours of labour in unhealthy trades; this
was applied to the bakeries by an edict of 1895, but the great
outcry which this caused prevented any further extension.
These acts were, however, accompanied by language of great
I decision against the Social Democrats, especially on the occasion
of a great strike in Westphalia, when the emperor
■f^Tirftrf warned the men that for him every Social Democrat
ttm. was an enemy to the empire and country. None the
less, all attempts to win the working men from the
doctrinaire Socialists failed. They continued to look on the
whole machinery of government, emperor and army, church and
police, as their natural enemies, and remained completely under
the bondage of the abstract theories of the Socialists, just as much
as fifty years ago the German bourgeois were controlled by the
Liberal theories. It is strange to see how the national character-
istics appeared in them. What began as a great revolutionary
movement became a dogmatic and academic school of thought ;
it often almost seemed as though the orthodox interpretation
of Marx's doctrine was of more importance than an improvement
in the condition of the working men, and the discussions in the
annual Socialist Congress resembled the arguments of theologians
rather than the practical considerations of politicians. The
party, however, prospered, and grew in strength beyond all
anticipation. The repeal of the Socialist law was naturally wel-
come to them as a great personal triumph over Bismarck; in the
elections of 1800 they won thirty-five, in 1893 forty-four, in 1808
fifty-six seats. Their influence was not confined to the artisans;
among their open or secret adherents were to be found large
numbers of government employes and clerks. In the autumn
of 1890 they were able,, for the first time, to hold in Germany a
general meeting of delegates, which was continued annually.
In the first meetings it appeared that there were strong opposing
tendencies within the party which for the first time could be
brought to public discussion. On the one side there was a small
party, die Jungen, in Berlin, who attacked the parliamentary
leaders on the ground that they had lent themselves to com-
promise and had not maintained the old intransigeant spirit.
In 1891, at Erfurt, Werner and his followers were expelled from
the party; some of them drifted into anarchism, others dis-
appeared. On the other hand, there was a large section, the
leader of whom was Herr von Vollmar, who maintained that the
social revolution would not come suddenly, as Bebel and the
older leaders had taught, but that it would be a gradual evolution;
they were willing to co-operate with the government in remedial
measures by which, within the existing social order, the prosperity
and freedom of the working classes might be advanced; their
position was very strong, as Vollmar had succeeded in extending
Socialism even in the Catholic parts of Bavaria. An attempt
to treat them as not genuine Socialists was frustrated, and they
continued in co-operation with the other branch of the party.
Their position would have been easier were it not for the repeated
attempts of the Prussian government to crush the party by fresh
legislation and the supervision exercised by the police. It was
a sign of most serious import for the future that in 1897 the
electoral law in the kingdom of Saxony was altered with the
express purpose of excluding the Socialists from the Saxon
Landtag. This and other symptoms caused serious apprehension
that some attempt might be made to alter the law of universal
suffrage for the Reichstag, and it was policy of this kind which
maintained and justified the profound distrust of the governing
classes and the class hatred on which Social democracy depends.
On the other hand, there were signs of a greater willingness among
the Socialists to co-operate with their old enemies the Liberals.
In foreign affairs a good understanding with Great Britain
was maintained, but the emperor failed at that time to preserve
the friendship of Russia. The close understanding MmtMnt
between France and Russia, and the constant increase t!S^
in the armies of these states, made a still further increase mm,
of the German army desirable. In 1890, while the
Septennate had still three more years to run, Caprivi had to ask
for an additional 20,000 men. It was the first time that an
increase of this kind had been necessary within the regular,
period. When* in 1893, the proposals for the new period were
made, they formed a great change. Compulsory service was.
to be made a reality; no one except those absolutely unfit was
to escape it. To make enlistment of so large an additional
number of recruits possible, the period of service with the colours
was reduced to two years. The parliamentary discussion was
very confused; the government eventually accepted an amend-
ment giving them 557,093 for five and a, half years instead of the
570*877 asked for; this was rejected by 210 to 162, the greater
part of the Centre and of the Radicals voting against it. Parlia-
ment was at once dissolved. Before the elections the Radical
party broke up, as about twenty of them determined to accept the
compromise. They took the name of theFreisinnige Vereinigung,
the others who remained under the leadership of Richter forming
the Freisinnige Volkspartei. The natural result of this split was
a great loss to the party. The Liberal opposition secured only
twenty-three seats instead of the sixty-seven they had held
before. It was, so far as now can be foreseen, the final collapse
of the old Radical party. Notwithstanding this the bill was only
carried by sixteen votes, and it would have been thrown out again
had not the Poles for the first time voted for the government,
since the whole of the Centre voted in opposition.
This vote was a sign of the increasing disorganization of parties
and of growing parliamentary difficulties which were even more
apparent in the Prussian Landtag. Mi quel, as minister of finance,
succeeded indeed in carrying a reform by which the proceeds of
the tax on land and buildings were transferred to the local
government authorities, and the loss to the state exchequer-
made up by increased taxation of larger incomes and industry.
The series of measures which began in 1891, and were completed
in 1895, won a more general approbation than is usual, and
Miquel in this successfully carried out his policy of reconciling
the growing jealousies arising from class interests.
Caprivi's administration was further remarkable for the
arrangement of commercial treaties. In 1892 treaties with
Austria-Hungary, Italy, Belgium and Switzerland for
twelve years bound together the greater part of the
continent, and opened a wide market for German
manufactures; the idea of this policy was to secure,
by a more permanent union of the middle European states, a
stable market for the goods which were being excluded owing
to the great growth of Protection in France, Russia and America.
These were followed by similar treaties with Rumania and Servia,
and in 1894, after a period of sharp customs warfare, with Russia.
In all these treaties the general principle was a reduction of the
import duties on corn in return for advantages given to German
manufactures, and it is this which brought about the struggle
of the government with the Agrarians which after 1894 took the
first place in party politics.
The agricultural interests in Germany had during the middle
of the igth century been in favour of Free Trade. The reason
of this was that, till some years after the foundation Aaimtuiu
of the empire, the production of corn and food-stuffs
was more than sufficient for the population; as long as they
exported corn, potatoes and cattle, they required no protection
892
GERMANY
IHISTORY
from foreign competition, and they enjoyed the advantages of
being able to purchase colonial goods and manufactured articles
cheaply. Mecklenburg and Hanover, the purely agricultural
states, had until their entrance into the Customs Union, followed
a completely Free Trade policy. The first union of the Agrarian
party, which was formed in 1876 under the name of the Society
for the Reform of Taxation, did not place protection on their
programme; they laid stress on bimetallism, on the reform of
internal taxation, especially of the tax on land and buildings,
and on the reform of the railway tariff, and demanded an increase
in the stamp duties. These last three points were all to some
extent attained. About this time, however, the introduction
of cheap corn from Russia began to threaten them, and it was
in 1879 that, probably to a great extent influenced by Bismarck,
they are first to be found among those who ask for protection.
After that time there was a great increase in the importation
of food-stuffs from America. The increase of manufactures and
the rapid growth of the population made the introduction of
cheap food from abroad a necessity. In the youth of the empire
the amount of corn grown in Germany was sufficient for the
needs of its inhabitants; the amount consumed in 1899 exceeded
the amount produced by about one-quarter of the total. At
the same time the price, making allowance for the fluctuations
owing to bad harvests, steadily decreased, notwithstanding the
duty on corn. In twenty years the average price fell from about
J 35 to 135 marks the 1000 kilo. There was therefore a constant
decrease in the income from land, and this took place at a time
when the great growth of wealth among the industrial classes had
made living more costly. The agriculturists of the north and
cast saw themselves and their class threatened with loss, and
perhaps ruin; their discontent, which had long been growing,
broke out into open fire during the discussion of the commercial
treaties. As these would inevitably bring about a large increase
in the importation of corn from Rumania and Russia, a great
agitation was begun in agricultural circles, and the whole in-
fluence of the Conservative party was opposed to the treaties.
This brought about a curious situation, the measures being only
carried by the support of the Centre, the Radicals, and the
Socialists, against the violent opposition of those classes, especi-
ally the landowners in Prussia, who had hitherto been the
supporters of the government. In order to prevent the com-
mercial treaty with Russia, a great agricultural league was
founded in 1893, the Bund dtr Landwirte; some 7000 land-
owners joined it immediately. Two days later the Peasants'
League, or Deutsche Bauernbund, which had been founded in
1885 and included some 44,000 members, chiefly from the
smaller proprietors in Pomerania, Poscn, Saxony and Thuringia,
merged itself in the new league. This afterwards gained very
great proportions. It became, with the Social Democrats, the
most influential society which had been founded in Germany for
defending the interests of a particular class; it soon numbered
more than 200,000 members, including landed proprietors of all
degrees Under its influence a parliamentary union, the Wirt-
sek<ifisvercinigung t was founded to ensure proper consideration
for agricultural affairs; it was joined by more than 100 members
of the Reichstag; and the Conservative party fell more and
more under the influence of the Agrarians.
Having failed to prevent the commercial treaties, Count Kanitz
introduced a motion that the stale should have a monopoly of
all imported corn, and that the price at which it was to be sold
should be fixed by law. On the first occasion, in 1894, only fifty
members were found to vote for this, but in the next year ninety-
seven supported the introduction of the motion, and it was con-
sidered worth while to call together the Prussian council of slate
for a special discussion. The whole agitation was extremely
inconvenient to the government. The violence with which it
was conducted, coming, as it did, from the highest circles of the
Prussian nobility, appeared almost an imitation of Socialist
methods; but the emperor, with his wonted energy, personally
rebuked the leaders, and warned them that the opposition of
Prussian nobles to their king was a monstrosity. Nevertheless
they were able to overthrow the chancellor, who was specially
obnoxious to them. In October 1894 he was dismissed suddenly,
without warning, and almost without cause, while the emperor
was on a visit to the Eulenburgs, one of the most influential
families of the Prussian nobility.
Capri vi's fall, though it was occasioned by a difference betweei
him and Count Eulenburg, and was due to the direct act of the
emperor, was rendered easier by the weakness of his
parliamentary position. There was no party on whose
help he could really depend. The Military Bill had
offended the prejudices of conservative military critics; tbe
British treaty had alienated the colonial party; the commercial
treaties had only been carried by the help of Poles, Radicals and
Socialists; but it was just these parties who were the most easily
offended by the general tendencies of the internal legislation,
as shown in the Prussian School Bill. Moreover, the bitter and
unscrupulous attacks of the Bismarckian press to which Caprivi
was exposed made him unpopular in the country, for the people
could not feel at ease so long as they were governed by a minister
of whom Bismarck disapproved. There was therefore no prospect
of forming anything like a stable coalition of parties on which he
could depend. __
The emperor was fortunate in securing as his successor Prince
Chlodwig von Hohenlohe. Though the new chancellor once
more united with this office that of Prussian minister- 4
president, his age, and perhaps also his character,
prevented him from exercising that constant activity j
and vigilance which his two predecessors bad displayed.
During his administration even the secretary of state for foreign
affairs, Baron Marschall von Bieberstein, and afterwards Count
von Blilow, became the ordinary spokesman of the government,
and in the management of other departments the want of a strong
hand at the head of affairs was often missed. Between the
emperor, with wiiom the final direction of policy rested, and bis
subordinates, the chancellor often appeared to evade public
notice. The very first act of the new chancellor brought upon
him a severe rebuff. At the opening of the new buildings which
had been erected in Berlin for the Reichstag, cheers were called
for the emperor. Some of the Socialist members remained
seated. It was not dear that their action was deliberate, but
none the less the chancellor himself came down to ask from the
House permission to bring a charge of Usc-majesti against them,
a request which was, of course, almost unanimously refused.
The Agrarians still maintained their prominent position in
Prussia. They opposed all bills which would appear directly
or indirectly to injure agricultural interests They looked with
suspicion on the naval policy of the emperor, for they disliked
all that helps industry and commerce. They would only give
their support to the Navy Bills of 1897 and 1000 in return for
large concessions limiting the importation of margarine and
American preserved meat, and the removal of the Indcmnitttis
Nackweis acted as a kind of bounty on the export of corn. They
successfully opposed the construction of the great canal from
Westphalia to the Elbe, on the ground that it would facilitate
the importation of foreign corn. They refused to accept all the
compromises which Miquel, who was very sympathetic towards
them, suggested, and thereby brought about his retirement in
May 1901.
The opposition of the Agrarians was for many reasons peculiarly
embarrassing. The franchise by which the Prussian parliament
is elected gave the Conservatives whom they controlled a pre-
dominant position. Any alteration of the franchise was, however,
out of the question, for that would admit the Socialists. It was,
moreover, the tradition of the Prussian court and the Prussian
government . (and it must be remembered that the imperial
government is inspired by Prussian traditions) that the nobility
and peasants were in a peculiar way the support of the crown
and the state. The old distrust of the towns, of manufacturers
and artisans, still continued. The preservation of a peasant class
was considered necessary in the interests of the army. Besides,
intellectual and social prejudices required a strong Conservative
party. In the south and west of Germany, however, the Con-
servative party was practically non-existent. In these parts.
HISTORY]
GERMANY
893
owing to the changes introduced at the revolution, the nobility,
who hold little land, are, comparatively speaking, without
political importance. In the Catholic districts the Centre had
become absolutely master, except so far as the Socialists threaten
t heir position. Those of the great industrialists who belonged to
the National Liberals or the Moderate Conservatives did not
command that influence which men of their class generally hold
in Great Britain, because the influence of Social Democracy
banded together the whole of the working men in a solid phalanx
of irreconcilable opposition, the very first principle of which
was the hostility of classes. The government, therefore, were
compelled to turn for support to the Centre and the Conservatives,
the latter being almost completely under the influence of the old
Prussian nobility from the north-east. But every attempt to
carry out the policy supported by these parties aroused an
opposition most embarrassing to the government.
The Conservatives distrusted the financial activity which
centred round the Exchanges of Berlin and other towns, and
^^ in this they had the sympathy of Agrarians and
jjjjjjf Anti-Semites, as well as of the Centre. TTie Agrarians
own. believed that the Berlin Exchange was partly re-
sponsible for the fall of prices in corn; the Anti-
Semites laid stress on the fact that many of the financiers were of
Jewish extraction; the Centre feared the moral effects of specula-
tion. This opposition was shown in the demand for additional
duties on stamps (this was granted by Bismarck), in the opposi-
tion to the renewal of the Bank Charter, and especially in the
new regulations for the Exchange which were carried in 1806.
One clause in this forbade the dealing in " futures " in corn,
and at the same time a special Prussian law required that there
should be representatives of agriculture on the managing com-
mittee of the Exchange. The members of the Exchanges in
Berlin and other towns refused to accept this law. When it
came into effect they withdrew and tried to establish a private
Exchange. This was prevented, and after two years they were
compelled to submit and the Berlin Bourse was again opened.
Political parties now came to represent interests rather than
principles. The government, in order to pass its measures,
was obliged to purchase the votes by class legislation,
Jjjjjfjji and it bought those with whom it could make the best
tag. bargain' — these being generally the Centre, as the ablest
tacticians, and the Conservatives, as having the highest
social position and being boldest in declaring their demands.
No great parliamentary leader took the place of Windthorst,
Laskcr and Bennigsen; the extra - parliamentary societies,
less responsible and more violent, grew in influence. The Anti-
Semites gained in numbers, though not in reputation. The
Conservatives, hoping to win votes, even adopted an anti-
Semite clause in their programme. The general tendency
among the numerous societies of Christian Socialism/ which
broke up almost as quickly as they appeared, was to drift from
the alliance with the ultra-Conservatives and to adopt the
economic and many of the political doctrines of the Social
Democrats. The N ational-Sozider Verein defended the union
of Monarchy and Socialism. Meanwhile the extreme spirit of
nationality was fostered by the All-dcutscher Verein, the policy
of which would quickly involve Germany in war with every
other nation. More than once the feelings to which they gave
expression endangered the relations of Germany and Austria-
Hungary. The persecution of the Poles in Prussia naturally
aroused indignation in Austria, where the Poles had for long been
among the strongest elements on which the government depended;
and it was not always easy to prevent the agitation on behalf
of the Germans in Bohemia from assuming a dangerous aspect.
In the disintegration of parties the Liberals suffered most.
The unity of the Conservatives was preserved by social forces
and the interests of agriculture; the decay of the Liberals was
the result of universal suffrage. Originally the opponents of
the landed interest and the nobility, they were the party of the
educated middle class, of the learned, of the officials and finance.
They never succeeded in winning the support of the working
men. They had identified themselves with the interests of the
capitalists, and were not even faithful to their own principles.
In the day of their power they showed themselves as intolerant
as their opponents had been. They resorted to the help of the
government in order to stamp out the opinions with which they
disagreed, and the claims of the artisans to practical equality
were rejected by them, as in earlier days the claims of the middle
class had been by the nobles.
The Centre alone maintained itself. Obliged by their con-
stitution to regard equally the material interests of all classes-"
for they, represent rich and poor, peasants and artisans— they
were the natural support of the government when it attempted
, to find a compromise between the clamour of opposing interests.
Their own demands were generally limited to the defence of
order and religion, and to some extent coincided with the wishes
of the emperor; but every attempt to introduce legislation in
accordance with their wishes led to a conflict with the educated
opinion of the country, which was very detrimental to the
authority of the government. In the state parliaments of Bavaria,
Baden and Hesse their influence was very great. There was,
moreover, a tendency for local parties to gain in numbers and
influence — the Volkspartei in Wurttcmberg, the Anti-Semites
in Hesse, and the Baucrnbund (Peasants' League) in Bavaria.
The last demanded that the peasants should be freed from the
payment to the state, which represented the purchase price for
the remission of feudal burdens. It soon lost ground, however,
partly owing to personal reasons, and partly because the Centre,
in order to maintain their influence among the peasants, adopted
some features of their programme.
Another class which, seeing itself in danger from the economic
changes in society, agitated for special legislation was the small
retail traders of the large towns. They demanded
additional taxation on the vast shops and stores, the
growth of which in Berlin, Munich and other towns
seemed to threaten their interests. As the preservation
of the smaller middle class seemed to be important as a bulwark
against Socialism, they won the support of the Conservative and
Clerical parties, and laws inspired by them were passed in Bavaria,
Wlirttemberg and Prussia. This Mitklstond-PolMk, as it is
called, was very characteristic of the attitude of mind which was
produced by the policy of Protection. Every class appealed
to the government for special laws to protect itself against the
effects of the economic changes which had been brought about
by the modern industrial system. Peasants and landlords,
artisans and tradesmen, each formed their own league for the
protection of their interests, and all looked to the state as the
proper guardian of their class interests.
After the fall of Caprivi the tendency of the German govern-
ment to revert to a strong Conservative policy in matters of
religion, education, and in the treatment of political
discussions became very marked. The complete ^JJUJ^
alienation of the working classes from Christianity policy.
caused much natural concern, combined as it was
with that indifference to religion which marks the life of the
educated classes in the large towns,* and especially in Berlin.
A strong feeling arose that social and political dangers could only
be avoided by an increase in religious life, and the emperor gave
the authority of his name to a movement which produced
numerous societies for home mission work, and (at least in Berlin)
led to the erection of numerous churches. Unfortunately,
this movement was too often connected with political reaction,
and the working classes were inclined to believe that the growth
of religion was valued because it afforded an additional support
to the social and political order. The situation was somewhat
similar to that which existed during the last years of Frederick
William IV., when the close association of religion with a Con-
servative policy made orthodoxy so distasteful to large sections
of society. The government, which had not taken warning by
the fate of the School Bill, attempted to carry other measures of
the same kind. The emperor had returned to Bismarck's policy
of joining social reform with repressive legislation. In a speech
at Konigsberg in November 1804, he summoned the nobles «f
Prussia to support him in the struggle for religion, for morality,
8g*
GERMANY
[HISTOSY
Vortag*.
for order, against the parties of Untstnn, or Revolution, and
shortly afterwards an amendment of the Criminal Code, com-
monly called the Umstun- Vorlagc, was introduced,
containing provisions to check attempts to undermine
the loyalty of the soldiers, and making it a crime
punishable with three years' imprisonment to attack religion,
monarchy, marriage, the family or property by abusive expres-
sions in such a manner as to endanger public peace. The dis-
cussion of this measure occupied most of the session of 1895;
the bill was amended by the Centre so as to make it even more
strongly a measure for the defence of religion; and clauses were
introduced to defend public morality, by forbidding the public
exhibition of pictures or statues, or the sale of writings, which,
" without being actually obscene, might rudely offend the feeling
of modesty." These Clerical amendments aroused a strong
feeling of indignation. It was represented that the freedom of
art and literature was being endangered, and the government
was obliged to withdraw the bill. The tendency towards a
stricter censorship was shown by a proposal which was carried
through the Prussian parliament for controlling the instruction
given at the universities by the Privaldotenten. Some of the Con-
servative leaders, especially Baron von Stumm, the great manu-
facturer (one of Bismarck's chief advisers on industrial matters),
demanded protection against the teaching of some of the pro-
fessors with whose economic doctrines they did not agree;
pastors who took part in the Christian-Social movement incurred
the displeasure of the government; and Professor Delbriick
was summoned before a disciplinary court because, in the
Prrussischc Jakrbiickcr, which he edited, he had ventured to
criticize the policy of the Prussian government towards the Danes
in Schlcswig. All the discontent and suspicion caused by this
policy broke out with greater intensity when a fresh
tteiam, *t tempt was made in 1900 to carry those clauses
of the old Umslurz- Vorlagc which dealt with offences
against public morality. The gross immoralities connected with
prostitution in Berlin had been disclosed in the case of a murderer
called Heinze in 1891; and a bill to strengthen the criminal law
on the subject was introduced but not carried. The measure
continued, however, to be discussed, and in 1000 the government
proposed to incorporate with this bill (which was known as the
Lex Heinze) the articles from the Umslun- Vorlagc subjecting
art and literature to the control of the criminal law and police.
The agitation was renewed with great energy. A Godhc-Vcrcin
was founded to protect Kullur, which seemed to be in danger.
In the end the obnoxious clauses were only withdrawn when the
Socialists used the forms of the House to prevent business from
being transacted. It was the first time that organized obstruction
had appeared in the Reichstag, and it was part of the irony of
the situation that the representatives of art and learning owed
their victory to the Socialists, whom they had so long attacked
as the great enemies of modern civilization.
These were not the only cases in which the influence of the
parties of reaction caused much discontent. There was the
question of the right of combination. In nearly every
L *"jj' ^^ lnerc sl '^ listed old laws forbidding political
Mool "*" societies to unite with one another. These laws had
been passed in the years immediately after the revolu-
tion of 1848, and were quite out of place under modern conditions.
The object of them was to prevent a network of societies from
being formed extending over large districts, and so acquiring
political power. In 1S95 the Prussian police used a law of 1850
as a pretext for dissolving the Socialist organization in Berlin,
as had been done twenty years before. A large majority of the
Reichstag demanded that an imperial law should be passed
repealing these laws and establishing the right of combination,
and they refused to pass the revised Civil Code until the chancellor
promised that this should be done. Instead of this course being
adopted, however, special laws were introduced in most of the
states, which, especially in Prussia and Saxony, while they gave
the right of combination, increased the power of the police to
forbid assemblies and societies. It was apparent that large and
influential parties still regarded political meetings as something
in themselves dangerous and demoralizing, and hence the demand
of the Conservatives (hat women and young persons should be
forbidden to attend. In Prussia a majority of the Upper Hone
and a very large minority of the Lower House (193 to 206)
voted for an amendment expressly empowering the police to
break up meetings in which anarchistic, socialistic or communistic
doctrines were defended in such a manner as to be dangerous to
society; the Saxon Conservatives demanded that women at
least should be forbidden to attend socialistic meetings, and it
remained illegal for any one under twenty-one years of age to be
present at a political meeting. In consequence of the amend.
ments in the Upper House the Prussian law was lost; and at List,
in 1890, a short imperial law was carried to the effect that
" societies of every kind might enter into union with one
another." This was at once accepted by the chancellor; it was
the time when the Navy Bill was coming on, and it was necessary
to win votes. The general feeling of distrust which this pro-
longed controversy aroused was, however, shown by the almost
contemptuous rejection in 1809 of a Bill to protect artisans
who were willing to work against intimidation or violence (the
Zuchlhaus-Vorlagc), a vote which was the more significant as
it was not so much occasioned by the actual provisions of the
bill, but was an expression of the distrust felt for the motives
by which the government was moved and the reluctance to place
any further powers in their hands.
Meanwhile the emperor had set himself the task of doing (or
the German fleet what his grandfather had done for the army.
The acquisition of Heligoland enabled a new naval station to be
established off the mouth of the Elbe; the completion of the
canal from Kiel to the mouth of the Elbe, by enabling ships of
war to pass from the Baltic to the North Sea greatly increased the
strategic strength of the fleet. In 1800 a change in the organiza-
tion separated the command of the fleet from the office of secre-
tary of slate, who was responsible for the representation of the
admiralty in the Reichstag, and the emperor was brought into
more direct connexion with the navy. During the first five
years of the reign four linc-of-battle ships were added and several
armoured cruisers for the defence of commerce and colonial
interests. With the year 1895 began a period of expansion abroad
and great naval activity. The note was given in a speech of
the emperor's on the twenty-fifth anniversary of the foundation
of the empire, in which he said, " the German empire has become
a world empire." The ruling idea of this new Well-
Polilik was that Germany could no longer remain rrtwt
merely a continental power; owing to the growth of
population she depended for subsistence on trade and exports;
she could not maintain herself amid the rivalry of nations unless
the government was able actively to support German traders in
all parts of the world. The extension of German trade and in-
fluence has, in fact, been carried out with considerable success.
There was no prospect of further territory in Equatorial Africa,
and the hope of bringing about a closer union with the South
African Republic was not fulfilled. On the Pacific, however,
there were great gains; 1 long-established plans for obtaining
a port in China which might serve as a base for the growing
trade at Tientsin were carried out at the end of 1897 ; the murder
of two Catholic missionaries was made the pretext for landing
troops in the bay of Kiao-chau; and in amends China _
granted the lease of some 50 sq. m. of territory, and
also a concession for building railways. The emperor
showed his strong personal interest by sending his
brother, Prince Henry, in command of a squadron to take
possession of this territory, and the visit of a German prince to
the emperor of China strongly appealed to the popular imagina-
tion. The emperor's characteristically rhetorical speeches on
this occasion — particularly his identification of his brother with
the " mailed fist " of Germany — excited considerable comment.
1 In 1899. following the Spanish-American War, Germany pur-
chased the Caroline, Pclew and Marianne Islands from Spain; in
1899-1900 by agreement with Great Britain and America she
acquired the two largest of the Samoa n islands, renouncing in
favour of Britain her protectorate over certain of the Solomon
islands.
HISTORY]
GERMANY
895
In Turkey the government, helped again by the personal interest
of the emperor, who himself visited the sultan at Constantinople,
gained important concessions for German influence and German
commerce. The Turkish armies were drilled and commanded
by German officers, and in 1890 a German firm gained an im-
portant concession for building a railway to Baghdad. In Brazil
organised private enterprise established a considerable settle-
ment of German emigrants, and though any political power was
for the time impossible, German commerce increased greatly
throughout South America.
Encouraged by the interest which the events in China had
aroused, a very important project was laid before the Reichstag
in November 1897, which would enable Germany to
Ntvmlpro- j^g j| higher place among the maritime powers. A
S" - *' completely new procedure was introduced. Instead
of simply proposing to build a number of new ships,
the bill laid down permanently the number of ships of every
kind of which the navy was to consist. They were to be com-
pleted by 1004; and the bill also specified how often ships of
each class were to be replaced. The plan would establish a
normal fleet, and the Reichstag, having once assented, would
lose all power of controlling the naval budget. The bill was
strongly opposed by the Radicals; the Centre was divided;
but the very strong personal influence of the emperor, supported
by an agitation of the newly-formed Flottcnvtrcin (an imitation
of the English Navy League), so influenced public opinion that
the opposition broke down. A general election was imminent,
and no party dared to go to the country as the opponents of the
fleet.
Scarcely had the bill been carried when a scries of events took
place which still more fully turned public attention to colonial
affairs, and seemed to justify the action of the govcrn-
!**>*& ment. The war between the United States and Spain
tejtoad. showed how necessary an efficient fleet was under
modern conditions, and also caused some feeling of
apprehension for the future arising from the new policy of ex-
tension adopted by the United Stales. And the brewing of the
storm in South Africa, where the Boers were preparing to resist
British suzerainty, helped to make the nation regret that their
fleet was not sufficiently strong to make German sympathies
effective. The government used with great address the bitter
irritation against Great Britain which had become one of the
most deep-seated elements in modern German life. This feeling
had its origin at first in a natural reaction against the excessive
admiration for English institutions which distinguished the
Liberals of an older generation. This reaction was deliberately
fostered during Bismarck's later years for internal reasons;
for, as Great Britain was looked upon as the home of parlia-
mentary government and Free Trade, a less favourable view
might weaken German belief in doctrines and institutions adopted
from that country. There also existed in Germany a curious
compound of jealousy and contempt, natural in a nation the
whole institutions of which centred round the army and com-
pulsory service, for a nation whose institutions were based not on
military, but on parliamentary and legal institutions. It came
about that in the minds of many Germans the whole national
regeneration was regarded as a liberation from British influence.
This feeling was deliberately fostered by publicists and historians,
and was intensified by commercial rivalry, since in the struggle
for colonial expansion and trade Germans naturally came to look
on Great Britain, who held the field, as their rival. The sympathy
which the events of 1896 and 1890 awakened for the
Pro-Boer 5^,5 caused all these feelings, which had long been
mVat'. growing, to break out in a popular agitation more
widespread than any since the foundation of the empire.
It was used by the Nationalist parties, in Austria as well as
in Germany, to spread the conception of Pan-Germanism;
the Boers as Low Germans were regarded as the representatives
of Teutonic civilization, and it seemed possible that the con-
ception might be used to bring about a closer friendship, and even
Alliance, with Holland. In i8q6 the emperor, by despatching
a telegram of congratulation to President Kxuger After the collapse
of the Jameson Raid, had appeared to identify himself with the
national feeling. When war broke out in 1809 it was obviously
impossible to give any efficient help to the Boers, but the govern*
ment did not allow the moment to pass without using
it for the very practical purpose of getting another JjJK
bill through the Reichstag by which the navy was to
be nearly doubled. Some difficulties which arose regarding the
exercise by the British government of the right of search for
contraband of war were also used to stimulate public feeling.
The Navy Bill was introduced in January 1900. There were
some criticisms of detail, but the passing of the bill was only a
matter of bargaining. Each party wished in return for iu
support to get some concessions from the government. The
Agrarians asked for restrictions on the importation of food;
the Centre for the Lex Hcinzc and the repeal of the Jesuit law;
the Liberals for the right of combination.
The murder of the German ambassador, Baron von Kettclcr,
at Peking in 1900 compelled the government to take a leading
part in the joint expedition of the powers to China.
A force of over 20,000 men was organized by voluntary •[£•
'enlistment from among the regular ermy; and the^^'i^
supreme command was obtained by the emperor for
Count von Waldcrsee, who had succeeded Moltke as chief of the
staff. The government was, however, sharply criticized for not
first consulting the Reichstag in a matter involving the first
military expedition since the foundation of the empire. It was
desirable in such circumstances that a younger and more vigorous
statesman than Prince Hohenlohc should be placed at the head
of affairs before the Reichstag met; and on the 17th of October
he resigned, and was succeeded as chancellor by Hcrr von Biilow,
the foreign secretary. (J. W. He. ; W. A. P. )
It remains only to sketch the main features of German history
in later years. In spite of the denunciation by the Social Demo-
cratic leaders of what they stigmatized as a " policy
of brag," the general popularity of the idea of estab- p^JJ**,.
lishing a strong sea power was proved by the rapid
extension of the Navy League, which in 1904 had already 3595
branches. For an increase in the navy there was, indeed,
sufficient excuse in the enormous expansion of German over-sea
commerce and the consequent growth of the mercantile marine;
the value of foreign trade, which in 1894 was £365,000,000, had
risen in 1904 to £610,000,000, and in the same period the tonnage
of German merchant shipping had increased by 234 %. In
the session of 1901 Admiral von Tirpitz, the minister of marine,
admitted in answer to a Socialist interpellation that the naval
programme of 1900 would have to be enlarged. In 1903 Count
Biilow declared in the Reichstag that the government was
endeavouring to pursue a middle course between " the extrava-
gant aspirations of the Pan-Germans and the parochial policy
of the Social Democrats, which forgets that in a struggle for life
and death Germany's means of communication might be cut off."
At the same time the emperor presented to the Reichstag a com-
parative table, drawn up by his own hand, showing the relative
strength of the British and German navies. An inspired article in
the Grcnzbolen declared the object of this to be to moderate at
once the aggressive attitude of the Pan-Germans towards Great
Britain and British alarms at the naval development of Germany.
This gave a fresh impetus to the naval agitation and counter-
agitation. In 1904 Count Biilow again found it necessary, in
reply to the Socialist leader Bcbcl, to declare that the German
naval armaments were purely defensive. " I cannot conceive,"
he said, " that the idea of an Anglo-German war should be
seriously entertained by sensible people in either country."
On the 16th of November 1905 a new Navy Bill amplifying the
programme of 1900 was accepted by the Federal Diet. The Navy
League, encouraged by its success, now redoubled its exertions
and demanded that the whole programme should be completed
by 1.912 instead of 19 17. Bebel denounced this agitation as
obviously directed against England; and the government
thought it expedient to disavow the action of its too zealous
allies. A telegram addressed by the emperor William to the
presidents of the League, G«a£tal& K&st %&d ^w?ss^Ww\s*
896
GERMANY
IHBTOtY
their resignation; but the effect of this was largely counteracted
by the presence of Prince Henry of Prussia and the king of
Wiirttemberg at the annual congress of the League at Stuttgart in
May, while at the Colonial Congress in the autumn the necessity
for a powerful navy was again one of the main themes of dis-
cussion. That the government was, in fact, at one with the
League as to the expediency of pushing on the naval programme
was proved by the revelations of the first lord of the admiralty,
Mr McKenna, in the debate on the naval estimates in the British
parliament of 1909. From these it was clear that the German
government had for some time past been pressing on its naval
armaments with little regard to the ostensible programme, and
that in the matter of the newest types of battleships, Great
Britain had to reckon with the fact that, before the dale fixcii
for the completion of the programme, Germany might establish
at least an equality.
The same determined spirit which characterized German naval
policy was evident also in her relations with the other powers.
^^ The suspicions as to the stability of the Triple Alliance
^Jj" produced, indeed, for some years a kind of nervous-
ness in the attitude of the government, whose deter-'
ruination to assert for. Germany a leading international role
tended to isolate her in Europe. This nervousness was, in 1003
and 1904, especially evident in the efforts to weaken the Franco-
Russian alliance by the policy of what Bebel denounced as
Germany " crawling on her stomach before Russia." Germany
not only backed up Russian policy in the East, and at the out-
break of the Russo-Japanese War took up towards hcranattiludc
of more than benevolent neutrality, but the cabinets of Berlin
and St Petersburg entered into an agreement under which political
offenders against cither government were to be treated as traitors
to both. This arrangement, which made the Prussian police
the active allies of the Third Section in the persecution of
Tft# political suspects, created vast indignation among all
JGKofes- shades of Liberal opinion in Germany, an indignation
*•** which culminated with the famous Kdnigsberg trial.
trtML This was a prosecution of nine German subjects for
sedition, conspiracy and llse-majesU against the Russian emperor,
and for the circulation of books and pamphlets attacking him
and his government. The defendants were poor smugglers
from the Esthonian border marshes, who in the course of their
ordinary avocations had carried bales of revolutionary tracts
into Russia without troubling as to their contents. The trial,
which took place in July 1004, excited widespread attention.
The prosecution was conducted with all the force of the govern-
ment; the defence was undertaken by some of the most brilliant
Liberal advocates of Germany and developed in effect into an
elaborate indictment, supported by a great weight of first-hand
evidence, of the iniquities of the Russian regime. The verdict
of the court was a serious rebuff for the government; after a
preliminary investigation of nine months, and a public trial of a
fortnight, the major charges against the prisoners were dismissed,
and six of them were condemned only to short terms of imprison-
ment for conspiracy.
The progress of the Russo-Japanese War, however, soon re-
lieved Germany of all anxiety as to the safety of her eastern
frontiers, and produced a corresponding change in her attitude.
. The Russian disasters in Manchuria at the beginning of 1005
were followed by an extraordinary demonstration of the emperor
William's ideas as to " the world-wide dominion of the Hohcn-
zollcrns," in a sort of imperial progress in the East, made for the
purpose of impressing the Mahommcdan world with the power
of Germany. In 1904 the German attitude towards Great
Britain had been in the highest degree conciliatory; the Anglo-
French agreement as to Egypt was agreed to at Berlin; a visit
of King Edward VII. to Kiel was reciprocated by that of the
German squadron to Plymouth; in July a treaty of arbitration
was signed between the two countries, while in the Reichstag
the chancellor declared that, Germany's interests in Morocco
being purely commercial, the understanding between France and
England as to that country, embodied in the convention of the
Stbof April 1904, did not immediately concern her. This attitude
was now changed. On the 31st of March 1005 the 1
William landed at Tangier, and is reported on this occasion to
have used language which in effect amounted to a promise to
support the sultan of Morocco in resisting French control. Ha
visit to the Holy Land and the solemn pilgrimage to Jerusalem
were, in the same way, a striking coup de UU&tre designed t«
strengthen the influence won by Germany in the councils of the
Ottoman empire, an influence which she had been careful not
to weaken by taking too active a part in the concert of the
powers engaged in pressing on the question of MacedoniiB
reform.
Meanwhile pressure was being put upon France to admit the
German claim to a voice in the affairs of North Africa, a claim
fortified by the mission of Count von Tattenbach, Germia
minister at Lisbon, to Fez for the purpose of securing from the
she ri nan government special privileges for Germany. This
aggressive policy was firmly resisted by M. Delcasse*, the Frenci
minister of foreign affairs, and for a while war seemed to be
inevitable. At Berlin powerful influences, notably that of Hen
von Holstein — that mysterious omnipotence behind the throne-
were working for this end; the crippling of Russia seemed
too favourable an opportunity to be neglected for crushing the
menace of French armaments. That an actual threat of war
was conveyed to the French government (through the German
ambassador at Rome, it is said) there can be no doubt. That
war was prevented was due partly to the timidity of French
ministers, partly to the fact that at the last moment Herr von
Holstein shrank from the responsibility of pressing his arguments
to a practical conclusion. The price of peace, however, was the
resignation of M. Delcassl, who had been prepared to maintain
a bold front. Germany had perhaps missed an opportunity for
putting an end for ever to the rivalry of France; but she had
inflicted a humiliation on her rival, and proved her capacity to
make her voice heard in the councils of Europe. 1 The proceeding
of the conference of Algeciras (see Morocco) emphasized the
restored confidence of Germany in her international position.
It was notably the part played by Austria in supporting the
German point of view throughout at the conference that
strengthened the position of Germany in Europe, by drawing
closer the bonds of sympathy between the two empires. How
strong this position had become was demonstrated during the
crisis that arose after the revolution in Turkey and the annexa-
tion of Bosnia and Herzegovina by Austria in October 190&.
The complete triumph of Baron von Aehrenthal's policy, in the
face of the opposition of most of the European powers, was due
to German support, and Germany suddenly appeared as the
arbiter of the affairs of the European continent (see Euiopk.
History), German nervousness, which had seen British intrigues
everywhere, and suspected in the beneficent activities of King
Edward VII. a Machiavellian plan for isolating Germany and
surrounding her with a net of hostile forces, gave way to a spirit
of confidence which could afford to laugh at the terror of Germany
which, to judge from the sensational reports of certain popular
British journals, had seized upon Great Britain.
The great position gained by the German empire in these
years was won in the face of great and increasing internal diffi-
culties. These difficulties were, in the main, the out-
come of the peculiar constitution of the empire, of
the singular compromise which it represented between
the traditional medieval polity and the organization
of a modern state, and of the conflicts of ideals and of interests
to which this gave rise; these being complicated by the masterful
personality of the emperor William, and his tendency to confuse
his position as German emperor by the will of the princes with
his position as king of Prussia by the grace of God.
In general, Germany had passed since the war through a social
and economic revolution similar to that undergone by Great
Britain during the earlier half of the 19th century, though on
a greater scale and at a much accelerated pace. .A country
1 The elevation of Count Billow to the rank of prince immediately
after the crisis was significantly compared wirn the Kime honour
tastovtd on Bvunasck at Versailles in 1671.
HISTORY]
GERMANY
897
mainly agricultural, and in parts purely feudal, was changed into
one of vast industries and of great concentrations of population;
And for the ferment created by this change there was no such
aaf ety-valve in the representative system as had existed in England
since the Reform Bill. In spite of the election of the Reichstag by
manhood suffrage, there existed, as Count Billow pointed out in
1904, no real parliamentary system in Germany, and " owing to
the economic, political, social and religious structure of the
nation" there could never be one. Of the numerous groups
composing the German parliament no one ever secured a majority,
and in the absence of such a majority the imperial government,
practically independent of parliament, knew how to secure its
assent to its measures by a process of bargaining with each
group in turn. This system had curious and very far-reaching
results. The only group which stood outside it, in avowed
hostility to the whole principle on which the constitution was
based, was that of the Social Democrats, " the only great party
in Germany which," so the veteran Mommsen declared in 1001,
" has any claim to political respect." The consequence was the
rapid extension and widening of the chasm that divided the
German people. The mass of the working-class population in
the Protestant parts of Germany belonged to the Social
Democracy, an inclusive term covering variations of opinion
from the doctrinaire system of Marx to a degree of Radicalism
which in England would not be considered a bar to a peerage.
To make head against this, openly denounced by the emperor
himself as a treasonable movement, the government was from
time to time forced to make concessions to the various groups
which placed their sectional interests in the forefront of their
programmes. To conciliate the Catholic Centre party, numeri-
cally the strongest of all, various concessions were from time to
time made to the Roman Catholic Church, e.g. the repeal in 1004
of the clause of the Anti-Jesuit Law forbidding the settlement
of individual members of the order in Germany. The Conserva-
tive Agrarians were conciliated by a series of tariff acts placing
heavy duties on the importation of agricultural produce and
exempting from duty agricultural implements.
The first of these tariffs, which in order to overcome Socialist
obstruction was passed en bloc on December 13-14, 1002, led
to an alarming alteration in the balance of parties
2j cfal in the new Reichstag of 1003, the Socialists— who
JJJJJJJ" had previously numbered 58— winning 81 seats, a gain
of 33. Of the other groups only one, and that hostile
to the government— the Poles— had gained a seat. This startling
victory of the Social Democracy, though to a certain extent
discounted by the dissensions between the two wings of the
party which were revealed at the congress at Dresden in the same
year, was in the highest degree disconcerting to the government;
but in the actual manipulation of the Reichstag it facilitated
the work of the chancellor by enabling him to unite the other
groups more readily against the common enemy. The most
striking effect of the development of this antagonism was the
gradual disappearance as a factor in politics of the Liberals,
the chief builders of the Empire. Their part henceforth was
to vote blindly with the Conservative groups, in a common fear
of the Social Democracy, or to indulge in protests, futile because
backed by no power inside or outside the parliament; their
impotence was equally revealed when in December 1002 they
voted with the Agrarians for the tariff, and in May xooo when
they withdrew in dudgeon from the new tariff committee, and
allowed the reactionary elements a free hand. The political
struggle of the future lay between the Conservative and Clerical
elements in the state, alike powerful forces, and the organized
power of the Social Democracy. In the elections of 1 007 , indeed ,
the Social Democratic party, owing to the unparalleled exertion
of the government, had a set-back, its representation in parlia-
ment sinking to 43; but at the International Socialist Congress,
which met at Stuttgart on the 18th of August, Herr Bebel was
able to point out that, in spite of its defeat at the polls, the
Socialist cause had actually gained strength in the country,
their total poll having increased from 3,010,771 in 1903 to
3,250,000.
mmdUm
In addition to the political strife and anxiety due to this
fundamental cleavage within the nation, Germany was troubled
during the first decade of the 20th century by friction
and jealousies arising out of the federal constitution
of the Empire and the preponderant place in it of
Prussia. In the work of pressing on the national and
international expansion of Germany the interests and views of
the lesser constituent states of the Empire were apt to be over-
looked or overridden; and in the southern states there was
considerable resentment at the unitarian tendency of the north,
which seemed to aim at imposing the Prussian model on the whole
nation. This resentment was especially conspicuous in Bavaria,
which clings more tenaciously than the other states to its separate
traditions. When, on the 1st of April 1002, a new stamp, with the
superscription " Deutsches Reich," was issued for the Empire,
including Wiirttemberg, Bavaria refused to accept it, retaining
the stamp with the Bavarian lion, thus emphasizing her deter-
mination to retain her separate postal establishment. On the
23rd of October 1003 Baron Podevib, the new premier, addressing
the Bavarian diet, declared that his government " would combat
with all its strength" any tendency to assure the future of the
Empire on any lines other than the federative basis laid down
in the imperial constitution.
This protest was the direct outcome of an instance of the
tendency of the emperor to interfere in the affairs of the various
governments of the Empire. In 1902 the Clerical r* noaa i
majority in the Bavarian diet had refused to vote to***
£20,000 asked by the government for art purposes, »m<Im
whereupon the emperor had telegraphed expressing jJJJJ^
his indignation and offering to give the money himself, *^"
an offer that was politely declined. Another instance of the
emperor's interference, constitutionally of more importance as
directly affecting the rights of the German sovereigns, was in
the question of the succession to the principality of Lippe (see
Lippe). The impulsive character of the emperor, which led him,
with the best intentions and often with excellent effect, to
interfere everywhere and in everything and to utter opinions
often highly inconvenient to his ministers, was the subject of an
interpellation in the Reichstag on the 20th of January 1003
by the Socialist Herr von Vollmar, himself a Bavarian. Count
Billow, in answer to his criticisms, declared that " the German
people desired, not a shadow, but an emperor of flesh and
blood." - None the less, the continued " indiscretions " of the
emperor so incensed public opinion that, five years later, the
chancellor himself was forced to side with it in obtaining from
the emperor an undertaking to submit all his public utterances
previously to his ministers for approval (see William II.,
German emperor).
Meanwhile, the attempt to complete the Germanization of the
frontier provinces of the Empire by conciliation or repression con-
tinued. In this respect progress was made especially m mom
in Alsace-Lorraine. In May 1002, in return for the Otrmmm
money granted by the Reichsldndcr for the restoration *jjjjf"
of the imperial castle of Hohekonigsburg in the Vosges, •****•
the emperor promised to abolish the Diklaiurparagrophen; the
proposal was accepted by' the Reichstag, and the exceptional
laws relating to Alsace-Lorraine were repealed. Less happy
were the efforts of the Prussian government at the Gerroaniaa-
tion of Prussian Poland and Schlcswig. In the former, in spite
of, or perhaps because of, the attempt to crush the Polish language
and spirit, the Polish element continuously increased, reinforced
by immigrants from across the frontier; in the latter the Danish
language more than held its own, for similar reasons, but the
treaty signed on the nth of January 1007 between Prussia and
Denmark, as to the status of the Danish "optants" in the duchies,
removed the worst grievance from which the province was suffer'*
ing (see Schleswig-Holstiin Question).
Of more serious import were the yearly and increasing deficits
In the imperial budget, and the consequent enormous growth of
the debt. This was partly due to the commercial and industrial
depression of the early years of the century, partly was another
outcome of the federal constitution, which made it difficult to
8 9 8
GERMANY
[HISTOIT
adjust the budget to the growing needs of the Empire without
disarranging the finances of its constitutent stales. The crisis
Btlgna- became acute when the estimates for the year 1909
Km 0/ showed that some £25,000,000 would have to be raised
jmsm r»0 by additional taxes, largely to meet the cost of the ex-
panded naval programme. The budget presented to
the Reichstag by Prince Biilow, which laid new burdens upon the
landed and capi talist classes, was fiercely opposed by the Agrarians,
and led to the break-up of the Liberal-Conservative bloc on whose
support the chancellor had relied since the elections of 1006.
The budget was torn to pieces in the committee selected to report
on it; the Liberal members, after a vain protest, seceded; and
the Conservative majority had a free hand to amend it in accord-
ance with their views. In the long and acrimonious debates that
followed in the Reichstag itself the strange spectacle was pre-
sented of the chancellor fighting a coalition of the Conservatives
and the Catholic Centre with the aid of the Socialists and Liberals.
The contest was from the first hopeless, and, but for the personal
request of the emperor that he would pilot the Finance Bill
through the House in some shape or other, Prince Biilow
would have resigned early in the year. So soon as the budget
was passed he once more tendered his resignation, aad on the
14th of July a special edition of the Imperial Gazette announced
that it had been accepted by the emperor. The post of imperial
chancellor was at the same time conferred on Theobald von
Bethmann-HoUweg, the imperial secretary of state for the
interior. 1 (W. A. P.)
Bibliography of German History. — Although the authorities
for the history of Germany may be said to begin with Caesar, it
is Tacitus who is especially useful, his Gcrmania being an in-
valuable mine of information about the early inhabitants of the
country. In the dark and disordered centuries which followed
there are only a few scanty notices of the Germans, mainly in
the works of foreign writers like Gregory of Tours and Jordanes;
and then the 8th and 9th centuries, the time of the revival of
learning which is associated with the name of Charlemagne, is
reached. By the end of this period Christianity had been firmly
established among most of the German tribes; the monks were
the trustees of the new learning, and we must look mainly,
although not exclusively, to the monasteries for our authorities.
The work of the monks generally took the form of Annates or
Chronica, and among the numerous German monasteries which
are famous in this connexion may be mentioned Fulda, Rcichenau,
St Gall and Lorsch. For contemporary history and also for the
century or so which preceded the lifetimes of their authors these
writings are fairly trustworthy, but beyond this they are little
more than collections of legends. There are also a large number
of lives of saints and churchmen, in which the legendary element
is still more conspicuous.
With regard to the Annates and Chronica three important
considerations must be mentioned. They are local, they are
monastic, and they are partisan. The writer in the Saxon abbey
of Corvey, or in the Franconian abbey of Fulda, knows only about
events which happened near his own doors; he records, it is true,
occurrences which rumour has brought to his ears, but in general
he is trustworthy only for the history of his own neighbourhood.
The Saxon and the Franconian annalists know nothing of the
distant Bavarians; there is even a gulf between the Bavarian
and the Swabian. Then the Annals are monastic To their
writers the affairs of the great world are of less importance than
1 He was born on November 20, 1856, the son of a wealthy
Rhenish landowner, and grandson of Moritz August von Bethmann-
Hollweg (1795-1877). professor of law at Bonn, ennobled in 1840,
and from 1858 to 1862 minister of education and religion at Berlin.
Hcrr von Bethmann- Hollweg studied law at Strassburg, Leipzig and
Berlin, entered the Prussian civil service in 1882, and, passing
successfully through the various stages of a German administrative
career, became governor (OberprttYident) of the province of Branden-
burg in 1899. In 1905 he became Prussian minister of the interior.
Two years later he succeeded Count Posadowsky as imperial secretary
of state for the interior and representative of the impcriaj chancellor,
and was at the same time made vice-president of the council of
Prussian ministers, an office and title which had been in abeyance
for some years and were now again suppressed.
those of the monastery itself. The Saxon Widukind, for instance,
gives more space to the tale of the martyrdom of St Vitus thai
he does to several of the important campaigns ef Henry the
Fowler. Lastly, the annalist is a partisan. One b con-
cerned to glorify at all costs the Carol in gian house; another
sacrifices almost everything to attack the emperor Henry IV.
and to defend the Papacy; while a third holds a brief far
some king or emperor, like Louis the Pious or Otto the
Great.
Two difficulties are met with in giving an account of the
sources of German history. In the 7th, 8th and 9th centuries
it is hard, if not impossible, to disentangle the history of Germany
from that of the rest of the Frankish empire of which it formed
part; in fact it is not until the time of the dissensions belwera
the sons of the emperor Louis I. that there are any signs of
demarcation between the East and the West Franks, or, in other
words, any separate history of Germany. The second difficulty
arises later and is due to the connexion of Germany with the
Empire. Germany was always the great pillar of the imperial
power; for several centuries it was the Empire in everything
but in name, and yet its political history is often overshadowed
by the glamour of events in Italy. While the chroniclers wen-
recording the deeds of Frederick I. and of Frederick II. in the
peninsula, the domestic history of Germany remained to a large
extent unwritten.
Among the early German chroniclers the Saxon Widukind, the
author of the Res gestae Saxonicae, is worthy of mention. He was
a monk of Corvey, and his work is the best authority for the early
history of Saxony. Lambert, a monk of Hersfeld, and Widu-
kind 's countryman, Bruno, in his De bello Saxonko, tell the story
of the great contest between the emperor Henry IV. and Pope
Gregory VII., with special reference to the Saxon part of the
struggle. But perhaps the ablest and the most serviceable of
these early writers is Otto of Freising, a member of the Baben-
berg family. Otto was also related to the great bouse of Hoben-
staufen, a relationship which gave him access to sources el
information usually withheld from the ordinary monastic annalist,
and his work is very valuable for the earlier part of the career
of Frederick I. Something is learned, too, from biographies
written by the monks, of which Einhard's Vila Karoli Magni
is the greatest and the best, and Wipo's life of the emperor
Conrad II. is valuable, while another Carolingian courtier,
Nithard, has a special interest as, almost alone among these
early chroniclers, being a soldier and not a monk.
The monastic writers remain our chief authorities until the
great change brought about by the invention of printing, although
a certain amount of work was done by clerical writers attached
to the courts of various rulers. Parallel with this event the
revival of learning was producing a great number of men who could
write, and, more important still, of men who were throwing off
the monastic habits of thought and passing into a new intellectual
atmosphere. The Renaissance was followed by the fierce con-
troversies aroused by the Reformation, and the result was the
output of an enormous mass of writings covering every phase
of the mighty combat and possessing every literary virtue save
that of impartiality. But apart from these polemical writings,
many of which had only an ephemeral value, the Renaissance
was the source of another stream of historical literature. Several
princes and other leading personages, foremost among whom
was the emperor Maximilian I., had spent a good deal of time
and money in collecting the manuscripts of the medieval
chroniclers, and these now began to be printed. The chronicle
of Otto of Freising, which appeared in 151 5, and the Vila of
Einhard, which appeared six years later, are only two among
the many printed at this time. The publication of collections
of chronicles began in 1529, and the uncritical fashion in which
these were reproduced made forgeries easy and frequent. There
was, indeed, more than a zeal for pure learning behind this new
movement; for both parties in the great religious controversy
of the time used these records of the past as a storehouse of
weapons of offence. The Protestants eagerly sought out the
writings which exposed and denounced the arrogance of the
HISTORY]
GERMANY
899
popes, while the Romanists attempted to counter them with
the numerous lives of the saints.
But before the raw material of history thus began to increase
enormously in bulk, it had already begun to change its character
and to assume its modern form. The Chronicle still survived as
a medium of conveying information, though more often than not
this was now written by a layman; but new stores of information
were coming into existence, or rather the old stores were expanding
and taking a different form. Very roughly these may be divided
into six sections. (1) Official documents issued by the emperors
and other German rulers. (2) Treaties concluded between
Germany and other powers and also between one German state
and another. (3) Despatches sent to England, Spain and other
countries by their representatives in various parts of Germany.
(4) Controversial writings or treatises written to attack or defend
a given position, largely the product of the Reformation period.
(5) The correspondence of eminent and observant persons. (6)
An enormous mass of personal impressions taking the form of
Commentaries, Memoirs and Diaries (Tagebiicher), Moreover,
important personages still find eulogistic biographers and
defenders, e.g. the fanciful writings about the emperor Maxi-
milian I. or Pufcndorf 's Dc rebus gestis Friderici Wilhelmi Magni
eUctoris Brandcnburgici.
Through the dust aroused by the great Reformation controversy
appear the dim beginnings of the scientific spirit in the writing
of history, and in this connexion the name of Aventinus, " the
Bavarian Herodotus," may be mentioned. But for many years
hardly any progress was made in this direction. Even if they
possessed the requisite qualifications the historiographers attached
to the courts of the emperor Charles V. and of lesser potentates
could not afford to be impartial. Thus new histories were written
and old ones unearthed, collected and printed, but no attempt
was made to criticize and collate the manuscripts of the past,
or to present two sides of a question in the writings of the present.
Among the collections of authorities made during the 16th and
17th centuries those of J. Pistorius (Frankfort, 1583-1607),
of E. Lindenbrog (Frankfort, 1600) and of M. Freher (Frankfort,
1600-161 1), may be noticed, although these were only put
together and printed in the most haphazard and unconnected
fashion. Passing thus through these two centuries we reach the
beginning of the 18th century and the work done for German
historical scholarship by the philosopher Leibnitz, who sought
to do for his own country what Muratori was doing for Italy.
For some years it had been recognized that the collection and
arrangement of the authorities for German history was too great
an undertaking for any one man, and societies under very
influential patronage were founded for this purpose. But very
alight results attended these elaborate schemes, although their
failure did not deter Leibnitz from pursuing the same end.
The two chief collections which were issued by the philosopher
are the Accession** hisloHcae (1608- 1700) and the Scriptores
rerum Brunsvicensium; the latter of these, containing docu-
ments centring round the history of the Welf family, was pub-
lished in three volumes at Hanover (1707-1711). Leibnitz
worked at another collection, the Origines Guelficae, which was
completed and issued by his pupils (Hanover, 1750-1780), and
also at Annates imperii occidentis Brunsvicenses, which, although
the most valuable collection of the kind yet made, was not pub-
lished until edited by G. H. Pertz (Hanover, 1843-1846). Other
collections followed those of Leibnitz, among which may be
mentioned the Corpus historic urn medii aevi of J. G. Eccard
(Leipzig, 1723) and the Scriptores rerum Germanicarum of J. B.
Mencke (Leipzig, 1728). But these collections are merely
heaps of historical material, good and bad; the documents
therein were not examined and they are now quite superseded.
They give, however, evidence of the great industry of their
authors, and are the foundations upon which modern German
scholarship has built.
In the 19th century the scientific spirit received a great
Impetus from the German system of education, one feature of
which was that the universities began to require original work
lor some of their degrees. In this field of scientific research the
Germans were the pioneers, and in it they are still pre-eminent,
with Ranke as their most famous name and the Monumenta
Germaniae historica as their greatest production. The Monu-
menta is a critical and ordered collection of documents relating
to the history of Germany between 500 and 1500. It owes its
origin mainly to the efforts of the statesman Stein, who was
responsible for the foundation of the Gesellschaft f Mr Mtcredeulsche
Geschichtskuude, under the auspices of which the work was begun.
The Gesellschaft was established in 1819, and, the editorial work
having been entrusted to G. H. Pertz, the first volume of
the Monumenta was published in 1826. The work was divided
into five sections: Scriptores, Leges, Dipiomata, Epistolae and
Anliouitates, but it was many years before anything was done
with regard to the two last-named sections. In the three
remaining ones, however, folio volumes were published regularly,
and by 1009 thirty folio volumes of Scriptores, five of Leges
and one of Dipiomata imperii had appeared. But meanwhile
a change of organization had taken place. When Pertz resigned
his editorial position in 1874 and the Gesellschaft was dissolved,
twenty-four folio volumes had been published. The Prussian
Academy of Sciences now made itself responsible for the continu-
ance of the work, and a board of direction was appointed, the
presidents of which were successively G. Waitz, W. Wattenbach,
E. Dtimmler and O. Holder-Egger. Soon afterwards as money
became more plentiful the scope of work was extended; the
production of the folio volumes continued, but the five sections
were subdivided and in each of these a series of quarto volumes
was issued. The titles of these new sections give a sufficient
idea of their contents. The Scriptores are divided into Auctores
antiquissimi, Scriptores rerum Merovingicarum, Scriptores rerum
Langobardicarum et Italicarum, LibeUi de lite imperalorum et
pontificum,Gesta pontijicum Romanorumaad Deutsche Chroniken,
or Scriptores qui vernacula lingua usi sunt. The Leges are divided
into Leges nationum Germanicarum, Capitularia regum Francorum,
Concilia, Constitutiones imperalorum et regum and Formulas.
Three quarto volumes of Dipiomata regum et imperalorum
Germaniae and one of Dipiomata Karolingorum had been pub-
lished by 1009. Work was also begun upon the Antiquitales
and the Epistolae. The sections of the former are Poitae Latins
medii aevi, Libri . confratemitatum and Necrologia Germaniae,
and of the latter Epistolae saeculi XIII. and Epistolae Mero-
vingici et Karolini aevi. Meanwhile the publication of the
Scriptores proper continues, although the thirty-first and sub-
sequent volumes are in quarto and not In folio, and the number of
volumes in the whole undertaking is continually being increased.
The archives of the Gesellschaft have been published in twelve
volumes, and a large number of volumes of the Neues Archiw
have appeared. Some of the MSS. have been printed in facsimile,
and an index to the Monumenta, edited by O. Holder-Egger and
K. Zeumer, appeared in 1890. The writings of the more im-
portant chroniclers have been published separately, and many
of them have been translated into German.
It will thus be seen that the ground covered by the Monumenta
is enormous. The volumes of the Scriptores contain not only the
domestic chroniclers, but also selections from the work of foreign
writers who give information about the history of Germany— for
example, the Englishman Matthew Paris. In the main these
writings are arranged in chronological order. Each has been
edited by an expert, and the various introductions give evidence
of the number of MSS. collated and the great pains taken to
ensure textual accuracy on the part of the different editors,
among whom may be mentioned Mommsen aud Lappenberg.
Other great names in German historical scholarship have also
assisted in this work. In addition to Waitz the Leges section has
enjoyed the services of F, Bluhme and of H. Brunner, and the
Dipiomata section of T. Sickel, H. Brcsslau and E. Mtihlbacher.
The progress of the Monumenta stimulated the production of
other works of a like nature, and among the smaller collections
of authorities which appeared during the 19th century two are
worthy of mention. These are the Pontes rerum Germanicarum,
edited by J. F. Bdhmcr (Stuttgart, 1843-1868), a collection of
sources of the 12th, 13th and 14th centuries, and the Bibiiolhecs
goo
GERMANY [authorities
nrum Gcrmanicarum, edited by Ph. Jaff6 (Berlin, 1864-1873).
Another development followed the production of the Monumenta,
this being the establishment in most of the German states of
societies the object of which was to foster the study of local
history. Reference may be made to a Verein for this purpose in
Saxony and to others in Silesia and in Mecklenburg. Much has
also been done in Prussia, in Brandenburg, in Bavaria, in Hanover,
in WUrttcmberg and in Baden, and collections of authorities
have been made by competent scholars, of which the Gcschickts-
queilcn der Provinz Sacksen und angtensender Gebiele (Halle,
1870, fol.). which extends to forty volumes, the smaller Scriptorcs
wtrum Prussicarum (Leipzig, 1861-1874), and the seventy-seven
volumes of the Publikationen aus den koniglichcn prcussischen
Stool sarchiven, veraniasst und unierstutst durch die k&nigliche
ArckivverwaUung (Leipzig, 1878, fol.), may be cited as examples.
The cities have followed the same path and their archives are
being thoroughly examined. In 1836 an Urkundcnbuck of Frank-
fort was published, and this example has been widely followed,
the work done in Cologne, in Bremen and in Mainz being perhaps
specially noticeable. Moreover an historical commission at
Munich has published twenty-eight volumes in the series Die
Chroniken der dculschen St&dte vom 14. bis ins 16. Jahrhundert
(Leipzig, 1862, fol.). Lastly, many documents relating to the
great families of Germany, among them those of Hohenzollern
and of Wittclsbach, have been carefully edited and given to the
world.
With this great mass of material collected, sifted and edited
by scholars of the highest standing it is not surprising that
modern works on the history of Germany are stupendous in
number and are generally of profound learning, and this in
spite of the fact that some German historians— Gregorovius,
Pauli and Lappenberg, for example — have devoted their time to
researches into the history of foreign lands.
The earliest period is dei
die Nackbarstantme (Muni
then by F. Dahn in his
niscken Volker (Berlin, 188
volumes of which have app
The Carolingian time
des ostfr&nkiscken Reicks
Ranked Jakrbucker des
Hause (Berlin, 1837- 184'
deutscken KaiserseU (i8$«
Hohenstaufen.
For the reigns of Lothair the Saxon and" Conrad III. P. Jaffe's
books, Gesckickie des deutscken Reickes unter Lotkar dem Sacksen
(Berlin, 1843) and Gesckickie des deutscken Reickes unter Conrad III.
(Hanover. 1845), may be consulted.
The chief histories on the period between the fall of the Hohen-
staufen and the Renaissance are: T. Lindner, Deutsche Gesckickte
unter den Habsburgern und Luxemburgern (Stuttgart, 1888-1893);
O. Lorcnr, Deutsche Gesckickte im 13. und 14. Jahrhundert (Vienna,
1863-1867); J. Aschbach, Gesckickte Kaiser Sigmunds (Hamburg,
1838-1845); K. Fischer, Devtsckes Leben und deutscke Zustande
ton der Hokenstaufenuit bis ins Reformationseeitaller (Got ha, 1884) ;
V. von Kraus, Deutscke Gesckickte im A us range des Mittelatters
(Stuttgart, 1888-1905), and A. Bachmann, Deutscke Reicksgesckickte
tm ZeUaUer Friedrtcks III. und Maximilians I. (Leipzig. 1884-1894).
The two greatest works on the Reformation period are L. von
Ranke's Deutsche Gesckickte im Zeitalter der Reformation (Leipzig,
188a) and J. Tanssen's Gesckickie des deutscken Volkes sett dem
Ausgang des MitteJalters (1897-1903). Other works which may be
mentioned are: F. B. von Bucholtz, Gesckickie der Regierung
Ferdinands I. (Vienna, 1831-1838); C. Egelhaaf. Deutscke Gesckickte
im Zeitalter der Reformation (Berlin, 1893), and F. von Bezold,
Gesckickte der deutscken Reformation (Berlin. 1890).
Droysen. Gesckickie der Ge§mreformalum (Berlin, 1893) ; A Gindcly, I
Rudolf II. und seine Zeit (Prague, 1862-1868) and Gesckickte des t
dreisstgjdkrigen Krieges (Prague, 1869-1880). Gindcly 's book is, of 1
course, only one among an enormous number of works on the Thirty 1
Years' War. r
For the period leading up to the time of Frederick the Great we 1
have B. Erdmannsdorftcr, Deutscke Gesckickie vom Westfdliscken 1
Frieden bis turn Regierungsantritt Friedricks des Grossen (Berlin, I
1892-1893) ; and then follow Ranke, Zur Gesckickte von Osterreick und
Freussen ewiscken den Friedemsckliissen von Aachen und Hubertus- e
burg (Leipzig, 1875) and Die deutscken Macule und der Furslenbund ._,, ....
GERMERSHEIM— GER6ME
Territoritn (Stuttgart, 1872); "for the towns and their people see
Stiidte zu Ende des MiUelaUers
B86) ; F. W. Barthold. Gesckickte
hen Burgertums (Leipzig, 1850-
Iden der germanischen Vdlker im
>r manufactures and commerce
Use ken Handels (Leipzig, 1859-
; Gcwerbcwesen von der Trukeslen
am. 1866); F. W. Stahl, Das
; the numerous writings on the
1 other works. The nobles and
their separate histories, among
Gesckickte da deuticken Adds
Schrcckenstein, Die RitterwHrde
tne excellent historical atlases,
among them K. von Spruncr's Historisth-gcographiscker HandaUas
(Got ha, 1853) ; a new edition of this by T. Mcnkc called HandaUas
fur die Gesckickte des Mitteialters und der neueren ZeU (Got ha, 1880),
and G. Droy sen's Attgemeiner kisioriscker HandaUas (Leipzig, 18861.
The historical geography of Germany is dealt with in B. Knull's
Ilistorische Geograpkie Deutscklands im Mittelalter (Brcslau, 1003);
in F. H. MQllcr s Die deutscken Sidmme und ikre Fursten (Hamburg,
1851), and in many other works referring to the different parts of the
H. von Sybel, and the Historisckes Jahrbuch.
In guides to the historical sources and to modern historical works
Germany is well served. There is the QueUenkunde der deutscken
Gesckickte (Leipzig, 1906) of Dahlmann-Waitz, a most compendious
volume, and the learned Deutscklands GesckicktsqueUen im Mittelalter
i Berlin, 1893-1894) of W. Wattcnbach; A. Potthast's Bibttotkexa
istorica medti aevt (Berlin, 1896), and the Deutscklands Gesckkkts*
quellen seit der MiUe des /j. Jahrkunderts (Berlin, 1 886-1 887) of O.
Lorcnz end A. Goldmann. (A. W. H.*)
GBRMERSHEW, a fortified town of Germany in Rhenish
Bavaria, at the confluence of the Queich and 'the Rhine, 8 m.-
S.W.ofSpeyer. Pop. (1905) 5914. It possesses a Roman Catholic
and an Evangelical church, a synagogue, a progymnasium and
a hospital. The industries include fishing, shipbuilding and
brewing. Gennersheim existed as a Roman stronghold under the
name of Vicus Julius. The citadel was rebuilt by the emperor
Conrad II., but the town itself was founded in 1276 by the em-
peror Rudolph I., who granted it the rights of a free imperial city.
9OI
From 1330 to 1622, when it was conquered by Austria, the town
formed part of the Palatinate of the Rhine. From 1644 to 1659
it was in the possession of France; but on the conclusion of the
peace of Westphalia it was again joined to the Palatinate. In
1674 it was captured and devastated by the French under
Turenne, and after the death of the elector Charles (1685) it
was claimed by the French as a dependency of Alsace. As a
consequence there ensued the disastrous Germersheim war of
succession, which lasted till the peace of Ryswick in 1697.
Through the intervention of the pope in 1702, the French, on
payment of a large sum, agreed to vacate the town, and in 171s
its fortifications were rebuilt. On the 3rd of July 1744 the
French were defeated there by the imperial troops, and on the
19th and 22nd of July 1793 by the Austrians. In 1835 the new
town was built, and the present fortifications begun.
See Probst, Gesckickte der Stadt und Festung Germersheim (Speycr,
1898).
GERM1ST0N, a town of the Transvaal, 9 m. E. of Johannes-
burg. Pop. of the municipality (1904) 29,477, of whom 9123
were whites. It lies 5478 ft. above the sea, in the heart of the
Witwatersrand gold-mining district, and is an important railway
junction. The station, formerly called Elahdsfontcin Junction,
is the meeting-point of lines from the ports of ihe Cape and Natal,
and from Johannesburg, Pretoria and Dclagoa Bay. Though
possessing a separate municipality, Gcrmiston is practically a
suburb of Johannesburg (q.v.).
GERMONIDS, ANASTASIUS [Anastase Germ on] (1551-1627),
canon lawyer, diplomatist and archbishop of Tarantaisc, belonged
to the family of the marquises of Ccve, in Piedmont, where he
was born. As archdeacon at Turin he was a member of the com-
mission appointed by Pope Cement VIIL to edit the Liber
Septimus decretaliutn; and he also wrote ParaliUa on the five
books of the Decretals of Gregory IX. He represented the duke
of Savoy at the court of Rome under Clement VIII. and Paul V.,
and was ambassador to Spain under Kings Philip III. and IV.
He died on the 4th of August 1627. Gcrmonius is best known
for his treatise on ambassadors, De legalis principum ct popular um
libri Ires (Rome, 1627). The book is diffuse, pedantic and some-
what heavy in style, but valuable historically as written by a
theorist who was also an expert man of affairs. (See Diplomacy.)
GERO (c. 900-965), margrave of the Saxon east mark, was
probably a member of an influential Saxon family. In 937 he
was entrusted by the German king Otto, afterwards the emperor
Otto the Great, with the defence of the eastern frontier of Saxony
against the Wends and other Slavonic tribes; a duty which he
discharged with such ability and success that in a few years he
extended the Saxon frontier almost to the Oder, and gained the
chief credit for the suppression of a rising of the conquered
peoples in a great victory on the 16th of October 955. In 963
he defeated the Lusatians, compelled the king of the Poles to
recognize the supremacy of the German king, and extended the
area of his mark so considerably that after his death it was
partitioned into three, and later into five marks. Gero, who is
said to have made a journey to Rome, died on the 20th of May
065, and was buried in the convent of Gernrode which he had.
founded on his Saxon estates. He is referred to by the historian
Widukind as a preses t and is sometimes called the " great mar-
grave." He has been accused of treachery and cruelty, is cele-
brated in song and story, and is mentioned as the " marcgrave
Gere" in the Nibelungenlicd.
See Widukind, "Res gestae Saxonicae," In the Monumenta
Germaniae historica. Script ores. Band iii.; O. von Hcinemann,
Uarkgraj Giro (Brunswick, i860).
GKROLSTEIN, a village and climatic health resort of Germany,
in the Prussian Rhine Province, attractively situated on the
KylL in the Eifel range, 1100 ft. above the sea, 58 m. W. of
Andernach by rail, and at the junction of lines to Treves and
St Vith. The castle of Gerolstein, built in 1 1 1 5 and now m ruins,
affords a fine view of the KyUthah Gerolstein is celebrated for its
lithia waters, which are largely exported. Pop. (1900) 1308.
GfiRdME, JEAN LEON (1824-1004), French painter, was born
on the nth of May 1824 at Vesoul (Haute-Sadne). He went
to Paris in 1841 and worked under Paul Delaroche, whom ha
902
GERONA
accompanied to Italy (1844-1845). On his return he exhibited
" The Cock-fight/' which gained him a third-class medal in the
Salon of 1847. " The Virgin with Christ and St John " and
" Anacrcon, Bacchus and Cupid " took a second-class medal in
1848. He exhibited " Bacchus and Love, Drunk," a " Greek
Interior" and "Souvenir d'ltalie," in 1851; " Paestum" (1852);
and " An Idyll " (1853). In 1854 G6r6rae made a journey to
Turkey and the shores of the Danube, and in 1857 visited Egypt.
To the exhibition of :85s he contributed a " Piffcraro," a
" Shepherd," " A Russian Concert " and a large historical
canvas, " The Age of Augustus and the Birth of Christ." The
last was somewhat confused in effect, but in recognition of its
consummate ability the Slate purchased it. Ger6mc's reputation
was greatly enhanced at the Salon of 1857 by a collection of
works of a more popular kind: the " Duel: after a Masquerade,"
" Egyptian Recruits crossing the Desert," " Mcmnon and
Sesostris " and " Camels Watering," the drawing of which
was criticized by Edmond About. In " Caesar " (1859) Gtrdme
tried to return to a severer class of work, but the picture failed
to interest the public. " Phryne before the Areopagus," " Le
Roi Candaule " and " Socrates finding Aldbiades in the House of
Aspasia " (1861) gave rise to some scandal by reason of the
subjects selected by the painter, and brought down on him the
bitter attacks of Paul de Saint-Victor and Maxime Ducamp.
At the same Salon he exhibited the " Egyptian chopping Straw,"
and " Rembrandt biting an Etching," two very minutely
finished works. G6r6me's best paintings are of Eastern subjects;
among these may be named the "Turkish Prisoner" and
"Turkish Butcher" (1863); "Prayer" (1865); "The Slave
Market" (1867); and "The Harem out Driving" (1869).
He often illustrated history, as in " Louis XIV. and Molicre "
(1863); "The Reception of the Siamese Ambassadors at
Fontainebleau " (1865); and the "Death of Marshal Ney w
(1868). G6r6me was also successful as a sculptor; he executed,
among other works, " Omphale " (1887), and the statue of the
due d'Aumale which stands in front of the chateau of Chantitly
(1899). His " Bcllona " (1892), in ivory, metal, and precious
stones, which was also exhibited in the Royal Academy of London,
attracted great attention. The artist then began an interesting
scries of " Conquerors," wrought in gold, silver and gems —
"Bonaparte entering Cairo" (1897); "Tamerlane" (1898);
and "Frederick the Great" (1899). G6r6me was elected
member of the Institut in 1865. He died in 1004.
GERONA, a maritime frontier province in the extreme north-
east of Spain, formed in 1833 of districts taken from Catalonia,
and bounded on the N. by France, E. and S.E. by the Mediter-
ranean Sea, S.W. and W. by Barcelona, and N.W. by Llrida.
Pop. (1900) 299,287; area, 2264 sq. m. In the north-west a
small section of the province, with the town of Llivfa, is entirely
isolated and surrounded by French territory; otherwise Gerona
is separated from France by the great range of the Pyrenees.
Its general aspect is mountainous, especially in the western
districts. Most of the lower chains are covered with splendid
forests of oak, pine and chestnut. There are comparatively
'level tracts of arable land along the lower course of the three
main rivers— the Ter, Muga and Fluvia, which rise in the Pyrenees
and flow in a south-easterly direction to the sea. The coast-line
is not deeply indented, but includes one large bay, the Gulf of
Rosas. Its two most conspicuous promontories, Capes Creus and
Bagur, are the easternmost points of the Iberian Peninsula.
The climate is generally temperate and rainy during several
months in the valleys and near the coast, but cold in the Cerdafta
district and other mountainous regions during eight months,
while Gerona, La Bisbal and Santa Coloma are quite Mediter-
ranean in their hot summers and mild winters. Agriculture is
backward, but there are profitable fisheries and fish-curing
establishments along the whole seaboard, notably at the ports of
Llansa, Rosas, Palam6s, San Fclfu de Guixols and Blanes.
Next in importance is the cork industry at San Feliu de Guixols,
Palafrugcll and Cassa. More than one hundred mineral springs
are scattered over the province, and in 1903 twenty mines were
at work, although their total output, which included antimony,
coal, copper, lead, iron and other ores, was valued at less thaa
£7000. There arc also important hydraulic cement and ochre
works, and no fewer than twenty-two of the towns are centra
of manufactures of linen, cotton, woollen stuffs, paper, cloth,
leather, steel and furniture. The commerce of the province it
important, Port Bou (or Portbou) being, after Irun, the most
active outlet for the trade by railway not only with France
but with the rest of the continent. The main railway from
Barcelona to France runs through the province, and several
branch railways, besides steam and electric tramways, conned
the principal towns. Gerona, the capital (pop. 1900, 15.7 s : 1 ,
and Figueras (10,714), long a most important frontier fortnh>,
are described in separate articles; the only other towns with
more than 7000 inhabitants are San Feliu de Guixols (11,333),
Olot (7938) and Palafrugcll (7087). The inhabitants of the
province are, like most Catalans, distinguished for their enter-
prise, hardiness and keen local patriotism; but emigration,
chiefly to Barcelona, kept their numbers almost stationary during
the years 1875-1005. The percentage of illegitimate births (15)
is lower than in any other part of Spain. (Sec also Catalokia.)
GERONA, the capital of the province of Gerona, in north-
eastern Spain, on the railway from Barcelona to Perptgnan in
France, and on the right bank of the river Ter, at its confluence
with the Ofla, a small right-hand tributary. Pop. (1000) 1 5,787.
The older part of the town occupies the steep slope of the
Montjuich, or Hill of the Capuchins, and with its old-fashioned
buildings presents a picturesque appearance against a back-
ground of loftier heights; the newer portion stretches down into
the plain and beyond the Ona, which is here crossed by a bridge
of three arches. The old city walls and their bastions still
remain, though in a dilapidated state; and the hill is crowned
by what were at one time very strong fortifications, now used
as a prison. Gerona is the seat of a bishop, has a seminary, a
public library and a theatre, and carries on the manufacture of
paper and cotton and woollen goods. Its churches are of ex-
ceptional interest. The cathedral is one of the grandest spcaxness
of Gothic architecture in Spain, the nave being the widest
pointed vault in Christendom, as it measures no less than 73 ft.
from side to side, while Albi, the next in size, is only 58 ft., and
Westminster Abbey is only 38. The old cathedral on the same
site was used as a mosque by the Moors, and on their expulsion
In 1015 it appears to have been very greatly modified, if not
entirely rebuilt During the 14th century new works were again
carried out on an extensive scale, but it was not till the beginning
of the 15th that the proposal to erect the present magnificent
nave was originated by the master of the works, GuiUenao
Boffiy. The general appearance of the exterior is rather un-
gainly, but there is'a fine approach by a flight of 86 steps to the
facade, which rises in tiers and terminates in an oval rose-window.
Among the tombs may be mentioned those of Bishop Berenger
or Berenguer (d. 1408), Count Ramon Berenger II. (d. 1082)
and the countess Ermesinda (d. 1057). The collegiate church
of San FeKu (St Felix) is mainly of the 14th century, but it was
considerably modified in the 16th, and its facade dates from the
1 8th. It is one of the few Spanish churches that can boast of a
genuine spire, and it thus forms a striking feature in the general
view of the town. The Benedictine church of San Pedro de
GaUigans (or de losGallos) is an interesting Romanesque building
of early date. It is named from the small river GaUigans, an
affluent of the Ona, which flows through the city. In the same
neighbourhood is a small church worthy of notice as a rare
Spanish example of a transverse triapsal plan.
Gerona is the ancient Gerunda, a city of the Auscctani. It
claims to be the place in which St Paul and St James first rested
when they came to Spain; and it became the see of a bishop about
247. For a considerable period it was in the hands of the Moors,
and their emir, Suleiman, was in alliance with Pippin the Short,
king of the Franks, about 759. It was taken by Charlemagne in
785; but the Moors regained and sacked it in 795; and it was not
till 1015 that they were finally expelled. At a later date it gave
the title of count to the king of Aragon's eldest son. It has been
besieged no fewer than twenty-five times in all, and only four
GEROUSIA— GERRY
903
of the sieges have resulted in Its capture. The investment by
the French under Marshal Hocquincourt in 1653, that of 1684
by the French under Marshal Bellefonds, and the successful
enterprise of Marshal Noailles in 1694 are the three great events
of its history in the 17th century. Surrendered by the French
at the peace of Ryswick, it was again captured by the younger
Marshal Noailles in 1706, after a brilliant defence; and in 1717
it held out against the Austrian*. But its noblest resistance was
yet to be made. In May i£oo it was besieged by the French,
with 35,000 troops, under J. A. Verdier, P. F. Augereau and
Gouvion St Cyr ; forty batteries were erected against it and a heavy
bombardment maintained; but under the leadership of Mariano
Alvarez de Castro it held out till famine and fever compelled a
capitulation on the 12th of December. The French, it is said,
bad spent ao.ooo bombs and 60,000 cannon balls, and their loss
was estimated at 15,000 men.
See luan Gaspar Koia y Jalpi, Resume* da las Grandesas, &c
(Barcelona, 1678) ; J. A. Nieto y Samaniego, Memorias (Tarragona*
1810) ; G. E. Street, Gothic Architecture iu Spain (London, 1869).
GEROUSIA (Gr. ytpovala, Doric ytpu&a), the ancient council
of elders at Sparta, corresponding in some of its functions to the
Athenian Boul& In historical times it numbered twenty-eight
members, to whom were added ex officio the two kings and, later,
the five ephors. Candidates must have passed their sixtieth
year, i.e. they must no longer be liable to military service, and
they were possibly restricted to the nobility. Vacancies were
filled by the Apella, that candidate being declared elected whom
the assembly acclaimed with the loudest shouts — a method which
Aristotle censures as childish (PoiU. ii. o, p. 1271 a 9). Once
elected, the gerontes held office for life and were irresponsible.
The functions of the council were among the most important
in the state. It prepared the business which was to be submitted
to the Apella, and was empowered to set aside, in conjunction
wi t h t he kings, any " crooked " decision of the people. Together
with the kings and ephors it formed the supreme executive
committee of the state, and it exercised also a considerable
criminal and political jurisdiction, including the trial of kings;
its competence extended to the infliction of a sentence of exile
or even of death. These powers, or at least the greater part of
them, were transferred by Cleomenes HI. to a board of patronomi
(Pausanias ii. 9. 1); the gerousia, however, continued to exist
at least down to Hadrian's reign, consisting of twenty-three
members annually elected, but eligible for re-election (Sparta
Romanesque church, dating from the 73th century, which forms
a portion of an ancient nunnery (founded in the 10th century and
secularized in 1806), and has extensive glass manufactures and
wire factories. Pop. (1005) 14,434*
GBRRHA (Arab. al-Jar'a), an ancient city of Arabia, on the
west side of the Persian Gulf, described by Strabo (Bk. xvi.)
as inhabited by 'Chaldean exiles from Babylon, who built their
houses of salt and repaired them by the application of salt water.
Pliny (Hist. NaL vi. 32) says it was 5 m. in circumference with
towers built of square blocks of salt. Various identifications of
the site have been attempted, J. P. B. D'Anvillc choosing El
Katif, C. Niebuhr preferring Kuwet and C. Forster suggesting
the ruins at the head of the bay behind the islands of Bahrein.
See A. Sprenger, Die alle Ceographie Arabims (Bern, 1875), PP-
135-137.
GERRUS, a small province of Persia, situated between
Khamseh and Azerbaijan in the N., Kurdistan in the W. and
Hamadan in the S. Its population is estimated at 80,000, and
Its capital, Bfjir, 180 m. from Hamadan, has a population of
about 4000 and post and telegraph offices. The province is
fief of the chief of the Gcrrus Kurds, pays a yearly revenue of
about £3000, and supplies a battalion of infantry (the 34th) to
the army.
GERRY, BLBRIDGE (1744-1814), American statesman, was
born in Marblehead, Massachusetts, on the 17th of July 1744,
the son of Thomas Gerry (d. 1 774), a native of Newton, England,
who emigrated to America in 2730, and became a prosperous
Marblehead merchant. The son graduated at Harvard in 1761
and entered his father's business. In 177a and 1773 he was a
member of the Massachusetts General Court, in which he identified
himself with Samuel Adams and the patriot party, and in 1773
he served on the Committee of Correspondence, which became
one of the great instruments of intercolonial resistance. In
1774-1775 he was a member of the Massachusetts Provincial
Congress. The passage of a bill proposed by him (November
1775) to arm and equip ships to prey upon British commerce,
and for the establishment of a prize court, was, according to hit
biographer, Austin, " the first actual avowal of offensive hostility
against the mother country, which is to be found in the annals of
the Revolution." It is also noteworthy, says Austin, as " the
first effort to establish an American naval armament." From
1776 to 1781 Gerry was a member of the Continental Congress,
where he early advocated independence, and was one of those who
signed the Declaration after its formal signing on the 2nd of
August 1776, at which time he was absent. He was active in
debates and committee work, and for some time held the chair-
manship of the important standing committee for the superin-
tendence of the treasury, in which capacity he exercised a pre-
dominating influence on congressional expenditures. In February
1 780 he withdrew from Congress because of its refusal to respond
to his call for the yeas and nays. Subsequently he laid his protest
before the Massachusetts General Court which voted its approval
of his action. On his return to Massachusetts, and while he was
still a member of Congress, he was elected under the new state
constitution (1780) to both branches of the state legislature,
but accepted only his election to the House of Representatives.
On the expiration of his congressional term, he was again chosen
a delegate by the Massachusetts legislature, but it was not until
1783 that he resumed his seat. During the second period of his
service in Congress, which lasted until 1785, he was a member
of the committee to consider the treaty of peace with Great
Britain, and chairman of two committees appointed to select a
permanent seat of government. In x 784 he bitterly attacked the
establishment of the order of the Cincinnati on the ground that
it was a dangerous menace to democratic institutions. In 1786
he served in the state House of Representatives. Not favouring
the creation of a strong national government he declined to
attend the Annapolis Convention in 1786, but in the following
year, when the assembling of the Constitutional Convention was
an assured fact, although he opposed the purpose for which it was
called, he accepted an appointment as one of the Massachusetts
delegates, with the idea that he might personally help to check too
strong a tendency toward centralization. His exertions in the
convention were ceaseless in opposition to what he believed to be
the wholly undemocratic character of the instrument, and eventu-
ally he refused to sign the completed constitution. Returning to
Massachusetts, he spoke and wrote in opposition to its ratifies*
tion, and although not a member of the convention called to
pass upon it, he laid before this convention, by request, his
reasons for opposing it, among them being that the constitution
contained no bill of rights, that the executive would unduly
influence the legislative branch of the government, and that the
judiciary would be oppressive. Subsequently he served as an
Anti-Federalist in the national House of Representatives in 1789*
1793, taking, as always, a prominent part in debates and other
legislative concerns. In 1797 he was sent by President John
Adams, together with John Marshall and Charles Cotesworth
Pinckney, on a mission to France to obtain from the govern-
ment of the Directory a treaty embodying a settlement of
several long-standing disputes. The discourteous and under-
handed treatment of this embassy by Talleyrand and his agents.
9°6
GERSONIDES-OERSTACKER
archbishop and grand inquisitor, and his book had been publicly
burned before the cathedral of Notre Dame. Gcrson wished a
council to confirm this sentence. ~ His literary labours were as
untiring as ever. He maintained in a series of tracts that a general
council could depose a pope; he drew up indictments against
the reigning pontiffs, reiterated the charges against Jean Petit,
and exposed the sin of schism— in short, he did all he could to
direct the public mind towards the evils in the church and the
way to heal them. His efforts were powerfully seconded by the
emperor Sigisraund, and the result was the council of Constance
(see Constance, Council of) . Cerson's influence at the council
was supreme up to the election of a new pope. It was he who
dictated the form of submission and cession made by John
XXIII., and directed the process against Huss. Many of
Gerson's biographers have found it difficult to reconcile his
proceedings against Huss with his own opinions upon the supre-
macy of the pope; but the difficulty has arisen partly from
misunderstanding Gerson's position*, partly from supposing him
to be the author of a famous tract — De mod is uniatdi ac refor-
mandi Ecclcsiam in eoncilio universal*. All Gerson's high-sounding
phrases about the supremacy of a council were meant to apply
to some time of emergency. He was essentially a trimmer,
and can scarcely be called a reformer, and he hated Huss with
all the hatred the trimmer has of the reformer. The three bold
treatises, De necessitate reformationis Ecdesice, De modis uniendi
ac reformandi Ecclesiam, and De difficultaie reformationis in
eoncilio universal*, long ascribed to Gcrson, were proved by
Schwab in his Johannis Gerson not to be his work, and have since
been ascribed to Abbot Andreas of Randuf, and with more
reason to Dietrich of Niehcim (sec Niem, Dietrich of).
The council of Constance, which revealed the eminence of
Gerson, became in the end the cause of his downfall. He was the
prosecutor in the case of Jean relit, and the council, overawed
by the duke of Burgundy, would not affirm the censure of the
university and archbishop of Paris. Peril's justificationof murder
was declared to be only a moral and philosophical opinion, not
of faith. The utmost length the council would go was to con-
demn one proposition, and even this censure was annulled by the
new pope, Martin V., on a formal pretext. Gerson dared not
return to France, where, in the disturbed state of the kingdom,
the duke of Burgundy was in power. He lay hid for a time at
Constance and then at Ratten berg in Tirol, where he wrote his
famous book De consolaiione theologiae. On returning to France
he went to Lyons, where his brother was prior of the Celestines.
It is said that he taught a school of boys and girls in Lyons, and
that the only fee he exacted was to make the children promise
to repeat the prayef; " Lord, have mercy on thy poor servant
Gerson." His later years were spent in writing books of mystical
devotion and hymns. He died at Lyons on the 1 2th of July 1429.
.Tradition declares that during his sojourn there he translated
or adapted from the Latin a work upon eternal consolation,
which afterwards became very famous under the title of The
Imitation of Christ, and was attributed to Thomas a Kcmpis.
It has, however, been proved beyond a doubt that the famous
Imitatio Christi was really . written by Thomas, and not by
John Gerson or the abbot Gcrson.
The literature on Gerson is very abundant. See Dupin, Gersoniana,
including Vita Gersoni, prefixed to the edition of Gerson's works in
5 vols, lol., from which quotations have here been made; Charles
Schmidt, Essai sur Jean Gcrson, chancel Ur de I' University de Paris
(Strassburg, 1839); J. B. Schwab, Johannes Gerson (Wurzburg,
1859); II. jadart, Jean Gerson, son origine, son village natal et
sa familie (Reims, 1882). On the relations between Gcrson and
D'Ailly see Paul Tschackcrt, Peter von Ailli (Gotha, 1877). On
Gerson's public life sec also histories of the councils of Pisa and
Constance, especially Hcrm. v. dcr Hardt. Con. Conslantiensis libri
iv. (1695-1699). The best editions of his works are those of Paris
(3 vols., 1606) and Antwerp (5 vols., 1706). See also Ulysse Chevalier,
Repertoire des sources hist. Bio-bibliographic (Paris, 1905, &c.) t t.v.
"Gerson." (T. M. L.;X.)
GERSONIDES, or Ben Gerson (Gershon), LEVI, known also
as Ralbac (1 288-1344), Jewish philosopher and commentator,
was born at Bagnols in Languedoc, probably in 1288. As in the
esse of the other medieval Jewish philosophers little is known
of his life, His family had been distinguished for piety and
exegetical skill, but though he was known in the Jewish com-
munity by commentaries on certain books of the Bible, he never
seems to have accepted any rabbinical post. Possibly the
freedom of his opinions may have put obstacles in the way of his
preferment. He is known to have been at Avignon and Orange
during his life, and is believed to have died in 1344, though
Zacuto asserts that he died at Perpignan in 1370. Part of his
writings consist of commentaries on the portions of Aristotle
then known, or rather of commentaries .on the commentaries of
A vermes. Some of these are printed in the early Latin editions
of Aristotle's works. His most important treatise, that by which
he has a place in the history of philosophy, is entitled Uilhamotk
'Adonai (The Wars of God), and occupied twelve years in com-
position (13 1 7-1329). A portion of it, containing an elaborate
survey of astronomy as known to the Arabs, was translated into
Latin in 1342 at the request of Clement VL The Milhamoth
is throughout modelled after the plan of the great work of Jewish
philosophy, the Moreh Nebuhim of Moses Maimonides, and
may be regarded as an elaborate criticism from the more philo-
sophical point of view (mainly Averroistic) of the syncretism
of Aristotetianism and Jewish orthodoxy as presented in that
work. The six books pass in review (t) the doctrine of the soul,
in which Gersonides defends the theory of impersonal reason as
mediating between God and man, and explains the formation of
the higher reason (or acquired intellect, as it was called) in
humanity, — his view -being thoroughly realist and resembling
that of Avicebron; (2) prophecy; (3) and (4) God's knowledge
of facts and providence, in which is advanced the curious theory
that God does not know individual facts, and that, while there is
general providence for all, special providence only extends to
those whose reason has been enlightened; (5) celestial substances,
treating of the strange spiritual hierarchy which the Jewish
philosophers of the middle ages accepted from the Neoplatonists
and the pseudo-Dionysius, and also giving, along with astronomi-
cal details, much of astrological theory; (6) creation and
miracles, in respect to which Gerson deviates widely from the
position of Maimonides, Gersonides was also the author of a
commentary on the Pentateuch and other exegetical and scientific
works.
A careful analysis of the Milhamoth is given in Rabbi Isidore
Weil's Philosophic religicuse de Levi-Ben-Gerson (Paris, 1868). See
also Munk, Melanges de phil. Juive el arabe; and Joel, Religions-
philosophit d. L. Ben-Gcrson (186a). The Milhamoth was pub-
lished in 1560 at Riva di Trento, and has been published at Leipzig,
1866. K (i. jct
GERSOPPA, FALLS OF, a cataract on the Sharavati river in
the North Kanara district of Bombay. The failure considered
the finest in India. The river descends in four separate cascades
called the Raja or Horseshoe, the Roarer, the Rocket and the
Dame Blanche. The cliff over which the river plunges is 830 ft
high, and the pool at the base of the Raja Fall is 132 ft. deep.
The falls are reached by boat from Honavar, or by road from
Gersoppa village, 18 m. distant. Near the village are extensive
ruins (the finest of which is a cruciform temple) of Nagarbastikere,
the capital of the Jain chiefs of Gersoppa. Their family was
established in power in 1409 by the Vijayanagar kings, but
subsequently became practically independent. The chieftaincy
was several times held by women, and on the death of the last
queen (1608) it collapsed, having been attacked by the chief of
Bednur. Among the Portuguese the district was celebrated
for its pepper, and they called its queen " Regina da pimenta "
(queen of pepper).
GBRSTACKER, FRIEDRICH (1 816-1873), German novelist
and writer of travels, was born at Hamburg on the zoth of May
1816, the son of Friedrich Gerstacker (1790-1825), a celebrated
opera singer. After being apprenticed to a commercial house
he learnt farming in Saxony. In 1837, however, having imbibed
from Robinson Crusoe a taste for adventure, he went to America
and wandered over a large part of the United States, supporting
himself by whatever work came to hand. In 1843 be returned
to Germany, to find himself, to his great surprise, famous as an
author. His mother had shown his diary, which he regularly
GERSTENBERG— GERVASE OF TILBURY
907
sent home, and which contained descriptions of his adventures
in the New World, to the editor of the Rosen, who published thern
in that periodical. These sketches having found favour with the
public, Gerstacker issued them in 1844 under the title Streif-und
JagdzUge dutch die Vereinigten Staaten Nordamerikas. In 1845
his first novel, Die Regulatoren in Arkansas, appeared,°and hence-
forth the stream of his productiveness flowed on uninterruptedly.
From 1840 to 1852 Gerstacker travelled round the world, visiting
North and South America, Polynesia and Australia, and on his
return settled in Leipzig. In i860 he again went to South America,
chiefly with a view to inspecting the German colonies there and
reporting on the possibility of diverting the stream of German
emigration in this direction. The result of his observations and
experiences he recorded in Aehtzchn Monde in Siidamerika (1862).
In 1862 be accompanied Duke Ernest of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha to
Egypt and Abyssinia, and on his return settled at Coburg, where
he wrote a number of novels descriptive of the scenes he had
visited. In 1 867-1868 Gerstlcker again undertook a long journey,
visiting North America, Venezuela and the West Indies, and on
his return lived first at Dresden and then at Brunswick, where
he died on the 3 1st of May 1872. His genial and straightforward
character made him personally beloved; and his works, dealing
as they did with the great world hitherto hidden from the narrow
" parochialism " of German life, obtained an immense popularity.
This was not due to any graces of style, in which they are sin-
gularly lacking; but the unstudied freshness* of the author's
descriptions, and his sturdy humour, appealed to the wholesome
instincts' of the public. Many of his books were translated into
foreign languages, notably into English, and became widely
known on both sides of the Atlantic. His best works, from a
literary point of view, are, besides the above-mentioned Regula-
toren, his Flusspiralen des Mississippi (1848); the novel Tahiti
(1854); his Australian romance Die beiden Strtiflinge (1857);
Aus dan Matrosenleben (1857); and Blau Waster (1858). His
Travels exist in an English translation.
' . Gerstacker's Gesammelte Sehriften were published at Jena in 44
vols. (1 872-1 879) ; a selection, edited by D. Theden in 24 vols. (1889-
1890). See A. Karl, Friedrich Gerstacker, der WekgereisU. Bin
Lebensbild (1873).
GERSTENBERG, HEINRICH WILHELM VON (17*7-1823),
German poet and critic, was born at Tondern in Schleswig on the
3rd of January 1737. After studying law at Jena he entered the
Danish military service and took part in the Russian campaign
of 1762. He spent the next twelve years in Copenhagen, where
he was intimate with KJopstock. From 1775 to 1783 he repre-
sented Denmark's interests as " Danish Resident " at Lttbeck,
and in 1786 received a judicial appointment at Altona, where he
died on the 1st of November 1823. In the course of his long life
Gcrstcnberg passed through many phases of his nation's literature.
He began as an imitator of the Anacreontic school (Tdndelcien,
1759); then wrote, in imitation of Gleim, Kriegslieder eines
danischen Grenadiers (1762); with his Gedicht eines Skalden
(1766) he joined the group of " bards " led by Klopstock. His
Ariadne auf Naxos (1767) is the best cantata of the 1 8th century;
he translated Beaumont and Fletcher's Maid's Tragedy (1767},
and helped to usher in the Sturm und Drang period with a grue-
some but powerful tragedy, Ugolino ( 1 768). But he did perhaps
even better service to the new literary movement with his Briefe
uber Merhettrdigkcitcn der Liter atur (1766- 17 70), in which the
critical principles of the Sturm und Drang — and especially its
enthusiasm for Shakespeare, — were first definitely formulated.
In later life Gerstenberg lost touch with literature, and occupied
himself mainly with Kant's philosophy.
His Vermisckte Sehriften appeared in 3 vols. (1815). The 'Briefe
iiber Merkvitrdigkeiten der Ltteratur were republished by A. von
Wcilen (1888). and a selection of his poetry, including Vgolino, by
R. Hamcl. will be found in Kiirschner's Deutsche NationaUiteratur,
vol. 48 (1884).
GfolUZEZ, NICOLAS ETJG&NE (1 700-1865), French critic,
was born on the 6th of January 1799 at Reims. He was assistant
professor at the Sorbonne, and in 1852 he became secretary to
the faculty of literature. He wrote a Histoire de V eloquence
politique el rcligieuse en France aux XI V% XV\ct X VI* silcles
-1838); an admirable Histoire de la litUralure franchise
les origincsjusqu'd la Revolution (1852), which he supple-
d in 1859 by a volume bringing down the history to the
of the revolutionary period; and some miscellaneous
, Geruzez died on the 29th of May 1865 in Paris. A
imous volume of Melanges et pensfes appeared in 1877.
tVAIS, PAUL (1816-1879), French palaeontologist, was
>n the 26th of September 1816 at Paris, where he obtained
plomas of doctor of science and of medicine, and in 1835
;an palaeontological research as assistant in the laboratory
nparative anatomy at the Museum of Natural History.
41 he obtained the chair of zoology and comparative
my at the Faculty of Sciences in Montpellicr, of which he
1 1856 appointed dean. In 1848-1852 appeared his im-
it work Zoologie et pallonlclogic francaises, supplementary
palaeontological publications of G. Cuvier and H. M. D.
ainville; of this a second and greatly improved edition
sued in 1859. In 1865 he accepted the professorship of
y at the Sorbonne, vacant through the death of L. P.
>let; this post he left in 1868 for the chair of comparative
ny at the Paris museum of natural history, the anatomical
ions of which were greatly enriched by his exertions. He
3 Paris on the 10th of February 1879.
also wrote Histoire naturelle des mammiferes (1853. &c.);
ie midicale (1859, with P. J. van Beneden); Recherches sur
nneti de I'komme et la pbriodc quaternaire, 19 pi. (1 867) ; Zoologie
ontologie gincrales (1867); OsUographie des citacis (1869, &c.,
an Beneden).
IVASB OF CANTERBURY (d. c. 12 10), English monk
tironider, entered the house of Christchurch, Canterbury,
sarly age. He made his profession and received holy orders
►3; but we have no further clue to the date of his birth.
x>w nothing of his life beyond what may be gathered from
ra writings. Their evidence Suggests that he died in or
y after 1210, and that he had resided almost continuously
nterbury from the time of his admission. The only office
we know him to have held is that of sacrist, which he
ed after 1 190 and laid down before 1 197. He took a keen
it in the secular quarrels of the Canterbury monks with their
shops, and his earliest literary efforts were controversial
upon this subject. But from x 188 be applied his mind to
teal composition. About that year he began the compilation
Chronica, a work intended for the private reading o£ his
■en. Beginning with the accession of Stephen he continued
xrative to the death of Richard I. Up to 11 88 he relies
t entirely upon extant sources; but from that date on-
is usually an independent authority. A second history,
tsta Regum, is planned on a smaller scale and traces the
ics of Britain from the days of Brutus to the year 1 209. The
part of this work, covering the years 1199-1 209, is perhaps
empt to redeem the promise, which be had macle in the
ue to the Chronica, of a continuation dealing with the reign
n. This is the only part of the Gesta which deserves much
ion. The work was continued by various hands to the
328. From the Gcsta the indefatigable Gervase turned to
d project, the history of the see of Canterbury from the
1 of Augustine to the death of Hubert Walter (1205). A
raphical work, with the somewhat misleading title Mappa
I, completes the list of his more important writings. The
a mundi contains a useful description of England shire by
giving in particular a list of the castles and religious houses
found in each. The industry of Gervase was greater than
sight. He took a narrow and monastic view of current
3; he was seldom in touch with the leading statesmen of
y. But he appears to be tolerably accurate when dealing
the years 1188-1209; and sometimes he supplements the
ution provided by the more important chronicles,
the introductions and notes in \V. Stubbs's edition of the
ical Works of Gervase of Canterbury {Rolls edition, 2 vols.,
1880). (H.W.C.D.)
IVASE OF TILBURY (fl. 1211), Anglo-Latin writer of the
tth and early 13th centuries, was a kinsman and schoolfellow
trick, earl of Salisbury, but lived the life of a scholarly
908
GERVEX— GERYON
adventurer, wandering from land to land in search of patrons.
Before 1177 he was a student and teacher of law at Bologna;
in that year he witnessed the meeting of the emperor Frederic I.
and Pope Alexander 111. at Venice. He may have hoped to
win the favour of Frederic, who in the past had found useful
instruments among the civilians of Bologna. But Frederic
ignored him; his first employer of royal rank was Henry fitz
Henry, the young king of England (d. 1183), for whom Gcrvase
wrote a jest-book which is no longer extant. Subsequently
we hear of Gervase as a clerk in the household of William of
Champagne, cardinal archbishop of Reims (d. 1202). Here,
as he himself confesses, he basely accused of heretical opinions
a young girl, who had rejected his advances, with the result that
she was burned to death. He cannot have remained many
years at Reims; before 11 89 he attracted the favour of William
II. of Sicily, who bad married Joanna, the sister of Henry fitz
Henry. William took Gervase into his service and gave him a
country-house at Nola. After William's death the kingdom
of Sicily offered no attractions to an Englishman. The fortunes
of Gervase suffered an eclipse until, some time after 11 08, he
found employment under the emperor Otto IV., who by descent
and political interest was intimately connected with the Plan-
tagencts. Though a dcrk in orders Gcrvase became marshal
of the kingdom of Aries, and married an heiress of good family.
For the delectation of the emperor he wrote, about 1211, his
Otia Impcrialia in three parts. It is a farrago of history,
geography, folklore and political theory — one of those books of
table-talk in which the literature of the age abounded. Evidently
Gcrvase coveted but ill deserved a reputation for encyclopaedic
learning. The most interesting of his dissertations are contained
in the second part of the Olia, where he discusses, among other
topics, the theory of the Empire and the geography and history
of England. We do not know what became of Gervase after the
downfall of Otto IV. But he became a canon; and may perhaps
be identified with Gervase, provost of Ebbekesdorf, who died in
"35-
See the Otia Imperialia in G. Leibnitz's Scriptorel rerum Bruns-
vicensium, vols. i. and ii. (Hanover, 1707); extracts in J. Stevenson's
edition of CoggeshaU (Rolls series, 1875). Of modern accounts the
best are those by W. Stubbs in his edition of Gervase of Canterbury,
vol. i. introd. (Rolls series, 1879), and by R. Pauli in Nachrichten
der Gesellsckafl der Wissenschaflen tu Giittingen (1882). In the older
biographers the Dialogus de scaccario of Richard Fitz Neal (q.v.) is
wrongly attributed to Gervase. (H. W. C. O.)
GERVEX. HENRI (1852- ), French painter, was born in
Paris on the roth of December 1852, and studied painting under
Cabanel, Brisset and Fromentin. His early work belonged
almost exclusively to the mythological genre which served as an
excuse for the painting of the nude — not always in the best of
taste; indeed, his " Rolla " of 1878 was rejected by the jury of
the Salon pour immoraliti. He afterwards devoted himself to
representations of modern life and achieved signal success with
his " Dr Plan at the Salp6triere," a modernized paraphrase,
as it were, of Rembrandt's " Anatomy Lesson." He was en-
trusted with several important official paintings and the decora-
tion of public buildings. Among the first are " The Distribution
of Awards (1889) at the Palais de PIndustrie " (now in the
Versailles Museum), " The Coronation of Nicolas II." (Moscow,
"May 14, 1896), " The Mayors' Banquet " (1900), and the portrait
group M La Republique Francaise "; and among the second,
the ceiling for the Salle des FCtes at the hfttel de ville, Paris, and
the decorative panels painted in conjunction with Blanchon for
the mairic of the 19th arrondissement, Paris. He also painted,
with Alfred Stevens, a panorama, M The History of the Century "
(1889). At the Luxembourg is his painting " Satyrs playing
with a Bacchante," as well as the large " Members of the Jury
of the Salon " (1885). Other pictures of importance, besides
numerous portraits in oils and pastel, are '* Communion at
Trinity Church," " Return from the Ball," 4 * Diana and Endy-
mion," " Job," " Civil Marriage," " At the Ambassadeurs,"
" Yachting in the Archipelago," " Nana " and " Maternity."
GBRVINUS, GEORG GOTTFRIED (1805-1871), German
literary and political historian, was born on the 20th of May
1805 at Darmstadt. He was educated at the gymnasium of
the town, and intended for a commercial career, but in 1&25
he became a student of the university of Giessen. In 1826 k
went to Heidelberg, where he attended the lectures of the
historian Schlosser, who became henceforth bis guide and his
model. In 1828 he was appointed teacher in a private school
at Frankiort-on-Main, and in 1830 Privotdotenl at Heidelberg.
A volume of his collected Historische Schriflc* procured him
the appointment of professor extraordinarius; while the fint
volume of his Geschichte der poitischen NationaUitLcralur io
Deutschen 0835-1842, 5 vols., subsequently entitled Ceschicku
der deutschen Dkhiung; 5th edition, by K. Bartsch, 1871-1874)
brought him the appointment to a regular professorship of history
and literature at Gottingen. This work is the first comprehensive
history of German literature written both with scholarly erudition
and literary skill. In the following year be wrote his Grundzii't
der Historik, which is perhaps the most thoughtful of his pulo-
sophico- historical productions. The same year brought his expul-
sion from Gottingen in consequence of bis manly protest, in
conjunction with six of his colleagues, against the unscrupulous
violation of the constitution by Ernest Augustus, king of Hanover
and duke of Cumberland. After several years in Heidelberg,
Darmstadt and Rome, he settled permanently in Heidelberg,
where, in 1844, he was appointed honorary professor. He
zealously took up in the following year the cause of the German
Catholics, hoping it would lead to a union of all the Christian
confessions, and to the establishment of a national church.
He also came forward in 1846 as a patriotic champion of the
Schlcswig-Holsteincrs, and when, in 1847, King Frederick
William IV. promulgated the royal decree for summoning the
so-called " United Diet " (Vercinigter Landtag), Gervinus hoped
that this event would form the basis of the constitutional develop-
ment of the largest German state. He founded, together wits
some other patriotic scholars, the Deutsche Zeilung, which
certainly was one of the best-written political journals ever
published in Germany. His appearance in the political areas
secured his election as deputy for the Prussian province of Saxony
to the National Assembly sitting in 1848 at Frankfort. Disgusted
with the failure of that body, he retired from all active political
life.
Gervinus now devoted himself to literary and historical
studies, and between 1849 and 1852 published his work on
Shakespeare (4 vols., 4th ed. 2 vols, 1872; Eng. trans, by
F. E. Bunnett, 1863, new ed. 1877). He also revised his History
of German Literature, for a fourth edition (1853), and began at
the same time to plan his Gesxkichte des neunxekntcu Jahrhunderis
(8 vols., 1854-1860), which was preceded by an Einleitung in die
Geschichte des neunulmten Jahrhundcrts (1853). The latter
caused some stir in the literary and political world, owing to
the circumstance that the government of Baden imprudently
instituted a prosecution against the author for high treason.
In 1868 appeared Handd und Shakespeare, zur Asthetik der
Tonkunst, in which he drew an ingenious parallel between his
favourite poet and his favourite composer, showing that their
intcllectual affinity was based on the Teutonic origin common
to both, on their analogous intellectual development and
character. The ill-success of this publication, and t he indifference
with which the latter volumes of his History of the 19th Century
were received by his countrymen, together with the feeling of
disappointment that the unity of Germany had been brought
about in another fashion and by other means than he wished to
see employed, embittered his later years. He died at Heidelberg
on thei8th of March 1871.
Gervinus's autobiography (G. G. Gervinus' Leben, von ikm setbsl)
was published by his widow in 1893. It does not, however, go
beyond the year 1836. Sec E. Lehmann, Gervinus, Versuck eiiur
Charaktenstik (1871); R. Goschc, Gervinus (1871); J. Dorfd,
Gervinus als kislarischcr Denker (1904).
GERYON (Geryones, Geryoneus), in Greek mythology, the
son of Chrysaor and Callirrhoe, daughter of Oceanus, and king
of the island of Erylheia. He is represented as a monster with
three heads or three bodies (iriformis, trigeminus), sometimes
with wings, and as the owner of herds of red cattle, which were
GESENIUS— GESNER, KONRAD VON
909
tended by the giant shepherd Eurytion and the two-headed dog
Orthrus. To carry off these cattle to Greece was one of the
twelve " labours " imposed by Eurystheus upon Heracles. In
order to get possession of them, Heracles travelled through Europe
and Libya,, set up the two pillars in the Straits of Gibraltar to
show the extent of his journey, and reached the great river
Oceanus. Having crossed Oceanus and landed on the island,
Heracles slew Orthrus together with Eurytion, who in vain strove
todefend him, and drove off the cattle. Geryon started in pursuit,
but fell a victim to the arrows of Heracles, who, after various
adventures, succeeded in getting the cattle safe to Greece,
where they were offered in sacrifice to Hera by Eurystheus. The
geographical position of Erythcia is unknown, but all ancient
authorities agree that it was in the far west. The name itself
(« red) and the colour of the cattle suggest the fiery aspect of
the disk of the setting sun; further, Heracles crosses Oceanus in
the golden cup or boat of the sun-god Helios. Geryon (from
79piw, the howler or roarer) is supposed to personify the storm,
his father Chrysaor the lightning, his mother Callirrnoe* the rain.
The cattle are the rain-clouds, and the slaying of their keepers
typifies the victory of the sun over the clouds, or of spring over
winter. The cuhemcristic explanation of the struggle with the
triple monster was that Heracles fought three brothers in
succession.
Sec Apollodorus ii. 5. 10; Hcsiod, Theogony, 287; Diod. Sic.
iv. 17; Herodotus iv. 8; F. Wicselcr in Ersch and Gruhcr, AUgc-
meine Eneyclopddic; F. A. Voigt in Rcwcher's Lexikon der Mythotogic;
L. Preller, Gnechiuhe Mythotofic, article " Hercules " in Darembcrg
and Saglio, Diclionnairc des antiauites.
GESENIUS, HEINR1CH FRIED RICH W1LHELM (1 786-1842),
German orientalist and biblical critic, was born atNordhauscn,
Hanover, on the 3rd of February 1786. In 1803 he became a
student of philosophy and theology at the university of Helm-
stadt, where Hcinrich Henke (1 752-1809) was his most influential
teacher; but the latter part of his university course was taken
at Gottingen, where J. G. Eichhorn and T. C. Tychsen (1758-
1834) were then at the height of their popularity. In 1806,
shortly after graduation, he' became Rcpctent and Privaldozent
in that university; and, as he was fond of afterwards relating,
had Neander for his first pupil in Hebrew. In 18 10 he became
professor extrmordinarius in theology, and in 181 1 ordinarius,
at the university of Halle, where, in spite of many offers of high
preferment elsewhere, he spent the rest of his life. He taught
with great regularity for upward of thirty years, the only in-
terruptions being that of 1813-1814 (occasioned by the War of
Liberation, during which the university was closed) and those
occasioned by two prolonged literary tours, first in 1820 to Paris,
London and Oxford with his colleague Johann Karl Thilo (1794-
1853) for the examination of rare oriental manuscripts, and in
1835 to England and Holland in connexion with his Phoenician
studies. He soon became the most popular teacher of Hebrew
and of Old Testament introduction and exegesis in Germany;
during his later years his lectures were attended by nearly five
hundred students. Among his pupils the most eminent were
Peter von Bohlcn (1796-1840), A. G. Hoffmann (1760-1864),
Hermann Hupfeld, Erail Rddigcr (1801-1874), J. F. Tuch (1800-
1867), W. Vatke (1806-1882) and Theodor Benfey (1809-1881).
In 1827, after declining an invitation to take Eichhorn's place
at Gottingen, Gcsenius was made a Con sistorinl rath; but, apart
from the violent attacks to which he, along with his friend and
colleague Julius Wegscheider, was in 1830 subjected by E. W.
Hcngstenbcrg and his party in the Evangelise he Kirchcnzeitung,
on account of his rationalism, his life was uneventful. He died
at Halle on the 23rd of October 1842. To Gcsenius belongs in
a large measure the credit of having freed Semitic philology
from the trammels of theological and religious prepossession,
and of inaugurating the strictly scientific (and comparative)
method which has since been so fruitful. As an exegete he
exercised a powerful, and on the whole a beneficial, influence 011
theological investigation.
Of his many works, the earliest, published in 1810, entitled Versuek
vber die maUesiuhe Sprache, was a successful refutation of the widely
current opinion that the modern Maltese vru* of Punic origin. In the
same year appeared the first volume of the tlebraisehes u. Choi-
ddisches Hanaw6rterbuch t completed in 1812. Revised editions of
this appear periodically in Germany, e.g. that of H. Zimmern and
F. Buhl (1905). The publication of a new English edition waa
started in 1892 under the editorship of Professors C. A. Briggs,
S. R. Driver and F. Brown. The Hebrdische Grammatik, published in
1 8 13 (27th edition by E. Kautzsch; English translation from 25th
and 26th German editions by G. W. Collins and A. E. Cowley; 1898),
was followed in 18 15 by the Gcschichte der hebrdischen Sprache (now
very rare), and in 1817 by the AusfuhHickes Lchrgebdud* der he-
brauchen Sprache. The first volume of his well-known commentary
on Isaiah {per Prophet Jesaja), with a translation, appeared in 1821 ;
but the work was not completed until 1829. The Thesaurus philo-
logico-criticus linguae Hcbraicae et Chaldaicae V. T., begun in 1820,
he did not live to complete; the latter part of the third volume is
edited by E. Rodiger (1858). Other works: De Pentateuch* Samari-
tani origine, indole, et auctoritate (1815), supplemented in 1823
and 1824 by the treatise De Samaritanorum theologia, and by an
edition of Carmina Samaritana; Paldographische Studien uber
phdninsche *. punische Schrift (1835), a pioneering work which
Biographic.
GESNER, ABRAHAM (1 797-1864), Canadian geologist, was
born in Nova Scotia in 1797. He qualified as a doctor of medicine
in London in 1S27. Returning to the Dominion, he published
in 1836 Remarks on the Geology and Mineralogy of Nova Scotia,
and continuing his researches he was enabled in 1843 to bring
before the Geological Society of London " A Geological Map of
Nova Scotia, with an accompanying Memoir " (Proc. Geol. Soc.
iv. 186). In 1849 he issued a volume on the industrial resources
of the country. He dealt also* with the geology and mineralogy
of New Brunswick and Prince Edward's Island. Devoting
himself to the economic side of geology in various parts of North
America, he was enabled to bring out in 1861 A Practical Treatise
on Coal, Petroleum and other Distilled Oils. He died at Halifax,
N.S., on the 29th of April 1864.
GESNER. JOHANN MATTHIAS (1691-1761), German classical
scholar and schoolmaster, was born at Roth near Ansbach on the
9th of April 1691. He studied at the university of Jena, and in
1 714 published a work on the Philopatris ascribed to Lucian.
In 1715 he became librarian and conrector (vice-principal)
at Weimar, in 1729 rector of the gymnasium at Ansbach, and in
1 730 rector of the Thomas school at Leipzig. On the foundation
of the university of Gottingen he became professor of rhetoric
(1 734) and subsequently librarian. He died at Gdttingen on the
3rd of August 1 76 1. His special merit lies in the attention he
devoted to the explanation and illustration of the subject matter
of the classical authors.
His principal works are: editions of the Seriptores rri rusticae, of
Quintilian, C'laudian, Pliny the Younger, Horace and the Orphic
poems (published after his death); Primac lineae isagoges in cru-
dttionem unitcrsalem (1756): an edition of B. Fabcrs Thesaurus
eruditionis schofasticae (1726;, afterwards continued under the title
Novtts linguae et eruditionis Romanae thesaurus (1749); Opuscula
minora varit argumenti (1 743-1 745); Thesaurus cbisMicus Gcsne-
rianus (ed. Klotz, 1768-1770); Index ttymotogicus latinitatU (1749).
See J. A. Ernc&ti, Opuscula oratoria (1762), p. 305; H. Sauppe,
Gdttinter Professoren (1872); C. H. Pohnert, /. M. Cesner und sein
Verhaltnis turn PhilanihropinUmus und Neukumanismus (1898), a
contribution to the history of pedagogy in the 18th century; articles
by F. A. Eckstein in Allgemeine deutschc Biographic ix. ; and Sandys,
Hut. of Class. Schot. iiu (1908), 5-9.
GESNER [improperly Gessner; in Latin, Gesnerus],
KONRAD VON (1516-1565), German-Swiss writer and naturalist,
called " the German Pliny " by Cuvier, was born at Zurich on the
26th of March 1516. The son of a poor furrier, he was educated
in that town, but fell into great need after the death of his father
at the battle of Kappel (1531). He had good friends, however,
in his old master, Myconius, and subsequently in Heinrich
Bullinger, and he was enabled to continue his studies at the
gio
GESSNER— GETA
universities of Strassburg and Bourges (i 532-1533); he found
also a generous patron in Paris (1534). in the person of Joh.
Stciger of Berne. In 1535 the religious troubles drove him back
to Zurich, where he made an imprudent marriage. His friends
again came to his aid, enabled him to study at Basel (1536), and
in 1537 procured for him the professorship of Greek at the newly
founded academy of Lausanne (then belonging to Berne). Here
he had leisure to devote himself to scientific studies, especially
botany. In 1 540-1 541 he visited the famous medical university
of Montpellier, took his degree of doctor of medicine (1541) at
Basel, and then settled down to practise at Zurich, where he
obtained the post of lecturer in physics at the Carolinum. There,
apart from a few journeys to foreign countries, and annual
summer botanical journeys in his native land, he passed the
remainder of his life. He devoted himself to preparing works
on many subjects of different sorts. He died of the plague on
the 13th of December 1565. In the previous year he had been
ennobled.
To his contemporaries he was best known as a botanist, though
his botanical MSS. were not published till long after his death
(at Nuremberg, 1751-1771, 2 vols, folio), he himself issuing only
the Enchiridion hisioriae planlarum (1541) and the Catalogue
planlarum (1542) in four tongues. In 1545 he published his
remarkable Bibliolheca universalis (ed. by J. Simlcr, 1574),
a catalogue (in Latin, Greek and Hebrew) of all writers who
had ever lived, with the titles of their works, & r c. A second part,
under the title of Pandcdarium sive parlitionum univcrtaliunt
Conradi Cesncri Ligurini libri xxi., appeared in 1548; only
nineteen books being then concluded. The 21st book, a theo-
logical encyclopaedia, was published in 1549, but the 20th,
intended to include his medical work, was never finished. His
great zoological work, Historia animalium, appeared in 4 vols,
(quadrupeds, birds, fishes) folio, 1551-1558, at Zurich, a fifth
(snakes) being issued in 1587 (there is a German translation,
entitled Thierbuch, of the first 4 vols., Zurich, 1563): this work
is the starting-point of modern zoology. Not content with such
vast works, Gesncr put forth in 1555 his book entitled Milhridates
dc diffcrtntiis Unguis, an account of about 130 known languages,
with the Lord's Prayer in 22 tongues, while in 15 56 appeared
his edition of the works of Aclian. To non- scientific readers,
Gesner will be best known for his love of mountains (below the
snow-line) and for his many excursions among them, undertaken
partly as a botanist, but also for the sake of mere exercise and
enjoyment of the beauties of nature. In 1541 he prefixed to a
singular little work of his {Libellus de lacle et operibus lactariis)
a letter addressed to his friend, J. Vogel, of Glarus, as to the
wonders to be found among the mountains, declaring his love
for them, and his firm resolve to climb at least one mountain
every year, not only to collect flowers, but in order to exercise
his body. In 1 555 Gesncr issued his narrative (Dcscriplio Montis
Fracti sive Montis Pilali) of his excursion to the Gnepfstein
(6299 ft.), the lowest point in the Pilatus chain, and therein
explains at length how each of the senses of man is refreshed
in the course of a mountain excursion.
Lives by I. Hanhart (Wintcrthur, 1824) and J. Simler (Zurich.
1566); sec also Lcbcrt's Gesner als Arzt (Zurich, 1854). A part of
his unpublished writing, edited by Prof. Schmiedcl, was published
at Nuremberg in 1753.
GESSNER, SOLOMON (1 730-1 788), Swiss painter and poet,
was born at Zurich on the 1st of April 1730. With the exception
of some time (1 749-1 750) spent in Berlin and Hamburg, where he
came under the influence of Ramler and Hagedorn, he passed
the whole of his life in his native town, where he carried on the
business of a bookseller. He died on the 2nd of March 1788.
The first of his writings that attracted attention was his lAcd
tines Schwe'uers an sein bewaffnetts Made ken (1751). Then
followed Dapknis (1754), Idyllcn (1756 and 1772), Inkel and
Yariko (1756), a version of a story borrowed from the Spectator
(No. 11, 13th of March 171 1) and already worked out by Gellert
and Bodmcr,and Der Tod Abels (1758), a sort of idyllic pastoral.
It is somewhat difficult for us now to understand the reason of
Gessner's universal popularity, unless it was the taste of the
period for the conventional pastoral. His writings are marked
by sweetness and melody, qualities which were warmly appre-
ciated by Lessing, Herder and Goethe. As a painter Gessset
represented the conventional classical landscape.
Collected editions of Gessner's works were repeatedly publishH
(2 vols. 1777-1778, finally 2 vols. 1841, both at Zurich). They mn
translated into French (3 vols., Paris, 1786-1793), and versions d
the Idyllcn appeared in English, Dutch, Portuguese, Span&,
Swedish and Bohemian. Gessner's life was written by Hottin^cr
(ZUrich, 1796). and by H. Wdlfflin (Fraucnfeld, 1689); sec also his
Brief wechsel mit seirum Sokn (Bern and Zurich, 1801).
GESSO, an Italian word (Lat. gypsum), for " plaster of Paris
especially when used as a ground for painting, or for modelling
or sculpture.
GESTA ROMANORUM, a Latin collection of anecdotes and
tales, probably compiled about the end of the 13th century or
the beginning of the 14th. It still possesses a twofold literary
interest, first as one of the most popular books of the time, and
secondly as the source, directly or indirectly, of later literature,
in Chaucer, Gower, Shakespeare and others. Of its authorship
nothing certain is known; and there is little but gratuitous
conjecture to associate it either with the name of Helinandus
or with that of Petrus Berchorius (Pierre Berchcure). It is even
a matter of debate whether it took its rise in England, Germany
or France. The work was evidently intended as a manual for
preachers, and was probably written by one who himself be-
longed to the clerical profession. The nnme,Decds of the Romans,
is only partially appropriate to the collection in its present form,
since, besides the titles from Greek and Latin history and legend,
it comprises fragments of very various origin, oriental and
European. The unifying clement of the book is its moral purpose
The style is barbarous, and the narrative ability of the compiler
seems to vary with his source; but he has managed to bring
together a considerable variety of excellent material. He gives
us, for example, the germ of the romance of u Guy of Warwick ";
the story of " Darius and his Three Sons," versified by Ocdcve;
part of Chaucer's " Man of Lawes' Tale "; a talc of the emperor
Theodosius, the same in its main features as that of Shakespeare's
Lear; the story of the " Three Black Crows "; the " Hermit and
the Angel," well known from Parnell's version, and a story
identical with the Fridolin of Schiller. Owing to the loose
structure of the book, it was easy for a transcriber to insert any
additional story into his own copy, and consequently the MSS.
of the Gala Romanorum exhibit considerable variety Oesteiiey
recognizes an English group of MSS. (written always in Latin),
a German group (sometimes in Latin and sometimes in Gcrman\
and a group which is represented by the vulgate or common
printed text. The earliest editions are supposed to be those of
Kctelaer and de Lecompt at Utrecht, of Arnold Tex Hoenen at
Cologne, and of Ulrich Zell at Cologne; but the exact date is in
all three cases uncertain.
An English translation, probably based directly on the MS.
Harl. 5369, was published by VVynkyn dc Wordc about 15*071515,
the only copy of which now known to exist is preserved in the
library of St John's College, Cambridge. In 1577 Richard Robin-
son published a revised edition of Wynkyn dc Wordc, and the book
proved highly popular. Between 1648 and 1703 at least eight
impressions were issued. In 1703 appeared the first vol. of a trans-
lation by B. P., probably Bartholomew Pratt, " from the Latia
edition of 1514." A translation by the Rev. C. Swan, first pub-
lished in 2 vols, in 1 824, forms part of Bonn's antiquarian library,
and was re-edited by Wynnard Hooper in 1877 (sec also the latter*
edition in 1894). The German translation was first printed at Augs-
burg, 1489. A French version, under the title of he VioliiT des
histoires romaines moralisH, appeared in the early part of the 16th
century, and went through a number of editions; it has been re-
printed by G. Brunet (Paris, 1858). Critical editions of the Latin
text have been produced by A. Keller (Stuttgart, 1 843) and Oesterley
(Berlin, 1872). Sec also Warton, " On the Gcsta Romanorum, '
dissertation hi., prefixed to the History of English Poetry; Douce.
Illustrations of Shakespeare, vol. ii.; Frederick Madden, Introduction
to the Roxburghe Club edition of The Old English Versions of the
Cesta Romanorum (1838).
GETA, PUBLIUS SEPTIMIUS (180-212), youngcT son of the
Roman emperor Sep ti mi us Sevcrus, was born at Mcdiohnum
(Milan). In 198 he received the title of Caesar, and in 209 those of
Imperator and Augustus. Between him and his brother Caracalla
GETAE— GETTYSBURG
911
there existed from their early years a keen rivalry and antipathy.
On the death of their father in an they were proclaimed joint
emperors; and after the failure of a proposed arrangement
for the division of the empire, Caracalla pretended a desire for
reconciliation. He arranged a meeting with his brother in his
mother's apartments, and bad him murdered in her arms by
some centurions.
Dio Cassius lxxviL 2; Spartianus, Caracalla, 2; Herodian iv. I.
GETAE, an ancient people of Thracian origin, closely akin to
the Daci (see Dacia). Their original home seems to have" been
the district on the right bank of the Danube between the rivers
Oescus (Iskr) and Iatrus (Yantra). The view that the Getae
were identical with the Goths has found distinguished supporters,
but it is not generally accepted. Their name first occurs in con-
nexion with the expedition of Darius Hystaspis (51 5 B.C.) against
the Scythians, in the course of which they were brought under
his sway, but they regained their freedom on his return to the
East. During the 5th century, they appear as furnishing a
contingent of cavalry to Sitalccs, king of the Odrysac, in his
attack on Perdiccas II., king of Maccdon, but the decay of the
Odrysian kingdom again left them independent. When Philip
II. of Maccdon in 342 reduced the Odrysac to the condition of
tributaries, the Getae, fearing that their turn would come next,
madeovertures to the conqueror. Their king Cothelas undertook
to supply Philip with soldiers, and his daughter became the wife
of the Macedonian. About this time, perhaps being hard pressed
by the Triballi and other tribes, the Getae crossed the Danube.
Alexander the Great, before transporting his forces into Asia,
decided to make his power felt by the Macedonian dependencies.
His operations against the Triballi not having met with complete
success, he resolved to cross the Danube and attack the Getae.
The latter, unable to withstand the phalanx, abandoned their
chief town, and fled to the steppes (IVia ^ Ipwios, north of
the Danube delta), whither Alexander was unwilling to follow
them. About 326, an expedition conducted by Zopyrion, a
Macedonian governor of Thrace, against the Getae, failed
disastrously. In 292, Lysimachus declared war against them,
alleging as an excuse that they had rendered assistance to certain
barbarous Macedonian tribes. He penetrated to the plains of
Bessarabia, where his retreat was cut off and he «was forced to
surrender. Although the people clamoured for his execution,
Dromichaetes, king of the Getae, allowed him to depart un-
harmed, probably on payment of a large ransom, great numbers
of gold coins having been found near Thorda, some of them
bearing the name of Lysimachus. When the Gauls made their
way into eastern Europe, they came into collision with the Getae,
whom they defeated and sold in large numbers to the Athenians
as slaves. From this time the Getae seem to have been usually
called Daci; for their further history see Dacia.
The Getae are described by Herodotus as the most valiant
and upright of the Thracian tribes; but what chiefly struck
Greek inquirers was their belief in the immortality of the soul
(hence they were called iBavarl^omti) and their worship of
Zalmoxis (or Zamolxis), whom the euhemerists of the colonies
on the Euxine made a pupil of Pythagoras. They were very
fond of music, and it was the custom for their ambassadors the
priests to present themselves clad in white, playing the lyre and
singing songs. They were exrjcrts in the use of the bow and
arrows while on horseback. •
Sec E. R. Rosier, " Die Gcten und ihre Nachbarn," in Sittungs-
btrichU der k. Akad. der Wissensckaflen, phUosophisch-kistoriiche
Classe, xliv. (1863). and Romamsche Studien (Leipzig, 1871); W.
Tomaschck, " Die alien Thrakcr," in above Sitzun^sberichlc, exxviii.
(Vienna, 1893); W. Bcssel, De rebus Ceticis (Gbttingen, 1854V. C.
Miillcnhoff in Ersch and Gruber's Allgemeine Encyclopddie; T.
Mommscn, Hist, of Rome (Eng. trans.), ble. v. ch. 7.
GETHSEM ANE (Hcbr. for " oil-press "), the place to which
Jesus and His disciples withdrew on the eve of the Crucifixion.
It was evidently an enclosed piece of ground, a plantation rather
than a garden in our sense of the word. It lay east of the Kidron
and on the lower slope of the mount of Olives, at the foot of which
is the traditional site dating from the 4th century and now
possessed by the Franciscans. The Grotto of the Agony, a few
hundred yards farther north, is an ancient cave-cistern, now a
Latin sanctuary. (See further Jerusalem.)
GETTYSBURG, a borough and the county-seat of Adams
county, Pennsylvania, U.S.A., about 35 m. S.W. of Harrisburg.
Pop. (1000) 349s; (1010) 4030. It is served by the Western
Maryland and the Gettysburg & Harrisburg railways. The site
of the borough is a valley about 1$ m. wide; the neighbouring
country abounds in attractive scenery. Katarysine Spring in
the vicinity was once a well-known summer resort; its waters
contain lithia in solution. Gettysburg has several small manu-
facturing establishments and is the scat of Pennsylvania College
(opened in 1832, and the oldest Lutheran college in America),
which had 312 students (6$ in the preparatory department)
in 1007-1008, and of a Lutheran theological seminary, opened in
1826 on Seminary Ridge; but the borough is best known as
the scene of one of the most important battles of the Civil War.
Very soon after the battle a soldiers' national cemetery was laid
out here, in which the bodies of about 3600 Union soldiers have
been buried; and at the dedication of this cemetery, in November
1863, President Lincoln delivered his celebrated " Gettysburg
Address." In 1864 the Gettysburg Battle-Field Memorial
Association was incorporated, and the work of this association
resulted in the conversion of the battle-field into a National Park,
an act for the purpose being passed by Congress in 1895. Within
the park the lines of battle have been carefully marked, and
about 600 monuments, 1000 markers, and 500 iron tablets
have been erected by states and regimental associations.
Hundreds of cannon have been mounted, and five observation
towers have been built. From 1816 to 1840 Gettysburg was the
home of Thaddcus Stevens. Gettysburg was settled about 1 740,
was laid out in 1 787, was made the county-scat in 1800, and was
incorporated as a borough in 1806.
Battle of Gettysburg.— The battle of the 1st, 2nd and 3rd of July
1863 is often regarded as the turning-point of the American
Civil War (q.v.) although it arose from a chance encounter.
Lee, the commander of the Confederate Army of Northern
Virginia, had merely ordered his scattered forces to concentrate
there, while Meade, the Federal commander, held the town with
a cavalry division, supported by two weak army corps, to screen
the concentration of his Army of the Potomac in a selected
position on Pipe Creek to the south-eastward. On the 1st of July
the leading troops of General A. P. Hill's Confederate corps ap-
proached Gettysburg from the west to meet E well's corps, which
was to the N. of the town, whilst Longstrcet's corps followed HilL
Lee's intention was to close up Hill, Longstrcet and Ewell before
fighting a battle. But Hill's leading brigades met a strenuous
resistance from the Federal cavalry division of General John
Buford, which was promptly supported by the infantry of the
I. corps under General J. F. Reynolds. The Federals so far held
their own that Hill had to deploy two-thirds of his corps for action,
and the western approaches of Gettysburg were still held when
Ewell appeared to the northward. Reynolds had already fallen,
and the command of the Federals, after being held for a time by
Gen. Abncr Doubleday, was taken over by Gen. O. O. Howard,
the commander of the XI. corps, which took post to bar the way
to Ewell on the north side. But Ewell's attack, led by the
fiery Jubal Early, swiftly drove back the XI. corps to Gettys-
burg; the I. corps, with its flank thus laid open, fell back also,
and the remnants of both Federal corps retreated through
Gettysburg to the Cemetery Hill position. They had lost severely
in the struggle against superior numbers, and there had been
some disorder in the retreat. Still a formidable line of defence
was taken up on Cemetery Hill and both Ewell and Lee refrained
from further attacks, for the Confederates had also lost heavily
during the day and their concentration was not complete. In
the meanwhile Meade had sent forward General W. S. Hancock,
the commander of the Federal II. corps, to examine the state of
affairs and on Hancock's report he decided to fight on the
Cemetery Hill position. Two corps of his army were still distant,
but the XII. arrived before night, the III. was near, and Han-
cock moved the II. corps on his own initiative. Headquarters and
the artillery reserve started for Gettysburg on the night of the xst.
912
GETTYSBURG
On the other side, the last divisions of Hill's and Ewell's corps
formed up opposite the new Federal position, and Longstreet's
corps prepared to attack its left.
Owing, however, to misunderstandings between Lee and
Longstreet (q.v.), the Confederates did not attack early on the
morning of the 2nd, so that Meade's army had plenty of time to
make its dispositions. The Federal line at this time occupied
the horse-shoe ridge, the right of which was formed by Culp's
Hill, and the centre by the Cemetery hill, whence the left wing
stretched southward, the III. corps on the left, however, being
thrown forward considerably. The XH. held Culp's, the remnant
of the I. and XI. the Cemetery hills. On the left was the II.,
and in its advanced position— the famous " Salient "—the III.,
soon to be supported by the V.; the VI., with the reserve artillery,
formed the general reserve. It was late in the day when the
Confederate attack was made, and valuable time had been lost,
but Longstreet's troops advanced with great spirit. The III.
&
corps Salient was the scene of desperate fighting; and the
" Peach Orchard " and the " Devil's Den " became as famous
as the "Bloody Angle" of Spotlsylvania or the "Hornets'
Nest " of Shiloh. While the Confederate attack was developing,
the important positions of Round Top and Little Round Top
were unoccupied by the defenders — an omission which was
repaired only in the nick of time by the commanding engineer
of the army, General G. K. Warren, who hastily called up troops
of the V. corps. The attack of a Confederate division was,
after a hard struggle, repulsed, and the Federals retained
possession of the Round Tops. The III. corps in the meantime,
furiously attacked by troops of Hill's and Longstreet's corps,
was steadily pressed back, and the Confederates actually pene-
trated the main line of the defenders, though for want of support
the brigades which achieved this were quickly driven out. Ewell,
on the Confederate left, waited for the sound of Longstreet's
guns, and thus no attack was made by him until late in the day.
Here Culp's Hill was carried with ease by one of Ewell's divisions,
most of the Federal XII. corps having been withdrawn to aid
in the fight on the other wing; but Early's division was re-
pulsed in its efforts to storm Cemetery Hill, and the two divi-
lions of the centre (one of Hill's, one of Ewell's corps) remained
nactive.
That no decisive success had been obtained by Lee was cleat
to all, but Ewell's men on Culp's Hill, and Longstreet's corpt
below Round Top, threatened to turn both flanks of the Federal
position, which was no longer a compact horschoe but had beta
considerably prolonged to the left; and many of the units in tig
Federal army had been severely handled in the two days' fighting.
Meade, however, after discussing the eventuality of & retreat
with his corps commanders, made up bis mind to hold his grouad.
Lee now decided to alter his tactics. The broken ground near
Round Top offered so many obstacles that he decided not to press
Longstreet's attack further. Ewcll was to resume his attack
on Meade's extreme right, while the decisive blow was to be given
in the centre (between Cemetery Hill and Trostle's) by an assault
delivered in the Napoleonic manner by the fresh troops of Pickett's
division (Longstreet's corps). Meade, however, was not dis-
posed to resign Culp's Hill, and with it the command of the
Federal line of retreat, to Ewcll, and at early dawn on the 3rd
a division of the XH. corps, well supported by artillery, opened
the Federal counter-attack; the Confederates made a strenuous
resistance, but after four hours' hard fighting the other division
of the XII. corps, and a brigade of the VI-, intervened with
decisive effect, and the Confederates were driven off the hi!
The defeat of Ewcll did not, however, cause Lee to alter hb plans.
Pickett's division was to lead in the great assault, supported
by part of Hill's corps (the latter, however, had already been
engaged). Colonel E. P. Alexander, Longstreet's chief of ar-
tillery, formed up one long line of seventy-five guns, and sixty-
five guns of Hill's corps came into action on his left. To the con-
verging fire of these 140 guns the Federals, cramped for space,
could only oppose seventy-seven. The attacking troops formed
up before 9 a.m., yet it was long before Longstreet could bring
himself to order the advance, upon which so much depended, and
it was not till about z P.M. that the guns at last opened fire to pre-
pare the grand attack. The Federal artillery promptly replied,
but after thirty minutes' cannonade its commander, Gen. H. J.
Hunt, ordered his batteries to cease fire in order to reserve their
ammunition to meet the infantry attack. Ten minutes later
Pickett asked and received permission to advance, and the infantry
moved forward to cross the 1800 yds. which separated them from
the Federal line. Their own artillery was short of ammunition,
the projectiles of that day were not sufficiently effective to cover
the advance at long ranges, and thus the Confederates, as they
came closer to the enemy, met a tremendous fire of m»fhait«)
infantry and artillery.
The charge of Pickett's division is one of the most famous
episodes of military history. In the teeth of an appalling fire
from the rifles of the defending infantry, who were well sheltered,
and from the guns which Hunt had reserved for the crisis, the
Virginian regiments pressed on, and with a final effort broke
Meade's first line. But the strain was too great for the support-
ing brigades, and Pickett was left without assistance. Hancock
made a fierce countcrstroke, and the remnant of the Confederates
retreated. Of Pickett's own division over three-quarters,
3303 officers and men out of 4500, were left on the field, two of his
three brigadiers were killed and the third wounded, and of fifteen
regimental commanders ten were killed and five wounded. One
regiment lo:t 90% of its numbers. The failure of this assault
practically ended the battle; but Lee's line was so formidable
that Meade did not in his tur» send forward the Army of the
Potomac. By the morning of the 5th of July Lee's army -was
in full retreat for Virginia. He had lost about 30,000 men in
killed, wounded and missing out of a total force of perhaps
75,000. Meade's losses were over 33,000 out of about 82,000 00
the field. The main body of the cavalry on both sides was absent
from the field, but a determined cavalry action was fought on
the 3rd of July between the Confederate cavalry under J. E. B.
Stuart and that of the Federals under D. McM. Gregg some
miles E. of the battlefield, and other Federal cavalry made a
dashing charge in the broken ground south-west of Round Top
on the third day, inflicting thereby, though at great loss to them-
selves, a temporary check on the right wing of LougsUccls
infantry.
GEULINCX— GEYSER
QBULfNCX, ARNOLD (1624-1669), Belgian philosopher,, was
torn at Antwerp on the 31st of January 1624. He studied
philosophy and medicine at the university of Louvain, where he
remained as a lecturer for several years. Having given offence by
his unorthodox views, he left Louvain, and took refuge in Leiden,
where he appears to have been in the utmost distress. He entered
the Protestant Church, and in 1663, through the influence of his
friend Abraham Heidanus, who had assisted him in his greatest
need, be obtained a poorly paid lectureship at the university.
He died at Leiden in November 1669. His most important
works were published posthumously. The Metaphysics vera
(1691), and the TMt <navr6v, sive Etkica (under the pseudonym
" Philaretus," 1675), are the works by which he is chiefly
known. Mention may also be made of Physica vera (1688),
Lopca ratilula (1662) and Annotate in Principia philosophic
R. Cartesii (1691).
Geulincx principally deals with the question, left in an obscure
and unsatisfactory state by Descartes, of the relation between
soul and body. Whereas Descartes made the union between them
a violent collocation, Geulincx practically called it a miracle.
Extension and thought, the essences of corporeal and spiritual
natures, are absolutely distinct, and cannot act upon one another.
External facts are not the causes of mental states, nor are mental
states the causes of physical facts. So far as the physical universe
is concerned, we are merely spectators; the only action that
remains for us is contemplation. The influence we seem to exer-
cise over bodies by will is only apparent; volition and action
only accompany one another. Since true activity consists in
knowing what one does and how one does it, I cannot be the
author of any state of which I am unconscious; I am not con-
scious of the mechanism by which bodily motion is produced,
hence I am not the author of bodily motion (" Quod nescis
quomodo fiat, id non facis "). Body and mind are like two clocks
which act together, because both have been set together by God.
A physical occurrence is but the occasion (opportunity, occasional
cause) on which God excites in me a corresponding mental state;
the exercise of my will is the occasion on which God moves my
body. Every operation in which mind and matter are both
concerned is an effect of neither, but the direct act of God.
Geulincx was thus the first definitely to systematise the theory
called Occasionalism, which had already been propounded by
Glrauld de Cordemoy (d. 1684), a Parisian lawyer, and Louis
de la Forge, a physician of Saumur. But the principles on
which the theory was founded compelled a further advance.
God, who is the cause of the concomitance of bodily and mental
facts, is in truth the sole cause in the universe. No fact contains
in itself the ground of any other; the existence of the facts is
due to God, their sequence and coexistence are also due to him.
He is the ground of all that is. My desires, volitions and
thoughts are thus the desires, volitions and thoughts of God.
Apart from God, the finite being has no» reality, and we only
have the idea of it from God. Descartes had left untouched,
or nearly so, the difficult problem of the relation between the
universal element or thought and the particular desires or in-
clinations. All these are regarded by Geulincx as modes of the
divine thought and action, and accordingly the end of human
endeavour is the end of the divine will or the realization of reason.
The love of right reason is the supreme virtue, whence flow the
cardinal virtues, diligence, obedience, justice and humility.
Since it is impossible for us to make any alteration in the world
of matter, all we can do is to submit. Chief of the cardinal
virtues is humility, a confession of our own helplessness and sub-
mission to God. Geulincx's idea of life is " a resigned optimism."
Geulincx carried out to their extreme consequences the irre-
concilable elements in the Cartesian metaphysics, and his works
have the peculiar value attaching to the vigorous development
of a one-sided principle. The abrupt contradictions to which
such development leads of necessity compels revision of the
principle itself. He was thus important as the precursor of
Malebranche and Spinoza.
Edition of his philosophical works by* J. P. N. Land (1891-1893,
for which a recently discovered MS. was consulted); «cc also the
XI IJ*
913
md uine Philosophic (1895), and
i. 223 scq,.; V. van der Haeghen,
hilosophie, el ses outrages (Ghent,
Erkenntnissthenrie una Occa siana-
7. als Hauptvertreter der okkasiona-
(1882); G. Samtlebcn, Geulincx,
also Falckcnberg, Hist of Mod.
; G. Monchamp, Hist, du CarUsia-
; H. Hoffding. Hist, of Mod. Philos.
f hardy perennial herbs (natural
»ut thirty species, widely dis-
ic regions. The erect flowering
radical leaves, which are deeply
on being at the top of the leaf,
long stalks at the end of the stem
ite, yellow or red in colour, and
lit consists of a number of dry
hook formed from the persistent
admirably adapted for ensuring
ir in Britain under the popular
is a very common hedge-bank
G. rival* (water avens) is a rarer
as larger yellow flowers an inch
rasy to cultivate and well adapted
They are propagated by seeds
lar garden species zreG.chiloense
nd £ montanum.
icrmany, in the Prussian Rhine
;n, on the railway to DUsscldorf.
nd a hospital, and considerable
(1005) 15,838.
ice, chief town of an arrondisse-
in, 10 m. N.W. of Geneva and
op. (1906) town, 1385; commune,
situated 2000 ft. above sea-level
y and highest chain of the Jura,
d has a tribunal of first instance,
rade in wine, cheese and other
\. It gives its name to the old
1 the Alps and the Jura, which
be protection, of the Swiss, the
ivoy, until in 1601 it came into
aing, however, until the Revolu-
:tion, with Gcx as its chief town,
the Jura from the rest of French
he circumscription of the Swiss
ting imposed on its products by
a, a natural spring or fountain
at more or less regular intervals
vater and steam; it may conse*
mittcnt hot spring. The word is
r rager, from the verb geysa. &
In native usage it is the proper
I not an appellative — the general
ng the nearest approach to the
i Cleasby and Vigfusson, Icelandic
depositing siliceous material by
aay in course of time transform
tg gradually built up as the level
1 the same manner as a volcanic
n continuing to deposit siliceous
destruction; for as soon as the
to contain a column of water
the lower strata attaining their
aism. is deranged. The deposition
ic cooling and evaporation of the
the presence of living algae. In
id thermal springs busy with the
pools, or laugs, as the Icelanders
ous mounds, with the mouth of
9H
GEYSER
the shaft still open in the middle; and dry basins from which
the water has receded with their shafts now choked with rubbish.
Geysers exist at the present lime in many volcanic regions,
as in the Malay Archipelago, Japan and South America; but
the three localities where they attain their highest development
are Iceland, New Zealand and the Yellowstone Park, U.S.A.
The very name by which we call them indicates the historical
priority of the Iceland group.
The Iceland geysers, mentioned by Sazo Grammaticus, arc
situated about 30 m. N.W. of Hecla, in a broad valley at the foot
of a range of hills from 300 to 400 ft. in height. Within a circuit
of about 2 m., upwards of one hundred hot springs may be
counted, varying greatly both in character and dimensions.
The Great Geyser in its calm periods appears as a circular pool
about 60 ft. in diameter and 4 ft. in depth, occupying a basin on
the summit of a mound of siliceous concretion; and in the centre
of the basin is a shaft, about 10 ft. in diameter and 70ft. in depth,
lined with the same siliceous material. The clear sea-green
water flows over the eastern rim of the basin in little runnels.
On the surface it has a temperature of from 76° to 8o° C, or from
168 to 1 88° F. Within the shaft there is of course a continual
shifting both of the average temperature of the column and of
the relative temperatures of the several strata. The results of
the observations of Bunsen and A. L. O. Desdoizeaux in 1847 were
as follows (cf. Pogg. Ann., voL 72 and Comptes rendu* , vol. 19):
About three hours after a great eruption on July 6, the tem-
perature 6 metres from the bottom of the shaft was 121*6° C;
at 950 metres, 121-1°; at 16-30 metres, 109 (?); and at 19*70
metres, 05° (?). About nine hours after a great eruption on
July 6, at about 03 metres from the bottom, it was 123 ;
at 48 metres it was 122-7°; at 96 metres, 113°; at 14-4 metres,
858°; at 19-2 metres, 82-6°. On the 7th, there having been no
eruption since the previous forenoon, the temperature at the
bottom was 127-5°; at 5 metres from the bottom, 123°; at 9
metres, 120-4°; at J 4"75 metres, 106-4°; and at 19 metres,
55°. About three hours after a small eruption, which took
place at forty minutes past three o'clock in the afternoon of
the 7th, the temperature at the bottom was 126-5°; at 6*85
metres up it was 121-8°; at 1475 metres, 110°; and at 19
metres, 55°. Thus, continues Bunsen, it is evident that the
temperature of the column diminishes from the bottom upwards;
that, leaving out of view small irregularities, the temperature in
all parts of the column is found to be steadily on the increase
in proportion to the time that has elapsed since the previous
eruption; that even a few minutes before the great eruption
the temperature at no point of the water column reached the
boiling point corresponding to the atmospheric pressure at that
part; and finally, that the temperature about half -way — ' u -
shaft made the, nearest approach to the appropriate boilinj
and that this approach was closer in proportion as an e
was at hand. The Great Geyser has varied very mucl
nature and frequency of its eruptions since it began to be ob
In 1809 and 18 10, according to Sir W. J. Hooker and Sir
S. Mackenzie, its columns were 100 or 90 ft. high, and
intervals of 30 hours, while, according to Henderson,
the intervals were of 6 hours and the altitude from 80 to
About 100 paces from the Great Geyser is the Strokkr 01
which' was first described by Stanlay in 2789. The shaft
case is about 44 ft. deep, and, instead of being cylind
funnel-shaped, having a width of about 8 ft. at the moi
contracting to about 10 in. near the centre. By casting
or turf into the shaft so as to stopper the narrow neck, er
can be accelerated, and they often exceed in magnitud
of the Great Geyser itself. During quiescence the col
water fills only the lower part of the shaft, its surface
lying from 9 to 12 ft. below the level of the soiL Unlike
the Great Geyser, it is always in ebullition, and its temp
is subject to comparatively slight differences. On the 8th
1847 Bunsen found the temperature at the bottom 112
at 3 metres from the bottom,. 11 1-4°; and at 6 metre:
the whole depth of water was on that occasion 1015
On the 6th, at 290 metres from the bottom it Was 114-
at 6- 20 metres, 109-3". On the- 10th, at 0-35 metres from tk
bottom, the reading gave 113-9°; at 4*65 metres, 113-7°; ia4
at 8-85 metres, 99- 9°.
• The great geyser-district of New Zealand is situated in tk
south of the province of Auckland in or near the upper baaa
of the Waikato river, to the N.E. of Lake Taupo. The setae
presented in various parts of the districts is far more striking
and beautiful than anything of the same kind to be found ia
Iceland, but this is due not so
much to the grandeur of the
geysers proper as to the bewilder-
ing profusion of boiling springs,
steam-jets and mud-volcanoes,
and to the fantastic effects pro-
duced on the rocks by the siliceous
deposits and by the action of the
boiling water. In about 1880 the
geysers were no longer active, and p fC fc
this condition prevailed until the
Tarawera eruption of 1886, when seven gigantic geysers came
into existence; water, steam, mud and stones were discharged
to a height of 600 to 800 ft. for a period of about four boon,
when quieter conditions set in. Waikite near Lake Rotorua
throws the column to a height of 30 or 35 ft.
In the Yellowstone National Park, in the north-west corner of
Wyoming, the various phenomena of the geysers can be observed
on the most portentous scale. The geysers proper are about one
hundred in number; the non-eruptive hot springs are much
more numerous, there being more than 3000. The dimensions
and activity of several of the geysers render those of Iceland and
New Zealand almost insignificant in comparison. The principal
groups are situated along the course of that tributary of the
Upper Madison which bears the name of Fire Hole River. Many
of the individual geysers have very distinctive characteristics
in the form and colour of the mound, in the style of the eruptioa
and in the shape of the column. The " Giantess " lifts the main
column to a height of only 50 or 60 ft., but shoots a thin spire
to no less than 250 ft. The " Castle " varies in height from zo
or. 1 5 to 250 ft.; and on the occasions of greatest effort the noise
is appalling, and shakes the ground like an earthquake, " Old
Faithful" owes its name to the regu-
larity of its action. Its eruptions, which
raise the water to a height of 100 or
150 ft., last for about five minutes, and
recur every hour or thereabouts. The
" Beehive " sometimes attains a height
of 219 ft.; and the water, instead of
falling back into the basin, is dissipated in
spray and vapour. Very various accounts
are given of the " Giant." F. V. Hayden
saw it playing for an hour and twenty
minutes, and reaching a height of 140 ft.,
and Doane says it continued in action for
three hours and a half, and had a maxi-
mum of 200 ft.; but at the earl of
Dunraven's visit the eruption lasted only
a few minutes.
Theory of Geysers. — No satisfactory ex-
planation of the phenomena of geysers waa
advanced till near the middle of the 19th cen-
tury, when Bunsen elucidated their nature.
Sir George Mackenzie, in his Travels in
Iceland (2nd ed., 1812), submitted a theory
which partially explained the phenomena
met with. "Let us suppose a cavity C
(fig. 1), communicating with the pipe PQ,
filled with boiling water to the height AB,
and that the steam above this line is con-
fined so that it sustains the water to the Fie. a.
height P. If we suppose a sudden addition
of heat to be applied under the cavity C, a quantity of steam
will be produced which, owing to the great pressure, will be
evolved in starts, causiog the noises like discharges of artillery and
the shaking of the ground." He admitted that this could be on!/
a partial explanation of the facts of the case, and that be was unable
GEZER— GHADAMES
915
toacoot
beat; fa
proxiou
theory 1
by the
(fig. a),
first at
ObMmd.
A
CikoUtcd.
186*
230°
C
D
*59°
l-jji
225°
241*
249*
255*
266*
278*
production of the no
on what is certaii
of steam. By B
is beautifully demon
by the H. J. Muller of F
(Ag. 2). r and heated at two
icccssion of changes
auceo. boil, the supennct
column tratum of water whi
on the 1 to d is there subject
diminifil ion of steam acco
takes place at d, and the superincumbent water is violently «
Received in the basin c, the air-cooled water sinks back into tli
and the temperature of the whole column is consequently lc
but the under strata of water are naturally those which ai
affected by the*cooling process; the boiling begins again at c, 1
same succession of events is the result (see R. Bunsen, " Physil
Beobachtungen uber die hauptsachlichsten Ccisire Islands,'
Ann., 1847, vol. 72; and Muller. " Uber Bunsen's Geyscrtl
ibid., 1850. vol. 70).
The principal difference between the artificial and the
geyser-tube is that in the latter the effect is not necessarily pr
by two distinct sources of heat like the two fires of the experi
apparatus, but by the continual in
heat from the bottom of/the shaft, a
. differences between the boiling- poi
the different parts of the column o\
the different pressures of the super
bent mass. This may be thus illui
AB b the column of water; on th
side the figures represent approxi
the boiling-points (Fahr.) calculated 1
ing to the ordinary. laws, and the figi
the left the actual temperature of th
places. Both gradually increase
• descend, but the relation between t
is very different at different height
the top £he water is still 39° from its 1
point, and even at the bottom it is iq°; but at D the defici
only 4 . If, then, the stratum at D be suddenly lifted as 1
Ci it will be 2° above the boiling-point there, and will conset
expend those 2 ° in the formation of steam.
GBZER (the Kazir of Tcthmosis [ThothmesJ ITI.'s
Palestinian cities and the Gazri of the Amarna tablets), 1
Canaanite city on the boundary of Ephraim, in the m;
plain (Josh, xvi 3-10), and near the Philistine border (:
v. 25). It was allotted to the Levites, but its original inhal
were not driven out until the time of Solomon, when " PI
king of Egypt " took the city and gave it as a dowry
daughter, Solomon's wife (1 Kings ix. 16). Under th<
Gazera it is mentioned (1 Mace. iv. 15) as being in the neig
hood of Emmaus-Nicopolis ('Amwfts) and Jamnia (Y«
Throughout the history of the Maccabean wars Gezer or <
plays the part of an important frontier post. It was first
from the Syrians by Simon the Asmonean (1 Mace. 1
Josephus also mentions that the city was " naturally si
(Aniuj. viii. 6. 1). The position of Gezer is defined by .
(Onomastkon, s.v.) as four Roman miles north (contra
trionem) of Nicopolis ('Amwis). This points to the mo
debris called TeU-el-Jeiari near the village of Aba St
The site is naturally very strong, the town standing on an L
bill, commanding the western road to Jerusalem just w
begins to enter the mountains of Judea. This identificati
been confirmed by the discovery of a series of boundary i
tions, apparently marking the limit of the city's lands, whk
been found cut in rock— outcrops partly surrounding tl
They read in every case to »onn f " the boundary of (
with the name Alkies in Greek, probably that of the gc
under whom the inscriptions were cut. The site ha
partially excavated by the Palestine Exploration Fund, 1
enormous mass of material for the history of Palestine rec
from it, including remains of a pre-Semitic aborigina
a remarkably perfect High Place, the castle built by
and other remains of the first importance.
See R. A. S. Macatister's reports in Palestine Expforaifa
Quarterly Statement (October 1902 onwards). Also Bible' Si
from the Mound of Gezer, by the same writer. (R. A. S
QPBdRER. AUGUST FRIEDRICH (1803*1861), C
historian, was born at Calw, Wurttemberg, on the 5th of
» So written; with a medial mem (e) instead of the final (b>
1803, and at the dose of his preliminary studies at the seminary
of Blaubeuren entered the university of Tubingen in 182 1 as a
student of evangelical theology. After passing his final examina-
tions in 1825, he spent a year in Switzerland, during part of the
time acting as companion and secretary to C. von Bonstetten
(174 5-183 2); the year 1827 was spent chiefly in Rome. Re-
turning to Wurttemberg in 1828, he first undertook the duties of
repetent or theological tutor in Tubingen, and afterwards accepted
a curacy in Stuttgart; but having in 1830 received an appoint-
ment in the royal public library at Stuttgart, he thenceforth gave
himself exclusively to literature and historical science.* His
first work on Philo (Pkilo u. die jUdisck-alexandriniscke Theo*
sophie, Stuttgart, 183 1) was rapidly followed by an elaborate
biography, in two volumes, of Gustavus Adolphus (Custav
Adolf, Kdnig von Sckweien, und seine Zeit, Stuttgart, 1835-1837),
and by a critical history of primitive Christianity (KtiUscht
Gcsckichte des Urchristenthums, 3 vols., Stuttgart, 1838). Here
Gfrorer had manifested opinions unfavourable to Protestantism,
which, however, were not openly avowed until fully developed
in his church history (AUgetneine KirxhtngeschichU bis Beginn
des t4ien Jahrkunderts, Stuttgart, 1841-1846). In the autumn
of 1846 he was appointed to the chair of history in the university
of Freiburg, where he continued to teach until his death at
Carlsbad on the 6th of July 1861. In 1848 he sat as a repre-
sentative in the Frankfort parliament, where he supported the
" High German " party, and in 1853 he publicly went over to the
Church of Rome. He was a bitter opponent of Prussia and an
ardent controversialist.
GHADAMES, Gadames or RhadXices, a town in an oasis of
the same name, in that part of the Sahara which forms part of the
Turkish vilayet of Tripoli. It is about 300 ra. S.W. of the city
of Tripoli and some xo m. E. of the Algerian frontier. According
to Gerhard Rohlfs, the last form given to the word most correctly
represents the Arabic pronunciation, but the other forms are
more often used in Europe. The streets of the town are narrow
and vaulted and have been likened to the bewildering galleries
of a coalpit. The roofs are laid out as gardens and preserved
for the exclusive use of the women. The Ghadamsi merchants
have been known for centuries as keen and adventurous traders,
and their agents are to be found in the more important places
of the western and central Sudan, such as Kano, Katsena, Ranem,
Bornu, Timbuktu, as well as at Ghat and Tripoli. Ghadamet
itself is the centre of a large number of caravan routes, and in
the early part of the 19th century about 30,000 laden camels
entered its markets every year. The caravan trade was created
by the Ghadamsi merchants who, aided by their superior intelli-
gence, capacity and honesty, long enjoyed a monopoly. In
1873 Tripoli tan merchants began to compete with them. In
1893 came the invasion of Bornu by Rabah.and the total stoppage
of this caravan route for nearly ten years to the great detriment
of the merchants of Ghadames. The caravans from Kano were
also frequently pillaged by the Tuareg, so that the prosperity
of the town declined. Later on, the opening of rapid means of
transport from Kano and other cities to the Gulf of Guinea also
affected Ghadames, which, however, maintains a considerable
trade. The chief articles brought by the caravans are ostrich
feathers, skins and ivory and one of the principal imports is
tea. In 1845 the population was estimated at 3000, of whom
about 500 were slaves and strangers, and upwards of 1200
children; in 1005 it amounted in round numbers to 7000. The
inhabitants are chiefly Berbers and Arabs. A Turkish garrison
is maintained in the town.
Before the Christian era Ghadames was a stronghold of the
916
GHAT— GHAZIPUR
Garamantes whose power was overthrown in the days of Augustas
by L.Cornelius Balbus Minor, who captured Ghadames(Cydamus) .
It is not unlikely that Roman seL tiers may have been attracted
to the spot by the presence of the warm springs which still rise
in the heart of the town, and spread fertility in the surrounding
gardens. In the 7th century Ghadames was conquered by the
Arabs. It appears afterwards to have fallen under the power
of the rulers of Tunisia, then to a native dynasty which reigned
at Tripoli, and in the 16th century it became part of the Turkish
vilayet of Tripoli. It has since then shared the political fortunes
of thfit country. In the first half of the 10th century it was
visited by several British explorers and later by German and
French travellers.
See J. Richardson, Travels in the Great Desert of Sahara in 1845-
1846 . . . including a Description of . . . Ghadames (London, 1848);
G. Rohlfs, Reise dutch Marokko . . . und Reise dutch die Crosse
Waste abet Rhadames nach Tripoli (Bremen, 1868).
GHAT, or Rhat, an oasis and town, forming part of the Tuxkish
vilayet of Tripoli. Ghat is an important centre of the caravan
trade between the Nigerian states and the seaports of the
Mediterranean (see Tripoli).
GHATS, or Ghauts (literally " the Landing Stairs " from the
sea, or " Passes "), two ranges of mountains extending along
the eastern and western shores of the Indian peninsula. The
word properly applies to the passes through the mountains,
but from an early date was transferred by Europeans to the
mountains themselves.
The Eastern Ghats run in fragmentary spurs and ranges
down the Madras coast. They begin in the Orissa district of
Balasorc, pass southwards through Cuttack and Pun, enter the
Madras presidency in Ganjam, and sweep southwards through
the districts of Vizagapatam, Godavari, Nellore, Chinglcput,
South Arcot, Trichinopoly and Tinnevclly. They run at a
distance of 50 to 150 m. from the coast, except in Ganjam and
Vizagapatam, where in places they almost abut on the Bay of
Bengal Their geological formation is granite, with gneiss and
mica slate, with clay slate, hornblende and primitive limestone
overlying. The average elevation is about 1500 ft., but several
hills in Ganjam are between 4000 and 5000 ft. high. For the
most part there is a broad expanse of low land between their
base and the sea, and their line is pierced by the Godavari,
Kistna and Cauvery rivers.
The Western Ghats (Sahyadri in Sanskrit) start from the
south of the Tapti valley, and run south through the districts
of Khandesh, Nasik, Thana, Satara, Ratnagiri, Kanara and
Malabar, and the states of Cochin and Travancore, meeting the
Eastern Ghats at an angle near Cape Comorin. The range of the
Western Ghats extends uninterruptedly, with the exception of a
gap or valley 25 m. across, known as the Palghat gap, through
which runs the principal railway of the south of India. The
length of the range is 800 m. from the Tapti to the Palghat gap,
and south of this about 200 m. to the extreme south of the
peninsula. In many parts there is only a narrow strip of coast
between the hills and the sea; at one point they rise in magnifi-
cent precipices and headlands out of the ocean. The average
elevation is 3000 ft., precipitous on the western side facing the
sea, but with a more gradual slope on the east to the plains below.
The highest peaks in the northern section are Kalsubai, 5427 ft.;
Harischandragarh, 4691 ft.; and Mahabaleshwar, where is the
summer capital of the government of Bombay, 4700 ft. South
of Mahabaleshwar the elevation diminishes, but again increases,
and attains its maximum towards Coorg, where the highest
peaks vary from 5500 to 7000 ft., and where the main range
joins the interior Nilgiri hills. South of the Palghat gap, the
peaks of the Western Ghats rise as high as 8000 ft. The geological
formation is trap in the northern and gneiss in the southern
section.
GHAZALl [Muhammad ibn Muhammad Aba 3&mid al-
Ghazali] (1058-11x1), Arabian philosopher and theologian, was
born at TQs, and belonged to a family of Ghazala (near TQs)
distinguished for its knowledge of canon law. Educated at
first in TQs, then in Jorjan, and again in TQs, he went to college
at NlshapQr, where he studied under JuwainI (known as the
GHAZNI
917
between the Gumti and the Gogrt, whose confluences with the
main stream mark its eastern and western limits respectively.
The southern tract is a much smaller strip of country, enclosed
between the Karamnasa and the great river itself. There are
no hills in the district. A few lakes are scattered here and there,
formed where the rivers have deserted their ancient channels.
The largest is that of Suraha, once a northern bend of the Ganges,
but now an almost isolated sheet of water, 5 m. long by about
4 broad. . Ghaxipur is said to be one of the hottest and dampest
districts in the United Provinces. In xoox the population was
913,818, showing a decrease of 11% in the decade. Sugar
refining is the chief industry, and provides the principal article
of export. The main line of the East Indian railway traverses
the southern portion of the district, with a branch to the Ganges
bank opposite Ghazipur town; the northern portion is served
by the Bengal & North- Western system.
GHAZNI, a famous city in Afghanistan, the seat of an extensive
empire under two medieval dynasties, and again of prominent
interest in the modern history of British India. Ghazni stands
on the high tableland of central Afghanistan, in 68° 18' E. long.,
33 44' N. lat., at a height of 7280 ft. above the sea, and on the
direct road between Kandahar and Kabul, 221 m. by road N-E.
from the former, and 92 m. S.W. from the latter. A very
considerable trade in fruit, wool, skins, &c, is carried on between
Ghazni and India by the Povindah kafilas, which yearly enter
India in the late, autumn and pass back again to the Afghan
highlands in the early spring. The Povindah merchants in-
variably make use of the Gomal pass which leads to the British
frontier at Dera Ismail Khan. The opening up of this pass and
the British occupation of Wana, by offering protection to the
merchants from Waziri blackmailing, largely increased the
traffic.
Ghazni, as it now exists, is a place in decay, and probably
docs not contain more than 4000 inhabitants. It stands at the
base of the terminal spur of a ridge of hills, an offshoot from the
Gul-Koh, which forms the watershed between the Arghandab,
and Tarnak rivers. The castle stands at the northern angle of
the town next the hills, and is about 150 ft. above the plain.
The town walls stand on an elevation, partly artificial, and form
an irregular square, close on a mile in circuit (including the
castle), the walls being partly of stone or brick laid in mud, and
partly of clay built in courses. They are flanked by numerous
towers. There are three gates. The town consists of dirty and
very irregular streets of houses several stories high, but with
two straighter streets of more pretension, crossing near the
middle of the town. Of the strategical importance of Ghazni
there can hardly be a question. The view to the south is ex-
tensive, and the plain in the direction of Kandahar stretches
to the horizon. It is bare except in the vicinity of the river,
where villages and gardens are tolerably numerous. Abundant
crops of wheat and barley are grown, as well as of madder,
besides minor products. The climate is notoriously cold, —
snow lying 2 or 3 ft. deep for about three months, and tradition
speaks of the city as having been more than once overwhelmed
by snowdrift. Fuel is scarce, consisting chiefly of prickly
shrubs. In summer the heat is not like that of Kandahar or
Kabul, but the radiation from the bare heights renders the nights
oppressive, and constant dust-storms occur. It is evident that
the present restricted walls cannot have contained the vaunted
city of Mahraud. Probably the existing site formed the citadel
only of his city. The remarks of Ibn Batuta (c. 1332) already
suggest the present state of things, viz. a small town occupied,
a large space of ruin; for a considerable area to the N.E. is
covered with ruins\ or rather with a vast extent of shapeless
mounds, which are pointed out as Old Ghazni. The only remains
retaining architectural character are two remarkable towers
rising to the height of about 140 ft., and some 400 yds. apart
from each other. They are similar, but whether identical, in
design, is not clearly recorded. They belong, on a smaller and
far less elaborate scale, to the same class as the Kutb Minar at
Delhi (9.*.). Arabic inscriptions in Cufic characters show the
most northerly to have been the work of Mahmud himself, the
other that of bis son Masa'ud. On the Kabul road, a mile
beyond the Minaret of Mahmud, is a village called Rauzah
(" the Garden/' a term often applied to garden-mausoleums).
Here, in a poor garden, stands the tomb of the famous conqueror.
It is a prism of white marble standing on a plinth of the same,
and bearing a Cufic inscription praying the mercy of God on the
most noble Amir, the great king, the lord of church and state,
Abul Kasim Mahmud, son of Sabuktagin. The tomb stands in
a rude chamber, covered with adome of day, and hung with old
shawls, ostrich eggs, tiger-skins and so forth. The village stands
among luxuriant gardens and orchards, watered by a copious
aqueduct. Sultan Baber celebrates the excellence of the grapes
of Rauzah.
There are many holy shrines about Ghazni surrounded by
orchards and vineyards. Baber speaks of them, and (ells how
he detected and put a stop to tie imposture of a pretended
miracle at one of them. . These sanctuaries make Ghazni a place
of Moslem pilgrimage, and it is said that at Constantinople much
respect is paid to those who have worshipped at the tomb of the
great Ghazi. To test the genuineness of the boast, professed
pilgrims are called on to describe the chief notabUia of the place,
and arc expected to name all those detailed in certain current
Persian verses.
History.— The city is not mentioned by any narrator of
Alexander's expedition, nor by any ancient author so as to
admit of positive recognition. But it is very possibly the Cazaca
which Ptolemy places among the Paropamisadae t and this may
not be inconsistent with Sir H. Rawlinson's identification of it
with Gazos, an Indian city spoken of by two obscure Greek poets
as an impregnable place of war. The name is probably con-
nected with the Persian and Sanskrit ganj and ganja, a treasury
(whence the Greek and Latin Gata). We seem to have positive
evidence of the existence of the city before the Mahommedan
times (644) in the travels of the Chinese pilgrim, Hsuan Tsang,
who speaks of Ho-si-na (i.e. probably Ghazni) as one of the
capitals of Tsaukuta or Arachosia, a place of great strength.
In early Mahommedan times the country adjoining Ghazni was
called Zdiml. When the Mahommedans first invaded that
region Ghazni was a wealthy entrepot of the Indian trade.
Of the extent of this trade some idea is given by Ibn Haukal,
who states that at Kabul, then a mart of the same trade, there
was sold yearly indigo to the value of two million dinars
(£1,000,000). The enterprise of Islam underwent several ebbs
and flows over this region. The provinces on the Helmund and
about Ghazni were invaded as early as the caliphate of Moaiya
(662-680). The arms of Yaqub b. Laith swept over Kabul and
Arachosia (Al-Rukhaj) about 871, and the people of the latter
country were forcibly converted. Though the Hindu dynasty
of Kabul held a part of the valley of Kabul river till the time of
Mahmud, it is probably to the period just mentioned that we
must refer the permanent Mahommedan occupation of Ghazni
Indeed, the building of the fort and city is ascribed by a Mahom-
medan historian to Amr b. Laith, the brother and successor
of Ya'kub (d. 001), though the facts already stated discredit
this. In the latter part of the 9th century the family of the
Samanid, sprung from Samarkand, reigned in splendour at
Bokhara. Alptagin, originally a Turkish slave, and high in the
service of the dynasty, about the middle of the 10th century,
losing the favour of the court, wrested Ghazni from its chief
(who is styled Abu Bakr Lawik, wali of Ghazni), and established
himself there. His government was recognized from Bokhara,
and held till his death. In 977 another Turk slave, Sabuktagin,
who had married (he daughter of his master Alptagin, obtained
rule in Ghazni. He made himself lord of nearly all the present
territory of Afghanistan and of the Punjab. In 097 Mahmud,
son of Sabuktagin, succeeded to the government, and with his
name Ghazni and the Ghaznevid dynasty have beome perpetu-
ally associated. Issuing forth year after year from that capital,
Mahmud (q.v.) carried fully seventeen expeditions of devastation
through northern India and Gujarat, as well as others to the
north and west. From the borders of Kurdistan to Samarkand,
from the Caspian to the Ganges, bis authority was acknowledged.
918
GHEE
The wealth brought back to Ghazni was enormous, and con-
temporary historians give glowing descriptions of the magnifi-
cence of the capital, as well as of the conqueror's munificent
support of literature. Mahmud died in 1030, and some fourteen
kings of his house came after him; but though there was some
revival of importance under Ibrahim (1050-1099), the empire
never reached anything like the same splendour and power.
It was overshadowed by the Seljuks of Persia, and by the rising
rivalry of Ghor (?.».), the hostility of which it had repeatedly
provoked. Bahrain Shah (1118-1152) put to death Rutbuddin,
one of the princes of Ghor, called king of the Jibal or Hill country,
who had withdrawn to Ghazni. This prince's brother, Saifuddin
Suri, came to take vengeance, and drove out Bahram. But
the latter recapturing the place (1149) paraded Saifuddin and his
vizier ignominiously about the city, and then hanged them on the
bridge. Ala-uddin of Ghor, younger brother of the two slain
princes, then gathered a great host, and came against Bahram,
who met him on the Helmund. The Ghori prince, after repeated
victories, stormed Ghazni, and gave it over to fire and sword.
The dead kings of the house of Mahmud, except the conqueror
himself and two others, were torn from their graves and burnt,
whilst the bodies of the princes of Ghor were solemnly dis-
interred and carried to the distant tombs of their ancestors.
It seems certain that Ghazni never recovered the splendour that
perished then (115a). Ala-uddin, who from this deed became
known in history as Joh&n-scm (Br&Jemonde), returned to Ghor,
and Bahram reoccupied Ghazni; he died in 1x57. In the time
of his son Khusru Shah, Ghazni was taken by the Turkish tribes
called Ghuzx (generally believed to have been what are now
called Turkomans). The king fled to Lahore, and the dynasty
ended with his son. In 11 73 the Ghuzz were expelled by
Ghiyasuddin sultan of Ghor (nephew of Ala-uddin Jahansoz),
who made Ghazni over to his brother Muizuddin. This famous
prince, whom the later historians call Mahommed Ghori, shortly
afterwards (1174-1x75) invaded India, taking Multan and
Uchh. This was the first of many successive inroads on western
and northern India, in one of which Lahore was wrested from
Khusru Malik, the last of Mahmud's house, who died a captive
in the hills of Ghor. In 1192 Prithvi Rai or Pithora (as the
Moslem writers call him), the Chauhan king of Ajmere, being
defeated and slain near Thanewar, the whole country from the
Himalaya to Ajmere became subject to the Ghori king of Ghazni.
On the death of his brother Ghiyasuddin, with whose power he
had been constantly associated, and of whose conquests he had
been the chief instrument, Muizuddin became sole sovereign
over Ghor and Ghazni, and the latter place was then again for a
brief period the seat of an empire nearly as extensive as that of
Mahmud the son of Sabuktagin. Muizuddin crossed the Indus
once more to put down a rebellion of the Khokhars in the Punjab,
and on his way back was murdered by a band of them, or, as
some say, by one of the Mulnkidah or Assassins. The slave
lieutenants of Muizuddin carried on the conquest of India, and
as the rapidly succeeding events broke their dependence on any
master, they established at Delhi that monarchy of which, after
it had endured through many dynasties, and had culminated
with the Mogul house of Baber, the shadow perished in 1857.
The death of Muizuddin was followed by struggle and anarchy,
ending for a time in the annexation of Ghazni to the empire of
Khwarizm by Mahommed Shah, who conferred it on his famous
son, Jelaluddin, and Ghazni became the headquarters of the
latter. After Jenghiz Khan had extinguished the power of his
family in Turkestan, Jelaluddin defeated the army sent against
him by the Mongol at Parwan, north of Kabul Jenghiz then
advanced and drove Jelaluddin across the Indus, after which he
sent Ogdai his son to besiege Ghazni. Henceforward Ghazni is
much less prominent in Asiatic history. It continued subject
to the Mongols, sometimes to the house of Hulagu in Persia,
and sometimes to that of Jagatai in Turkestan. In 1326,
after a battle between Amir Hosain, the viceroy of the former
house in Khorasan, and Tarmashirin, the reigning khan of
Jagatai, the former entered Ghazni and once more subjected it
zo devastation, and this time the tomb of Mahmud to desecration.
Ibn Batuta (c. 1332) says the greater part of the city wasb
ruins, and only a small part continued to be a town. Timor
seems never to have visited Ghazni, but we find him in 1401
bestowing the government of Kabul, Kandahar, and Ghazni oa
Pir Mahommed, the son of his son Jahangir. In the end of ih«
century it was still in the hands of a descendant of Timur, Ulogh
Beg Mirza, who was king of Kabul and Ghazni. The illustrious
nephew of this prince, Baber, got peaceful possession of bote
cities in 1504, and has left notes on both in his own inimitable
Memoirs. His account of Ghazni indicates how far it had now
fallen. " It is," he says, " but a poor mean place, and I hare
always wondered how its princes, who possessed also Hindustan
and Khorasan, could have chosen such a wretched country
for the seat of their government, in preference to Khorasan."
He commends the fruit of its gardens, which still contribute
largely to the markets of Kabul. Ghazni remained in the hands
of Baber 's descendants, reigning at Delhi and Agra, till the
invasion of Nadir Shah (1738), and became after Nadir's death
a part of the new kingdom of the Afghans under Ahmad Shah
Durani. We know of but two modern travellers who have
recorded visits to the place previous to the war of 1830, George
Forstcr passed as a disguised traveller with a qafUa in 17S3.
" Its slender existence, 1 ' he says, " is now maintained by some
Hindu families, who support a small traffic, and supply the
wants of the few Mahommedan residents." Vigne visited it in
1836, having reached it from Multan with a caravan of Lohaci
merchants, travelling by the Gomal pass. The historical name
of Ghazni was brought back from the dead, as it were, by the
news of its capture by the British army under Sir John Keane,
23rd July X839. The siege artillery had been left behind at
Kandahar; escalade was judged impracticable; but the project
of the commanding engineer, Captain George Thomson, for blow-
ing in the Kabul gate with powder in bags, was adopted, and
carried out successfully, at the cost of 182 killed and wounded.
Two years and a half later the Afghan outbreak against the
British occupation found Ghazni garrisoned by a Bengal regiment
of sepoys, but neither repaired nor provisioned. They held out
under great hardships from the 16th of December 1841 to the
6th of March 1842, when they surrendered. In the autumn of
the same year General Nott, advancing from Kandahar upon
Kabul, reoccupied Ghazni, destroyed the defences of the castle
and part of the town, and carried away the famous gates of
Somnath (q.v.).
GHEE (Hindostani gki), a kind of clarified butter made in
the East. The best is prepared from butter of the milk of cows,
the less esteemed from that of buffaloes. The butter is melted
over a slow fire, and set aside to cool; the thick, opaque, whitish,
and more fluid portion, or ghee, representing the greater bulk
of the butter, is then removed. The less liquid residue, mixed
with ground-nut oil, is sold as an inferior kind of ghee. It may
be obtained also by boiling butter over a clear fire, skimming it
the while, and, when all the water has evaporated, straining
it through a cloth. Ghee which is rancid or tainted, as is often
that of the Indian bazaars, is said to be rendered sweet by boiling
with leaves of the Moringa pterygosfxrma or horse-radish tree.
In India ghee is one of the commonest articles of diet, and indeed
enters into the composition of everything eaten by the Brahmans.
It is also extensively used in Indian religious ceremonies, being
offered as a sacrifice to idols, which are at times bathed in it.
Sanskrit treatises on therapeutics describe ghee as cooling,
emollient and stomachic, as capable of increasing the mental
powers, and of improving the voice and personal appearance,
and as useful in eye-diseases, tympanitis, painful dyspepsia,
wounds, ulcers and other affections. Old ghee is in special
repute among the Hindus as a medicinal agent, and its efficacy
as an external application is believed by them to increase with
its age. Ghee more than ten years old, the purana gkrila of
Sanskrit materia medicas, has a strong odour and the colour of
lac. Some specimens which have been much longer preserved—
and " clarified butter a hundred years old i6 often heard of "—
have an earthy look, and are quite dry and hard, and nearly
inodorous. Medicated ghee is made by warming ordinary ghee
GHEEL— GHENT
9*9
to remove contained water, melting, after the addition of a
little turmeric juice, in a metal pan at a gentle heat, and then
boiling with the prepared drugs till all moisture is expelled, and
straining through a cloth.
GHEEL, or Gzel, a town of Belgium, about 30 m. E. of
Antwerp and in the same province. Fop. (1004) 14,087. It is
remarkable on account of the colony of insane persons which
has existed there for many centuries. The legend reads that in
the year 600 Dymphna, an Irish princess, was executed here by
her father, and in consequence of certain miracles she had
effected she was canonized and made the patron saint of the
insane. The old Gothic church is dedicated to her, and in the
choir is a shrine, enclosing her relics, with fine panel paintings
representing incidents in her life by, probably, a contemporary
of Memling. The colony of the insane is established in the
farms and houses round the little place within a circumference
of 30 m. and is said to have existed since the 13th century.
This area is divided into four sections, each having a doctor and
a superintendent attached to it. The Gheel system is regarded
as the most humane method of dealing with the insane who have
no homicidal tendencies, as it keeps up as long as possible their
interest in life.
GHENT (Flem. Cent, Fr. Gand), the capital of East Flanders,
Belgium, at the junction of the Scheldt and the Lys (Ley);
Pop. (1880) 131,431, (1004) 162,482. The city is divided by
the rivers (including the small streams Lievc and Moere) and by
canals, some navigable, into numerous islands connected by
over 200 bridges of various sorts. Within the limits of the town,
which is 6 m. in circumference, are many gardens, meadows
and promenades; and, though its characteristic lanes are
gloomy and narrow, there are also broad new streets and fine
quays and docks. The most conspicuous building in the city
is the cathedral of St Bavon* (Sint Baafs), the rich interior of
which contrasts strongly with its somewhat heavy exterior. Its
crypt dates from 041, the choir from 1 274-1300, the Late Gothic
choir chapels from the 15th century, and the nave and transept
from 1 533-1 554. Among the treasures of the church is the
famous " Worship of the Lamb " by Hubert and Jan van
Eyck. Of the original 12 panels, taken to France during the
Revolutionary Wars, only 4 are now here, 6 being in the Berlin
museum and two in that of Brussels. Among the other 55
churches may be mentioned that of St Nicholas, an Early Gothic
building, the oldest church in date of foundation in Ghent, and
that of St Michael, completed in 1480, with an unfinished tower.
In the centre of the city stands the unfinished Belfry (Bejfroi),
a square tower some 300 ft. high, built 11 83-1339. It has a
cast-iron steeple (restored in 1854), on the top of which is a gold
dragon which, according to tradition, was brought from Con-
stantinople either by the Varangians or by the emperor Baldwin
after the Latin conquest. Close to it is the former Cloth-hall,
a Gothic building of 1325. The hdtel-de-ville consists of two
distinct parts. The northern facade, a magnificent example of
Flamboyant Gothic, was erected between 15 18 and 1533,
restored in 1829 and again some fifty years later. The eastern
facade overlooking the market-place was built in 1595-1628,
in the Renaissance style, with three tiers of columns. It contains
a valuable collection of archives, from the 13th century onwards.
On the left bank of the Lys is the Oudeburg (s'Gravenstein,
Chateau des Contes), the former castle of the first counts of
Flanders, dating from n 80 and now restored. The chateau of
the later counts, in which the emperor Charles V. was born,
is commemorated only in the name, of a street, the Cours des
Princes.
To the north of the Oudeburg, on the other side of the Lys, is
the Marche du Vcndredi, the principal square of the city. This
was the centre of the life of the medieval city, the scene of all
great public functions, such as the homage of the burghers to
1 Bavo, or Allowin (c. 580-c. 653), patron saint of Ghent, was
a nobleman converted by St Amandus, (he apostle of Flanders.
He lived first as an anchorite in the forest of Mendonk, and after-
wards in the monastery founded with his assistance by Amandus at
Ghent.
the counts, and of the auto-da-fes under the Spanish regime.
In it stands a bronze statue of Jacob van Artevclde, by Devigne*
Quyo, erected in 1863. At a corner of the square is a remarkable
cannon, known as Dull* GricU (Mad Meg), 19 ft. long and n ft,
in circumference. It is ornamented with the arms of Philip
the Good, duke of Burgundy, and must have been cast between
1419 and 1467. On the Scheldt, near the Place Laurent, is the
Geerard-duivelsteen (chateau of Gerard the Devil), a 13th-century
tower formerly belonging to one of the patrician families, now 1
restored and used as the office of the provincial records. Of
modern buildings may be mentioned the University (1826),
the Palais de Justice (1844), and the new theatre (1848), all
designed by Roelandt, and the Institut des Sciences (1800) by
A. Pauli. In the park on the site of the citadel erected by
Charles V. are some ruins of the ancient abbey of St Bavon and
of a lath-century octagonal chapel dedicated to St Macharius.
In the park is also situated the Museum of Fine Arts, completed
in 190a.
One of the most interesting institutions of Ghent is the great
Beguinage (Begynhof) which, originally established in 1234
by the Bruges gate, was transferred in 1874 to the suburb of
St Amandsberg. It constitutes a little town of itself, surrounded
by walls and a moat, and contains numerous small houses, x&
convents and a church. It is occupied by some 700 Beguines,
women devoted to good works (see Beguines). Near the station
is a second Beguinage with 400 inmates. In addition to these
there were in Ghent in 1901 fifty religious houses of various orders.
As a manufacturing centre Ghent, though not so conspicuous
as it was in the middle ages, is of considerable importance.
The main industries are cotton-spinning, flax-spinning, cotton-
printing, tanning and sugar refining; in addition to which
there are iron and copper foundries, machine-building works,
breweries and factories of soap, paper, tobacco, &c. As a trading
centre the city is even more important. It has direct communica-
tion with the sea by a ship-canal, greatly enlarged and deepened
since 1895, which connects the Grand Basin, stretching along the
north side of the city, with a spacious harbour excavated at
Terneuzen on the Scheldt, 21 J m. to the north, thus making
Ghent practically a sea-port; while a second canal, from the
Lys, connects the city via Bruges with Ostende.
Among the educational establishments is the State University,
founded by King William I. of the Netherlands in 1816. With
it are connected a school of engineering, a school of arts and
industries and the famous library (about 300,000 printed
volumes and 2000 MSS.) formerly belonging to the city. In
addition there are training schools for teachers, an episcopal
seminary, a conservatoire and an art academy with a fine
collection of pictures mainly taken from the religious houses of the
city on their suppression in 1 795. The oldest Belgian newspaper,
the Caut van Gent, was founded here in 1667.
History.— The history of the dty is closely associated with
that of the countship of Flanders (q.v.), of which it was the seat.
It is mentioned so early as the 7th century and in 868 Baldwin
of the Iron Arm, first count of Flanders, who had been entrusted
by Charles the Bald with the defence of the northern marches,
built a castle here against the Normans raiding up the Scheldt.
This was captured in 949 by the emperor Otto I. and was occupied
by an imperial burgrave for some fifty years, after which it was
.retaken by the counts of Flanders. Under their protection,
and favoured by its site, the city rapidly grew in wealth and
population, the zenith of its power and prosperity being reached
between the 13th and 15th centuries, when it was the emporium
of the trade of Germany and the Low Countries, the centre of a
great cloth industry, and could put some 20,000 armed citizens
into the field. The wealth of the burghers during this period
was equalled by their turbulent spirit of independence; feuds
were frequent,— against the rival city of Bruges, against the
counts, or, within the dty itself, between the plebeian crafts and
the patrician governing class. Of these risings the most notable
was that, in the earlier half' of the 14th century, against Louis
de Crecy, count of Flanders, under the leadership of Jacob van
Artcvelde (q.v.).
920
GHETTO
The earliest charter to the citizens of Ghent was that granted
by Count Philip of Flanders between 1 169 and 1 191. It did little
more than arrange for the administration of justice by nominated
jurats {scabini) under the count's bailli. Far more compre-
hensive was the second charter, granted by Philip's widow
Mathilda, after his death on crusade in 1 191, as the price paid for
the faithfulness of the city to her cause. The magistrates of the
city were still nominated scabini (fixed at thirteen), but their
duties and rights were strictly denned and the liberties of the
citizens safe-guarded; the city, moreover, received the right to
fortify itself and even individuals within it to fortify their houses.
This charter was confirmed and extended by Count Baldwin VIII.
when he took over the city from Mathilda, an important new
provision being that general rules for the government of the city
were only to be made by arrangement between the count or his
officials and the common council of the citizens. The burghers
thus attained to a very considerable measure of self-government.
A charter of 121 2 of Count Ferdinand (of Portugal) and his wife
Johanna introduced a modified system of election for the scabini;
a further charter (1228) fixed the executive at 39 members,
including scabini and members of the commune, and ordained
that the bailli of the count and his servientes, like the podestds
of Italian cities, were not to be natives of Ghent.
Thus far the constitution of the city had been wholly aristo-
cratic; in the 13th century the patricians seem to have been
united into a gild {Commans- guide) from whose members the
magistrates were chosen. By the 14th century, however, the
democratic craft gilds, notably that of the weavers, had asserted
themselves; the citizens were divided for civic and military
purposes into three classes; the rich {i.e. those living on capital),
the weavers and the members of the 52 other gilds. In the
civic executive, as it existed to the time of Charles V., the deans
of the two lower classes sat with the scabini and councillors.
The constitution and liberties of the city, which survived its
incorporation in Burgundy, were lost for a time as a result of the
unsuccessful rising against Duke Philip the Good (1450). The
citizens, however, retained their turbulent spirit. After the
death of Mary of Burgundy, who had resided in the city, they
forced her husband, the archduke Maximilian, to conclude the
treaty of Arras (1482). They were less fortunate in their opposi-
tion to Maximilian's son, the emperor Charles V. In 1539 they
refused, on the plea of their privileges, to contribute to a general
tax laid on Flanders, and when Charles's sister Mary, the governess
of the Netherlands, seized some merchants as bail for the pay-
ment, they retaliated by driving out the nobles and the adherents
of Charles's government. The appearance of Charles himself,
however, with an overwhelming force quelled the disturbance;
the ringleaders were executed, and all the property and privileges
of the dty were confiscated. In addition, a fine of 1 50,000 golden
gulden was levied on the city, and used to build the " Spanish
Citadel " on the site of what is now the public park.
In the long struggle of the Netherlands against Spain, Ghent
took a conspicuous part, and it was here that, on the 8th of
November 1576, was signed the instrument, known as the
Pacification of Ghent, which established the league against
Spanish tyranny. In 15S4, however, the city had to surrender
on onerous terms to the prince of Parma.
The horrors of war and of religious persecution, and the conse-
quent emigration or expulsion of its inhabitants, had wrecked the.
Crosperity of Ghent, the recovery of which was made impossible*
y the closing of the Scheldt. The city was captured by the
French in 1608, 1708 and 1745. After 1714 it formed part of
the Austrian Netherlands, and in 1704 became the capital of the
French department of the Scheldt. In 1814 it was incorporated
in the kingdom of the United Netherlands, and it was here that
Louis XVIII. of France took refuge during the Hundred Days.
Here too was signed (December 24, 1814) the treaty of peace
between Great Britain and the United States of America. After
181 $ Ghent was for a time the centre of Catholic opposition to
Dutch rule, as it is now that of the Flemish movement in Belgium.
During the 19th century its prosperity rapidly increased. Ini866-
2867, however, a serious outbreak of cholera again threatened
it with ruin; but improved sanitation, the provision of a supply
of pure water and the demolition of a mass of houses unfit kir
habitation soon effected a radical cure.
Staats- und Reckts&sckickt* bit
, and Gucldorf, Htst. de Gaui,
ections and additions (Brustek,
ntdsten tijd tot heden (6 vob^
ind monumental et pittere&qm
Origin** de la rille de Gastf
tes, ed. G. Funck-Brcnuno
nboek der stad Cent (Ghent,
Cilden (Leipzig, 1 891), vol. a.
t cited. For a comprehensive
and published documents, see
trees hist. Topo-bibUegT. % s.v.
GHETTO, formerly the street or quarter of a dty in which Jews
were compelled to Live, enclosed by walls and gates which were
locked each night. The term is now used loosely of any locality
in a city or country where Jews congregate. The derivation of
the word is doubtful In documents of the 1 ith century the Jew-
quarters in Venice and Salerno are styled " Judaea " or " Juda-
ea ria." At Capua in 1375 there was a place called San NicoJo
ad Judaicam, and later elsewhere a quarter San Martino ad
Judaicam. Hence it has been suggested Judaicam became
Italian Giudeica and thence became corrupted into ghetto.
Another theory traces it to " gietto," the common foundry at
Venice near which was the first Jews' quarters of that dty.
More probably the word is an abbreviation of Italian borgkeks
diminutive of borgo a " borough."
The earliest regular ghettos were established in Italy in the
nth century, though Prague is said to have had one in the
previous century. The ghetto at Rome was instituted by Paul
IV. in 1556. It lay between the Via del Pianto and Ponle dd
Quattro Capi, and comprised a few narrow and filthy streets.
It lay so low that it was yearly flooded by the Tiber. The Jews
had to sue annually for permission to live there, and paid a yearly
tax for the privilege. This formality and tax survived till 1850.
During three centuries there were constant changes in the op-
pressive regulations imposed upon the Jews by the popes. In
1814 Pius VII. allowed a few Jews to live outside the ghetto, and
in 1847 Pius IX. decided to destroy the gates and walls, but
public opinion hindered him from carrying out his plans. In
1870 the Jews petitioned Pius IX. to abolish the ghetto; but it
was to Victor Emmanuel that this reform was finally due. The
walls remained until 1885.
During the middle ages the Jews were forbidden to leave the
ghetto after sunset when the gates were locked, and they were
also imprisoned on Sundays and all Christian holy days. Where
the ghetto was too small for the carrying on of their trades, a site
beyond its wall was granted them as a market, ej. the Jewish
Tanddmarkl at Prague. Within their ghettos the Jews were
left much to their own devices, and the more important ghettos,
such as that at Prague, formed cities within cities, having their
own town halls and civic officials, hospitals, schools and rabbinical
courts. Fires were common in ghettos and, owing to the
narrowness of the streets, generally very destructive, especially
as from fear of plunder the Jews themselves closed their gates
on such occasions and refused assistance. On the 14th of June
1 71 1 a fire, the largest ever known in Germany, destroyed
within twenty-four hours the ghetto at Frankfort-on-Maia.
Other notable ghetto fires are that of Ban in 1030 and Nikob-
burg in 1719. The Jews were frequently expelled from their
ghettos', the most notable expulsions being those of Vienna
(1670) and Prague (1744-1745). This latter exile was during
the war of the Austrian Succession, when Maria Theresa, on the
ground that " they were fallen into disgrace," ordered Jews to
leave Bohemia. The empress was, however, induced by the
protests of the powers, especially of ffngland and Holland, to
revoke the decree. Meantime the Jews, ignorant of the revoca-
tion, petitioned to be allowed to return in payment of a yearly
tax. This tax the Bohemian Jews paid until 1846. The most
important ghettos were those at Venice, Frankfort, Prague and
Trieste. By the middle of the 19th century the ghetto system
GHIBERTI— GHICA
921
was moribund, and with the disappearance of the ghetto at Rome
in 1870 it became obsolete.
See D. Philipson, Old European Jewries (Philadelphia, 1894);
Israel Abrahams, Jewish Life in the Middle Ages (1896); S. Kahn,
article " Ghetto " in Jewish Encyclopedia, v. 653.
GHIBERTI, LORENZO (1378-1455). Italian sculptor, was born
at Florence in 1378. He learned the trade of a goldsmith under
his father Ugoccione, commonly called Cione, and his stepfather
Bartoluccio; but the goldsmith's art at that time included all
varieties of plastic arts, and required from those who devoted
themselves to its higher branches a general and profound know-
ledge of design and colouring. In the early stage of his artistic
career Ghiberti was best known as a painter in fresco, and when
Florence was visited by the plague he repaired to Rimini, where
he executed a highly prized fresco in the palace of the sovereign
Pandolfo Malatesta. He was recalled from Rimini to his native
city by the urgent entreaties of his stepfather Bartoluccio, who
informed him that a competition was to be opened for designs
of a second bronze gate in the baptistery, and that he would do
wisely to return to Florence and take part in this great artistic
contest. The subject for the artists was the sacrifice of Isaac;
end the competitors were required to observe in their work a
certain conformity to the first bronze gate of the baptistery,
executed by Andrea Pisano about 100 years previously. Of
the six designs presented by different Italian artists, those of
Donatello, Brunelleschi and Ghiberti were pronounced the best,
and of the three Brunellcschi's and Ghiberti's superior to the
third, and of such equal merit that the thirty-four judges with
whom the decision was left entrusted the execution of the work
to the joint labour of the two friends. Brunelleschi, however,
withdrew from the contest. The first of his two bronze gates for
the baptistery occupied Ghiberti twenty years.
Ghiberti brought to his task a deep religious feeling and the
striving after a high poetical ideal which are not to be found in
the works of Donatello, though in power of characterization the
second sculptor often stands above the first. Like Donatello,
he seized every opportunity of studying the remains- of ancient
art; but he sought and found purer models for imitation
than Donatello, through his excavations and studies in
Rome, had been able to secure. The council of Florence,
which met during the most active period of Ghiberti's artistic
career, not only secured him the patronage of the pontiff, who
took part in the council, but enabled him, through the important
connexions which he then formed with the Greek prelates and
magnates assembled in Florence, to obtain from many quarters
of the Byzantine empire the precious memorials of old Greek art,
which he studied with untiring zeal. The unbounded admira-
tion called forth by Ghiberti's first bronze gate led to his receiv-
ing from the chiefs of the Florentine gilds the order for the
second, of which the subjects were likewise taken from the Old
Testament. The Florentines gazed with especial pride on these
magnificent creations, which roust still have shone with all the
brightness of their original gilding when, a century later, Michel-
angelo pronounced them worthy to be the gates of paradise.
Next to the gates of the baptistery Ghiberti's chief works still in
existence are his three statues of St John the Baptist, St Matthew
and St Stephen, executed for the church of Or San Michele.
In the bas-relief of the coffin of St Zenobius, in the Florence
cathedral, Ghiberti put forth much of his peculiar talent, and
though he did not, as is commonly stated, execute entirely
the painted glass windows in that edifice, he furnished several
of the designs, and did the same service for a painted glass
window in the church of Or San Michele. He died at the age
of 77.
We are better acquainted with Ghiberti's theories of art than
with those of most of his contemporaries, for he left behind him
a commentary, in which, besides his notices of art, he gives much
insight into his own personal character and views. Every page
attests the religious spirit in which he lived and worked. Not
only does he aim at faithfully reflecting Christian truths in his
creations, he regards the old Greek statues with a kindred feeling,
as setting forth the highest intellectual and moral attributes of
human nature. He appears to have cared as little as Donatello
for money.
Benvenuto Cellini's criticism on Ghiberti that in his creations
of plastic art he was more successful in small than in large figures,
and that he always exhibited in his works the peculiar excellences
of the goldsmith's quite as much as those of the sculptor's art,
is after all no valid censure, for it merely affirms that Ghiberti
faithfully complied with the peculiar conditions of the task im-
posed upon him. More frequent have been the discussions as
to the part played by perspective in his representations of
natural scenery. These acquired a fresh importance since the
discovery of the data, from which it appeared that Paolo Ucccllo,
who had commonly been regarded as the first great master of
perspective, worked for several years in the studio or workshop
of Ghiberti, so that it became difficult to determine to what
extent Uccello's successful innovations in perspective were due to
Ghiberti's teaching.
Cicognara's criticism on Ghiberti, in his History of Sculpture, has
supplied the chief materials for the illustrative text of Lasinio's
series of engravings of the three bronze gates of the baptistery.
They consist of 42 plates in folio, and were published at Florence by
Bardi in 1821. Still more vivid representations are the repro-
ductions on a very large scale by the photographic establishment of
Alinari. Both C. C. Perkins, in his History of Tuscan Sculpture
(1864), and A. F. Rio, in his Art chrttien (1861-1867), have treated
Ghiberti's works with much fulness, and in a spirit of sound apprecia-
tion. Sec also the chapter expressly devoted to the history of the
competition for the baptistery ga tes in Hans Semper, Donatello (1887) ;
the articles by Adolf Roaemberg in Dohme's Kunst und KUnstler
des MiUelaliers (Leipzig, 1877) ; Leader Scott, Ghiberti and Donatello
(1882). In the Sammlung ausgeu-dklter Biographien Vasari, ed.
Carl Frey, vol. iii. (1886), is given Ghiberti's commentary on art.
GHICA, Ghika or Ghyka, a family which played a great
part in the modern development of Rumania, many of its
members being princes of Moldavia and Walachia. According
to Rumanian historians the Ghicas were of very humble origin,
and came from Kiupru in Albania.
1. George or Gheorghe (c. 1600-1664), the founder of the
family, is said to have been a playmate of another Albanian
known in history as Kupruli Aga, the famous vizier, who re-
cognized George while he was selling melons in the streets of
Constantinople, and helped him on to high positions. George
became prince of Moldavia in 1658 and prince of Walachia in
1650-1660. He moved the capital from TIrgovishtea to
Bucharest. From him are derived the numerous branches of
the family which became so conspicuous in the history of
Moldavia and Walachia.
2. The Walachian branch starts afresh from the great ban
Demetrius or Dumitru Ghica (1718-1803), who was twice
married and had fourteen children (see Rumania: History).
One of these, Gregory (Grigoric), prince of Walachia 1822-1828,
starts a new era of civilization, by breaking with the traditions
of the Phanariot (Greek) period and assisting in the development
of a truly national Rumanian literature. His brother, Prince
Alexander Ghica, appointed jointly by Turkey and Russia
(1834-1842) as hospodar of Walachia, died in 1862. Under him
the so-called reglemenl organique had been promulgated; an
attempt was made to codify the laws in conformity with the
institutions of the country and to secure better administration
of justice. Prince Demetrius Ghica, who died as president of
the Rumanian senate in 1897, was the son of the Walachian
prince Gregory.
3. Another Gregory Ghica, prince ofMoldavia from 1775 to 1777,
paid with his life for the opposition he offered when the Turks
ceded the province of Bukovina to Austria.
4. Michael (Michail) (1 794-1850) was the father of Elena
(1827-1888), a well-known novelist, who wrote under the name
of Dora d'Istria. Brought up, as was customary at the time,
under Greek influences, she showed premature intelligence and
literary power. She continued her education in Germany and
married a Russian prince, Koltsov Mazalskiy, in 1849, but the
marriage was an unhappy one, and in 1855 she left St Petersburg
for Florence, where she died in 1888. In that city she developed
her literary talent and published a number of works characterized
by lightness of touch and brilliance of description, such as
92+
GHOST
hill-country of Ghor," as a circle ring-fenced with mountains.
His brief description speaks of it as a land fruitful in crops,
cattle and flocks, inhabited by-infidels, except a few who passed
for Mahommedans, and indicates that, like other pagan countries
surrounded by Moslem populations, it was regarded as a store
of slaves for the faithful. The boundary of Ghor in ascending
the valley of the Hari-rud was six and a half easy marches from
Herat, at Chist, two marches above Obch.
The chief part of the present population of Ghor are Taimanis,
belonging to the class of nomad or semi-nomad clans called
Aim&k, intermingled with Zuris and Tajiks.
The people and princes of Ghor first become known to us in
connexion with the Ghaznevid dynasty, and the early medieval
histories of Ghor and Ghazni are so intertwined that little need
be added on that subject to what will be found under Ghazni
(q.v.). What we read of Ghor shows it as a country of lofty
mountains and fruitful valleys, and of numerous strongholds
held by a variety of hill-chieftains ruling warlike clans whose
habits were rife with feuds and turbulence, — indeed, in character
strongly resembling the tribes of modern Afghanistan, though
there seems no good reason to believe that they were of Afghan
race. It is probable that they were of old Persian blood, like
the older of those tribes which still occupy the country. It is
possibly a corroboration of this that, in the 14th century, when
one of the Ghori kings, of the Kurt dynasty reigning in Herat,
had taken to himself some of the insignia of independent
sovereignty, an incensed Mongol prince is said to have reviled
him as " an insolent Tajik." Sabuktagin of Ghazni, and his
famous son Mahmud, repeatedly invaded the mountain country
which so nearly adjoined their capital, subduing its chiefs for
the moment, and exacting tribute; but when the immediate
pressure was withdrawn, the yoke was thrown off and the tribute
withheld. In 1020 Masa'ud, the son of Mahmud,. being then
governor of Khorasan, made a systematic invasion of Ghor from
the side of Herat, laying siege to its strongholds one after the
other, and subduing the country more effectually than ever
before. About a century later one of the princely families of
Ghor, deriving the appellation of Shansabi, or Shansabaniah,
from a certain ancestor Shansab, of local fame, and of alleged
descent from Zohak, acquired predominance in all the country,
and at the time mentioned Malik 'Izzuddin al Hosain of this
family came to be recognized as lord of Gbor. He was known
afterwards as " the Father of Kings/' from the further honour to
which several of his seven sons rose. Three of these were — (1)
Amir Kutbuddin Mahommed, called the lord of the Jibal or
mountains; (2) Sultan Saifuddin Suri, for a brief period master
of Ghazni, — both of whom were put to death by Bahram the
Ghaznevid; and (3) Sultan Alauddin Jahansoz, who wreaked
such terrible vengeance upon Ghazni. Alauddin began the con-
quests which were afterwards immensely extended both in India
and in the west by his nephews Ghiyasuddin Mahommed b. Sam
and Mahommed Ghori (Muizuddin b. Sam or Shahabuddin b.
Sam), and for a brief period during their rule it was boasted,
with no great exaggeration, that the public prayer was read in
the name of the Ghori from the extremity of India to the borders
of Babylonia, and from the Oxus to 'the Straits of Ormus. After
the death of Mahommed Ghori, Mahmud the son of Ghiyasuddin
was proclaimed sovereign (1200) throughout the territories of
Ghor, Ghazni and Hindustan. But the Indian dominion, from
his uncle's death, became entirely independent, and his actual
authority was confined to Ghor, Seistan and Herat. The whole
kingdom fell to pieces before the power of Mahommed Shah
of Khwarizm and his son Jelaluddin (c. 12 14-12 15), a power in
its turn to be speedily shattered by the Mongol flood.
Besides the thrones of Ghor and Ghazni, the Shansabaniah
family, in the person of Fakhruddin, the eldest of the seven sons
of Malik 'Izzuddin, founded a kingdom in the Oxus basin, having
its seat at Baioan (q.v.), which endured for two or three genera-
tions, till extinguished by the power of Khwarizm (1214). And
the great Mussulman empire of Delhi was based on the conquests
of Muizuddin the Ghorian, carried out and consolidated by his
Turki freedmen, Kutbuddin Aibak and his successors. The
princes of Gbor experienced, about the middle of the xjtfc
century, a revival of power, which endured for 140 years. This
later dynasty bore the name of Kurt or K&rt. The first of
historical prominence was Malik Shamsuddin Kurt, rirsrended
by his mother from the great king Ghiyasuddin Ghori, whilst hit
other grandfather was that prince's favourite minister. In 124$
Shamsuddin held the lordship of Ghor in some kind of alliance
with, or subordination to, the Mongols, who had not yet defini-
tively established themselves in Persia; and in 1248 hie received
from the Great Khan Mangu an investiture of all the province!
from Merv to the Indus, including by name Sijistan (or Setstao),
Kabul, Tirah (adjoining the Khyber pass), and Afghanistan'
(a very early occurrence of this name), which he ruled from Hem.
He stood well with Hulagu, and for a long time with his sod
Abaka, but at last incurred the latter's jealousy, and was poisoned
when on a visit to the court at Tabriz (1276). His son Ruknuddin
Kurt was, however, invested with the government of Khorssan
(1278), but after some years, mistrusting his Tatar suzerains,
he withdrew into Ghor, and abode in his strong fortress of Kaissix
till his death there in 1305. The family held on through a
succession of eight kings in all, sometimes submissive to the
Mongol, sometimes aiming at independence, sometimes for s
series of prosperous years adding to the strength and splendour of
Herat, and sometimes sorely buffeted by the hosts of masteries
Tatar brigands that tore Khorasan and Persia in the decline
of the dynasties of Hulagu and JagataL It is possible that
the Kurts might have established a lasting Tajik kingdom at
Herat, but in the time of the last of the dynasty, Gbiyasuddixi
Pir-'Ali, Tatardom, reorganized and re-embodied in the persoa
of Timur, came against Herat, and carried away the king and
the treasures of his dynasty (1380). A revolt and massacre
of his garrison provoked Timur's vengeance; he put the captive
king to death, came against the dty a second time, and showed
it no mercy (1383). Ghor has since been obscure in history.
The capital of the kingdom of Ghor, when its princes were
rising to dominion in the 12th century, was Firoz Koh, where
a city and fortress were founded by Saifuddin Suri. The exact
position of Firoz Koh is difficult to determine, unless it be
represented by the ruins of one or other of the ancient cities
in the upper Murghab valley, the habitat of the -Firoz Kohi
section of the Chahar Aim&k, which were visited by the sur-
veyors of the Russo-Afghan boundary delimitation of 1884-1885.
Extensive ruins were also found at Taiwara on one of the main
affluents of the Farah Rud, where walls and terraces still existing
supported the local tradition that this place was the ancient
capital of Ghor. The valleys of the Taimani tribes though
narrow are fertile and well cultivated, and there are many
walled villages and forts about Parjuman and Zand in the south-
eastern districts. The peak of " Chalap Dalan " (described by
Ferrier as " one of the highest in the world ") is the Koh-i-Kaisar,
which is a trifle over 13.000 ft. in height. All the country now
known as Ghor was mapped during the progress of the Russo-
Afghan boundary delimitation.
See the "Tabakat;i-N4tiri," in the BiH. Indie** trans!, by Raverty ;
Journal asiaii^ue, scV. v. torn, xviL; " Ibn Haukal," in /. As. Sic.
Btng. vol. xxii.; Ferrier's Caravan Journeys; Hammer's Ilkhans, &c
GHOST (a word common to the W. Teutonic languages;
O.E. gast, Dutch, geest, Gcr. Geisl), in the sense now prevail-
ing, the spirit of a dead person considered as appearing in
some visible or sensible form to the living (see Appabjtioks;
Psychical Research, " Phantasms of the Dead " ; Spiritualism).
In the earlier and wider sense of spirit in general, or of the
principle of life, the word is practically obsolete. The language
of the Authorized Version of the Bible, however, has preserved
the phrase " to give up the ghost," still sometimes used of dying.
The Sphit of God, too, the third person of the Trinity, is still
called, not in the technical language of theology only, the Holy
Ghost. The adjective " ghostly " is still occasionally used for
" spiritual " (cf. the Ger. geUUich) as contrasted with " bodily,"
especially in such combinations as " ghostly counsel," " ghostly
comfort." We may even speak of a " ghostly adviser," though
not without a touch of affectation; on the other hand, the phrase
GHOST DANCE— GIANNUTRI
925
" ghostly man " for a clergyman (cf . the Ger. Ceistlkher) is
an archaism the use of which could only be justified by poetic
licence, as in Tennyson's Elaine (1004). The word " ghost,"
from the shadowy and unsubstantial quality attributed to the
apparitions of the dead, has come also to be commonly used
to emphasize the want of force or substance generally, in such
phrases as " not the ghost of a chance," " not the ghost of an
idea." It is also applied to those literary and artistic " hades "
who are paid to do work for which others get the credit.
GHOST DANCE, an American-Indian ritual dance, sometimes
called the Spirit Dance, the dancers wearing a white cloak. It is
connected with the doctrine of a Messiah, which arose in Nevada
among the Paiute Indians in 1888 and spread to other tribes.
A young Paiute Indian medicine-man, known as Wovoka, and
called Jack Wilson by the whiles, proclaimed that he had had
a revelation, and that, if this ghost dance and other ceremonies
were duly performed, the Indians would be rid of the white men.
The movement led to a sort of craze among the Indian tribes,
and in 1890 it was one of the causes of the Sioux outbreak.
See J. Mooney, 14th Report (1896) of Bureau of American Ethnology.
GIACOMETTI, PAOLO (1816-1882), Italian dramatist, born at
Novi Ligure, was educated inlaw at Genoa, but at the age of
twenty had some success with his play Rosilda and then de-
voted himself to the stage. Depressed circumstances made him
attach himself as author to various touring Italian companies,
and his output was considerable; moreover, such actors as
Ristori, Rossi and Salvini made many of these plays great
successes. Among the best of them were La Donna (1850),
La Donna instcondc nasse (1851), Giudiila (1857), Sofocle (i860),
La Morie citile (1880). A collection of his works was published
at Milan in eight volumes (1859 et seq.).
GIAMBELU (or Gianibelli), FEDERIGO, Italian military
engineer, was born at Mantua about the middle of the 16th
century. Having had some experience as a military engineer
in Italy, he went to Spain to offer his services to Philip II. His
proposals were, however, lukewarmly received, and as he could
obtain from the king no immediate employment, he took up his
residence at Antwerp, where he soon gained considerable reputa-
tion for his knowledge in various departments of science. He
is said to have vowed to be revenged for bis rebuff at the
Spanish court; and when Antwerp was besieged by the duke
of Parma in 1584, he put himself in communication with Queen
Elizabeth, who, having satisfied herself of his abilities, engaged
him to aid by his counsels in its defence. His plans for provision-
ing the town were rejected by the senate, but they agreed to a
modification of his scheme for destroying the famous bridge
which closed the entrance to the town from the side of the sea,
by the conversion of two ships of 60 and 70 tons into infernal
machines. One of these exploded, and, besides destroying
more than 1000 soldiers, effected a breach in the structure of
more than 200 ft. in width, by which, but for the hesitation
of Admiral Jacobzoon, the town might al once have been relieved.
After the surrender of Antwerp Giambelli went to England,
where he was engaged for some time in fortifying the river
Thames; and when the Spanish Armada was attacked by fire-
ships in the Calais roads, the panic which ensued was very
largely due to the conviction among the Spaniards that the fire-
ships were infernal machines constructed by Giambelli. He is
said to have died in London, but the year of his death is unknown.
See Motley's History of the United Netherlands, vols. L and ii.
GIANNONE, PIBTRO (1676-1748), was born at Ischitella,
in the province of Capitanatar, on the 7th of May 1676. Arriving
in Naples at the age of eighteen, he devoted himself to (he study
of law, but his legal pursuits were much surpassed in importance
by his literary labours.. He devoted twenty years to the composi-
tion of his great work, the Storia civile del regno di Napoli,
which was ultimately published in 1 723. Here in his account of
the rise and progress of the Neapolitan laws and government, he
warmly espoused the. side of the civil power in its conflicts with
the Roman Catholic hierarchy. His merit lies in the fact that he
was the first to deal systematically with the question of Church
and State, and the position thus taken up by him, and the manner
in which that position was assumed, gave rise to a lifelong con*
flict between Giannone and the Church; and in spite of hit
retractation in prison at Turin, he deserves the palm — as he cer-
tainly endured the sufferings— of a confessor and martyr in the
cause of what he deemed historical truth. Hooted by the mob
of Naples, and excommunicated by the archbishop's court, he
was forced to leave Naples and repair to Vienna. Meanwhile
the Inquisition had attested after its own fashion the value of
his history by putting it on the Index. At Vienna the favour of
the emperor Charles VI. and of many leading personages at the
Austrian court obtained for him a pension and other facilities
for the prosecution of his historical studies. Of these the most
important result was // Triregno, ossia del regno del cielo, delta
terra, e del papa. On the transfer of the Neapolitan crown to
Charles of Bourbon, Giannone lost his Austrian pension and was'
compelled to remove to Venice. There he was at first most
favourably received. The post of consulting lawyer to the re-
public, in which he might have continued the special work of
Fra Paolo Sarpi, was offered to him, as well as that of professor
of public law in Padua; but he declined both offers. Unhappily
there arose a suspicion that his views on maritime law were not
favourable to the pretensions of Venice, and this suspicion,
notwithstanding all his efforts to dissipate it, together with
clerical intrigues, led to his expulsion from the state. On the
23rd of September 1735 he was seized and conveyed to Ferrara.
After wandering under an assumed name for three months through
Modcna, Milan and Turin, he at last reached Geneva, where he
enjoyed the friendship of the most distinguished citizens, and
was on excellent terms with the great publishing firms. But in
an evil hour he was induced to Visit a Catholic village within
Sardinian territory in order to hear mass on Easter day, where
he was kidnapped by the agents of the Sardinian government,
conveyed to the castle of Miolans and thence successively trans-
ferred to Ceva and Turin. In the fortress of Turin he remained
immured during the last twelve years of his life, although part
of his time was spent in composing a defence of the Sardinian
interests as opposed to those of the papal court, and he was led to
sign a retractation of the statements in his history most obnoxious
to the Vatican (1738). But after his recantation his detention
was made less severe and he was allowed many alleviations. He
died on the 7th of March 1748, in his seventy-second year.
Giannone's style as an Italian writer has been pronounced to
be below a severe classical model; he is often inaccurate as to the
facts, for he did not always work from -original authorities (see
A. Manaoni, Storia deiia calonna infame), and he was sometimes
guilty of unblushing plagiarism. But his very ease and free*
dom have helped to make bis volumes more popular than many
works of greater classical renown. In England the just apprecia-
tion of his labours by Gibbon, and the ample use made of them in
the later volumes of The Decline and Fall, early secured him his
greatly exaggerated.
GIANNUTRI (Gr. 'Apwukriop, Lat. Dionium), an island of
Italy, about 1 sq. m. in total area, zq m. S.E. of Giglio and about
zo m. S. of the promontory of Monte Argentario (see Orbeteixo).
The highest point is 305 ft. above sea-level. It contains the ruins
of a large Roman villa, near the Cala Maestra on the E. coast
of the island. The buildings may be divided into five groups:
(z) a large cistern in five compartments, each measuring 39 by
*7 ft.; (2) habitations both for the owners and for slaves, and
926
GIANT— GIANT'S CAUSEWAY
store-rooms; (3) baths; (4) habitations for slaves; (5) belvedere.
The brick-stamps found begin in the Flavian and end with the
Hadrianic period. The villa may have belonged to the Domitii
Ahcnobarbi, who certainly under the republic had property
in the island of Igilium (Giglio) and near Cosa.
See G. Pellegrini in Notizu degli scan (1900), 609 seq.
GIANT (O.E. geant, through Fr. giant, O.Fr. gaiant, jaiant,
jiant, med. pop. Lat. gagante — cf. Ital. gigante — by assimilation
from gigantem, ace. of Lat. gigas, Gr. 7170s) . The idea conveyed
by the word in classic mythology is that of beings more or less
manlike, but monstrous in size and strength. Figures like the
Titans and the Giants whose birth from Heaven and Earth is
sung by Hcsiod in the Theogony, such as can heap up mountains
to scale the sky and war beside or against the gods, must be
treated, with other like monstrous figures of the wonder-tales
of the world, as belonging altogether to the realms of mythology.
But there also appear in the legends of giants some with historic
significance. The ancient and commonly repeated explanation
of the Greek word *viy*t, as connected with or derived from
Tiryerfo or "earth-born/' is etymologically doubtful, but at
any rate the idea conveyed by it was familiar to the ancient
Greeks, that the giants were earth-born or indigenous races
(see Welcker, Griechische Gdtterkhre, i. 787). The Bible (the
English reader must be cautioned that the word giant has
been there used ambiguously, from the Septuagint downwards)
touches the present matter in so far as it records the traditions
of the Israelites of fighting in Palestine with tall races of the
land such as the Anakim (Numb. xiii. 33; Deut. ii. 10, iii. 11;
1 Sam. xvii. 4). When reading in Homer of " the Cyclopes and
the wild tribes of the Giants," or of the adventures of Odysseus
in the cave of Polyphemus (Homer, Odyss. vii. 206; ix.), we
seem to come into view of dim traditions, exaggerated through
the mist of ages, of pre-Hellenic barbarians, godless, cannibal,
skin-clothed, hurling huge stones in their rude warfare. Giant-
legends of this class are common in Europe and Asia, where the
big and stupid giants would seem to have been barbaric tribes
exaggerated into monsters in the legends of those who dis-
possessed and slew them. In early times it was usual for cities
to have their legends of giants. Thus London had Gog and
Magog, whose effigies (14 ft. high) still- stand in the Guildhall
(see Goo); Antwerp had her Antigonus, 40 ft. high; Douai
had Gayant, 22 ft. high, and so on.
Besides the conception of giants, as special races distinct
from mankind, it was a common opinion of the ancients that the
human race had itself degenerated, the men of primeval ages
having been of so far greater stature and strength as to be in
fact gigantic. This, for example, Is received by Pliny {Hist.
Nat. vii. 16), and it becomes a common doctrine of theologians
such as Augustine (De civitale Dei, xv. 9), lasting on into times
so modern that it may be found in Cruden's Concordance. Yet
so far as can be judged from actual remains, it does not appear
that giants, in the sense of tribes of altogether superhuman
stature, ever existed, or that the men of ancient time were
on the whole taller than those now living. It is now usual
to apply the word giant not to superhuman beings but merely
to unusually tall men and women. In every race of mankind
the great mass of individuals do not depart far from a certain
mean or average height, while the- very tall or very short men
become less and less numerous as they depart from the mean
standard, till the utmost divergence is reached in a very few
giants on the one hand, and a very few dwarfs on the other. At
both ends of the scale, the body is usually markedly out of the
ordinary proportions; thus a giant's head is smaller and a
dwarf's head larger than it would be if an average man had
been magnified or diminished. The principle of the distribution
of individuals of different sixes in a race or nation has been ably
set forth by Quetelet (Physique sociale, vol. ii.; Anthropometric,
books iii. and iv.). Had this principle been understood formerly,
we might have been spared the pains of criticizing assertions
as to giants 20 ft. high, or even more, appearing among mankind.
The appearance of an individual man 20 ft. high involves the
existence of the race he is an extreme member of, whose mean
stature would be at least 12 to 14 ft., which is a height no I
being has been proved on sufficient evidence to have approached
(Anthropom. p. 302). Modern statisticians cannot accept the
loose conclusion in Button (Hist, not., ed. Sonninl, iv. 134)
that there is no doubt of giants having been 10, 12, and perhapi
15 ft. high. Confidence is not even to be placed in antiest
asserted measurements, as where Pliny gives to one Gabbans,
an Arabian, the stature of 9 ft 9 in. (about 9 ft. si in. English),
capping this with the mention of Posio and Secundill*; vko
were half a foot higher. That two persons should be described
as both having this same extraordinary measure suggests to the
modern critic the notion of a note jotted down on the philo-
sopher's tablets, and never tested afterwards.
Under these circumstances it is worth while to ask how it is
that legend and history so abound in mentions of giants outside
all probable dimensions of the human frame. One cause is that,
when the story-teller is asked .the actual stature of the huge
men who figure in his tales, he is not sparing of his inches and
feet. What exaggeration can do in this way may be judged iron
the fact that the Patagonians, whose average height (5 ft. n in.)
is really about that of the Chirnside men in Berwickshire, arc
described in Pigafetta's Voyage round the World as so monstrous
that the Spaniards' heads hardly reached their waists. It is
reasonable to suppose, with Professor Nilsson (Primitm /*■
habitants of Scandinavia, chap, vi.), that in the traditions of
early Europe tribes of savages may have thus, if really tall,
expanded into giants, or; if short, dwindled into dwarfs. Another
cause which is clearly proved to have given rise to giant-myths
of yet more monstrous type has been the discovery of great
fossil bones, as of mammoth or mastodon, which were formerly
supposed to be bones of giants (see Tyior, Early History aj
Mankind, chap, xi.; Primitive Culture, chap. x.). A tooth
weighing 4} lb and a thigh-bone 17 ft. long having been found
in New England in 1712 (they were probably mastodon), Dr
Increase Mather thereupon communicated to the Royal Society
of London his theory of the existence of men of prodigious
suture in the antediluvian world (see the Philosophical
Transactions, xxiv. 8s; D. Wilson, Prehistoric Man, I 54).
The giants in the streets of Basel and supporting the arms of
Lucerne appear to have originated from certain fossil bones
found in 1577, examined by the physician Felix Plater, and
pronounced to have belonged to a giant some 16 or 19 ft. high.
These bones have since been referred to a very different geological
genus, but Plater's giant skeleton was accepted early in the
19th century as a genuine relic of the giants who once inhabited
the earth. Of giants in real life whose stature has been authentic-
ally recorded Quetelet gives the palm to Frederick the Greats
Scotch giant, who measured about 8 ft. 3 in. But since his time
there have been several giants who have equalled or surpassed
this figure. Patrick Coder, an Irishman, who died at Clifton,
Bristol, in 1802, was 8 ft. 7 in. high. The famous " Irish giant "
O'Brien (Charles Byrne), whose skeleton is preserved in the
museum of the Royal College of Surgeons, London, was 8 ft. 4 in.
Chang (Chang- woo-goo), who appeared in London in 1865-1866
and again in 1880, was 8 ft. 2 in. Josef Winkclmaier, an Austrian,
exhibited in London on the 10th of January 1887, was 8 ft. 9 in.;
while Elizabeth Lyska, a Russian child of twelve, when shown
in London in 1889, had already reached 6 ft. 8 in. Machnow,
a Russian, born at Charkow, was exhibited in London in his
twenty-third year in 1905; he then stood 9 ft 3 in., and weighed
360 lb (25 st. xo lb). From his wrist to the top of his second
finger he measured 2 ft. (see The Times, zoth February 1905).
The whole subject of giant myths and the now entirely exploded
theory that mankind has, as far as stature is concerned, degenerated
since prehistoric times, has been ably dealt with in a volume published
by MM. P. E. Launots and P. Roy, entitled Etudes biotogiqms ur
*('{&?** ^ >aria ' I904) ' SW ab ° "** Wood ' GianU *** Dwor ^ t
GIANTS CAUSEWAY, a promontory of columnar basalt,
situated on the north coast of county Antrim, Ireland. It is
divided by whin-dykes into the Little Causeway, the Middle
Causeway or "Honeycomb," as it is locally termed, and the
Larger or Grand Causeway. The pillars composing it art
GIANT'S KETTLE— GIBBON
927
dose-fitting and for the most part somewhat irregular hexagons,
made up of articulated portions varying from a few inches to
some feet in depth, and concave or convex at the upper and
lower surfaces. In diameter the pillars Vary from 15 to 20 in.,
And in height some are as much as 20 ft. The Great Causeway
is chiefly from 20 to 30, and for a few yards in some places nearly
40 ft. in breadth, exclusive of outlying broken pieces of rock.
It is highest at its narrowest part. At about half a dozen yards
from the cliff, widening and becoming lower, it extends outwards
into a platform, which has a slight seaward inclination, but is
easy to walk upon, and for nearly 100 yds. is always above
water. At the distance of about 150 yds. from the cliff it turns
a little to the eastward for 20 or 30 yds., and then sinks into the
sea. The neighbouring cliffs exhibit in many places columns
similar to those of the Giant's Causeway, a considerable exposure
of them being visible at a distance of 500 to 600 yds. in the bay
to the east. A group of these columns, from their arrangement,
have been fancifully named the " Giant's Organ." The most
remarkable of the cliffs is the Plcaskin, the upper pillars of
which have the appearance of a colonnade, and are 60 ft. in
height; beneath these is a mass of coarse black amygdaloid,
of the same thickness, underlain by a second range of basaltic
pillars, from 40 to 50 ft. in height. The view eastward over
Bengore and towards Fair Head is magni6cent. Near the
Giant's Causeway are the ruins of the castles of Dunseverick and
Dunluce, situated high above the sea on isolated crags, and the
swinging bridge of Carrick-a-Rcde, spanning a chasm 80 ft.
deep, and connecting a rock, which is used as a salmon-fishing
station, with the mainland. In 1883 an electric railway,
the first in the United Kingdom, was opened for traffic, connect-
ing the Causeway with Portrush and Bushmills. After a pro-
tracted lawsuit (1897-1S98) the Causeway, and certain land in
the vicinity, were declared to be private property, and a charge
is made for admission.
GIANTS KETTLE, Giant's Cauldron or Pot-Hole, in
physical geography, the name applied to cavities or holes which
appear to have been drilled in the surrounding rocks by eddying
currents of water bearing stones, gravel and other detrital
matter. The size varies from a few inches to several feet in
depth and diameter. The commonest occurrence is in regions
where glaciers exist or have existed; a famous locality is the
•Gletscher Garten of Lucerne, where there are 32 giant's kettles,
the largest being 26 ft. wide and 30 ft. deep; they are also
common in Germany, Norway and in the United States. It
appears that water, produced by the thawing of the ice and
snow, forms streams on the surface of the glacier, which, having
gathered into their courses a certain amount of morainic debris,
are finally cast down a crevasse as a swirling cascade or tnoulin.
The sides of the crevasse arc abraded, and a vertical shaft is
formed in the ice. The erosion may be continued into the bed
of the glacier, and, the ice having left the district, the giant's
kettle so formed is seen as an empty shaft, or as a pipe filled with
gravel, sand or boulders. Such cavities and pipes afford valuable
evidence as to the former extent of glaciers (see J. Geikie, The
Great Ice Age). Similar holes are met with in river beds at the
foot of cascades, and under some other circumstances. The
term " pot-hole " is also sometimes used synonymously with
" 6wallow-holc " (?».).
GIAOUR (a Turkish adaptation of the Pers. gdw or gdr,
an infidel), a word used by the Turks to describe all who arc
not Mahommedans, with especial reference to Christians. The
word, first employed as a term of contempt and reproach, has
become so general that in most cases no insult is intended in its
use; similarly, in parts of China, the term " foreign devil "
has become void of offence. A strict analogy to giaour is found
in the Arabic kajfir, or unbeliever, which is so commonly in use
as to have become the proper name of peoples and countries.
GIB, ADAM (1714-1788), Scottish divine and leader of the
Antiburgher section of the Scottish Secession Church, was born
on the 14th of April 17 14 in the parish of Muck hart, Perthshire,
and, on the completion of his literary and theological studies
at Edinburgh and Perth, was licensed as a preacher in 1740.
His eldest brother being a prodigal he succeeded to the paternal
estate, but threw the will into the fire on his brother's promising
to reform. In 1741 he was ordained minister of the large Seces-
sion congregation of Bristo Street, Edinburgh. In 1745 he was
almost the only minister of Edinburgh who continued to preach
against rebellion while the troops of Charles Edward were in
occupation of the town. When in 1747 " the Associate Synod,"
by a narrow majority, decided not to give full immediate effect
to a judgment which had been passed in the previous year
against the lawfulness of the "Burgess Oath, 1 ' Gib led the
protesting minority, who separated from their brethren and
formed the Antiburgher Synod (April 10th) in his own house in
Edinburgh. It was chiefly under his influence that it was agreed
by this ecclesiastical body at subsequent meetings to summon to
the bar their " Burgher " brethren, and finally to depose and
excommunicate them for contumacy. Gib's action in forming
the Antiburgher Synod led, after prolonged litigation, to his
exclusion from the building in Bristo Street where his congrega-
tion had met. In 1765 he made a vigorous and able reply to
the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland, which had
stigmatized the Secession as " threatening the peace of the
country." From 1753 till within a short period of his death,
which took place on the z8th of June 1788, he preached regularly
in Nicolson Street church, which was constantly filled with an
audience of two thousand persons. His dogmatic and fearless
attitude in controversy earned for him the nickname " Pope
Gib."
Principal publications: Tables for the Four Evangelists (1770,
and with author's name. 1800); The Present Truth, a Display of the
Secession Testimony (2 vols., 1774); Vindiciae dominicae (Edin.,
1780). See Chambers's Eminent Scotsmen; also article United
Presbytebjan Church.
GIBARA, or Jibara (once " Punta del Yarey " and " Yarey
de Gibara"), a north-coast city of Oriente Province, Cuba;
80 m. N. W. of Santiago de Cuba. Pop. (1007) 61 70. It is served
by railway to the S.S.W., to Holgufn and Cacocum (where it
connects with the main line between Santiago and Havana),
and is a port of call for the American Munson Line. It lies on a
circular harbour, about 1 m. in diameter, which, though opea
to the N., affords fair shelter. At the entrance to the harbour
is San Fernando, an old fort (18x7), and the city is very quaint
in appearance. At the back of the city are three stone-topped
hills, Silla, Pan and Tabla, reputed to be those referred to by
Columbus in his journal of his first voyage. Enclosing the town
is a stone wall, built by the Spaniards as a defence against attack
during the rebellion of 1 868-1 878. Gibara is the port of Holgufn.
It exports cedar, mahogany, tobacco, sugar, tortoise-shell,
Indian corn, cattle products, coco-nuts and bananas; and is
the centre of the banana trade with the United States. Gibara
is an old settlement, but it did not rise above the status of a.
petty village until after 1817; its importance dates from the
opening of the port to commerce in 1827.
GIBBON, EDWARD (1 737-1794), English historian, was
descended, he tells us in his autobiography, from a Kentish
family of considerable antiquity; among his remoter ancestors
he reckons the lord high treasurer Fiennes, Lord Say and Scle,
whom Shakespeare has immortalized in his Henry VI. His
grandfather was a man of ability, an enterprising merchant of
London, one of the commissioners of customs' under the Tory
ministry during the last four years of Queen Anne, and, in the
judgment of Lord Bolingbroke, as deeply versed in the " com-
merce and finances of England " as any man of his time. He
was not always wise, however, either for himself or his country;
for he became deeply involved in the South Sea Scheme, in the
disastrous collapse of which (1720) he lost the ample wealth
he had amassed. As a director of the company, moreover, he
was suspected of fraudulent complicity, taken into custody and
heavily fined; but £10,000 was allowed him out of the wreck
of his estate, and with this his skill and enterprise soon con-
structed a second fortune. He died at Putney in 1736, leaving
the bulk of his property to his two daughters — nearly disinheriting
his only son, the father of the historian, for having married
against his wishes. This son (byname Edward) was educated
928
GIBBON
at Westminster 1 and Cambridge, but never took a degree,
travelled, became member of parliament, first for Fetersfield
(1734), then for Southampton (1741), joined the party against
Sir Robert Walpole, and (as his son confesses, not much to his
father's honour) was animated in so doing by " private revenge "
against the supposed " oppressor " of his family in the South
Sea affair. If so, revenge, as usual, was blind; for Walpole
had sought rather to moderate than to inflame public feeling
against the projectors.
The historian^ was born at Putney, Surrey, April 27 (Old
Style), 1737. His mother, Judith Porten, was the daughter
of a London merchant. He was the eldest of a family of six
ions and a -daughter, and the only one who survived childhood;
his own life in youth hung by so mere a thread as to be-again
and again despaired of. His mother, between domestic cares
and constant infirmities (which, however, did not prevent an
occasional plunge into fashionable dissipation in compliance
with her husband's wishes), did but little for him. The " true
mother of his mind as well as of his health " was a maiden aunt —
Catherine Porten by name — with respect to whom he expresses
himself in language of the most grateful remembrance. " Many
anxious and solitary days," says Gibbon, " did she consume
with patient trial of every mode of relief and amusement.
Many wakeful nights did she sit by my bedside in trembling
expectation that each hour would be my last." As circumstances
allowed, she appears to have taught him reading, writing and
arithmetic — acquisitions made with so little of remembered pain
that " were not the error corrected by analogy," he says, " I
should be tempted to conceive them as innate." At seven he
was committed for eighteen months to the. care of a private
tutor, John Kirkby by name, and the author, among other things,
of a " philosophical fiction " entitled the Life of Automalkcs.
Of Kirkby, from whom he learned the rudiments of English
and Latin grammar, he speaks gratefully, and doubtless truly,
so far as he could trust the impressions of childhood. With
reference to Automatkes he is much more reserved in his praise,
denying alike its originality, its depth and its elegance; but, he
adds, " the book is not devoid of entertainment or instruction."
In his ninth year (1746), during a "lucid interval of com-
fjarative health," he was sent to a school at Kingston-upon-
Thames; but his former infirmities- soon returned, and his
progress, by his own confession, was slow and unsatisfactory.
" My timid reserve was astonished by the crowd and tumult of
the school; the want of strength and activity disqualified me
for the sports of the play-field. ... By the common methods
of discipline, at the expense of many tears and some blood,
I purchased the knowledge of the Latin syntax," but manifestly,
in his own opinion, the Arabian Nights, Pope's Homer, and
Dry den's Virgil, eagerly read, had at this period exercised a
much more powerful influence on his intellectual development
than Phacdrus and Cornelius Nepos, "painfully construed and
darkly understood."
In December 1747 his mother died, and he was taken home.
After a short time his father removed to the " rustic solitude M
of Buriton (Hants), but young Gibbon lived chiefly at the house
of his maternal grandfather at Putney, where, under the care of
his devoted aunt, he developed, he tells us, that passionate love
of reading " which he would not exchange for all the treasures of
India," and where his mind received its most decided stimulus.
Of 1748 he says, " This year, the twelfth of my age, I shall note
as the most propitious to the growth of my intellectual stature."
After detailing the circumstances which unlocked for him the
door of his grandfather's " tolerable library," he says, " t turned
over many English pages of poetry and romance, of history and
travels. Where a title attracted my eye, without fear or awe
I snatched the volume from the shelf." In 1749, in his twelfth
year, he was sent to Westminster, still residing, however, with
his aunt, who, rendered destitute by her father's bankruptcy,
but unwilling to live a life of dependence, had opened a boarding-
1 The celebrated William Law had been for some time the private
tutor of this Edward Gibbon, who is supposed to have been the
original of the rather clever sketch of " Flatus * in the Serious Coil.
house for Westminster school. Here in the course of two yen*
(1740-1750), interrupted by danger and debility, be " painfufev
climbed into the third form "; but it was left to his riper ig
to " acquire the beauties of the Latin and the rudiments of the
Greek tongue." The continual attacks of sickness which kid
retarded his progress induced his aunt, by medical advice, to
take him to Bath; but the mineral waters had no effect. He
then resided for a time in the house of a physician at Winchester;
the physician did as little as the mineral waters; and, after 1
further trial of Bath, he once more returned to Putney, and made
a last futile attempt to study at Westminster. FinaDy, it wit
concluded that he would never be able to encounter the distip&at
of a school; and casual instructors, at various times and places,
were provided for him. Meanwhile his indiscriminate appetite
for reading had begun to fix itself more and more decidedly upon
history; and the list of historical works devoured by hia
during this period, of chronic ill-health is simply astonishing.
It included, besides Hearne's Ductor kisioricus and the successr*
volumes of the Universal History, which was then in coarse
of publication, Littlebury's Herodotus, Spelman's Xenofikou,
Gordon's Tacitus, an anonymous translation of Procopiu;
"many crude lumps of Speed, Rapin, Mezeray, Da vita, Machiavd,
Father Paul, Bower, &c, were hastily gulped. I devoured them
like so many novels; and I swallowed with the same voracious
appetite the descriptions of India and China, of Mexico and
Peru." His first introduction to the historic scenes the study of
which afterwards formed the passion of his life took place io
1751, when, while along with his father visiting a friend io
Wiltshire, he discovered in the library " a common book, tbe
continuation of Echard's Roman History." " To me tbe rejgnt
of the successors of Constantine were absolutely new; and I was
immersed in the passage of the Goths over the Danube, when
the summons of the dinner bell reluctantly dragged me from my
intellectual feast." Soon afterwards his fancy kindled with the
first glimpses into Oriental history, the wild " barbaric " charm
of which he never ceased to feel Ockley's book on the Saracens
" first opened his eyes " to the striking career of Mahomet
and his hordes; and with his characteristic ardour of literary
research, after exhausting all that could be learned in English of
the Arabs and Persians, the Tatars and Turks, he forthwith
plunged into the French of D'Herbelot, and the Latin of Pocock's
version of Abulfaragius, sometimes understanding them, but
oftcner only guessing their meaning. He soon learned to call
to his aid the subsidiary sciences of geography and chronology,
and before he was quite capable of reading them had already
attempted to weigh in his childish balance the competing
systems of Scaliger and Petavius, of Marsham and Newton.
At this early period he seems already to have adopted in some
degree the plan of study he followed in after life and recom-
mended in his Essai sur Vttude — that is, of letting his subject
rather than his author determine his course, of suspending the
perusal of a book to reflect, and to compare the statements with
those of other authors — so that he often read portions of many
volumes while mastering one.
Towards his sixteenth year he tell us " nature displayed in his
favour her mysterious energies," and all his infirmities suddenly
vanished. Thenceforward, while never 'possessing or abusing
the insolence of health, he could say " few persons .have been
more exempt from real or imaginary ills." His unexpected
recovery revived his father's hopes for his education, hitherto
so much neglected if judged by ordinary standards; and accord-
ingly in January 1752 he was placed at Esher, Surrey, under tbe
care of Dr Francis, the well-known translator of Horace. Bat
Gibbon's friends in a few weeks discovered that the new tutor
preferred the pleasures of London to the instruction of his pupils,
and in this perplexity decided to send him prematurely to Oxford,
where he was matriculated asagentlcman commoner of Magdalen
College, 3rd April 1752. According to his own testimony be
arrived at the university " with a stock of information which
might have puzzled a doctor, and a degree of ignorance of which
a schoolboy might be ashamed." And indeed his huge waDet
of scraps stood Urn in little stead at the trim banquets to winch
GIBBON
929
ne was invited at Oxford, while the wandering habits by which he
.had filled it absolutely unfitted him to be a guest. He was not
well grounded in any of the elementary branches, which are
essential to university studies and to all success in their prosecu-
tion. It was natural, therefore, that he should dislike the
university, and as natural that the university should dislike
him. Many of bis complaints of the system were certainly just;
but it may be doubted whether any university system would have
been profitable to him, considering his antecedents. He com-
plains especially of his tutors, and in one case with abundant
reason; but, by his own confession, they might have recriminated
with justice, for he indulged in gay society, and kept late hours.
His observations, however, on the defects of the English univer-
sity system, some of which have only very recently been removed,
are acute and well worth pondering, however little relevant to
his own case. He remained at Magdalen about fourteen months.
" To the university of Oxford," he says, " I acknowledge no
obligation; and she will as cheerfully renounce me for a son as
I am willing to disclaim her for a mother. I spent fourteen months
at Magdalen College; they proved the fourteen months the most
idle and unprofitable of my whole life."
But thus " idle " though he may have been as a " student/'
he already meditated authorship. In the first long vacation —
during which he, doubtless with some sarcasm, says that " his
taste for books began to revive "—he contemplated a treatise on
the age of Sesostris, in which (and it was characteristic) his chief
object was to investigate not so much the events as the probable
epoch of the reign of that semi-mythical monarch, whom he was
inclined to regard as having been contemporary with Solomon.
" Unprovided with original learning, unformed in the habits of
thinking, unskilled in the arts of composition, I resolved to write
a book "; but the discovery of his own weakness, he adds, was
the first symptom of taste. On his first return to Oxford the work
was " wisely relinquished," and never afterwards resumed.
The most memorable incident, however, in Gibbon's stay at
Oxford was his temporary conversion to the doctrines of the
church of Rome. The bold criticism of Middleton's recently
(1749) published Free Enquiry into the Miraculous Powers which
are supposed to have subsisted in the Christian Church appears to
have given the first shock to bis Protestantism, not indeed by
destroying his previous belief that the gift of miraculous powers
had continued to subsist in the church during the first four or
five centuries of Christianity, but by convincing him that within
the same period most of the leading doctrines of popery had been
already introduced both in theory and in practice. At this stage
he was introduced by a friend (Mr Molesworth) to Bossuet's
Variations of Protestantism and Exposition of Catholic Doctrine
(see Gibbon, Decline and Fail, c. xv., note 79). " These works,"
says he, " achieved my conversion, and I surely fell by a noble
hand." In bringing about this " fall," however, Parsons the
Jesuit appears to have had a considerable share; at least Lord
Sheffield has recorded that on the only occasion on which Gibbon
talked with him on the subject he imputed the change in his
religious views principally to that vigorous writer, who, in his
opinion, had urged all the best arguments in favour of Roman
Catholicism. But be this as it may, he had no sooner adopted his
new creed than he resolved to profess it; " a momentary glow
of enthusiasm " had raised him above all temporal considerations,
and accordingly, on June 8, 1753, he records that having
" privately abjured the heresies " of his childhood before a Catholic
priest of the name of Baker, a Jesuit, in London, he announced
the same to his father in an elaborate controversial epistle which
his spiritual adviser much approved, and which he himself
afterwards described to Lord Sheffield as having been " written
with all the pomp, the dignity, and self-satisfaction of a
martyr."
The elder Gibbon heard with indignant surprise of this act
of juvenile apostasy, and, indiscreetly giving vent to his wrath,
precipitateS the expulsion of his son from Oxford, a punishment
which the culprit, in after years at least, found no cause to deplore.
In his Memoirs he speaks of the results of his " childish revolt
against the religion of his country" with un d is g uised self-
gratulation. It had delivered him for ever from the " port and
prejudice " of the university, and led him into the bright paths of
philosophic freedom. That his conversion was sincere at the
time, that it marked a real if but a transitory phase of genuine
religious conviction, we have no reason todoubt, notwithstanding
the scepticism he has himself expressed. "To my present
feelings it seems incredible that I should ever believe that I
believed in transubstantiation," he indeed declares; but his
incredulous astonishment is not unmixed with undoubting pride.
" I could not blush that my tender mind was entangled in the
sophistry which had reduced the acute and manly understandings
of a Chillingworth or a Bayle." Nor is the sincerity of the
Catholicism he professed in these boyish days in any way dis-
credited by the fact of his subsequent lack of religion. Indeed,
as one of the acutest and most sympathetic of his critics has
remarked, the deep and settled grudge he has betrayed towards
every form of Christian belief, in all the writings of his maturity,
may be taken as evidence that he had at one time experienced
in his own person at least some of the painful workings of a
positive faith.
But little lime was lost by the elder Gibbon in the formation
of a new plan of education for his son, and in devising some
method which if possible might effect the cure of his "spiritual
malady/ 1 The result of deliberation, aided by the advice and
experience of Lord Eliot, was that it was almost immediately
decided to fix Gibbon for some years abroad under the roof of
M. Pavilliard, a Calvinist minister at Lausanne.- In as far as
regards the instructor and guide thus selected, a more fortunate
choice could scarcely have been made. From the testimony of
his pupil, and the still more conclusive evidence of his own
correspondence with the father, Pavilliard seems to have been
a man of singular good sense, temper and tact. At the outset,
indeed, there was one considerable obstacle to the free intercourse
of tutor and pupil: M. Pavilliard appears to have known little
of English, and young Gibbon knew practically nothing of French.
But this difficulty was soon removed by the pupil's diligence;
the very exigencies of his situation were of service to him in
calling forth all his powers, and he studied the language with such
success that at the close of his five years' exile he declares that he
" spontaneously thought " in French rather than in English,
and that it had become more familiar to " ear, tongue and pen."
It is well known that in after years he had doubts whether he
should not compose his great work in French; and it is certain
that his familiarity with that language, in spite of considerable
efforts to counteract its effects, tinged his style to the last.
Under the judicious regulations of his new tutor a methodical
course of reading was marked out, and most ardently prosecuted;
the pupil's progress was proportionably rapid. With the
systematic study of the Latin, and to a slight extent also of the
Greek classics, he conjoined that of logic in the prolix system
of Crousaz; and he further invigorated his reasoning powers,
as well as enlarged his knowledge of metaphysics and juris-
prudence, by the perusal of Locke, Grotius and Montesquieu.
He also read largely, though somewhat indiscriminately, in
French literature, and appears to have been particularly struck
with Pascal's Provincial Letters, which he tells us he reperused
almost every year of his subsequent life with new pleasure, and
which he particularly mentions as having been, along with
Blcterie's Life of Julian and Giannone's History of Naples, a
book which probably contributed in a special sense to form the
historian of the Roman empire. The comprehensive scheme
of study included mathematics also, in which he advanced as
far as the conic sections in the treatise of L'Hopital. He assures
us that his tutor did not complain of any inaptitude on the pupil's
part, and that the pupil was as happily unconscious of any on
his own; but here he broke off. He adds, what is not quite
clear from one who so frankly acknowledges his limited acquaint-
ance with the science, that he had reason to congratulate himself
that he knew no more. " As soon," he says, " as I understood
the principles, I relinquished for ever the pursuit of the mathe-
matics; nor can I lament that I desisted before my mind was
hardened by the habit of rigid demonstration, so destructive
93©
GIBBON
of the finer feelings of moral evidence, which must, however,
determine the action and opinions of our lives."
Under the new influences which were brought to bear on
him, he in less than two years resumed his Protestantism. " He
is willing," he says, to allow M. Pavilliard a " handsome share
in his reconversion," though he maintains, and no doubt rightly,
that it was principally due "to his own solitary reflections."
He particularly congratulated himself on having discovered the
" philosophical argument " against transubstantiation, " that
the text of Scripture which seems to inculcate the real presence
is attested only by a single sense — our sight, while the real
presence itself is disproved by three of our senses— the sight,
the touch, and the taste." Before a similar mode of reasoning,
all the other distinctive articles of the Romish creed " disappeared
like a dream "; and " after a full conviction," on Christmas
day, 1754, he received the sacrament in the church of Lausanne.
Although, however, he adds that at this point he suspended
his religious inquiries, " acquiescing with implicit belief in the
tenets and mysteries which are adopted by the general consent
of Catholics and Protestants," his readers will probably do him
no great injustice if they assume that even then it was rather
to the negations than to the affirmations of Protestantism that
be most heartily assented.
With all his devotion to study at Lausanne 1 (he read ten or
twelve hours a day), be still found some time for the acquisition
of some of the lighter accomplishments, such as riding, dancing,
drawing, and also for mingling in such society as the place had
to offer. In September 1755 he writes to his aunt: " I find a
great many agreeable people here, see them sometimes, and can
say upon the whole, without vanity, that, though I am the
Englishman here who spends the least money, I am he who is
most generally liked." Thus his " studious and sedentary life "
passed pleasantly enough, interrupted only at rare intervals
by boyish excursions of a day or a week in the neighbourhood,
and by at least one memorable tour of Switzerland, by Basel,
Zurich, Lucerne and Bern, made along with Pavilliard in the
autumn of 1755. The last eighteen months of this residence
abroad saw the infusion of two new elements — one of them at
least of considerable importance — into his life. In 1 757 Voltaire
came to reside at Lausanne; and although he took but little
notice of the young Englishman of twenty, who eagerly sought
and easily obtained an introduction, the establishment of the
theatre at Monrepos, where the brilliant versifier himself de-
claimed before select audiences his own productions on the stage,
had no small influence in fortifying Gibbon's taste for the
French theatre, and in at the same time abating that "idolatry
for the gigantic genius of Shakespeare which is inculcated from
our infancy as the first duty of an Englishman." In the same
year— apparently about June — he saw for the first time, and
forthwith loved, the beautiful, intelligent and accomplished
Mademoiselle Susan Curchod, daughter of thepasteurof Crassier.
That the passion which she inspired in him was tender, pure
and fitted to raise to a higher level a nature which in some
respects was much in need of such elevation will be doubted
by none but the hopelessly cynical; and probably there are
few readers who can peruse the paragraph in which Gibboa
" approaches the delicate subject of his early love " without
discerning in it a pathos much deeper than that of which the
writer was himself aware. During the remainder of his residence
at Lausanne he had good reason to " indulge his dream of
felicity "; but on his return to England, " I soon discovered
that my father would not hear of this strange alliance, and that
without his consent I was myself destitute and helpless. After
a painful struggle I yielded to my fate; I sighed as a lover, I
obeyed as a son; my wound was insensibly healed by time,
absence, and the habits of a new life." *
In 1758 he returned with mingled joy and regret to England,
and was kindly received at home. But he found a stepmother
there; and this apparition on his father's hearth at first rather
appalled him. The cordial and gentle manners of Mrs Gibbon,
however, and her unremitting care for his happiness, won him
from his first prejudices, and gave her a permanent place in his
esteem and affection. He seems to have been much indulged,
and to have led a very pleasant life of it; he pleased himself
in moderate excursions, frequented the theatre, mingled, though
not very often, in society; was sometimes a little extravagant,
and sometimes a little dissipated, but never lost the benefits
of his Lausanne exile; and easily settled into a sober, discreet,
calculating Epicurean philosopher, who sought the summit*
bonum of man in temperate, regulated and elevated pleasure.
The first two years after his return to England he spent princi-
pally at his father's country seat at Buriton, in Hampshire,
only nine months being given to the metropolis. He has left
an amusing acccunt of bis employments in the country, where
his love of study was at once inflamed by a large and unwonted
command of books and checked by the necessary interruptions
of his otherwise happy domestic life. After breakfast " be was
expected," be says, to spend an hour with Mrs Gibbon; after
tea his father claimed his conversation; in the midst of an
interesting work he was often called down to entertain idle
visitors; and, worst of all, he was periodically compelled to
return the well-meant compliments. He mentions that he
dreaded the " recurrence of the full moon," which was the period
generally selected for the more convenient accomplishment of
such formidable excursions.
His father's library, though large in comparison with that he
commanded at Lausanne, contained, he says, " much trash ";
but a gradual process of reconstruction transformed it at length
into that " numerous and select " library which was " the
foundation of his works, and the best comfort of his life both at
home and abroad." ' No sooner had he returned home than be
began the work of accumulation, and records that, on the
receipt of his first quarter's allowance, a large share was appro-
priated to his literary wants. "He could never forget," he
declares, " the joy with which he exchanged a bank note of
twenty pounds for the twenty volumes of the Memoirs of the
Academy of Inscriptions," an Academy which has been well
characterized (by Sainte-Beuvc) as Gibbon's intellectual father-
land. It may not be uninteresting here to note the principles
which guided him both now and afterwards in his literary
purchases. "lam not conscious," says he, " of having ever
bought a book from a motive of ostentation; every volume,
before it was deposited on the shelf, was either read or
sufficiently examined "; he also mentions that he soon adopted
the tolerating maxim of the elder Pliny, that no book is ever so
bad as to be absolutely good for nothing.
In London he seems to have seen but little select society
— partly from his father's taste, "which had always preferred
the highest and lowest company," and partly from his own
reserve and timidity, increased by his foreign education, which
had made English habits unfamiliar, and the very language
* The affair, however, was not finally broken off till 1763. MdOt
Curchod soon afterwards became the wife of Necker, the famous
financier; and Gibbon and the Neckers frequently afterwards met
on terms of mutual friendship and esteem.
GIBBON
93i
ta some degree strange. 'And thus he was led to draw that
interesting picture of the literary recluse among the crowds of
London: " While coaches were rattling through Bond Street,
I have passed many a solitary evening in my lodging with my
books. My studies were sometimes interrupted with a sigh,
which I breathed towards Lausanne; and on the approach of
spring I withdrew without reluctance from the noisy and
extensive scene of crowds without company, and dissipation
without pleasure." He renewed former acquaintance, however,
with the "poet" Mallet, and through him gained access to
Lady Hervey's circle, where a congenial admiration, not to say
affectation, of French manners and literature made him a
welcome guest It ought to be added that in each of the twenty-
five years of his subsequent acquaintance with London " the
prospect gradually brightened," and his social as well as his
intellectual qualities secured him a wide circle of friends. In
one respect Mallet gave him good counsel in those early days.
He advised him to addict himself to an assiduous study of the
more idiomatic English writers, such as Swift and Addison —
with a view to unlearn his foreign idiom and recover his half-
forgotten vernacular— a task, however, which he never per-
fectly accomplished. Much as he admired these writers, Hume
and Robertson were still greater favourites, as well from their
Subject as for their style. Of his admiiation of Hume's style,
of its nameless grace of simple elegance, he has left us a strong
expression, when he tells us that it often compelled him to dose
the historian's volumes with a mixed sensation of delight and
despair.
In 1761 Gibbon, at the age of twenty-four, after many delays,
and with many fluttering* of hope and fear, gave to the world,
in French, his maiden publication, an Essai sur Vttude de la
ItUtratMre, which he had composed two years before. It was
published partly in compliance with his father's wishes, who
thought that the proof of some literary talent might introduce
him favourably to public notice, and secure the recommendation
of his friends for some appointment in connexion with the mission
of the English plenipotentiaries to the congress at Augsburg
which was at that time in contemplation. But in yielding to
paternal authority, Gibbon frankly owns that he " complied,
like a pious son, with the wish of his own heart."
The subject of this youthful effort was suggested, its author
says, by a refinement of vanity — " the desire of justifying and
praising the object t>f a favourite pursuit," namely, the study
of ancient literature. Partly owing to its being written in
French, partly to its character, the Essai excited more attention
abroad than at home. Gibbon has criticized it with the utmost
frankness, not to say severity; but, after every abatement, it
is unquestionably a surprising effort for a mind so young, and
contains many thoughts which would not have disgraced a
thinker t>r a scholar of much maturer age. His account of its
first reception and subsequent fortunes in England deserves to
be cited as a curious piece of literary history. " In England,"
he says, " it was received with cold indifference, little read, and
speedily forgotten. A small impression was slowly dispersed;
the bookseller murmured, and the author (had his feelings been
more exquisite) might have wept over the blunders and baldness
of the English translation. The publication of my history
fifteen years afterwards revived the memory of my first perform-
ance, and the essay was eagerly sought in the shops. But I
refused the permission which Bccket solicited of reprinting it; the
public curiosity was imperfectly satisfied by a pirated copy of the
booksellers of Dublin; and when a copy of the original edition
has been discovered in a sale, the primitive value of half-a-crown
has risen to the fanciful price of a guinea or thirty shillings." *
1 The Essai, in a good English translation, now appears in the
Miscellaneous Works. Villemain finds in it " peu de vucs, nulle
originality surtout, mais unc grandc passion Htttraire, l'amour des
rechcrchessavantcsct du beau langage." Sainte-Bcuvc's criticism is
almost identical with Gibbon's own; but though he finds that " la
lecture en est assez difficile ct parfois obscure, la liaison des idecs
<echappe souvent par trop dc concision et par le ddsir qu'a eu le jcune
auteurd'yfaireentrer.d y condenser la plupartdcscs notes," he adds,
" il y a, chemin faisant, des vucs neuves et qui sentcnt rhistorieu."
Some time before the publication of the essay, Gibbon had
entered a new and, one might suppose, a very uncongenial
scene of life. In an hour of patriotic ardour he became (June x 9,
1759) a captain in the Hampshire militia, and for more than
two years (May xo, 1760, to December 23, 176a) led a wandering
life of " military servitude." Hampshire, Rent, Wiltshire and
Dorsetshire formed the successive theatres of what he calls his
" bloodless and inglorious campaigns." He complains of the
busy idleness in which his time was spent; but, considering the
circumstances, so adverse to study, one is rather surprised that
the military student should have done so much, than that he
did so little; and never probably before were so many hours
of literary study spent in a tent. In estimating the comparative
advantages and disadvantages of this wearisome period of his
life, he has summed up with the impartiality of a philosopher
and the sagacity of a man of the world. Irksome as were his
employments, grievous as was the waste of time, uncongenial
as were his companions, solid benefits were to be set off against
these things; his health became robust, his knowledge of the
world was enlarged, he wore off some of his foreign idiom, got
rid of much of his reserve; he adds— and perhaps in his estimate
it was the benefit to be most prized of all—" the discipline and
evolutions of a modern battalion gave me a clearer notion of the
phalanx and the legion, and the captain of the Hampshire
grenadiers (the reader may smile) has not been useless to the
historian of the Roman empire."
It was during this period that he read Homer and Longinus,
having for the first time acquired some real mastery of Greek;
and after the publication of the Essai, his mind was full of projects
for a new literary effort. The Italian expedition of Charles VIII.
of France, the crusade of Richard I., the wars of the barons,
the lives and comparisons of Henry V. and the emperor Titus,
the history of the Black Prince, the life of Sir Philip Sidney,
that of Montrose, and finally that of Sir W. Raleigh, were all
of them seriously contemplated and successively rejected.
By their number they show how strong was the impulse to
literature, and by their character, how determined the bent
of his mind in the direction of history; while their variety makes
it manifest also that be had then at least no special purpose to
serve, no preconceived theory to support, no particular prejudice
or belief to overthrow.
The militia was disbanded in 1762, and Gibbon joyfully shook
off his bonds; but his literary projects were still to be postponed.
Following his own wishes, though with his father's consent,
he had early in 1760 projected a Continental tour as the comple-
tion " of an English gentleman's education." This had been
interrupted by the episode of the militia; now, however, he
resumed his purpose, and left England in January 1763. Two
years were " loosely defined as the term of his absence," which
he exceeded by half a year; — returning June 1765. He first
visited Paris, where he saw a good deal of d'Alembert, Diderot,
Barthelemy, Raynal, Helvetius, Baron d'Holbach and others
of that circle, and was often a welcome guest in the saloons of
Madame Geoffrin and Madame du Deffand.' Voltaire was at
Geneva, Rousseau at Montmorency, and Buffon he neglected
to visit; but so congenial did he find the society for which his
education had so well prepared him, and into which some literary
reputation had already preceded him, that he declared, " Had
I been rich and independent, I should have prolonged and
perhaps have fixed my residence at Paris."
From France he proceeded to Switzerland, and spent nearly a
year at Lausanne, where many old friendships and studies were
resumed, and new ones begun. His reading was largely designed
to enable him fully to profit by the long-contemplated Italian
tour which began in April 1764 and lasted somewhat more than
a year. He has recorded one or two interesting notes on Turin,
Genoa, Florence and other towns at which halt was made on his
route; but Rome was the great object of his pilgrimage, and the
words in which he has alluded to the feelings with which he
* Her letters to Walpole about Gibbon contain some interesting
remarks by this " aveugle clairvoyante," as Voltaire calls her; but
they. belong to a later period (1777).
93*
GIBBON
approached it are such as cannot be omitted from any sketch
of Gibbon, however brief. " My temper is not very susceptible
of enthusiasm, and the enthusiasm which I do not feel I have
ever scorned to affect But at the distance of twenty-five years
I can neither forget nor express the strong emotions which
agitated my mind as I first approached and entered the Eternal
City. After a sleepless night, I trod with a lofty step the ruins
of the forum; each memorable spot, where Romulus stood,
or Tully spoke, or Caesar fell, was at once present to my eye;
and several days of intoxication were lost or enjoyed before I
could descend to a cool and minute investigation." Here at
last his long yearning for some great theme worthy of his historic
genius was gratified. The first conception of the Decline and
Fall arose as he lingered one evening amidst the vestiges of
ancient glory. " It was at Rome, on the 15th of October 1764,
as I sat musing amidst the ruins of the Capitol, while the bare-
footed friars were singing vespers in the temple of Jupiter, that
the idea of writing the decline and fall of the city first started
to my mind."
The five years and a half which intervened between his return
from this tour, in June 1765, and the death of his father, in
November 1770, seem to have formed the portion of his life
which " he passed with the least enjoyment and remembered
with the least satisfaction." He attended every spring the
meetings of the militia at Southampton, and rose successively
to the rank of major and lieutenant-colonel commandant; but
was each year " more disgusted with the inn, the wine, the com-
pany, and the tiresome repetition of annual attendance and
daily exercise." From his own account, however, it appears
that other and deeper causes produced this discontent. Sincerely
attached to his home, he yet felt the anomaly of his position.
At thirty, still a dependant, without a settled occupation, without
a definite social status, he often regretted that he had not
" embraced the lucrative pursuits of the law or of trade, the
chances of civil office or India adventure, or even the fat slumbers
of the church." From the emoluments of a profession he
" might have derived an ample fortune, or a competent income
instead of being stinted to the same narrow allowance, to be
increased only by* an event which he sincerely deprecated."
Doubtless the secret fire of a consuming, but as yet ungralified,
literary ambition also troubled his repose. He was still contem-
plating " at an awful distance " The Decline and Fall, and
meantime revolved some other subjects, that seemed more
immediately practicable. Hesitating for some time between
the revolutions of Florence and those of Switzerland, he consulted
M. Deyvcrdun, a young Swiss with whom he had formed a close
and intimate friendship during his first residence at Lausanne,
and finally decided in favour of the land which was his " friend's
by birth " and " his own by adoption." He executed the first
book in French; it was read (in 1767), as an anonymous produc-
tion, before a literary society of foreigners in London, and
condemned. Gibbon sat and listened unobserved to their
strictures. It never got beyond that rehearsal; Hume, indeed,
approved of the performance, only deprecating as unwise the
author's preference for French; but Gibbon lided with the
majority.
In 1767 also he joined with M. Deyverdun in starting a literary
journal under the title of Mimoires UtUr aires de la Grande-
Brdagnc. But its circulation was limited, and only the second
volume had appeared (1768) when Deyverdun went abroad.
The materials already collected for a third volume were sup-
pressed. It is interesting, however, to know, that in the first
volume is a review by Gibbon of Lord Lyttclton's History of
Henry II., and that the second volume contains a contribution
by Hume on Walpolc's Historic Doubts.
The next appearance of the historian made a deeper impression.
It was the first distinct print of the lion's foot. " Ex ungue
leonem" might have been justly said, for he attacked, and
attacked successfully, the redoubtable Warburton. Of the
many paradoxes in the Divine Legation, few are more extravagant
than the theory that Virgil, in the sixth book of his Aeneid,
intended to allegorize, in the visit of his hero and the Sibyl to the
shades, the initiation of Aeneas, as a lawgiver, into the Flrwiniai
mysteries. This theory Gibbon completely exploded in aa
Critical Observations (1770)— no very difficult task, indeed,
but achieved in a style, and with a profusion of learning, »*&
called forth the warmest commendations both at home an4
abroad. Warburton never replied; and few will believe that
he would not, if he had not thought silence more discreet.
Gibbon, however, regrets that the style of his pamphlet was
too acrimonious; and this regret, considering his antagonists
slight claims to forbearance, is creditable to him. " I cannot
forgive myself the contemptuous treatment' of a roan vho,
with all his faults, was entitled to my esteem; and I can leu
forgive, in a personal attack, the cowardly concealment of oy
name and character."
Soon after his " release from the fruitless task of the Swiss
revolution " in 1768, he had gradually advanced from the wish
to the hope, from the hope to the design, from the design to the
execution of his great historical work. His preparations were
indeed vast. The classics, " as low as Tacitus, Pliny the Younger
and Juvenal," had been long familiar. He now " plunged into
the ocean of the Augustan history," and "with pen almost
always in hand," pored over all the original records, Grrck and
Latin, between Trajan and the last of the Western Caesars.
" The subsidiary rays of medals and inscriptions, of geography
and chronology, were thrown on their proper objects; and I
applied the collections of Tillemont, whose inimitable accuracy
almost assumes the character of genius, to fix and arrange
within my reach the loose and scattered atoms of historical
information." The Christian apologists and their pagan
assailants; the Theodosian Code, with Godefroy's commentary;
the Annals and Antiquities of Muratori, collated with "the
parallel or transverse lines" of Sigonius and Mallei, Pagi and
Baronius, were all critically studied. Still following the wise
maxim which he had adopted as a student, " multum kgere
poiius quam multa," he reviewed again and again the immortal
works of the French and English, the Latin and Italian classics.
He deepened and extended his acquaintance with Greek, par-
ticularly with his favourite authors Homer and Xenopbon;
and, to crown all, he succeeded in achieving the third perusal
of Blackstone's Commentaries.
The course of his study was for some time seriously interrupted
by his father's illness and death in 1770, and by the many dis-
tractions connected with the transference of his residence from
Buriton to London. It was not, indeed, until October x 772 that
he found himself at last independent, and fairly settled in his
house and library, with full leisure and opportunity to set about
the composition of the first volume of his history. Even then
it appears from his own confession that he long brooded over
the chaos of materials he had amassed before light dawned upon
it. At the commencement, be says, " all was dark and doubt-
ful "; the limits, divisions, even the title of his work were
undetermined; the first chapter was composed three times,
and the second and third twice, before he was satisfied with his
efforts. This prolonged meditation on his design and its execu-
tion was ultimately well repaid by the result: so methodical
did his ideas become, and so readily did his materials shape
themselves, that, with the above exceptions, the original MS.
of the entire six quartos was sent uncopied to the printers. He
also says that not a sheet had been seen by any other eyes than
those of author and printer, a statement indeed which must be
taken with a small deduction; or rather we must suppose that a
few chapters had been submitted, if not to the " eyes," to the
" ears " of others; for he elsewhere tells us that he was " soon
disgusted with the modest practice of reading the manuscript
to his friends." Such, however, were his preliminary difficulties
that he confesses he was often "tempted to cast away the labour
of seven years"; and it was not until February 1776 that the
first volume was published. The success was instant, and, for a
quarto, probably unprecedented. The entire impression was
exhausted in a few days; a second and a third edition were
scarcely adequate to the demand. The author might almost have
said, as Lord Byron after the publication of Ckilde HaroU,
GIBBON 933
all my views tended to the convenient and respectable place' of
a lord of trade."
In April 1781 the second and third quartos of his History
were published. They excited no controversy, and were com-
paratively little talked about—so little, indeed, as to have
extorted from him a half murmur about " coldness and pre-
judice." The volumes, however, were bought and read with
silent avidity. Meanwhile public events were developing in a
manner that had a considerable influence upon the manner in
which the remaining years of the historian's life were spent.
At the general election in 1780 he had lost his seat for Liskeard,
but had subsequently been elected for Lymington. The ministry
of Lord North, however, was tottering, and soon after fell; the
Board of Trade was abolished by the passing of Burke's bill. in
1782, and Gibbon's salary vanished with it — no trifle, for his
expenditure had been for three years on a scale somewhat
disproportionate to his private fortune. He did not like to
depend on statesmen's promises, which are' proverbially un-
certain of fulfilment; he as little liked to retrench; and he
was wearied of parliament, where he had never given any but
silent votes. Urged by such considerations, he once more
turned his eyes to the scene of his early exile, where he might
live on his decent patrimony in a style which was impossible in
England, and pursue unembarrassed his, literary studies.- He
therefore resolved to fix himself at Lausanne.
A word only is necessary on his parliamentary career. Neither
nature nor acquired habits qualified him to be an orator; his
late entrance on public life, his natural timidity, his feeble voice,
his limited command of idiomatic English, and even, as he
candidly confesses, his literary fame, were all obstacles to success.
" After a fleeting, illusive hope, prudence condemned me to
acquiesce in the humble station of a mute.* . . . I was not
armed by nature and education with -the intrepid energy of
mind and voice — ' Vincentem strepitus et natum rebus agendis.'
Timidity was fortified by pride, and even the success of my
pen discouraged the trial of my voice." His repugnance to public
life had been strongly expressed to his father in a letter of a very
early date, in which he begged that the money which a seat in
the House of Commons would cost might be expended in a mode
more agreeable to him. Gibbon was eight-and-thirty when he
entered parliament; and the obstacles which even at an earlier
period he had not had courage to encounter were hardly likely
to be vanquished then. Nor had he much political sagacity.
He was better skilled in investigating the past than in divining
the future. While Burke and Fox and so many great statesmen
proclaimed the consequences of the collision with America,
Gibbon saw nothing but colonies in rebellion, and a paternal
government justly incensed. His silent votes were all given on
that hypothesis. In a similar manner, while he abhorred the
French Revolution when it came, he seems to have had no
apprehension, like Chesterfield, Burke, or even Horace Walpole,
of its approach; nor does he appear to have at all suspected that
it had had anything to do with the speculations of the philosophic
coteries in which he had taken such delight. But while it may
be doubted whether his presence in parliament was of any
direct' utility to the legislative business of the country, there can
be no question of the present advantage which he derived from
it in the prosecution of the great work of his life— an advantage
of which he was fully conscious when he wrote: " The eight
sessions that I sat in parliament were a school of civil prudence,
the first and most essential virtue of an historian."
Having sold all his property except his library— to him
equally a necessary and a luxury — Gibbon repaired to Lausanne
in September 1783, and took up his abode with his early friend
Deyverdun, now a resident there. Perfectly free from every
engagement but those which his own tastes imposed, easy in
his circumstances, commanding just as much society, and that
as select, as he pleased, with the noblest scenery spread out at
his feet, no situation can be imagined more favourable for the
* In 1775 he writes to Holroyd: "lam still a mute; it is more
tremendous than I imagined ; the great speakers fill me with despair;
the bad ones with terrer."
93+
GIBBON
prosecution of his literary enterprise; a hermit in his study as
long as he chose, he found the most delightful recreation always
ready for hiro at the threshold. " In London," says he, " I was
lost in the crowd; I ranked with the first families in Lausanne,
and my style of prudent expense enabled me to maintain a
fair balance of reciprocal civilities. . . . Instead of a small
bouse between a street and a stable-yard, I began to occupy a
spacious and convenient mansion, connected on the north side
with the city, and open on the south to a beautiful and boundless
horizon. A garden of four acres had been laid out by the taste
of M. Deyverdun: from the garden a rich scenery of meadows
and vineyards descends to the Leman Lake, and the prospect
far beyond the lake is crowned by the stupendous mountains of
Savoy," In this enviable retreat, it is no wonder that a year
should have been suffered to roll round before he vigorously
resumed his great work — and with many men it would never
have been resumed in such a paradise. We may remark in
passing that the retreat- was often enlivened, or invaded, by
friendly tourists from England, whose " frequent incursions "
into Switzerland our recluse seems half to lament as an evil.
Among his more valued visitors were M. and Mme Necker;
Mr Fox also gave him two welcome " days of free and private
society " in 1788. Differing as they did in politics, Gibbon's
testimony to the genius and character of the great statesman
is highly honourable to both: " Perhaps no human being/ 1 he
says, " was ever more perfectly exempt from the taint of male-
volence, vanity, or falsehood."
When once fairly reseated at his task, he proceeded in this
delightful retreat leisurely, yet rapidly, to its completion. The
fourth volume, partly written in 178a, was completed in June
1784; the preparation of the fifth volume occupied less than
two years; while the sixth and last, begun x8th May 1786, was
finished in thirteen months. The feelings with which he brought
his labours to a close must be described in his own inimitable
words: " It was on the day, or rather night, of the 27th of Jfcne
1787, between the hours of eleven and twelve, that I wrote the
last lines of the last page in a summer house in my garden.
After laying down my pen, I took several turns in a berceau or
covered walk of acacias, which commands a prospect of the
country, the lake, and the mountains. The air was temperate,
the sky was serene, the silver orb of the moon was reflected
from the waters, and all nature was silent. I will not dissemble
the first emotions of joy on the recovery of my freedom, and,
perhaps, the establishment of my fame. But my pride was soon
humbled, and a sober melancholy was spread over my mind by
the idea that I had taken an everlasting leave of an old and
agreeable companion, and that whatsoever might be the future
date of my History, the life of the historian must be short and
precarious."
Taking the manuscript with him, Gibbon, after an absence
of four years, once more visited London in 1787; and the 51st
anniversary of the author's birthday (27th April 1788) witnessed
the publication of the last three volumes of The Decline and
Fall. They met with a quick and easy sale, were very extensively
read, and very liberally and deservedly praised for the unflagging
industry and vigour they displayed, though just exception, if
only on the score of good taste, was taken to the scoffing tone
he continued to maintain in all passages where the Christian
religion was specially concerned, and much fault was found with
the indecency of some of his notes. 1
He returned to Switzerland in July 1788, cherishing vague
schemes of fresh literary activity; but genuine sorrow caused
by the death of his friend Deyverdun interfered with steady
work, nor was it easy for him to fix on a new subject which should
be at once congenial and proportioned to his powers; while the
premonitory mutterings of the great thunderstorm of the French
Revolution, which reverberated in hollow echoes even through
1 An anonymous pamphlet, entitled Observations on ike three last
volumes of the Roman History, appeared in 1788; Disney's Sermon,
with Strictures, in 1790: and Whitaker's Review, in 1791. With
regard to the second of the above complaints, surprise will probably
be felt that it was not extended to portions of the text as well as to
the notes.
the quiet valleys of Switzerland, further troubled his repast
For some months be found amusement in the prepa rat io n of tke
delightful Memoirs (1789) from which most of our knowledge
of his personal history is derived; but his letters to friends it
England, written between 1788 and 1793 occasionally betnr
a slight but unmistakable tone of ennui. In April 1703 he un-
expectedly received tidings of the death of Lady Sheffield;
and the motive of friendship thus supplied combined with the
pressure of public events to urge him homewards. He armed
in England in the following June, and spent the summer at
Sheffield Place, where his presence was even more highly prised
than it had ever before been. Returning to London carry a
November, he found it necessary to consult his physicians for
a symptom which, neglected since 1761, had gradually become
complicated with hydrocele, and was now imperatively demand-
ing surgical aid; but the painful operations which had to be
performed did not interfere with his customary cheerfulness,
nor did they prevent him from paying a Christmas visit to
Sheffield Place. Here, however, fever made its appearance;
and a removal to London (January 6, 1704) was considered
imperative. Another operation brought him some relief; bat
a relapse occurred during the night of the 15th, and on the
following day he peacefully breathed his last. His remains
were laid in the burial place of the Sheffield family, Fletdiing,
Sussex, where an epitaph by Dr Parr describes his character and
work in the language at once of elegance, of moderation and of
truth.
The personal appearance of Gibbon as a lad of sixteen is
brought before us somewhat dimly in M. Pavilliard's description
of the " thin little figure, with a large head, disputing and
arguing, with the greatest ability, all the best arguments that
had ever been used in favour of popery." What he afterwards
became has been made more vividly familiar by the dever
silhouette prefixed to the Miscellaneous Works (Gibbon himself,
at least, we know, did not regard it as a caricature), and by
Sir Joshua Reynolds's portrait so often engraved. It is hardly
fair perhaps to add a reference to Suard's highly-coloured
description of the short Silenus-like figure, not more than 56 in.
in height, the slim legs, the large turned-in feet, the shrill piercing
voice; but almost every one will remember, from Croker*s
Boswell, Colman's account of the great historian " tapping his
snuff-box, smirking and smiling, and rounding his periods"
from that mellifluous mouth. It has already been seen that
Gibbon's early ailments all left him on the approach of manhood;
thenceforward, " till admonished by the gout," he could truly
boast of an immunity well-nigh perfect from every boduy
complaint; an exceptionally vigorous brain, and a stomach
"almost too good," united to bestow upon him a vast capacity
alike for work and for enjoyment. This capacity he nevel
abused so as to burden his conscience or depress his spirits.
" The madness of superfluous health I have never known."
To illustrate the intensity of the pleasure he found alike in the
solitude of his study and in the relaxations of genial social
intercourse, almost any page taken at random, either from the
Life or from the Letters, would suffice; and many incidental
touches show that he was not a stranger to the delights of quiet
contemplation of the beauties and grandeurs of nature. His
manners, if formal, were refined; his conversation, when he
felt himself at home, interesting and unaffected; and that he
was capable alike of feeling and inspiring a very constant friend-
ship there are many witnesses to show. That his temperament
at the same time was frigid and comparatively passionless
cannot be denied; but neither ought this to be imputed to him
as a fault; hostile criticisms upon the grief for a father's death,
that " was soothed by the conscious satisfaction that I had
discharged all the duties of filial piety," seem somewhat out of
place. His most ardent admirers, however, are constrained
to admit that he was deficient in large-hearted benevolence;
that he was destitute of any " enthusiasm of humanity "*, and
that so far as every sort of religious yearning or aspiration a
concerned, his poverty was almost unique. Gibbon was such
a man as Horace might have been, had the Roman Epicurean
GIBBON
935
been fonder of hard intellectual work, and less prone than he
was to the indulgence of emotion. (H. Ro.; J. S. Bi~)
Gibbon's literary art, the sustained excellence of his style,
his piquant epigrams and his brilliant irony, would perhaps
not secure for his work, the immortality which it seems likely
to enjoy, if it were not also marked by ecumenical grasp, extra-
ordinary accuracy and striking acuteness of judgment. It is
needless to say that in many points his statements and conclu-
sions must now be corrected. He was never content with
secondhand accounts when the primary sources were accessible;
11 I have always endeavoured," he says, " to draw from the
fountainhead; my curiosity, as well as a sense of duty, has
always urged me to study the originals; and if they have
sometimes eluded my search, I have carefully marked the
secondary evidence on whose faith a passage or a fact were
reduced to depend." Since he wrote, new authorities have
been discovered or rendered accessible; works in Greek, Latin,
Slavonic, Armenian, Syriac, Arabic and other languages, which
he was unable to consult, have been published. Again, many
of the authorities which be used have been edited in superior
texts. The relative weights of the sources have been more
nicely determined by critical investigation. Archaeology has
become a science. In the immense region which Gibbon surveyed
there is hardly a section which has not been submitted to the
microscopic examination of specialists.
But apart from the inevitable advances made in the course
of a century during which historical research entered upon a
new phase, the reader of Gibbon must be warned against one
capital defect. In judging the Decline and Fall it should carefully
be observed that it falls into two parts which are heterogeneous
in the method of treatment. The first part, a little more than
five-eighths of the work, supplies a very full history of 460 years
(a.d. 180-641); the second and smaller part is a summary
history of about 800 years (a.d. 641-1453) in which certain
episodes are selected for fuller treatment and so made prominent.
To the first part unstinted praise must be accorded; it may be
said that, with the materials at the author's disposition, it
hardly admitted of improvement, except in trifling details.
But the second, notwithstanding the brilliancy of the narrative
and the masterly art in the grouping of events, suffers from a
radical defect which renders it a misleading guide. The author
designates the story of the later empire at Constantinople
(after Heraclius) as " a uniform tale of weakness and misery,"
a judgment which is entirely false; and in accordance with
this doctrine, he makes the empire, which is his proper subject,
merely a string for connecting great movements which affected
it, such as the Saracen conquests, the Crusades, the Mongol
invasions, the Turkish conquests. He failed to bring out the
momentous fact that up to the 12th century the empire was the
bulwark of Europe against the East, nor did he appreciate its
importance in preserving the heritage of Greek civilization.
He compressed into a single chapter the domestic history and
policy of the emperors from the son of Heraclius to Isaac Angelus;
and did no justice to the remarkable ability and the indefatigable
industry shown in the service of the state by most of the sovereigns
from Leo III. to Basil II. He did not penetrate into the deeper
causes underlying the revolutions and palace intrigues. His
eye rested only on superficial characteristics which have served
to associate the name " Byzantine " with treachery, cruelty,
bigotry and decadence. It was reserved for Finlay to depict,
with greater knowledge and a juster perception, the lights and
shades of Byzantine history. Thus the later part of the Decline
and Fall, while the narrative of certain episodes will always
be read with profit, does not convey a true idea of the history of
the empire or of its significance in the history of Europe. It
must be added that the pages on the Slavonic peoples and their
relations to the empire are conspicuously insufficient; but it
must be taken into account that it was not till many years after
Gibbon's death that Slavonic history began to receive due
attention, in consequence of the rise of competent scholars
among the Slavs themselves.
The most famous chapters of the Decline and Fall are the
fifteenth and sixteenth, in which the historian traces the early
progress of Christianity and the policy of the Roman government
towards it. The flavour of these chapters is due to the irony
which Gibbon has employed with consummate art and felicity.
There was a practical motive for using this weapon. An attack
on Christianity laid a writer open to prosecution and penalties
under the statutes of the realm (9 and 10 William III. c. as,
still unrepealed). Gibbon's stylistic artifice both averted the
peril of prosecution and rendered the attack more telling. In
his Autobiography he alleges that he learned from the Provincial
Letters of Pascal " to manage the weapon of grave and temperate
irony, even on subjects of ecclesiastical solemnity." It is not
easy, however, to perceive much resemblance between the
method of Pascal and that of Gibbon, though in particular
passages we may discover the influence which Gibbon acknow-
ledges. For instance, the well-known description (in chap.
xlvii.) of the preposition " in " occurring in a theological dogma
as a " momentous particle which the memory rather than the
understanding must retain" is taken directly from the first
Provincial Letter. The main points in the general conclusions
of these chapters have been borne out by subsequent research.
The account of the causes of the expansion of Christianity is
chiefly to be criticized for its omissions. There were a number
of important contributory conditions (enumerated in Harnack's
Mission und Ausbreitung des Ckristentums) which Gibbon did
not take into account. He rightly insisted on the facilities of
communication created by the Roman empire, but did not
emphasize the diffusion of Judaism. And he did not realize
the importance of the kinship between Christian doctrine and
Hellenistic syncretism, which helped to promote the reception
of Christianity. He was ignorant of another fact of great
importance (which has only in recent years been fully appreciated
through the researches of F. Cumont), the wide diffusion of the
Mithraic religion and the close analogies between its doctrines
ana those of Christianity. In regard to the attitude of the
Roman government towards the Christian religion, there are
questions still subjudice; but Gibbon had the merit of reducing
the number of martyrs within probable limits.
Gibbon's verdict on the history of the middle ages is contained
in the famous sentence, "I have described the triumph of
barbarism and religion." It is important to understand clearly
the criterion which he applied; it is frequently misapprehended.
He was a son of the 18th century; he had studied with sym-
pathy Locke and Montesquieu; no one appreciated more keenly
than he did political liberty and the freedom of an Englishman.
This is illustrated by his love of Switzerland, his intense interest
in the fortunes of that country, his design of writing "The
History of the Liberty of the Swiss " — a theme, he says " from
which the dullest stranger would catch fire." Such views and
sentiments are incompatible with the idealization of a benevolent
despotism. Yet in this matter Gibbon has been grossly misappre-
hended and misrepresented. For instance, Mirabeau wrote thus
to Sir Samuel Romilly: •• I have never been able to read the
work of Mr Gibbon without being astounded that it should ever
have been written in English; or without being tempted to turn
to the author and say, 'You 4 an Englishman? No, indeed. 1
That admiration for an empire of more than two hundred millions
of men, where not one had the right to call himself free; that
effeminate philosophy which has more praise for luxury and
pleasures than for all the virtues; that style always elegant and
never energetic, reveal at the most the elector of Hanover's slave."
This criticism is based on a perverse misreading of the historian's
observations on the age of Trajan, Hadrian and the Antonines.
He enlarges, as it was his business to do, on the tranquillity and
prosperity of the empire in that period, but he does not fail to
place his finger on the want of political liberty as a fatal defect.
He points out that under this benevolent despotism, though men
might be happy, their happiness was unstable, because it de-
pended on the character of a single man; and the highest praise
he can give to those virtuous princes is that they " deserved the
honour of restoring the republic, had the Romans of their days
been capable of a rational freedom." The criterion by which
936
GIBBON— GIBBONS, J.
Gibbon judged civilization and progrea
the happiness of men is secured, and
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by several naturalists as representing ;
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is the presence of small naked calk
another being a difference in the num
as compared with those of the Simiu
of the limbs and the absence of a tail i
small apes, which are thoroughly arb
make the woods resound with their
In agility they arc unsurpassed; in fact
swift in their movements as to be abl
wing with their paws. When they dese
they must often do in order to obtaii
walk in the upright posture) either with
the neck, or with the knuckles restinj
usual food consists of leaves and fruits,
into two groups, the one represented b
(Symphalangus) syndactyius, of Sumatra
and the other by a number of closely a
of the index and middle fingers by m
as far as the terminal joints is the <
siamang, which is the largest of the p
with a white frontal band. Black or p
colour in the second group, of which t
Assam, H. lor of Arakan and Pegu, H. enttUdidts of Tenasseriin
(fig.), and H. agilis of Sumatra are well-known representatives.
A female of the Hainan gibbon (H. kainanus) in confinement
changed from uniform sooty-black (without the white frontal
The Tcnasscrim Gibbon (Ilyhbates tnUUoidts).
band of the black phase of the hulock) to puce-grey; but it is
probable that this was only an individual, or at most a sexual,
peculiarity. The range of the genus extends from the southern
bank of the Bramaputra in Assam to southern China, the Malay
Peninsula, Java, Sumatra and Borneo. (R. L.*)
GIBBONS, GRINLING (1648-1721), English wood-carver,
was born in 1648, according to some authorities of Dutch parents
at Rotterdam, and according to others of English parents al
London. By the former he is said to have come to London after
the great fire in 1666. He early displayed great cleverness and
ingenuity in his art, on the strength of which he was recommended
by Evelyn to Charles II., who employed him in the execution
both of statuary and of ornamental carving in wood. In the
early part of the 18th century he worked for Sir Christopher
Wren. In statuary one of his principal works is a life-size bronze
statue in the court of Whitehall, representing James II. in tbe
dress of a Roman emperor, and he also designed the base of the
statue of Charles I. at Charing Cross. It is, however, chiefly as
a sculptor in wood that he is famous. He was employed to
execute the ornamental carving for the chapel at Windsor, the
foliage and festoons in the choir of St Paul's, the baptismal fonts
in St James's, and an immense quantity of ornamental work
at Burleigh, Chatsworth, and other aristocratic mansions. The
finest of all his productions in this style is believed to be the
ceiling which he devised for a room at Petworth. His subjects
are chiefly birds, flowers, foliage, fruit and lace, and many of
his works, for delicacy and elaboration of details, and truthfulness
i>f imitation, have never been surpassed. He, however, some-
Limes wasted his ingenuity on trifling subjects; many of his
Sowers used to move on their stems like their natural prototypes
when shaken by a breeze. In 1714 Gibbons was appointed
master carver in wood to George I. He died at London on the
3rd of August 1 721.
GIBBONS, JAMES (1834- ), American Roman Catholic
cardinal and archbishop, was born in Baltimore, Maryland,
Dn the 23rd of July 1834, and was educated at St Charles College,
Ellicott City, Maryland, and St Mary's Seminary, Baltimore,
where he finished his theological training and was ordained priest
GIBBONS, O.— GIBEON
937
on the 30th of June 1861. After a short time spent on the
missions of Baltimore, he was called to be secretary to Arch-
bishop Martin J. Spalding and assistant at the cathedral. When
in 1866 the Second Plenary Council of Baltimore considered the
matter of new diocesan developments, he was selected to organize
the new Vicariate Apostolic of North Carolina; and was con-
secrated bishop in August 1868. During the four successful years
spent in North Carolina he wrote, for the benefit of his mission
work, The Faith of our Falhers t a brief presentation of the
doctrines of the Roman Catholic Church, especially intended to
reach Protestants; the books passed through more than forty
editions in America and about seventy in England,, and an
answer was made to it in Faith of our Forefathers (1879), by
Edward J. Stearns. Gibbons was transferred to the see of
Richmond, Virginia, in 1872, and in 1877 was made coadjutor,
with the right of succession, to the Archbishop (James R. Bayley)
of Baltimore. In October of the same year he succeeded to the
archbishopric. Pope Leo XIII. in 1883 selected him to preside
over the Third Plenary Council in Baltimore (1884), and on the
30th of June 1886 created him a cardinal priest, with the title
of Santa Maria Trastcvcre. His simplicity of life, foresight
and prudence made him a power in the church. Thoroughly
American, and a lover of the people, he greatly altered the atti-
tude of the Roman Catholic Church toward the Knights of Labor
and other labour organizations, and his public utterances dis-
played the true instincts of a popular leader. He contributed
frequently to periodicals, but as an author is known principally
by his works on religious subjects, including Our Christian
Heritage (1889) and The Ambassador of Christ (1896). For
many years an ardent advocate of the establishment of a
Catholic university, at the Third Plenary Council of Baltimore
(1884) he saw the realization of his desires in the establish-
ment of the Catholic University of America at Washington, of
which he became first chancellor and president of the board
of trustees.
GIBBONS, ORLANDO (1583-1625), English musical composer,
was the most illustrious of a family of musicians all more or
less able. We know of at least three generations, for Orlando's
father, William Gibbons, having been one of the waits of Cam-
bridge, may be assumed to have acquired some proficiency in
the art. His three sons and at least one of his grandsons inherited
and further developed his talent. The eldest, Edward, was made
bachelor of music at Cambridge, and successively held important
musical appointments at the cathedrals of Bristol and Exeter;
Ellis, the second son, was organist of Salisbury cathedral, and
is the composer of two madrigals in the collection known as the
The Triumphs of Oriana. Orlando Gibbons, the youngest and
by far the most celebrated of the brothers, was born at Cambridge
in 1 583. Where and under whom he studied is not known, but
in his twenty-first year he was sufficiently advanced and cele-
brated to receive the important post of organist of the Chapel
Royal. His first published composition " Fantasies in three
parts, composed for viols," appeared in 1610. It seems to have
been the first piece of music printed in England from engraved
plates, or " cut in copper, the like not heretofore extant." In
1622 he was created doctor of music by the university of Oxford.
For this occasion he composed an anthem for eight parts, Oclap
your Hands, still extant. In the following year he became
organist of Westminster Abbey. Orlando Gibbons died before
the beginning of the civil war, or it may be supposed that, like
his eldest brother, he would have been a staunch royalist. In
a different sense, however, he died in the cause of his master;
for having been summoned to Canterbury to produce a com-
position written in celebration of Charles's marriage, he there
fell a victim to smallpox on the 5th of June 1625.
For a full list of his compositions, see Grove's Dictionary of Music.
His portrait may be found in Hawkins's well-known History. His
vocal pieces, madrigals, motets, canons, &c, are admirable, and
Gave nim to have oeen a great master of pure polyphony. We
ve also some specimens of his instrumental musk, such as the six
pieces for the virginals published in Partkenia, a collection of in-
strumental music produced by Gibbons in conjunction with Dr Bull
aadByrd.
GIBBS, JOSIAH WILLARD (1839-1903), American mathe-
matical physicist, the fourth child and only son of Josiah Willard
Gibbs (1 700-1861), who was professor of sacred literature in
Yale Divinity School from 1S24 till his death, was born at New
Haven on the nth of February 1839. Entering Yale College
in 1854 he graduated in 1858, and continuing his studies there
was appointed tutor in 1863. He taught Latin in the first two
years, and natural philosophy in the third. He then went to
Europe, studying in Paris in 1866-1867, in "Berlin in 1867 and
in Heidelberg in 1868. Returning to New Haven in 1869, he
was appointed professor of mathematical physics in Yale College
in 187 1, and held that position till his death, which occurred at
New Haven on the 28th of April 1903. His first contributions
to mathematical physics were two papers published in 1873 in
the Transactions of the Connecticut Academy on "Graphical
Methods in the Thermodynamics of Fluids," and " Method of
Geometrical Representation of the Thermodynamic Properties
of Substances by means of Surfaces." His next and most im-
portant publication was his famous paper " On the Equilibrium
of Heterogeneous Substances " (in two parts, 1876 and 1878),
which, it has been said, founded a new department of chemical
science that is becoming comparable in importance to that created
by Lavoisier. This work was translated into German by W.
Ostwald (who styled its author the " founder of chemical
energetics") in 1891 and into French by H. le Chatclier in
1899. In 1881 and 1884 he printed some notes on the elements
of vector analysis for the use of his students; these were never
formally published, but they formed the basis of a text-book on
Vector Analysis which was published by his pupil, E. B. Wilson,
in 1 001. Between 1882 and 1889 a series of papers on certain
points in the electromagnetic theory of light and its relation to
the various elastic solid theories appeared in the American
Journal of Science, and his last work, Elementary Principles in
Statistical Mechanics, was issued in 1902. The name of Willard
Gibbs, who was the most distinguished American mathematical
physicist of his day, is especially associated with the " Phase
Rule," of which some account will be found in the article
Energetics. In 1901 the Copley medal of the Royal Society
of London was awarded him as being " the first to apply the
second law of thermodynamics to the exhaustive discussion
of the relation between chemical, electrical and thermal energy
and capacity for external work."
A biographical sketch will be found in his collected Scientific
Papers (2 vols., 1906).
GIBBS, OLIVER WOLCOTT (182 2-1 908), American chemist,
was born at New York on the 21st Of February 1822. His
father, Colonel George Gibbs, was an ardent mineralogist ; the
mineral gibbsite was named after him, and his collection was
finally bought by Yale College. Entering Columbia College
in 1837, Wolcott (the Oliver he dropped at an early date)
graduated in 1841, and, having assisted Robert Hare at Penn-
sylvania University for several months, he next entered the
College of Physicians and Surgeons in New York, qualifying as
a doctor of medicine in 1845. Leaving America he studied in
Germany with K. F. Rammelsberg, H. Rose and J. von Liebig,
and in Paris with A. Laurent, J.B. Dumas, and H. V. Regnault,
returning in 1848. In that year he became professor of chemistry
at the Free Academy, now the College of the City of New York,
and in 1863 he obtained the Rumford professorship in Harvard
University, a post retained until his retirement in 1887 as pro-
fessor emeritus. He died on the 9th of December 1 oo8r Gibbs'
researches were mainly in analytical and inorganic chemistry,
the cobaltammines, platinum metals and complex acids being
especially investigated. He was an excellent teacher, and
contributed many articles to scientific journals.
See the Memorial Lecture by F. W. Clarke in the J.C.S. (1909).
p. 1299.
GIBEON, a town in Palestine whose inhabitants wrested a
truce from Joshua by a trick (Josh, ix., x.); where the champions
of David fought those of Ish-bosheth (2 Sam. ii. 12-32); where
Joab murdered Amasa (ib. xx. 8-10); and where Johanan went
against Ishmael to avenge the murder of Gedaliah (Jer. xli. 12).
938
GIBEONITES— GIBRALTAR
Here was an important high place (z Kings iii. 4) where for a
time the tabernacle was deposited (a Chron. i. 3). The present
name is El-Jib; this is a small village about 5 m. N.W. of
Jerusalem, standing on an isolated hill above a flat corn valley.
The village is famous for- its springs, and the reputation seems
ancient (cf. 2 Sam. ii. 13; Jcr. xli. 12). The principal spring
issues from under a cliff on the south-east side of the hill, and
the water runs to a reservoir lower down. The sides of the
hill are rocky, and remarkable for the regular stratification
of the limestone, which gives the hill at a distance the appear-
ance of being terraced. Scattered olive groves surround the
place. (R. A. S. M.)
GIBEONITES, the inhabitants of Gibeon, an Amoritc or
Hivite stronghold, the modern El- Jib, 5 m. N.W. from Jerusalem.
According to Joshua xviii. 25 it was one of the cities of Benjamin.
When the Israelites, under Joshua, invaded Canaan, the
Gibeonites by a crafty ruse escaped the fate of Jericho and Ai
and secured protection from the invaders (Joshua ix.). Cbeync
thinks this story the attempt of a later age to explain the long
independence of Gibeon and the use of the Gibeonites as slaves
in Solomon's temple. An attempt on the part of Saul to exter-
minate the clan is mentioned in 2 Sam. xxi., and this slaughter
may possibly be identified with the massacre at Nob recorded
in 1 Sam. xxii. 17-19 (see Ency. Bib. col. 1717). The place is
also associated with the murders of Asahcl (2 Sam. it 12), Amasa
(2 Sam. xx. 8) and Gcdaliah (Jcr. xli. 12), and with the wrathful
intervention of Yahweh referred to by Isaiah (xxviii. 21), which
we may identify with the memorable victory of David over the
Philistines recorded in 2 Sam. v. 25 (reading Gibeon for Gcba).
Gibeon was the scat of an old Canaanitish sanctuary afterwards
used by the Israelites; it was here that Solomon, immediately
after his coronation, went to consult the oracles and had the
dream in which be chose the gift of wisdom (1 Kings iii.).
GIBRALTAR, a British fortress and crown colony at the
western entrance to the Mediterranean. The whole territory is
rather less than 3 m. in length from north to south and varies in
width from J to f m. Gibraltar is called after Tariq (or Tarik)
ben Zaid, its name being a corruption of Jcbci Tariq (Mount
Tariq). Tariq invaded Andalusia in a.d. 711 with an army of
1 2,000 Arabs and Berbers, and in the last days of July of that year
destroyed the Gothic power in a three days' fight on the banks of
the river Guadalcte near where Jerez de la Frontera now stands.
In order to secure his communications with Africa he ordered
the building of a strong castle upon the Rock, known to the
Romans as Mons Calpe. This work, begun in the year of the great
battle, was completed in 742. It covered a wide area, reaching
from the shores of the bay to a point half-way up the north-
western slope of the rock; here the keep, a massive square
tower, still stands and is known as the Moorish castle.
The Rock itself is about 2 J m. in length, and at its northern end
rises almost perpendicularly from the strip of flat sandy ground
which connects it with the Spanish mainland. At the north end,
on the crest of the Rock 1200 ft. above sea-level, is the Rock
gun, famous in the great siege. Some six furlongs to the south
is the signal station (1255 ft.), through which the names and
messages of passing ships arc cabled to all parts of the world.
Rather less than f m. south of the signal station is O'Hara's
Tower (1408 ft.), the highest point of the Rock. South of O'Hara's
Tower the ground falls steeply to Windmill Hill, a fairly even
surface about \ of a sq. m. in area, and sloping from 400 to 300 ft.
above the sea-level. South of Windmill Hill arc Europa Flats,
a wall-like cliff 200 ft. or more in height dividing them. Europa
Flats, sloping south, end in cliffs 50 ft. high, which at and around
Europa Point plunge straight down into deep water. Europa
Point is the most southern point of the Rock, and is distant
n| nautical miles from the opposite African coast. On Europa
Point is the lighthouse in 5 ax' W. and 36 6' 30* N. On the
Mediterranean side the Rock is almost as steep and inaccessible
as it is from the north. Below the signal station, at the edge of
the Mediterranean, lies Catalan Bay, where there is a little village
chiefly Inhabited by fishermen and others who make their
living upon the waters; but Catalan Bay can only beapptoachtd
by land from the north or by a tunnel through the Rock from the
dockyard; from Catalan Bay to Europa Point the way is barred
by impassable cliffs. On the west side of the Rock the slopes are k*
steep, especially as they near the sea, and on this side lie the to* »,
the Alameda or public gardens, the barracks and the dockyard.
Geology.— The rock of Gibraltar consists, for the most part. cf
pale grey limestone of compact and sometimes crystalline structure,
f generally stratified but in places apparently amorphous. Above the
itnestonc are found layers of dark grey-blue shales with intercalated
beds of grit, mudstone and limestone. Both limestone and shales
arc of the Lower Jurassic age. Professors A. C. Ramsay and James
Gcikie (Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society, London, August
1878) found also in the superficial formations of the Rock vinous
features of interest to the students of Pleistocene geology, including
massive accumulations of limestone breccia or agglomerate, bom
breccias, deposits of calcareous sandstone, raised beaches and loose
sands. The oldest of these superficial formations is the limestone
breccia of Buena Vista, devoid of fossils and apparently formed
under the stress of hard frosts, indicating conditions of climate of
great severity. To account for frosts like these, it is suggested that
the surface of the Rock must have been raised to an elevation much
greater than its present height. In that case Europe and Africa
would probably have been connected by an isthmus across tone part
of the present site of the Straits, and there would have been a wider
area of low ground round the base of the Rock. The low ground at
this, and probably at a later period, must have been clothed with •
rich vegetation, necessary for the support of a varied mammalisR
fauna, whose remains have been found in the Genista caves. After
X&& \3aere ^ou\d sewn, to have been a subsidence to a depth of soon
GIBRALTAR
939
700 ft. below the existing level. This would account for the ledges
and platforms which have been formed by erosion of the sea high
above the present sea-level, and for the deposits of calcareous sand-
stone containing sea shells of existing Mediterranean species.
The extent of some of these eroded ledges shows that pauses of long
duration intervened between the periods of depression. The Rock
•eems after this to have been raised to a level considerably above
that at which it now stands; Europe and Africa would then again
have been united. At a later date still the Rock sank once more to
its present leveL
Many caves, some of them of great extent, penetrate the interior
of the rock; the best known of these are the Genista and St Michael's
caves. St Michael's cave, about 1 100 ft. above sea-level at its mouth,
slopes rapidly down and extends over 400 ft. into the Rock; its
extreme limits have not, however, been fully explored. It consists
of a scries of five or more chambers of considerable extent, connected
by narrow and crooked passages. The outermost cave is 70 ft. in
height and 200 in length, with massive pillars of stalactite reaching
from roof to floor. The second cave was named the Victoria cave
by its discoverer Captain Brorae; beyond these are three caves
known as the Leonora caves. " Nothing," writes Captain Brome,
"can ex ceed the beauty of the stalactites; they form clusters of
every imaginable shape — statuettes, pillars, foliages, figures," and
A small variety of pigeon breeds in the steep cliffs at the north end
of the Rock. A few red-legged partridges, some rabbits, two or three
foxes and a badger or two will complete the list.
Climate. — The climate of Gibraltar is pleasant and healthy,
mild in winter, and only moderately hot in summer; but the
heat, though not excessive, is lasting. The three months of June,
July and August are almost always without rain, and it is not
often that rain falls in the months of May and September. The
first autumn rains, however, which sometimes begin in September,
arc usually heavy. From October to May the climate is for the
most part delightful, warm sunshine prevailing, tempered by
cool breezes; the spells of bad weather, although blustering
enough at times, are seldom of more than a few days' duration.
The thermometer in summer does not often reach oo° F. in the
shade; from 83 to 85° may be taken to be the average maximum
{or July and August, and these are the hottest months of the
year. The average yearly rainfall is 344 in., and in fifty years
from 1857 to 1006 the greatest recorded rainfall was 59*35 in.,
and the smallest 16-75 in. The water-supply for drinking and
cooking purposes is almost wholly derived from rain-water
stored chiefly in underground tanks; there are very few good
wells. Many of the better class of houses have their own rain-
water tanks, and there arc large tanks belonging to the naval
and military authorities. Large storage tanks have been con-
structed by the sanitary commissioners with specially prepared
collecting areas high up the Rock. The collecting areas cover 16
acres, and the storage tanks have a capacity of over six million
gallons. The tanks are excavated in the solid rock, whereby
the water is kept in the dark and cool. A large quantity of
brackish water for flushing purposes and baths is pumped from
the sandy flats of the north front on the Spanish side of the Rock.
The Town. — The modern town of Gibraltar is of comparatively
recent date, nearly all the older buildings having been destroyed
during the great siege (1770-1783). The town lies, with most ol
its buildings crowded together, at the north-western corner of
the Rock, and covers only about one-ninth part of the whole
area; only a small part of it is on level ground, and those of its
narrow streets and lanes which are at right angles to the line wall,
or sea front, are for the most part, except at their western ends,
little more than ramps or rough stairs formed of rubble stones,
contracting in places into stone steps.
The public buildings present few, if any, features of general
interest. The " Convent " rebuilt upon the remains of an old
Franciscan monastery is the official residence of the governor.
The Anglican cathedral is a poor imitation of Moorish archi-
tecture. The garrison library has excellent reading rooms and
a large number of volumes of miscellaneous interest. The civil
hospital is a well-planned and roomy modern building. The court-
house and exchange buildings are suited to the needs of the town.
The antiquary may here and there find the remains of a Moorish
bath forming part of a stable, or fragments of a sculptured stone
gateway bearing the arms of Castile or of Aragon built into the
wall of a modern barrack. In a small disused graveyard, near
South port gate, he buried a number of those who fell at Trafalgar.
To the south of the town are the Alameda parade and gardens,
a lunatic asylum, the dockyard, graving docks and the naval
and military hospitals.
Population. — The inhabitants of Gibraltar are of mixed race;
after the capture of the town by the British nearly the whole o!
the former Spanish population emigrated in a body and founded,
6 m. away, the little town of San Roque. Most of the native
inhabitants are of Italian or Genoese descent; there are also a
number of Maltese, and between two and three thousand Jews.
The Jews never intermarry with other races and form a distinct
society of their own. The language of the people is Spanish, not
very correctly spoken. English is learnt as a foreign language
and is rarely, if ever, spoken by the people in their own homes.
Gibraltar being primarily a fortress and naval base, every
effort, in view of war contingencies, is made by the authorities
to prevent the natural increase of the population. Sanitary and
building regulations, modelled upon English statutes designed
with quite different objects, are administered with some ingenuity
and not a little severity. In this way the bouse room available
for the poorer classes is steadily reduced. The poor are thus
being gradually pushed across the frontier into the neighbouring
Spanish town of La Linea dc la Conccpcion, itself a mere suburb
of Gibraltar, whose population, however, is nearly double that
of the parent city. A large army of workers come daily from
" the Lines " into Gibraltar, returning at " first evening gunfire "
shortly after sunset, at which time the gates are closed and
locked for the night. Aliens arc not allowed to reside in Gibraltar
without a special permit, which must be renewed at short in-
tervals. By an order in council, taking effect from November
1900, the like disabilities were extended to British subjects not
previously resident.
The recorded births, marriages and deaths over a period of 23
years are as follows: —
Yearly Average.
Births.
Marriages.
Deaths.
1883-1885 . .
1886-1890 . .
1891-1895 . .
1896-1900 . .
to/n-i<jo$ .
621
603
626
177
167
186
201
513
514
46 2
498
\
94°
GIBRALTAR
The numbers of the population from causes which have been referred
to are almost stationary, showing a slight tendency to decrease.
There are no available statistics later than those of a census taken
in 1901, from which it appeared that the population then numbered
27,460, of whom the garrison and its families amounted to 6595,
the civil population, being British subjects, to 17,818, and aliens
resident under permits to 3047. The latter are chiefly working men
and domestic servants.
Constitution. — Gibraltar is a crown colony. Of local govern-
ment properly so called there is none. There is a sanitary
commission which is vested with large powers of spending and
with the control of buildings and streets and other matters
managed by local authorities in England. Its members are
appointed by the governor. An appeal from their decisions, so
far as they affect individuals, lies to the supreme court. Apart
from the garrison and civil officials there arc comparatively
few members of the Anglican Church. The great majority of
the people belong to the Church of Rome. The Jews have
four synagogues. The Protestant dissenters have two places
of worship, Presbyterian and Weslcyan. Education is not
compulsory for the civil population, but most of the children, if
not all, receive a fair education in private or private aided
schools. The number of the children on the rolls of the private
and private aided schools was in 1905: boys, 1504; girls, 1733;
total 3237.
Commerce. — Except in respect of alcoholic liquors and tobacco
Gibrall >rt since the year 1 705— a distinction
due, it a sultan of Morocco to allow of much-
needed > to Gibraltar if full liberty of trade
were « ects. During the great wars of the
beginn 1 trade was most aciivc in Gibraltar,
and sol made ; but trade on a large scale has
almost point of contact of two continents,
on the dc with the far East, in regular steam
commi reat ports of Europe and with North
and So , by its position, is fitted to be a trade
centre unrest and suspicion engendered in
Moroci designs of the European powers, and
excessi id maladministration in Spain, have
done m adc of Gibraltar. There arc, however,
no truj nports and exports. Before the year
x 898 w e t he only goods which paid duty. I n
that y lb was for the first time put upon
tobacct the duty was, however, in force only
for a p the duty, at the same rate, produced
£7703. n tobacco was raised to 2<1. per lb
and on 05 this duty produced £24,575. The
chief business of Gibraltar is the coaling of passing steamers; this
gives work to several thousand men. Goods are also landed for re-
export to Morocco, but the bulk of the Morocco trade, much of
which formerly came to Gibraltar, is now done by lines of steamers
trading to and from Morocco direct to British, German or French
ports. Nearly all the fresh meat consumed in Gibraltar comes from
Morocco, also Urge quantities of poultry and eggs. A fair amount of
retail business is done with the passengers of ocean steamers which
call on their way to and from the East and from North and South
America.
The steam tonnage cleared annually since 1883 is shown in the
following table. —
Yearly Average.
British.
Foreign.
Total.
1883-1885 . .
1886-1890 . .
1891-1895 . .
1896-1900 . .
1901-1905 . .
3.525.135
4.507.101
3,710,856
3.281,165
2,810,849
817,926
908,419
975.390
1.063,367
1.309.649
4»343.o6i
5.415.520
4.686,246
4.344.532
4,120,498
The main sources of revenue are (i.) duties upon wine, spirits, malt
liquors and tobacco; (il.) port and harbour dues; (lii.) tavern
and other licences; (iv.) post and telegraph; (v.) ground and
other rents; (vi.) stamps and miscellaneous. The returns before
1898 were made in pesetas (5 = $i). In the following table
these have been converted into sterling at an average of exchange
30 = £i.
Yearly Average.
1886-1890
1 891-1895
1896-1900
1001-1905
Year 1905
9.692
9.250
14.071
,35.000
36,554
17.070
13.157
8.435
6,028
5,872
5387
4275
4136
3005
4050
6,805
7.833
10.016
12,091
16,551
648$
6208
5924
2,873
10,113
14.460
15.859
17.007
The money, weights and measures in legal use are British. Before
1898 Spanish money only was in use. The great depredation of t*
Spanish currency during the war with the United States led in 169*
to the reintroduction of British currency as the legal tender raooev
of Gibraltar. Notwithstanding this change the Spanish dollar still
remains in current use; much of the retail business of the ton
being done with persons resident in Spain, the dollar fully holds
its own.
Harbour and Fortifications. — Great changes were made in the
defences of Gibraltar early in the 20th century. Guns of the
newest types replaced those of older patterns. The heavier
pieces instead of being at or near the sea-level, are now
high up, many of them on the crest line of the Rock; thrr
lateral range and fire area has thereby been greatly increased
and their efficiency improved in combination with an elaborate
system of range finding.
With the completion of the new dockyard works the value
of Gibraltar as a naval base has greatly increased. It can cow
undertake all the ordinary repairs and coaling of a large fleet.
There is an enclosed harbour in which a fleet can safely anther
secure from the attacks of torpedo boats. A mole, at ant
intended for commercial purposes, closes the north end of the
new harbour. The Admiralty, however, soon found that their
needs had outgrown the first design and the so-called Commercial
Mole has been taken over for naval purposes, plana for a new
commercial mole being prepared. The funds for these extensive
works were provided by the Naval Works Loan Acts of 1895
and subsequent years.
The land space available for the purposes of dockyard exten-
sion being very limited, a space of about 64 acres was reclaimed
from the sea in front of the Alameda and the road to Rosia;
some of the land reclaimed was as much as 40 ft. under water.
The large quantity of material required for this purpose *a$
obtained by tunnelling the Rock from W. to E. and from quarries
above Catalan Bay village, to which access was gained through
the tunnel. The graving docks occupy the dug-out site of the
former New Mole Parade. There are three of these docks,
8 5°.55° and 45° ft- in length respectively. The largest dock
is divisible by a central caisson so that four ships con be docked
at one time. The docks are all 95 ft. wide at the entrance with
35! ft. of water over the sills at low-water spring tides. The
pumping machinery can empty the largest dock, 105,000 tons
of water, in five hours. There are two workshops for the chief
constructor's and chief engineer's departments, each 407 ft. lo&f
and 322 broad. For the staff captain's department and store*
there are buildings with 250,000 ft. of floor space. At the north
end of the yard are the administrative offices, slipways for
destroyers, a slip for small craft, an ordnance wharf and a but
camber. The reclaimed area is faced with a wharf wall of con-
crete blocks for an unbroken length of 1600 ft. with 33 ft. of
water alongside at low tide; on this wharf are powerful shears
and cranes.
The enclosed harbour covers 440 acres, 250 of which have a
minimum depth of 30 ft. at low water. It is closed on the S.
and S.W. by the New Mole (1400 ft.) and the New Mole extension
(2700 ft.), together 4100 ft.; on the W. by the Detached Mole
(2720 ft.) and on the N. by the Commercial Mole.
The New Mole, so called to distinguish it from the Old Mole
and its later extension the Devil's Tongue* at the north end of
the town, is said to have been begun by the Spaniards in i6m
It was successfully assaulted by landing parties from the British
fleet under Sir George Rooke at the capture of Gibraltar by the
British in 1704. It was extended at different times, and before
the beginning of the new works was 1400 ft. in length. The
New Mole, with its latest extension, has a width at top of 103 ft.
It is formed of rubble stone floated into position in barges. It
has a continuous wharf wall on the harbour side
3500 ft. long, with water alongside 30 to 35 ft. deep.
On the outer side coal is stacked in sheds exteadttit
nearly the whole length of the mole.
The Detached Mole is a vertical wall formed of concrete
blocks, each block weighing 28 tons. These blocks were
Yw&V. ta-g&hgc on the sloping block system upon a rubble
Total.
,87.523
GIBRALTAR
94.1
foundation of stone deposited by barges and levelled by divers
for the reception of the concrete blocks. #
The Commercial Mole is now chiefly used by the navy as a
convenient wharf for destroyers. It encloses the harbour to
the north and extends westward from the end of the Devil's
Tongue. At the end nearest the town are large stores; there is
also a small wharf on its outer side which is used by the tenders
of ocean steamers and by the small boats which ply to Algeciras.
This mole is built of rubble, and at its western end it has an
arm about 1600 ft. long running S. in the direction of the Detached
Mole. Parallel with and inside the western arm are five jetties.
The jetties and western arm have extensive coal sheds and arc
faced with a 'concrete wharf wall of a total length of 7000 ft.
with ao to 50 ft. of water alongside. The Devil's Tongue was
an extension of the Old Mole, constructed during the great siege
1 7 70-1 783 in order to bring a flanking fire to bear upon part of
the Spanish lines. It owes its name to the success with which
it played its destined part. ( H. M. • )
History. — Gibraltar was known to the Greek and Roman
geographers as Calpe or Alybe, the two names being probably
corruptions of the same local (perhaps Phoenician) word. The
eminence on the African coast near Ccuta which bears the
modern English name of Apes' Hill was then designated Abyla;
and Calpe and Abyla, at least according to an ancient and widely
current interpretation, formed the renowned Pillars of Hercules
(Hcrculis coiumnac, 'HpaxXioi* oriikai), which for centuries
were the limits of enterprise to the seafaring peoples of the
Mediterranean world. The military history of the Rock begins
with its capture and fortification by Tariq in 711. In 1309
it was retaken by Alonzo Perez de Guzman for Ferdinand IV.
of Castile and Leon, who, in order to attract inhabitants to the
spot, offered an asylum to thieves and murderers, and promised
to levy no taxes on the import or export of goods. The attack
of Ismail ben Fcrez in 131 5 (2nd siege) was frustrated; but in
1333 Yasco Perez de Meyra, having allowed the fortifications
and garrison to decay, was obliged to capitulate to Mahomet IV.
(3rd siege) after a defence of five months. Alonzb's attempts
to recover possession (4th siege) were futile, though pertinacious
and heroic; but after his successful attack on Algeciras in 1344
he was encouraged to try his fortune again at Gibraltar. In
1349 he invested the Rock, but the siege (5th siege) was brought
to an untimely close by his death in March 1350. The next or
6th siege resulted simply in the transference of the position from
the hands of the king of Morocco to those of Yussef III. .of
Granada (141 1), and the 7th, undertaken by the Spanish count of
Niebla, Enrique de Guzman, proved fatal to the besieger and his
forces (1435). In 1462, however, success attended the efforts
of Alonzo de Arcos (Sth siege), and in August the Rock passed
once more under Christian sway. The duke of Medina Sidonia,
a powerful grandee who had assisted in its capture, was anxious
to get possession of the fortress, and though Henry IV. at first
managed to maintain the claims of the crown, the duke ultimately
made good his ambition by force of arms (9th siege), and in 1469
the king was constrained to declare his son and his heirs perpetual
governors of Gibraltar. In 1479 Ferdinand and Isabella made
the second duke marquess of Gibraltar, and in 1492 the third
duke, Don Juan, was reluctantly allowed to retain the fortress.
At length in 1502 it was formally incorporated with the domains
of the crown. Don Juan tried in 1506 to recover possession,
and added a 10th to the list of sieges. In 1540 the garrison had
to defend itself against a much more formidable attack (nth
siege)— the pirates of Algiers having determined to recover the
Rock for Mahomet and themselves. The conflict was severe,
but resulted fn the repulse of the besiegers. After this the
Spaniards made great efforts to strengthen the place, and they
succeeded so well that throughout Europe Gibraltar was regarded
as impregnable, the engineer Daniel Speckle (1 536-1 589) being
chiefly responsible for the design of the fortifications.
Gibraltar was taken by the allied British and Dutch forces,
after a three days' siege, on the 24th of July 1704 (see Spanish
Succession, War of the). The capture was made, as the
war was being fought, in the. interests of Charles, archduke of
Austria, but Sir George Rooke (</?.), the British admiral, on his
own responsibility caused the British flag to be hoisted, and
took possession in name of Queen Anne, whose government
ratified the occupation. A great number of the inhabitants of the
town of Gibraltar abandoned their homes rather than recognize
the authority of the invaders. The Spaniards quickly assembled
an army to recapture the place, and a new siege opened in October
1704 by troops of France and Spain under the marquess of
Villadarias. The activity of the British admiral, Sir John Leake,
and of the military governor, Prince George of Hesse-Darmstadt
(who had commanded the land forces in July), rendered the
efforts of the besiegers useless. A notable incident of this siege
was the gallant attempt made by 500 chosen volunteers to surprise
the garrison (31st of October), an attempt which, at first success-
ful, in the end failed disastrously. Finally, in April 1705 the
French marshal de Tess£, who had replaced Villadarias, gave up
the siege and retired. During the next twenty years there were
endless negotiations for the peaceful surrender of the fortress,
varied in 1720 by an abortive attempt at a coup dt main, which
was thwarted by the resourcefulness of the governor of Minorca
(Colonel Kane), who threw reinforcements and supplies into
Gibraltar at the critical moment. In 1726 the Spaniards again
appealed to arms. But the count of las Torres, who had the
chief command, succeeded no better than his predecessors. The
place had been strengthened since 1705, and the defence of
the garrison under Brigadier Clayton, the lieutenant-governor,
Brigadier Kane of Minorca, and the governor, the earl of Port-
more, who arrived with reinforcements, was so effective that the
armistice of the 1 2th of June practically put a close to the siege,
though two years elapsed before the general pacification ensued.
Neither in the War of the Austrian Succession norin that of 1 762
did Spain endeavour to besiege the rock, but the War of American
Independence gave her better opportunities, and the siege of
great siege of 1 770-1 783 is justly regarded as one of aibntur
the most memorable sieges of history. The governor, JJJ?"
General Sir George Augustus Elliot (afterwards Lord
Heath field), was informed from England on the 6th of July 1779
that hostilities bad begun. A short naval engagement in the
straits took place on the nth, and General Elliot made every
preparation for resistance. It was not, however, until the month
of August that the Spaniards became threatening. The method
of the besiegers appeared to be starvation, but the interval
between strained relations and war had been well employed by
the ships, and supplies were, for the time at any rate, sufficient.
While the Spanish siege batteries were being constructed the
fortress fired, and many useful artillery experiments were carried
out by the garrison at this time and subsequently throughout the
siege. On the 14th of November there took place a spirited naval
action in which the privateer " Buck," Captain Fagg, forced her
way into harbour. This was one of many such incidents, which
usually arose from the attempts made from time to time by vessels
to introduce supplies from Tangier and elsewhere. December
1779. indeed, was a month of privation for the garrison, though
of little actual fighting. In January 1780, eta the rumour of an
approaching convoy, the price of foods " fell more than two-
thirds," and Admiral Sir George Rodney won a great victory
over De Langara and entered the harbour. Prince William
Henry (afterwards King William IV.) served on board the British
fleet as a midshipman during this expedition. Supplies and
reinforcements were thrown into the fortress by Rodney, and the
whole affair was managed with the greatest address both by the
home government and the royal navy. " The garrison, " in spite
of the scurvy, " might now be considered in a perfect state of
defence," says Drinkwater.
On the 7th of June took place an attack by Spanish fircships,
which were successfully dealt with by the naval force in the bay
under Captain Lesley of H.M. frigate " Enterprise." Up to
October the state of things within the fortress was much what it
had been after Rodney's success. " The enemy's operations on
the land side had been for many months so unimportant as
scarcely to merit our attention " (Drinkwater). Scurvy was,
however, prevalent (sec Drinkwater, p. 12 % and tK«. sw^ta
94-2
GIBSON, C. D.— GIBSON, EDMUND
question had again become acute. Though the enemy's batteries
did not open fire, the siege works steadily progressed, in spite
of the fire from the fortress, and there were frequent small engage-
ments at sea in which the English were not always successful.
Further, the expulsion, with great harshness, of the English
residents of Barbary territory put an end to a service of supply
and information which bad been of the greatest value to Elliot
(January 1781). Three more months passed in forced inaction,
which the garrison, stinted as it was, endured calmly. Then, on the
12th of April 1 781, on the arrival of a British relieving squadron
under Admiral Darby, the whole of the Spanish batteries opened
fire. Stores were landed in the midst of a heavy bombardment,
andjnuch damage was done both to the fortifications and military
buildings and to the town. At this time there was a good deal
of indiscipline in the garrison, with which General Elliot dealt
severely. This was in the last degree necessary, for the bom-
bardment continued up to the 1st of June, after which the rate
of the enemy's fire decreased to 500 rounds per day. By the
1 2th of July it had almost ceased. In September the firing again
became intense and the casualties increased, the working parties
suffering somewhat heavily. In October there was less ex-
penditure of ammunition, as both sides were now well covered,
and in November the governor secretly prepared a great counter-
stroke. Jhc sortie made on the night of the 26th-27th of
November was brilliantly successful, and the Spanish siege
works were mostly destroyed. At the close of the year the
garrison was thus again in an excellent position,
Early in 1782 a new form of gun-carriage wheel, allowing of
a large angle of depression being given, was .invented by an
officer of the Royal Artillery, and indeed throughout the siege
many experiments (such as would nowadays be carried out at a
school of gunnery) were made with guns, mountings, ammuni-
tion, methods of fire, &c, both in Gibraltar and in the Spanish
camp. The gun-carriage referred to enabled 93% of hits to
be obtained at 1400 yds. range. In April grates for healing
shot were constructed by order of the governor; these were
destined to be famous. At the same time it was reported that
the due de Crillon was now to command the besiegers (French
and Spaniards) with D'Arcon as his chief engineer. The grand
attack was now imminent, and preparations were made to repel
it (July 17S2). The chief feature of the attack was to be, as
reported on the 26th of July, ten ships " fortified 6 or 7 ft.
thick . . . with green timber bolted with iron, cork and raw
hides; which were to carry guns of heavy metal and be bomb-
proof on the top with a descent for the shells to slide off; that
these vessels . . . were to be moored within half gunshot of
the walls," &c. On the other side many of the now existing
rock galleries were made about this time. The count of Artois
and another French prince arrived in the French lines in August
to witness the culminating effort of the besiegers, and some
polite correspondence passed between Crillon and the governor
(reprinted in Drinkwater, p. 267). The garrison made a pre-
liminary trial of the red-hot shot on the 8th of September, and
the success of the experiment not only elated the garrison but was
partly instrumental in causing Crillon to hasten the main attack.
After a preliminary bombardment the famous battering ships
took up their positions in broad daylight on the 13th and
opened fire. The British solid shot seem to have failed absolutely
to penetrate the massive wooden armour on the sides and the
roofs of the battering ships, and about noon the ships bad
settled down to their work and were shooting coolly and accur-
ately. But between x and 2 p.m. the British artillerymen began
to use the red-shot freely. All day the artillery . duel went
on, the shore guns, though inferior in number, steadily gaining
the upper hand, and the battering ships were In great distress
by nightfall. The struggle continued in the dark, the garrison
now shooting rapidly and well, and one by one the ten ships
were set on fire. Before noon on the 14th the attack had come
to an end by the annihilation of the battering fleet, every ship
tiaving been blown up or burnt to the water's edge. Upwards of
8300 rounds were expended by the garrison though less than a
hundred pieces were in action. The enemy's bombardment
gements continued up to
Lord Howe, who woa 1
The long siege came to
when the due de Crilknj
f peace had been signed.
, the fortress, and macy
emies. Captain (after-
t-1844), the historian of
785. A new edition of
published in 1005. The
e is fully detailed also ia
of Gibraltar ( 1 784), of its
Elliot, afterwards Lord
noral courage place him
n of his time,
has been comparatively
there were rumours of *
inish ships were defeated
umarcz. Improvements
military discipline and
ggling, are the principal
vebeen already mentioned
• Gibraltar (Madrid. 1792);
~ondon, 1845); F. Carter,
; G. Cockburn, Gibraltar,
nd G. Dautez, Synopsis it
>n. Sorties from Gibraltar,
, 1888); J.Galt.Cf^flfcif,
, Historical Sketch of Gib-
uk of Gibraltar (London,
t Straits (London, H?7*J;
tits (London, 1771); J. H.
1870); Montcro, Histom
ui, 'iiistoria de Gibraltar
I Estreeko (Madrid. 16S2);
[Portsmouth, 1887); Jofca
lin% Directions (London,
iphte mtdicale de Gibraltar
Gibraltar (London, 1862);
(London, 1790); Walker,
don, x 888). (C.F.A.)
), American artist and
ichusctts, on the 14th of
at the schools of the Art
5 modest little drawings
le followed up with more
himself as the delineator
itions, particularly those
nous vogue, being after-
; through many editions.
le of healthy, vigorous,
d. Some book illustr*
met of Zcnda. He wis
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n in his engagement by
a year a double page,
tie sum of $50,000, said
r paid to an illustrator
gs covered various fecal
ing drawn with pen and
redness and economy of
Adventures of Mr Pipp."
a it. In 4006, although
thdrew from ihuslrative
to portraiture in oil, in
some successful expert-
irned to illustration,
iglish divine and jurist,
d in 1660. In 1686 be
;e, Oxford, where in 1602
le Saxon Chronicle irith
. This was followed n
>e institution* oraterk of
_on in two volumes folio
GIBSON, JOHN
M Camden's Britannia, " with additions and improvements," in
the preparation of which he had been largely assisted by William
Lloyd, John Smith and other English antiquaries. Shortly
after Thomas Tenison's elevation to the see of Canterbury in
1604 Gibson was appointed chaplain and librarian to the arch*
bishop, and in 1703 and 1710 respectively he became rector of
Lambeth and archdeacon of Surrey. In the discussions which
arose during the reigns of William and Anne relative to the rights
and privileges of the Convocation, Gibson took a very active
part, and in a series of pamphlets warmly argued for the right
of the archbishop to continue or prorogue even the lower house
of that assembly. The controversy suggested to him the idea
of those researches which resulted in the famous Codex juris
cccUsiastici Anglicani, published in two volumes folio in 17 13, — a
work which discusses more learnedly and comprehensively than
any other the legal rights and duties of the English clergy, and
the constitution, canons and articles of the English Church. In
1 7 16 Gibson was presented to the see of Lincoln, whence he was in
17 20 translated to that of London, where for twenty-five years he
exercised an immense influence, being regularly consulted by Sir
Robert Walpole on all ecclesiastical affairs. While a conserva-
tive in church politics, and declaredly opposed to mcthodism,
he was no persecutor, and indeed broke with Walpole on the
Quakers' Relief Bill of 1736. He exercised a vigilant over-
sight over the morals of his diocese; and his fearless denunciation
of the licentious masquerades which were popular at court
finally lost him the royal favour. Among the literary efforts
of his later years the principal were a series of Pastoral Letters
in defence of the " gospel revelation," against " lukcwarmness "
and " enthusiasm," and on various topics of the day; also the
Preservative against Popery, in 3 vols, folio (1738), a compilation
of numerous controversial writings of eminent Anglican divines,
dating chiefly from the period of James II. Gibson died on the
6th of September 1748.
A second edition of the Codex juris, " revised and improved, with
Urge additions by the author," was published at Oxford in 1761.
Besides the works already mentioned, Gibson published a number
of Sermons, and other works of a religious and devotional kind.
The Vita Thomae Bod kit with the Historic BiUiotktcac Bod lei an ae
in the Catalogi librorum manuscriptorum (Oxford, 1697), and the
Reliquiae Spdmannianae (Oxford, 1698), are also from his pen.
GIBSON. JOHN (1 700-1866), English sculptor, was born near
Conway in 1700, his father being a market gardener. To his
mother, whom he described as ruling his father and all the family,
he owed, like many other great men, the energy and determina-
tion which carried him over every obstacle. . When he was nine
years old the family were on the point of emigrating to America,
but Mrs Gibson's determination stopped this project on their
arrival at Liverpool, and there John was sent to school. The
windows of the print shops of Liverpool riveted his attention,
and, having no means to purchase the commonest print, he
acquired the habit of committing to memory the outline of one
figure after another, drawing it on his return home. Thus early
he formed the system of observing, remembering and noting,
sometimes even a month later, scenes and momentary actions
from nature. In this way he, by degrees, transferred from the
shop window to his paper at home the chief figures from David's
picture of Napoleon crossing the Alps, which, by particular
request, he copied in bright colours as a frontispiece to a little
schoolfellow's new prayer-book, for sixpence. At fourteen years
of age Gibson was apprenticed to a firm of cabinetmakers, —
portrait and miniature painters in Liverpool requiring a premium
which his father could not give. This employment so disgusted
him that after a year (being interesting and engaging then
apparently as in after-life) he persuaded his masters to change
his indentures, and bind him to the wood-carving with which
their furniture was ornamented. This satisfied him for another
year, when an introduction to the foreman of some marble
works, and the sight of a small head of Bacchus, unsettled him
again. He had here caught a glimpse of his true vocation, and
in his leisure hours began to model with such success that his
efforts found their way to the notice of Mr Francis, the proprietor
of the marble works. The wood-carving now, in turn, became
9+3
his aversion; and having in vain entreated his masters to set
him free, he instituted a strike. He was every day duly at his
post, but did no work. Threats, and even a blow, moved him
not. At length the offer of £70 from Francis for the rebellious
apprentice was accepted, and Gibson found himself at last
bound to a master for the art of sculpture. Francis paid the
lad 6s. a week, and received good prices for his works, — sundry
early works by the youthful sculptor, which exist in Liverpool
and the neighbourhood, going by the name of Francis to this
day. It was while thus apprenticed that Gibson attracted
the notice of William Roscoe, the historian. For him Gibson
executed a basso rilicvo in terra-cotta, now in the Liverpool
museum. Roscoe opened to the sculptor the treasures of his
library at Allerton, by which he became acquainted with the
designs of the great Italian masters.
A cartoon of the Fall of the Angels marked this period, — now
also in the Liverpool museum. We must pass over his studies
in anatomy, pursued. gratuitously by the kindness of a medical
man, and his introductions to families of refinement and culture
in Liverpool. Roscoe was an excellent guide to the young
aspirant, pointing to the Greeks as the only examples for a
sculptor. Gibson here found his true vocation. A basso rilievo
of Psyche carried by the Zephyrs was the result He sent it to
the Royal Academy, where Flaxman, recognizing its merits, gave
it an excellent place. Again he became unsettled. The ardent
young breast panted for " the great university of Ait " — Rome;
and the first step to the desired goal was to London. Here he
stood between the^opposite advice and influence of Flaxman
and Chantrcy— the one urging him to Rome as the highest school
of sculpture in the woi.d, the other maintaining that London
could do as much for him. It is not difficult to guess which was
Gibson's choice. He arrived in Rome in October 1817, at a
comparatively late age for a first visit. There he immediately
experienced the charm and goodness of the true Italian character
in the person of Canova, to whom he had introductions, — the
Venetian putting not only his experience in art but his purse
at the English student's service. Up to this time, though his
designs show a fire and power of imagination in which no teaching
is missed, Gibson had had no instruction, and had studied at no
Academy. In Rome he first became acquainted with rules and
technicalities, in which the merest tyro was before him. Canova
introduced him into the Academy supported by Austria, and,
as is natural with a mind like Gibson's, the first sense of his
deficiencies in common matters of practice was depressing to him.
He saw Italian youths already excelling, as they all do, in the draw-
fng of the figure. But the tables were soon turned. His first
work in marble— a " Sleeping Shepherd " modelled from a
beautiful Italian boy— has qualities of the highest order. Gibson
was soon launched, and distinguished patrons, first sent by
Canova, made their way to his studio in the Via Fontanella. His
aim, from the first day that he felt the power of the antique, was
purity of character and beauty of form. He very seldom declined
into the prcttincss of Canova, and if he did not often approach the
masculine strength which redeems the faults of Thorwaldscn,
he more than once surpassed him even in that quality. We allude
specially to his " Hunter and Dog," and to the grand promise
of his " Theseus and Robber," which lake rank as the highest
productions of modern sculpture. He was essentially classic
in feeling and aim, but here the habit of observation we have
mentioned enabled him to snatch a grace beyond the reach of a
mere imitator. His subjects were gleaned from the free actions
of the splendid Italian people noticed in his walks, and afterwards
baptized with such" mythological names as best fitted them.
Thus a girl kissing a child, with a sudden wring of the figure,
over her shoulder, became a " Nymph and Cupid "; a woman
helping her child with his foot on her hand on to her lap, a
" Bacchante and Faun "; his " Amazon thrown from her Horse,"
one of his most original productions, was taken from an accident
be witnessed to a female rider In a circus; and the " Hunter
holding in his Dog " was also the result of a street scene. The
prominence he gave among his favourite subjects to the little
god "of soft tribulations" was no less owing to his facilities
944
GIBSON, T. MILNER— GIBSON, W. H.
for observing the all but naked Italian children, in the hot
summers he spent in Rome.
In monumental and portrait statues for public places,
necessarily represented in postures of dignity and repose, Gibson
was very happy. His largest effort of this class — the group of
Queen Victoria supported by Justice and Clemency, in the Houses
of Parliament — was bis finest work in the round. Of noble
character also in execution and expression of thought is the
statue of Huskisson with the bared arm; and no less, in effect of
aristocratic ease and refinement, the seated figure of Dudley
North. But great as he was in the round, Gibson's chief
excellence lay in basso rilievo, and in this less-disputed sphere
he obtained his greatest triumphs. His thorough knowledge
of the horse, and his constant study of the Elgin marbles — casts
of which are in Rome — resulted in the two matchless bassi rilievi,
the size of life, which belong to Lord Fitzwilliam — the " Hours
leading the Horses of the Sun," and " Phaethon driving the
Chariot of the Sun." Most of his monumental works are also
in basso rilievo. Some of these are of a truly refined and pathetic
character, such as the monument to the countess of Leicester,
that to his friend Mrs Huskisson in Chichester cathedral, and that
of the Bonomi children. Passion, either indulged or repressed,
was the natural impulse of his art: repressed as in the " Hours
leading the Horses of the Sun," and as in the " Hunter and Dog ";
indulged as in the meeting of Hero and Leandcr, a drawing
executed before he left England. Gibson was the first to intro-
duce colour on his statues, — first, as a mere border to the drapery
of a portrait statue of the queen, and by degrees extended to
the entire flesh, as in his so-called ** tinted w Venus, and in the
"Cupid tormenting the Soul," in the Holford collection.
Gibson's individuality was too strongly marked to be affected
by any outward circumstances. In all worldly affairs and business
of daily life he was simple and guileless in the extreme; but
he was resolute in matters of principle, determined to walk
straight at any cost of personal advantage. Unlike most artists,
he was neither nervous nor irritable in temperament. It was said
of him that he made the heathen mythology his religion; and
indeed in serenity of nature, feeling for the beautiful, and a certain
philosophy of mind, he may be accepted as a type of what a
pure-minded Greek pagan, in the zenith of Greek art, may have
been. Gibson was elected R.A. in 1836, and bequeathed all his
property and the contents of his studio to the Royal Academy,
where his marbles and casts are open to the public. He died at
Rome on the 27th of January 1866.
The letters between Gibson and Mrs Henry Sandbach, grand-
daughter of Mr Roscoe, and a sketch of hi* life that lady induced
him to write, furnish the chief materials for his biography. See his
Life, edited by Lady Eastlake. (E. E.)
GIBSON, THOMAS MILNER (1806-1884), English politician,
who came of a good Suffolk family, was born in Trinidad, where
his father, an officer in the army, was serving. He went to
Trinity College, Cambridge, and in 1837 was elected to parlia-
ment as Conservative member for Ipswich, but resigned two
years later, having adopted Liberal views, and became an
ardent supporter of the free-trade movement . As one of Cobdcns
chief allies, he was elected for Manchester in 1841, and from
1846 to 1848 he was vice-president of the board of trade in
Lord John Russell's ministry. Though defeated in Manchester
in 1857, he found another seat for Ashton-under-Lyne; and
he sat in the cabinets from 1859 to 1866 as president of the board
of trade. He was the leading spirit in the movement for the
repeal of " taxes on knowledge," and his successful efforts on
behalf of journalism and advertising were recognized by a public
testimonial in 1862. He retired from political life in i863, b-,11
he and his wife, whose salon was a great Liberal centre, vurc
for many years very influential in society. Milner Gibson *.-.s .-.
sportsman and a typical man of the world, who enjoyed life and
behaved liberally to those connected with him.
GIBSON, WILLIAM HAMILTON (1850-1806), Ameri <.,n
illustrator, author and naturalist, was born in Sandy Ho. k
Connecticut, on the 5th of October 1850. The failure and u
1868) death of his father, a New York broker, put an end to h.-
studics in the Brooklyn Polytechnic Institute and made 11
necessary for him to earn his own living. From the life insurance
business, in Brooklyn, he soon turned to the study of natural
history and illustration,— he had sketched flowers and insects
when he was only eight years old, had long been interested in
botany and entomology, and had acquired great skill in making
wax flowers, — and his first drawings, of a technical character.
were published in 1870. He rapidly became an expert illustrator
and a remarkably able wood-engraver, while he also drew «n
stone with great success. He drew for The American Agri-
culturist, Hearth and Home, and Appleton's American Cyy'o-
paedia; for The Youth's Companion and St Nicholas-, and tbn
for various Harper publications, especially Harper's Monti!-.
Magazine, where his illustrations first gained popularity. He
died of apoplexy, brought on by overwork, on the 16th ot
July 1896 at Washington, Connecticut, where he had had a
summer studio, and where in a great boulder is inset a rdut
portrait of him by H. K. Bush-Brown. He was an expert
photographer, and his drawings had a nearly photographic
and almost microscopic accuracy of detail which slightly lessend
their artistic value, as a poetic and sometimes humorous quality
somewhat detracted from their scientific worth. Gibson was
perfectly at home in black-and-white, but rarely (and feebly i
used colours. He was a popular writer and lecturer on natural
history; in his best-known lecture, on " Cross-Fertilization," he-
used ingenious charts and models.
Gibson illustrated S. A. Drake's In ike Heart of the White Moun-
tains, C. D. Warner's New South, and E. P. Roc's Nature's Sen-:!
Story; and his own books, The Complete American Trapper (i&7»>.
revised, 1880, as Camp Life in the Woods); Pastoral Days: <r
Memories of a New England Year (1880); Highways and /Jyrov.
(1882); Happy Hunting Grounds (1886); Strolls by Starlight c*J
Sunshine (1891); Sharp Eyes: a Rambler's Calendar (i&qii: Or
" and T "* " "
Edible Mushrooms
Toadstools
(1895); E^ Spy: Afield
Nature among Flowers and Animate Things (1897); and My Si*!
Neighbours (1898).
See John C. Adams, William Hamilton Gibson, Artist, Natvrui;
Author (New York, 1901).
END OF ELEVENTH VOLUME
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